INVESTIGATING THE PHYSICAL, MECHANICAL

AND DURABILITY PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

HAVING CEMENT PARTIALLY REPLACED WITH
RICE STRAW AND EGG SHELL ASHES

CYPRIAN OLIKO

MASTER OF SCIENCE

(Construction Engineering and Management)

JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY

OF

AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY

2023
Investigating the Physical, Mechanical and Durability Properties of
Concrete having Cement Partially Replaced with Rice Straw and
Egg Shell Ashes

Cyprian Oliko

A Thesis submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the

Degree of Master of Science in Construction Engineering and
Management of the Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and
Technology

2023
 DECLARATION

This thesis is my original work and has not been presented for a degree in any other
university.

Signature:
……………………………………………Date………………………………

Cyprian Oliko

Signature:
……………………………………………Date………………………………

Prof. Eng. John Mwero, PhD

UoN, Kenya

Signature:
……………………………………………Date………………………………

Dr. Eng. Charles K. Kabubo, PhD

JKUAT, Kenya

ii
 DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to my wife Sophy and Children Abigael, Aaron, Adelyn,
Adriel and the late Adrian.

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First I thank the Almighty God, the Creator of the universe and giver of life who has
sustained the breath of life and health in me till now.

My sincere appreciation to my supervisors Prof. Eng. John Mwero and Dr. Eng.
Charles Kabubo for their time, dedication, patience, input and expertise in guiding
me throughout the research this far. Your collective knowledge base, support and
guidance have made this research comprehensive.

I also acknowledge the County Government of Bungoma for allowing me to use their
materials laboratory for concrete tests in particular the materials officer Mr Lusimba
and Technician Mr Patrick Simiyu for their availability and assistance to ensure
specific milestones in this research were achieved.

Sincere thanks to my family for their perseverance, psychological support and

encouragement during the period of research. Their encouragement inspired me to
proceed to the next steps.

iv
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION ........................................................................................................ ii

DEDICATION ........................................................................................................... iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ........................................................................................ iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................... v

LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................... ix

LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................... x

LIST OF PLATES ................................................................................................... xii

LIST OF APPENDICES ........................................................................................ xiii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS .............................................. xiv

ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................. xvi

CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................ 1

INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Background of the study.................................................................................... 1

1.2 Problem statement .............................................................................................. 6

1.3 Objectives ........................................................................................................... 7

1.3.1 General objective ......................................................................................... 7

1.3.2 Specific objectives ....................................................................................... 7

1.4 Research Questions ............................................................................................ 8

v
 1.5 Justification of the study..................................................................................... 8

1.6 Scope and Limitation.......................................................................................... 9

1.6.1 Scope............................................................................................................ 9

1.6.2 Limitations ................................................................................................... 9

CHAPTER TWO ..................................................................................................... 11

LITERATURE REVIEW........................................................................................ 11

2.1 Theoretical review ............................................................................................ 11

2.1.1 Concrete ..................................................................................................... 11

2.2 Empirical Review ............................................................................................. 32

2.3 Summary of literature review and research gap ............................................... 42

2.4 Conceptual framework ..................................................................................... 44

CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................................. 46

MATERIALS AND METHODS ............................................................................ 46

3.1 Assessing physical properties of coarse and fine aggregates, and chemical
properties of rice straw, egg shell ash and ordinary Portland cement .............. 46

3.1.1 Material acquisition and preparation ......................................................... 46

3.1.2 Physical properties ..................................................................................... 47

3.1.3 Chemical properties ................................................................................... 54

3.2 Determining physical and mechanical properties of concrete having cement

partially replaced with rice straw ash ............................................................. 57

vi
 3.2.1 Mix design ................................................................................................. 57

3.3 Assessing the mechanical properties and durability of concrete having cement
partially replaced with rice straw and egg shell ash ......................................... 65

3.3.1 Mix Design ................................................................................................ 65

3.3.2 Compressive strength test .......................................................................... 66

3.3.3 Compaction factor Test .............................................................................. 66

3.3.4 Accelerated durability test ......................................................................... 67

CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................... 68

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .............................................................................. 68

4.1 Physical and chemical properties of materials used in the study ..................... 68

4.1.1 Physical properties of materials used in the study ..................................... 68

4.1.2 Chemical properties ................................................................................... 76

4.2 Physical and mechanical properties of concrete having cement partially

replaced with rice straw ash ........................................................................... 79

4.2.1 Physical properties ..................................................................................... 79

4.2.2 Mechanical properties ................................................................................ 83

4.3 Mechanical properties and durability of concrete having cement partially

replaced with rice straw and egg shell ash ..................................................... 89

4.3.1 Compressive strength for concrete having cement replaced with 15%RSA
and various percentages of egg shell ash ................................................... 89

vii
 4.3.2 Compaction Factor for concrete having cement partially replaced with rice
straw and egg shell ash .............................................................................. 92

4.3.3 Accelerated Durability Test ....................................................................... 93

CHAPTER FIVE ...................................................................................................... 96

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................. 96

5.1 Conclusions ...................................................................................................... 96

5.2 Recommendations ............................................................................................ 97

5.2.1 Recommendation from the study ............................................................... 97

5.2.2 Recommendation for further research ....................................................... 98

REFERENCES ......................................................................................................... 99

APPENDICES ........................................................................................................ 117

viii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1: Chemical oxide composition of OPC to European standard EN 196-2 ... 21

Table 3.1: Mix proportions for one cubic metre of concrete .................................... 58

Table 4.1: Weight loss on ignition for rice straw ash ............................................... 71

Table 4.2: Chemical analysis of egg shell ash .......................................................... 77

