Research about CPU

Definition:
What is a CPU and where do you find it in a computer?
 CPU is short for Central Processing Unit. It is also known as a processor or
microporcessor.
 It's one of the most important pieces of hardware in any digital computing system – if
not the most important.
 Inside a CPU there are thousands of microscopic transistors, which are tiny switches that
control the flow of electricity through the integrated circuits.
 You'll find the CPU located on a computer's motherboard.
 A computer's motherboard is the main circuit board inside a computer. Its job is to
connect all hardware components together.
 Often referred to as the brain and heart of all digital systems, a CPU is responsible for
doing all the work. It performs every single action a computer does and executes
programs.

What is a CPU used for?

In a word, a CPU is in charge of processing logical and mathematical operations as well as
carrying out instructions that are given to it.
Though it can process millions of instructions each second, it can only process one at a time.
It first accepts some kind of input, generally via an input device (like your web browser or
operating system) or an application/system software program (like a monitor display screen,
keyboard, mouse, or microphone).
The CPU then handles the following four tasks:
1. Fetching instructions from memory, in order to know how to handle the input and know
the corresponding instructions for that particular input data it received. Specifically, it
looks for the address of the corresponding instruction and forwards the request to the
RAM. The CPU and RAM constantly work together. This is also called reading
from memory.
2. Decoding or translating the instructions into a form the CPU can understand, which is
machine language (binary).
3. Executing and carrying out the given instructions.
 4. Storing the result of the execution back to memory for later retrieval if and when
requested. This is also called writing to memory.

The main parts of a CPU

Now you know the basic tasks a CPU performs for every operation happening on a computer,
what are the parts of the CPU that help get that work done?
Below are some of the important components within it:
 CU (short for Control Unit). It regulates the flow of input and output. It's the part that
fetches and retrieves the instructions from main memory and later decodes them.
 ALU (short for Artithmetic Logic Unit). The part where all the processing happens. Here
is where all mathematic calculations take place, such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division, as well as all the logical operations for decision making, such
as comparing data.
 Registers. An extremely fast memory location. The data and instructions that are
currenlty being processed during the fetch-execute cycle are stored there, for quick
access by the processor.
 Clock: The CPU operates based on a clock signal, which synchronizes its operations. Each
clock cycle represents a fixed unit of time, during which the CPU performs certain tasks.