Table 4.3: Compaction factor for concrete with 15% partial replacement of cement
with RSA and various percentages of egg shell ash................................ 92

Table 4.4: Compressive strength for concrete having cement replaced with RSA
before and after immersion in 0.5% sulphuric acid ................................ 93

ix
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1: Conceptual framework ........................................................................... 45

Figure 4.1: Grading curve for coarse aggregates ...................................................... 68

Figure 4.2: Grading curve for fine aggregates .......................................................... 69

Figure 4.3: Particle size distribution of rice straw ash .............................................. 70

Figure 4.4: Particle size distribution of egg shell ash ............................................... 73

Figure 4.5: Particle size distribution of ordinary Portland cement ........................... 75

Figure 4.6: Chemical properties of rice straw ash .................................................... 76

Figure 4.7: Chemical properties of ordinary Portland cement .................................. 78

Figure 4.8: Initial and final setting time of cement pastes having cement replaced
with RSA............................................................................................... 79

Figure 4.9: Slump versus percentage partial replacement of cement with RSA....... 81

Figure 4.10: Percentage water absorption for concrete having cement replaced with
rice straw ash ........................................................................................ 82

Figure 4.11: Compressive strength versus age of concrete for concrete having
cement replaced with rice straw ash ..................................................... 83

Figure 4.12: Splitting tensile versus age for concrete having cement replaced with
rice straw ash ........................................................................................ 87

Figure 4.13: Compressive strength versus age of concrete having cement replaced
with 15% RSA and various percentages of ESA .................................. 90

x
Figure 4.14: 28 days compressive strength for concrete having cement replaced with
various % of RSA and concrete having cement replaced with 15% RSA
and 10% ESA ........................................................................................ 91

xi
 LIST OF PLATES

Plate 3.1: slump test .................................................................................................. 59

Plate 3.2: compaction factor ...................................................................................... 60

Plate 3.3: Casting cubes for compressive strength test ............................................. 62

xii
 LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix I: Concrete mix proportions for making one cubic metre of concrete ... 117

Appendix II: Sieve analysis of coarse aggregates .................................................. 121

Appendix III: Sieve analysis of fine aggregates ..................................................... 122

Appendix IV: Particle size distribution of rice straw ash ....................................... 123

Appendix V: Particle Size distribution of egg shell ash by hydrometer analysis ... 124

Appendix VI: Particle size distribution of Portland cement ................................... 125

Appendix VII: Chemical analysis of rice straw ash ............................................... 126

Appendix VIII: Chemical properties of Portland cement ...................................... 127

Appendix IX: Compressive strength for concrete having cement partially replaced
with rice straw ash .......................................................................... 128

Appendix X: Splitting tensile strength concrete having cement partially replaced

with rice straw ash .......................................................................... 129

Appendix XI: Compressive strength of concrete having cement partially replaced

with rice straw ash and egg shell ash ............................................. 130

Appendix XII: Compressive strength results for concrete having cement replaced
with -rice straw ash and egg shell ash ............................................ 131

Appendix XIII: Particle size distributions of cement and rice straw ash ............... 132

xiii
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials

BRE Building Research Establishment

BS British Standard

◦C Degree Centigrade

CSH Calcium Silicate Hydrates

CV Constant Velocity

CWA Cassava Waste Ash

EN European Norm

ESA Egg Shell Ash

FA Fly ash

GHA Ground Nut husk ash

GNP Gross National Product

Ha Hectares

Hr Hour

Hz Hertz

Hp Horse Power

Kg Kilogramme

KN Kilo Newton

xiv
KNBS Kenya National Bureau of Statistics

KS Kenyan Standard

LOI Loss on Ignition

MM Millimetre

µm Micro metre

OPC Ordinary Portland Cement

RSA Rice Straw Ash

RPR Residue to Produce Ratio

RHA Rice Husk Ash

S Seconds

SCM Supplementary Cementitious Material

SCBA Sugar Cane Bagasse Ash

SDA Saw Dust Ash

SR Silica Ratio

WA Wood Ash

xv
 ABSTRACT

Provision of adequate housing has become a challenge especially in developing

countries. This has been occasioned by both high cost of building materials such as
cement and low incomes of the populations. At the same time cement production has
adverse effects to the environment. This has necessitated research into alternative
supplementary materials that are abundant and renewable in nature that can be used
to partially substitute cement in concrete thereby reducing the cost of construction
making construction of housing affordable. Similarly by reducing cement
consumption the adverse effect of cement production to the environment will be
mitigated. Incorporating egg shells and rice straw ashes will mitigate their disposal
problem. This research presents the properties of concrete made with cement
partially replaced with rice straw ash and egg shell ash. Rice straw and egg shells
were first incinerated, sieved and ground. The physical and chemical properties of
the resultant ashes as well as other materials incorporated in the concrete mixes were
also determined. A concrete mix with a compressive strength of 35 N/mm2 and a
water cement/ ratio of 0.5 was designed to British Research Establishment method.
The control was the concrete neat cement. Cement in concrete mix was partially
replaced with rice straw ash at 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 & 30%. Compressive and splitting
tensile strength of the concrete with cement partially replaced as indicated above was
determined at 7, 14, 28, 56 and 90 days of curing age. Durability, resistance to acid
attack as well as fresh properties of the concrete were also determined. An increase
in compressive strength was observed for concrete with 5% & 10% partial
replacement of cement with rice straw ash. The 7, 14, 28, 56 and 90 day strengths
were found to be 32.7, 36.7, 38.8, 40.3, 41.3 N/mm2 and 33.7, 37.1, 40.2, 41.8, and
42.7 N/mm2, respectively. The control was found to have compressive strength of
27.9, 33.0, 35.9, 36.6 and 38.7 N/mm2 for 7,14,28,56 & 90 days of testing. When egg
shell ash was added at 10% by weight of cement to concrete mixes made with
cement partially replaced with rice straw ash at 15% and 20%, the 28, 56 & 90 days
compressive strengths were found to increase by 25.3, 26.7 and 29.2% and 5.3, 3.26
and 3.9%, respectively. It was concluded that rice straw ash can be used to partially
replace cement in concrete at an optimum of 10% by weight of cement while rice
straw and egg shell ash can simultaneously be used to partially replace cement at
15% and 10% by weight of cement, respectively, in concrete and result in a concrete
whose properties compare favourably with the control. These results can be applied
in the construction industry to reduce the cement content hence cost of concrete
material, cement being the most expensive ingredient in concrete. Authorities can
also adapt this as an avenue of disposing agro-waste that is produced in bulk and
poses disposal challenges. The blended concrete can be used for construct in regions
where soils are acidic or to construct facilities exposed to acidic substances since
they have better resistance to acid. The challenges include the scattered nature of the
sources of the agro-waste, lack of a facility to incinerate, sieve and grind the agro-
waste ashes and in sufficient quantities. The study findings are limited to Type 1
Ordinary Portland cement and not any other cement found in the market.

xvi
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

The provision of adequate housing for man has become a challenge around the world
especially for developing countries. This is a consequence of ever increasing
population, low gross national product (GNP) and the general lack of purchasing
power. Development and ownership of houses is also constrained by the high-cost of
building materials. The progressive deterioration of the limited existing buildings
necessitates the development of alternative building materials from locally available
raw materials for low cost housing. These raw materials should be abundantly
available and renewable in nature (Ugwiushwu et al., 2013). Improvement of the
housing situation in developing countries has been greatly hampered by the
unavailability of affordable building materials to the general populations in urban
and rural areas (Jimoh et al., 2013). The world’s population has been projected to
reach between 9.5 and 12.9 billion by the year 2100 from the current 6.6 billion.
With it will come huge demand for housing and other infrastructure (Biernacki et al.,
2017).

Cement is an important material in the infrastructure sector since it is the most

fundamental ingredient in concrete. Ordinary Portland cement concrete is considered
to be the most used synthetic material globally owing to its versatility and sheer
abundance of its raw materials (Biernacki et al., 2017). The global cement production
in the year 2020 was estimated to be 4.4 billion metric tons (Chaeyeon et al., 2020).
The global demand for cement is expected to increase to between 6 - 13.5 Giga tones
per annum (Wolfram et al., 2020). Cement utilization in Kenya has increased from
5,705.8 thousand tons in 2016 to 5,933.3 thousand tons in 2019 (KNBS, 2020). That
means that the demand for cement is unlikely to reduce in the near future. The
housing sector is the dominant user of cement in the urban world (Manning et al.,
2019).

1
With cement usage, comes concerns with regard to the effect cement manufacture to
the environment. As it stands today, the cement production sector is the third largest
energy consumer, behind aluminium and steel. Furthermore it emits approximately
one ton of Carbondioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere for every ton of cement
produced. There is concern about the high amount of CO2 released to the atmosphere
which is a green house gas (Andreola et al., 2018). Between 1920 and 2018, cement
industry released 1,500 metric tons of CO2 to the environment. The CO2 green house
gas has led to climate change which is a severe threat to human existence (Chaeyeon
et al., 2020).

Climate change is a major concern of the world today. The link between CO2
emissions and climate change has caught the attention of scientists, politicians and
the general public, and as such many countries have agreed to reduce CO2 and other
green house gases emissions to limit global temperature rise to two degrees
centigrade, (Thomas et al., 2016). The two aspects of cement production that lead to
CO2 emission are the chemical reaction that leads to production of klinker and the
combustion of fossil fuels to generate energy for the energy intensive cement making
process (Robbie, 2019).

Further since cement industry is highly extractive there are environmental concerns
due to excessive usage of natural resources to produce cement. Emissions form
cement industries have various adverse effects on human beings and plants within
the surroundings of cement making plants. Various diseases including cancer and
psychasthenia have been associated with cement plant emissions (Adeyanju &
Chukwieloka, 2019).

The air pollutants from cement industries contain alkaline particulates that have had
an impact on the ecosystem thus affecting physiochemical and biological activity of
soils. While deposits of cement particulates on plant surfaces affect their productivity
through inhibiting photosynthesis (Olayinka et al., 2016).

Consequently the growing concern about green house gases has led researchers to try
to find ways of reducing consumption of cement in the construction industry.

2
On the other hand the agro processing industry has been producing tones of agro
residues that pose a challenge of disposal to the authorities. The depositing in
landfills can lead to generation of other by products that are toxic. It is estimated that
by 2050 demand for food will grow by 70% and this will demand sustainable food
production and management of associated waste products (Sagrario et al., 2019).

To avoid environmental challenges, solid waste should be managed in consideration

of the principles of prevention, reuse and recycling (Santiago et al., 2020). Due to
their sheer volumes, post harvest solid wastes are normally improperly managed.
Therefore there is interest in converting these by products for use in concrete
industry (Balagopal et al., 2017). This will reduce the threat they pose to
sustainability and aesthetic environment (Narain et al, 2020). Incorporating industrial
waste as a substitute material can be an avenue to help to save large quantities of
natural resources as well as protect the environment (Senani et al., 2018).
Furthermore, biomass waste in the form of straw, fruit shells, cobs, pod seeds, shells,
bagasse when properly selected and treated has been used as supplementary
cementitious materials. These materials can be considered as a CO2 neutral or quasy
neutral, since the CO2 released from their combustion can be considered to have been
already absorbed by the plant during photosynthesis processes (Samantha et al.,
2021).