Modern CPUs are extremely complicated and often have numerous cores, which enables them
to do several tasks in parallel. The capacity to handle different workloads more effectively
improves the overall performance of computers.
From desktop computers and laptops to smartphones, servers, and embedded systems, a wide
variety of computing devices use CPUs. Their performance is frequently assessed in terms of
clock speed (in GHz), core count, cache capacity, and other architectural elements that improve
processing.
History of CPU
The history of Central Processing Units (CPUs) is a fascinating journey that spans several
decades and has seen remarkable advancements in technology. Here's an overview of the key
developments in the history of CPUs:
1. Early Computing Machines (1940s-1950s): The concept of a CPU can be traced back to
the early electronic computing machines like ENIAC (1945) and UNIVAC I (1951). These
machines used vacuum tubes for processing and were extremely large and power-
hungry.
2. Transistors Era (1950s-1960s): The invention of transistors in the late 1940s
revolutionized electronics and paved the way for more efficient and compact computing
devices. Transistors replaced vacuum tubes in CPUs, leading to the creation of faster and
smaller computers. In 1956, IBM introduced the IBM 305 RAMAC, one of the earliest
computers with a hard disk drive.
3. Integrated Circuits (ICs) and Microprocessors (1960s-1970s): The development of
integrated circuits in the 1960s allowed multiple transistors to be integrated onto a
single chip. In 1971, Intel introduced the first commercially available microprocessor, the
Intel 4004. It had 2,300 transistors and was primarily used for calculators and simple
tasks.
4. Microprocessor Revolution (1970s-1980s): The Intel 8080 (1974) and Intel 8086 (1978)
microprocessors marked significant improvements in performance and capability. The
8086 architecture laid the foundation for the x86 architecture that's still in use today. In
1981, IBM introduced the IBM PC with an Intel 8088 processor, which played a pivotal
role in popularizing personal computers.
5. Rise of RISC and CISC Architectures (1980s-1990s): The 1980s saw the emergence of two
competing CPU design philosophies: Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC) and
Complex Instruction Set Computing (CISC). RISC processors focused on simplifying
instruction sets for faster execution, while CISC processors aimed to handle more
complex instructions. Companies like Sun Microsystems and MIPS Computer Systems
were notable for their RISC CPUs.
6. Supercomputers and Parallel Processing (1980s-1990s): The 1980s and 1990s witnessed
the development of supercomputers that utilized multiple CPUs or processors to achieve
high-performance computing. Parallel processing and vector processing became
common techniques to tackle complex scientific and engineering tasks.
7. Moore's Law and Performance Growth (1990s-2000s): Gordon Moore's prediction in
1965 that the number of transistors on a microchip would double approximately every
 two years led to the observation known as Moore's Law. This prediction held true for
several decades, driving rapid increases in CPU performance and capabilities.
8. Multi-core Processors and Multithreading (2000s-2010s): As transistors continued to
shrink, manufacturers began incorporating multiple processing cores on a single chip.
This led to the rise of multi-core processors, which could execute multiple tasks
simultaneously. Simultaneous Multithreading (SMT) also became popular, allowing each
core to handle multiple threads.
9. Mobile Processors and Energy Efficiency (2010s): The proliferation of smartphones and
tablets drove the development of energy-efficient processors that could deliver
adequate performance while conserving battery life. ARM-based processors became
dominant in the mobile and embedded computing space.
10. Specialized Processors (2010s): In addition to general-purpose CPUs, specialized
processors gained prominence. Graphics Processing Units (GPUs) evolved from
rendering graphics to performing general-purpose computations in fields like machine
learning (GPU computing). Application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs) and Field-
Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs) also found applications in specific tasks.
11. Modern Era (2020s): CPUs continue to advance, with a focus on increasing performance,
efficiency, and integration. The advent of quantum computing also promises to
revolutionize computing by tackling problems currently intractable for classical
computers.
Throughout this history, CPUs have played an integral role in shaping the digital world, from
early mainframes to today's interconnected devices and cloud-based computing systems.
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Timeline of events[edit]
 1964. IBM release the 32-bit IBM System/360 with memory protection.
 1969. Intel 4004's initial design led by Intel's Ted Hoff and Busicom's Masatoshi Shima.[14]
 1970. Intel 4004's design completed by Intel's Federico Faggin and Busicom's Masatoshi
Shima.[14]
 1971. IBM release the IBM System/370 successor to System/360.
 1971. Intel release the 4-bit Intel 4004, the first commercial microprocessor.[1]
 1971. NEC release the μPD707 and μPD708, a two-chip 4-bit CPU.[15]
 1972. IBM announce "System/370 Advanced Function", adding support for virtual
memory with demand paging
 1972. NEC release single-chip 4-bit microprocessor, μPD700.[16][17]
 1973. NEC release 4-bit μCOM-4 (μPD751),[16] combining the μPD707 and μPD708 into a
single microprocessor.[15]
 1974. Intel release the Intel 8080, an 8-bit microprocessor, designed by Federico
Faggin and Masatoshi Shima.
 1975. MOS Technology release the 8-bit MOS Technology 6502, the first integrated
processor to have an affordable price of $25 when the 6800 rival was $175.
 1976. Zilog introduce the 8-bit Zilog Z80, designed by Federico Faggin and Masatoshi
Shima.
 1977. Digital Equipment Corporation introduced its first 32-bit VAX superminicomputer,
the VAX-11/780.
 1978. Intel introduces the Intel 8086 and Intel 8088, the first x86 chips.
 1978. Fujitsu releases the MB8843 microprocessor.
 1979. Zilog release the Zilog Z8000, a 16-bit microprocessor, designed by Federico
Faggin and Masatoshi Shima.
 1979. Motorola introduce the Motorola 68000, a 16/32-bit microprocessor.
 1981. Stanford MIPS introduced, one of the first reduced instruction set
computing (RISC) designs.
 1982. Intel introduces the Intel 80286, which was the first Intel processor that could run
all the software written for its predecessors, the 8086 and 8088.
 1984. Motorola introduces the Motorola 68020, which enabled full 32-bit addressing,
and the 68851 memory management unit, which supported demand paging.
 1985. Intel introduces the Intel 80386, which adds a 32-bit instruction set to the x86
microarchitecture, and supports demand paging.
 1985. ARM architecture introduced.
 1989. Intel introduces the Intel 80486.
 1992. Hitachi introduces SuperH architecture,[8] which provides the basis for
ARM's Thumb instruction set.[9]
 1993. Intel launches the original Pentium microprocessor, the first processor with a x86
superscalar microarchitecture.
 1994. IBM introduce the first IBM mainframe models to use single-chip microprocessors
as CPUs, the IBM System/390 9672 series.
 1994. ARM's Thumb instruction set introduced,[18] based on Hitachi's SuperH instruction
set.[9]
 1995. Intel introduces the Pentium Pro which becomes the foundation for the Pentium
II, Pentium III, Pentium M and Intel Core architectures.
 2000. IBM introduce z/Architecture, the 64-bit version of their mainframe architecture.
 2000. AMD announced x86-64 64-bit extension to the x86 microarchitecture.
 2000. AMD hits 1 GHz with its Athlon microprocessor.
 2000. Analog Devices introduces the Blackfin architecture.
 2002. Intel released a Pentium 4 with hyper-threading, the first modern desktop
processor to implement simultaneous multithreading (SMT).
 2003. AMD released the Athlon 64, the first 64-bit consumer CPU.
 2003. Intel introduced the Pentium M, a low power mobile derivative of the Pentium Pro
architecture.
 2005. AMD announced the Athlon 64 X2, their first x86 dual-core processor.
 2006. Intel introduces the Core line of CPUs based on a modified Pentium M design.
 2008. Over 10 billion Arm based CPUs shipped.
 2010. Intel introduced the Core i3, i5, and i7, with 2, 4 and 4 cores respectively.
 2011. ARM release ARMv8-A, supporting the 64-bit AAarch64 architecture.
 2011. AMD announced the world's first 8-core CPU for desktop PCs.
 2017. AMD announced Ryzen processors based on the Zen architecture, with up to 16
cores.
 2017. Intel 8th generation Core i3, Core i5, Core i7 and Core i9, increased to
approximately 4, 6, 8 and 8 cores respectively.
 2017. Over 100 billion Arm based CPUs shipped.[19]
 2020. Fujitsu A64FX 48-core (ARMv8.2) processors power Fugaku, the world's most
powerful supercomputer in 2020.[20]
 2021. ARM release ARMv9 the first major upgrade in a decade, since Armv8 in 2011.[21]
 2021. Over 200 billion Arm based CPUs shipped.[22]
 2022. AMD 3rd Generation EPYC 64C processors power Frontier, the world's most
powerful supercomputer.
Advantages of CPU
Central Processing Units (CPUs) are crucial components of computers and other electronic
devices. They are responsible for executing instructions and performing calculations, making
them essential for the functioning of modern technology. Here are some advantages of CPUs:
1. Versatility: CPUs are designed to handle a wide range of tasks, from basic arithmetic
operations to complex calculations. They can execute various types of instructions and
run different types of software, making them versatile components.
2. Control and Management: CPUs serve as the "brain" of a computer, controlling and
managing the execution of instructions from various software applications. They ensure
that tasks are executed in a coordinated and timely manner.
3. Performance: CPUs are designed to process instructions and data at incredibly high
speeds. Advancements in CPU architecture, manufacturing processes, and technologies
like multi-core and hyper-threading have led to significant improvements in overall
system performance.
4. Multitasking: Modern CPUs are equipped with multiple cores and threads, allowing
them to handle multiple tasks simultaneously. This enables multitasking, where different
applications can run concurrently without significant performance degradation.
5. Compatibility: CPUs are designed to be compatible with various software applications
and operating systems. This compatibility ensures that software can be run on a wide
range of hardware configurations, making it easier for users to choose and switch
between different devices.
6. Upgradability: In many cases, CPUs can be upgraded without having to replace the entire
computer. This allows users to improve the performance of their systems by simply
swapping out the CPU for a more powerful one.
7. Energy Efficiency: CPUs are becoming more energy-efficient as technology advances.
This is essential for devices like laptops, smartphones, and servers where minimizing
power consumption and heat generation is crucial.
8. Real-time Processing: CPUs are capable of executing instructions in real time, making
them suitable for applications that require immediate processing, such as video editing,
gaming, and scientific simulations.
 9. Security Features: Modern CPUs often include security features such as hardware-based
encryption and virtualization technologies that enhance the overall security of
computing systems.
10. Innovation: CPU manufacturers constantly strive to innovate and improve CPU
performance, efficiency, and features. This drive for innovation leads to advancements in
technology that benefit various industries and users.
11. Embedded Systems: CPUs are widely used in embedded systems such as automotive
electronics, medical devices, and industrial control systems. Their reliability and ability to
handle specific tasks make them suitable for such applications.
12. Scientific and Research Applications: High-performance CPUs are essential for scientific
simulations, data analysis, and other research-oriented tasks that require extensive
computational power.
Overall, CPUs play a central role in modern computing, contributing to the performance,
versatility, and functionality of a wide range of devices and applications.