The avenues through which green house gas emissions can be minimized in the
cement industry include energy efficiency measures in manufacturing process,
emissions efficiency, carbon capture and storage during clinker production, enhanced
re-carbonation, alternative energy sources, grid re-carbonation and material
substitution.

Material substitution could be partial or full and includes alternative binders,

cementitious substitution for example the use of fly ash, pozzolans and the use of
alternative materials such as timber (Pamenter & Meyers, 2021).

In constructions that use concrete material, the main route is by reduction of the
cement content of concrete by inclusion of mineral admixtures like fly ash, silica
fume, rice husk ash or metakaolin to partially replace ordinary portland cement helps
3
in this effort (Kanchan et al., 2012). Apart from reducing the cost of binder there are
potential technological benefits that arise from the use of pozzolanic material which
include increased workability, reduced permeability, resistance to thermal cracking
and increased ultimate strength and durability (Alp et al., 2009).

Pozzolanas are materials with silica content which by themselves are not
cementitious in nature but in processed forms and finely divided form react with
water to form cementitious compounds in the presence of water with lime
(Manasseh, 2010). Pozzolans may therefore be classified into two: naturally
occurring ones such as silica fume, pumice, shale tuffs, trass and the artificially
occurring ones such as fly ash, bagasse ash, and ground nut husk ash. The pozzolans
can be put to use in lime-pozzolana mixture to substitute cement in a wide range of
building applications that is not confined to block making and low strength concrete
and by incorporating them in cement to make blended cement by inter-grinding them
with cement in cement clinker in suitable proportions or using them as cement
replacement materials (this is economical since pozzolans are less costly compared to
cement).

In this regard a lot of focus has been drawn to agricultural based pozzolanic materials
for their environmental friendliness and sustainability (Jimoh et al., 2013). In
developing countries the most readily available material that can be used to partially
replace cement and still maintain economy are agro based wastes (Manasseh, 2010).

One of the products of hydration of Portland cement is calcium hydroxide

(Ca(OH)2). It greatly contributes to the deterioration of concrete. Blending a
pozzolan with cement makes the lime react with some oxides in the pozzolan to not
only reduce the quantity and therefore harmful effects of calcium hydroxide but also
increases the quantity of calcium silicate hydrates that are responsible for strength
hence increasing the concrete strength (Ettu et al., 2013).

Previous studies on partial substitution of cement in concrete have been done by

researchers Srinivisan and Sathiya (2010) used Sugar Cane Bagasse Ash alone
SCBA reported increase in compressive strength above control at 5-10% for all ages
of testing but strength declined for 10% replacement and above.
4
Chirag et al, (2013) replaced cement in concrete with Rice husk ash alone at 5, 10,
15, 20%. They reported a strength increase above the control at 7&28 days up to
15% replacement. Beyond 15% cement replacement, there was a strength decrease.

Abalaka (2013) used Rice Husk Ash (RHA) alone to partially replace cement in
concrete at 5, 10, 15, 20, 25% Water/Binder ratio of 0.45 & 0.5. He reported increase
in Compressive strength above the control at 7, 14, 28, 56 days for replacements of
up to 15%. For replacements beyond 15%, strength decreased.

Nuru Asman et al. (2017) partially replaced cement in concrete with Rice Husk
Ash(RHA) and Egg Shell Ash at randomly selected ratios of 2 %:8 %,4 %:6 %,6 %;4
% . They reported a compressive strength reduction for all the ratios except for
6%ESA;4 % RHA.

Nurrudeen and Musa, 2020 partially replaced cement with egg shell ash alone in
concrete at 0, 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 %. Compressive strength increased above the
control at 7, 14, 28, 56 days up to 5 %. They reported strength decrease beyond 5%
replacement.

Majority of previous researches have focused on rice husk ash yet the rice straw is
equally rich in silica. Rice straw ash was chosen due to it having a higher residue to
produce ratio than the rice husk and is available in plenty. It can also be obtained
from rice cultivation areas unlike the rice husk ash that can only be obtained from
rice mills.

Paddy rice production rose by 42.6 % from 112.6 thousand tons in 2018 to 160.6
thousand tons in 2019. All other schemes registered an increase in paddy production
except Bunyala (Source: KNBS, Economic Survey, 2020). Using a residue to
produce ratio (RPR) of 2.185, the annual rice straw production was 160,584x2.185=
350,876.04 tons. With an ash yield of 19.2%, approximately (350,876.04 tons x
19.2% = 67,368.19 tons) of rice straw ash is available in Kenya from irrigation
schemes alone.

5
The annual egg production in Kenya is about 1.3 billion eggs worth Ksh 9.7 billion
(ANAW, 2020). Using an average egg weight of 62.5 grams (Crosara et al., 2018)
gives approximately 81,250 tons of calcium carbonate in form of egg shells is
available in Kenya for lime production. Production of both rice straw and egg shells
is renewable and sustainable in nature. The egg shells were chosen owing their
availability in plenty and ease of collection at a minimal cost from hatcheries, fast
food processors, and homes. Since disposal of rice straw and egg shells is not
controlled, use of their ashes will reduce solid waste disposal problem.

In this research, two agro wastes; rice straw ash and chicken egg shell ashes will be
evaluated for use as supplementary materials in concrete for structural elements of
buildings. The rice straw which is considered as having no economic value will be
used in ash form as a supplementary material to partially replace cement in concrete.
Chicken egg shells another agro waste will be added to the blended mix in ash form
to reduce the effect of removal of cement from the concrete system during partial
replacement with rice straw ash and remedy the strength decline reported by majority
of researchers at higher replacements of cement by agrowastes in concrete. The
objective being to achieve a concrete material that is less costly using cement that is
blended with agro-wastes but which meets the requirements for use in construction
of houses. This will make housing affordable to the large population that lives under
the monetary poverty line.

1.2 Problem statement

With the global population estimated to reach 10.9 billion by 2050, this population
will increase demand for housing and other infrastructure (Marijana et al., 2019).The
growing populations exert a demand for socio-economic infrastructure that is aimed
at meeting the needs of emerging affluent societies. This in turn leads to gradual
increase in the demand for cement (Ash et al., 2019). The increase in cement
production is projected to reach between 8.3-10.9 billion metric tons by 2050 and as
such the cement production alone will be contributing to 24% of the global CO2
emissions. Such a high share of CO2 by one industry alone will not be tolerated. Any

6
improvement will have significant impact in reducing global CO2 emissions
(Marijana et al., 2019).

On the basis of the above; there is need to cut down cement production and usage by
partially substituting cement in concrete. Developing countries are heavily dependent
on agricultural production and with it comes large volumes of agro-waste that pose a
challenge to dispose. Rice is produced in large quantities irrigation schemes in
Kenya. In the process rice straw, a by-product is available in plenty. Chicken egg
shells as are also produced in plenty by day old chick producing hatcheries as well as
the food industry. Incorporating these two agro wastes in concrete is an attractive
method of disposing them in order to safeguard the environment. There has been a
lot of research on partial substitution of cement with agro-waste ashes in concrete.
Researchers Srinivisan and Sathiya (2010), Chirag et al, (2013), Abalaka (2013),
Nuru Asman et al. (2017), Nurrudeen and Musa, (2020) among others reported a
decline in compressive strength with increase in percentage partial replacement of
cement beyond the optimum replacement. However, there is limited information on
how to remedy the decline in strength that occurs beyond the optimum partial
replacement of cement with the ashes. This research will attempt to remedy this
decline in strength by introducing another agro-waste, egg shell ash in addition to the
pozzolanic agro-waste ash in the blended concrete. Since the ashes are cheaper than
cement, further reduction in cement will result in savings in construction.

1.3 Objectives
1.3.1 General objective

To investigate the properties of concrete with cement partially replaced with rice
straw ash and egg shell ash.

1.3.2 Specific objectives

1. To assess the physical and chemical properties of cement, rice straw ash, egg
shell ash and physical properties of coarse and fine aggregate.

7
 2. To determine physical and mechanical properties of concrete having cement
partially replaced with rice straw ash.

3. To assess the mechanical properties and durability of concrete having cement

partially replaced with rice straw ash and egg shell ash.

1.4 Research Questions

1. What are the physical and chemical properties of rice straw ash and egg shell
ash?

2. What are the physical and mechanical properties of concrete having cement
partially replaced with rice straw ash?

3. What are the mechanical and durability mechanical properties and durability of
concrete having cement partially replaced with rice straw ash and egg shell
ash?

1.5 Justification of the study

There is need for decent and affordable housing in the up-coming urban areas of
Kenya given that housing or shelter is one of the three basic needs for human beings.
There is need to lower cement content in concrete as a construction material since its
production is harmful to the environment owing to both extraction of limestone and
release of particulates to the atmosphere by cement factories.

Rice straw is available in Kenya in large quantities from both paddy rice irrigation
and non paddy sources in various parts of the country with little competing use.
While egg shells are available in large quantities both from large and small scale
hatcheries that produce day old chick, hotels and food processing industries. The
successful utilization of agro wastes namely rice straw ash and egg shell ash as
partial replacements of cement in concrete industry for housing will reduce the
cement consumption, leading to reduction in energy and raw material use for cement
manufacture. It will also cut down the release pollutants and green house gases. This

8
will in turn reduce the harmful environmental effects associated with cement,
resulting in a sustainable and economic concrete material.

The cost reduction will make construction of decent housing affordable to 36% (or
15.9 million) of the Kenyan population who live below the monetary poverty line
(KNBS Poverty report, 2020). The successful use of egg shell ash in cement may be
adapted by cement manufacturers as a cost cutting measure in terms of energy and
raw material. The incorporation of egg shell ash in concrete will provide a safe and
economical method of disposing solid egg shell waste.

1.6 Scope and Limitation

1.6.1 Scope

This research evaluated the effect of rice straw ash as sourced from Bunyala Rice
Irrigation scheme alone, located in Busia County, Kenya and not any other scheme.
Chicken egg shells used in concrete were sourced from Busia and Bondo towns
within Busia and Siaya Counties, in Kenya. They were obtained from small scale
hatcheries and food processors. The fine aggregate used was river sand as obtained
from the Malaba river. The coarse aggregate used was graded crushed stones
obtained from Sirikwa area in the outskirts of Eldoret town in Uasin Gishu County.
The incineration of agro-waste was done in open the open air environment at
prevailing environmental temperature and pressure and not under controlled
conditions. The characterization of agro waste ashes was confined to physical
properties and chemical oxide analysis, while tests done on concrete were physical
and mechanical alone. The methodology used was as indicated in the relevant
standards and the equipment manuals supplied by the manufacturers.

1.6.2 Limitations

1. There was limited access to technologically advanced equipment for

exhaustive study of the properties of the blended concrete. Non destructive
tests, micro-structure, morphology and Ultrasonic Pulse velocity tests were
not conducted in this study.