Disadvantages of CPU
CPUs (Central Processing Units) are essential components of modern computing devices,
responsible for executing instructions and performing calculations. While CPUs have numerous
advantages, they also come with several disadvantages. Here are some of the disadvantages of
CPUs:
1. Limited Parallelism: Traditional CPUs are designed to execute instructions sequentially,
one after the other. This limits their ability to handle highly parallel tasks efficiently, such
as complex simulations, graphics rendering, or machine learning tasks.
2. Heat Generation: CPUs can generate a significant amount of heat, especially when
running resource-intensive tasks. This heat needs to be dissipated to prevent
overheating, often requiring the use of cooling solutions such as fans, heat sinks, or
liquid cooling systems.
3. Power Consumption: CPUs can consume a considerable amount of power, which can
lead to higher electricity bills and increased energy consumption in data centers and
mobile devices. As computing demands increase, so does the power consumption of
CPUs.
4. Bottleneck in Performance: In systems where other components, such as memory or
storage, cannot provide data to the CPU quickly enough, a performance bottleneck can
occur. This can lead to situations where the CPU sits idle, waiting for data to process.
 5. Limited by Clock Speed: The clock speed of a CPU determines how many instructions it
can execute per second. However, increasing clock speeds also leads to increased heat
generation and power consumption. As a result, there's a practical limit to how fast CPUs
can be clocked.
6. Not Always Optimized for Specific Tasks: General-purpose CPUs are designed to handle
a wide range of tasks, but they might not be the most efficient choice for specific tasks
like graphics rendering, cryptography, or AI computations. Specialized hardware
accelerators (such as GPUs or TPUs) may be more efficient for these tasks.
7. Size and Form Factor: While CPUs have become smaller and more efficient over time,
they still take up space on a motherboard. This can limit the form factor and design of
devices, especially in small form-factor systems like laptops and smartphones.
8. Cost: High-performance CPUs can be expensive, particularly those designed for server
and high-end computing applications. This can be a significant factor in the overall cost
of building or upgrading computing systems.
9. Limited Lifespan: As technology advances, new CPU models are released with improved
performance and features. This can make older CPUs outdated and less compatible with
new software and applications, limiting their lifespan in terms of relevance and
performance.
10. Security Vulnerabilities: CPUs can be vulnerable to security exploits and vulnerabilities.
In recent years, there have been several high-profile vulnerabilities, such as Spectre and
Meltdown, that have affected a wide range of CPUs. These vulnerabilities can lead to
data breaches and other security risks.
Despite these disadvantages, CPUs remain a critical component of modern computing systems
and have evolved to address many of these challenges. Additionally, advancements in
architecture and technology continue to improve the efficiency, performance, and security of
CPUs.
Comparison
Intel and Ryzen