9
2. The cement used in this study was Type I Ordinary Portland Cement only and
not any other type of cement available in the Kenyan market.
3. The water/cement ratio used for all the concrete mixes in this study was 0.5
4. The incinerator available was small in volume, thus incineration of rice straw
had to be done in small batches.
5. The sieves available are small in volume. To sieve enough rice straw ash for a
large batch of mix took a long time and had to be done in small portions at a
time.

10
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Theoretical review

2.1.1 Concrete

Concrete is a material that is used in buildings both for substructures and

superstructures. It is composed of a mixture of different materials and the granular
sizes of these different materials affect its properties. Both fresh and hardened
properties are determined by the distribution of these particle sizes (Campo & Geyer,
2019) as well as water/cement/aggregate ratio, age of curing, temperature and
additives among others (BRE, 1988).

A typical concrete mix is made up of coarse aggregates, fine aggregates, water and a
binder which is the principal constituent. The most common binding medium is
cement. A number of factors affect compressive strength of cement that include
water/cement ratio, compaction, cement to aggregate ratio aggregate grading,
physiomechanical and mineralogical properties of aggregate. The basic function of
aggregate is to provide bulk to concrete as a mineral filler that is cheaper than cement
because cement is the most expensive ingredient. They also provide stability of
volume of concrete (Teye et al., 2018). The quality of concrete is derived from its
constituent materials. Concrete may be classified as normal and high strength
concrete; Compressive strength being the most significant attribute that differentiates
normal and high strength concrete. Compressive strength is defined as the maximum
resistance a concrete can offer to an applied pressure. American concrete institute
defines high strength concrete as a concrete with compressive strength greater than
41MPa. High performance concrete is superior to normal concrete in terms of
modulus of elasticity, lower creep and drying shrinkage, freeze thaw resistance, low
permeability, and chemical resistance. It is normally prescribed where situations
demand a small member to carry a large load (Obi, 2017).

The most commonly used construction material in the world is concrete. There are
environmental concerns in terms of the damage caused by raw material extraction as
11
well as green house gas emissions during cement manufacture (Muhamad et al.,
2013). These environmental concerns necessitate the research into alternative
materials so as to mitigate damage to environment. Many modifications have been
done to it to achieve desired characteristics of concrete, mainly high strength and
durability. To meet this requirement blended concretes have been introduced.
Cementitious materials known as pozzolans are being used with normal cement as
replacement materials. Originally, the term pozzolan was restricted to calcined earth
and volcanic ashes; nowadays this term covers all aluminous/siliceous materials
which in powder form react with calcium hydroxide in presence of water to form
cementitious compounds (Muhamad et al., 2013).

The strength that the concrete possesses is contributed by each of these constituents.
Hence the overall cost of the concrete depends largely on both the availability of
these constituents and their costs. Because cement remains the most expensive of
these ingredients there is need to find a means of economizing the use of cement in
concrete production (Mijedu, Adebara & Lamidi, 2014).

Characteristics demanded by concrete construction may not be met by concrete made

from these materials only; it is this condition that makes admixtures useful. Most
widely used concrete admixtures are those that control setting time and/or reduce
water. The main categories of admixtures are accelerators, retarders, plasticizers,
cementitious and pozzolanic materials, water proofing agents and alkali-silica
reaction inhibitors (Otunyo, 2011).

The durability properties of adequately produced concrete are generally good and as
such do not need to be improved by the addition of other poisonous substances to
increase the lifespan as some of the competing building materials. Further, admixture
ingredients in concrete comprise only a tiny percentage of the total concrete weight
and even then they remain bound into hydration products (Vesa, 1997).

Where characteristics such as strength, durability, impermeability, fire resistance and

absorption resistance are desired, concrete is the material of choice (Sathish, 2012).
However with the advancement of technology and increased scope of application of

12
cement and mortars, the use of recycled wastes as well as agricultural wastes and
industrial products has come into use (Mahesh and Satome, 2012).

The long term results of rapid industrialization are disposal problems of waste
materials, depleting energy sources, scarcity of raw materials and global warming
due to release of green house gases. Every industry therefore tries its best to
minimize and combat these global problems. In concrete construction industry the
primary route is the reduction of the content of ordinary Portland cement in concrete
through the inclusion of admixtures as partial replacements of Portland cement.

To fulfill the demands for both sustainable construction and incorporating waste
materials, concrete made with multi-blended cement system of ordinary Portland
cement and different mineral admixtures remains the judicious choice (Kanchan et
al., 2013). Considerable efforts are being done worldwide to make use of natural
waste and by-products as supplementary materials to improve properties of cement
concrete (Khusbu & Sharma, 2014).

An environmental problem continues to be created by the generation of industrial

and agricultural wastes creating numerous environmental problems both in terms of
their treatment and disposal. This has led to the construction industry being identified
as one to absorb majority of the waste as fillers in concrete. And where these fillers
have pozzolanic properties, they not only impart technical advantages but also enable
larger quantities of cement to be replaced (Raheem et al., 2012).

For third world countries, the most common and readily available material that can
be used for partial replacement of cement without economic implications are agro-
based wastes notable ones being bagasse ash, rice husk ash, acha husk ash and
periwinkle shell ash. The advantage of using agro wastes over others includes the
low capital cost per ton production, waste management promotion, increased
farmers’ economy base through sale of agro waste, conservation of limestone
deposits as well as reduction in carbon dioxide emissions (Manaseh, 2010).

Ways of reducing the cost of portland cement production and improving the quality
of cement are continually being sought by researchers in order to provide
13
accommodation for the increasing populace in many parts of Africa. In
technologically disadvantaged communities, industrial and agricultural waste
products could be harnessed towards this effort (Ettu et al., 2013).

Efforts have been channeled towards the exploitation of agricultural and industrial
waste products including foundry waste, fly ash and natural fibres. For developing
countries supplementary cementitious materials (SCM’s) are vital in achieving lower
cost of construction for the production of sufficient shelter, the main benefits being
saving in energy, conservation of natural resources and reducing the carbon footprint
of cement plants (Agbenyeku & Aneke, 2014).

2.1.1.1 Concrete making materials

a) Aggregates

Aggregates are normally occupy 70-80% of the volume of concrete and are normally
regarded as inert fillers. Though deemed to be inert they control concretes thermal as
well as elastic properties. They give concrete a skeletal body, reduce shrinkage and
afford concrete dimensional stability and economy. Normal weight aggregates are
divided into two; natural aggretates which include sand, gravel, crushed rock such as
quartzite, basalt, sandstone and artificial aggregates which include broken brick, air
cooled slag sintered fly ash and bloated clay (Obi, 2017). Concrete compressive
strength is partly determined by aggregates. On the basis of particle size, aggregates
are also broadly divided into two. Fine aggregate are those with particle size retained
on 0.075mm sieve size and passing through 4.75mm sieve size. Their function in the
concrete matrix is to fill the voids left by coarse aggregates. They also reduce the
cost of concrete and increase the workability of the concrete. The main characteristic
of fine aggregate that affects the concrete properties is bulking which is the increase
in volume of fine aggregates with variation in moisture content. The percentage of
bulking is inversely proportional to the size of the fine aggregate. On the other hand
particles that are retained in sieve size 4.75mm are called coarse aggregates. Use of
large sized aggregates allows a reduction in cement and water requirements. The
main property of coarse aggregates that affect concrete is the aggregate crushing
strength which is an indication of its resistance to compressive load. An aggregate
14
crushing value of less than 10 indicates a strong aggregate while a value of 35 and
above is considered a weak aggregate (Masud et al., 2020). The quality and type of
parent rock from which the aggregates were made determine various properties of
concrete such as workability, durability. Most igneous rocks have been found to
produce satisfactory aggregates for concrete use. They have massive structure which
is hard and dense and is either wholly crystalline or wholly glassy (Obi, 2017). The
size of the aggregates is controlled by the final use of the concrete. Larger aggregate
sizes lead to a reduction in cement and water quantities required. Aggregates thus
play a major role in concrete since they occupy approximately 80-85% of a typical
concrete mixture (Maria et al., 2020).

Aggregates form the skeletal body of concrete. They help in shrinkage reduction and
make concrete an economical material. Good gradation is one of the most important
factors in the production of workable concrete (Amitkumar et al., 2013). Aggregates
are inert fillers in the concrete matrix and they constitute approximately 70-75% by
volume of the whole mixture (Faseyemi, 2012).

The flakiness index and elongation index for coarse aggregates need to be
maintained below 15 % (Amitkumar et al., 2013). Crushed stone is normally used in
order to ensure good mechanical performance so that any differences in mechanical
properties of the mixtures are easily detected (Sumit & Raut, 2011).

The most common fine aggregate is river sand that conforms to the grading
requirements of the American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) or any other
approved standard (Amitkumar et al., 2013). Its content should be as permitted for
various sizes in the specifications (Faseyemi, 2012). Sand is a naturally occurring
granular material made of finely divided rock and mineral particles. The composition
varies greatly depending on the local rock sources. In inland continental settings the
most common constituent of sand is silica, usually in the form of quartz which is
resistant to weathering owing to its chemical inertness and considerable hardness.
Silica sand has a variety of applications throughout the world ranging from water
filtration, to blasting, to adding texture to roads, to producing concrete (Chirag et al.,
2013). Locally available river bed sand that is free from debris may be used as a fine

15
aggregate, the particle size distribution should be such that it gives minimum voids
ratio, in order to reduce the amount of mixing water required (Srinivasan & Sathiya,
2010).

b) Water

Water is an important ingredient because it triggers the chemical reaction of cement

upon contact to form the strength giving gel. Without water, concrete cannot be
produced. As a general rule water which is acceptable for drinking is suitable for
making concrete. The chemical reactions in cement cannot begin without water. The
water to cement ratio used in a concrete should take into account the aggregate
content and whether the aggregates are fully saturated (Masud et al., 2020). Water
has an impact on the workability of concrete. Whereas a low water/cement ratio
gives better strength and durability, it may result in an unworkable concrete that is
difficult to handle. The quality of water used should be pure and free from chlorides
and salts that can attack the concrete (Ash et al., 2019). Complete compaction of
concrete is a critical factor for achieving maximum strength. For maximum
compaction to be achieved a higher water/cement ratio is required than the
theoretically calculated one, thus the role of water is to lubricate the concrete for
achievement of desired compaction (Obi, 2017).

The quantity and quality of water need careful consideration (Amitkumar et al.,
2013). The quality should be such that the water is free from acids, organic matter,
suspended solids, alkalis and other impurities that may have adverse effect on the
concrete strength (Faseyemi, 2012).

c) Admixtures

Concrete is typically made up of cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate and water.
Outside these, any ingredient added either before or during mixing to alter specific
properties of the concrete is termed as an admixture (Akoba et al., 2020). The use of
admixtures imparts positive effects to concrete like improving workability,
acceleration or retardation of setting times, reduction in water/cement ratio among
others. (Abdullah et al., 2012).
16
Conventional admixtures primarily fall into the following categories; accelerators,
retarders, plasticizers, water proofers, cementitious, pozzolanic materials and
chemicals that inhibit alkali-silica reaction (Otunyo, 2011). Other than conventional
admixtures, there has been an increase in the use of Agro-based admixtures in order
to reduce cement content in concrete.

(i)Conventional admixtures

Include accelerating , Water reducing, Retarding admixtures, Air- entraining , Super

plasticizing admixtures (Surender & Upasana, 2017), Corrosion inhibitors ,damp
proofing admixtures, Gas forming admixtures and Colouring admixtures (Tomas,
2013).

Reasons for use of admixtures vary depending on the specific needs (Akoba et al.,
2020).

(ii) Mineral admixtures

These are materials that are finely divided and added to concrete in relatively large
amounts, in the order of 20-40% by weight of Portland cement. Their origin may be
from raw or calcined natural minerals or from industrial by products. ASTM C 618
classifies mineral admixtures as class N, class F and class C (Surender & Upasana,
2017). Though admixtures have become an essential part of the modern concrete mix
providing middle ground for the conflict between water/cement ratio and
workability, they are not and cannot be a remedy for poor concrete mix design due to
incorrect proportioning of ingredients, poor mixing or low quality materials (Legeto
et al., 2016).

(iii) Agro-based admixtures

The versatility of cement has impacted its demand and production leading to
negative environmental effect. Apart from the negative effects of cement production,
it is also not sustainable (Soumyan & Aswathi, 2016). For this reason, many
researchers have developed green concrete by incorporating different materials of

17
agricultural origin as pozzolans to replace cement in concrete and mortar and hence
come up with sustainable construction solutions. One of the strategies is to use
materials that are available in abundance to create supplementary cementitious
materials (Devinder & Jaspal, 2016). This opens up a window for formulation of
concretes that would utilize the abundant and untapped resources that present
characteristics similar to conventional concrete. Senani et al. (2017) reviewed studies
of the effect of coconut shell ash, ground nut ash, rice husk ash and sugar cane
bagasse ash on concrete properties workability and concrete strength. They
concluded that cement could be advantageously replaced with agro-based ashes in
concrete without losing compressive strength up to an optimum amount percentage
that was specific to each researcher and each agro-waste ash. They also concluded
that the workability of the concrete decreased with the increase in percentage partial
cement replacement with agro-waste ashes.

Muhamad et al. (2019) studied the properties of concrete made with cement partially
replaced with wheat straw ash as an admixture. They found out that for partial
replacement of cement with 15, 20, 25 & 30% rice straw ash, the compressive
strength of concrete and mortar decreased with increase in percentage partial
replacement except those containing 15% wheat straw ash. Further the concrete with
15% partial replacement of cement showed improved ductility, stiffness and
toughness at 91 days.

Egbe-Ngu and Solomon (2014) investigated use of saw dust ash as an admixture in
attempt to improve mechanical and durability of cement pastes. They reported that
normal consistency increased with increase in saw dust ash, setting time of concrete
increased with increase in saw dust ash, drying shrinkage decreased with increase in
saw dust ash, the workability decreased with increase in saw dust ash content,
compressive strength increased with partial substitution of cement with saw dust ash
up to 2%, and the resistance to acid attack increased with increase in saw dust ash
content in concrete.

Mohamed and Taher (2006) conducted research on the effect of rice straw ash on the
properties of different cement types namely ordinary Portland, high slag and sulphate

18
resisting cement. The results reported showed that initial and final setting times
increased with increase in percentage partial replacement of cement with rice straw
ash for all the cement types.

Bagcal and Baccay (2019) researched on the influence of corn cob ash on the
properties of mortar when used to partially replace cement in mixes. The results
indicated that the corn cob ash exerted a delay in setting times of the mortar; the
addition of corn cob ash reduced the fluidity and plasticity of cement mortar paste.
The compressive strength was found to decrease with increase in percentage partial
replacement of corn cob ash.

From the foregoing it can be observed that other than conventional additives, agro-
based additives can equally be used to alter specific desired properties of cement and
mortars and they can be used to partially substitute cement up to a specific optimum
percentage replacement.

d) Binder

Another ingredient of concrete is the binder which on mixing with water can set,
harden and bind aggregate materials together. The binding material should have
adhesive and cohesive properties. The most common binding material used in
concrete is Portland cement (Masud et al., 2020). Many types of Ordinary Portland
cement are available in the market even though there is limited combination of
materials that can be used to produce cement. Therefore there is potential in research
on the use of numerous other materials to partially or fully replace cement and
therefore come up with numerous other that can be made available to the market. The
list of possible alternative binders to OPC cement is growing by the day with
continued research and included but is not limited to High volume supplementary
cementitious materials (SCM), limestone calcined clay cement (LCC), Alkali
activated materials (AAM), and Calcium Sulphoaluminate Cement(CSA),
metakaolin and fly ash based geo-polymers (Marijana et al., 2019).

19
a) Cement

The patent for Portland cement was given to Joseph Aspdin in 1924. The modern
cement is an improvement of Joseph Aspdin’s cement by his son William in the
latter half of the 19th century. The chemical composition of OPC has remained
unchanged for the last 100 years (Biernacki et al., 2017). Portland cement is the most
common binder used in concrete making (Masud et al., 2020). Cement binds together
solid bodies/aggregates by transforming from plastic to a solid state (Ash et al.,
2019). It reacts with an activator-normally water to form a solid and durable matrix.
(Pamenter & Myers, 2021). Worldwide, cement is an important material for use in
construction of socio-economic infrastructure (Symala et al, 2017). The projected
global cement production for the year 2020 was estimated to be 4.4 billion metric
tons and the demand for cement is continuously growing (Chaeyeon et al., 2020).
According to European standard specification EN 197, five categories of cement are
available in Europe;

Cement Type I (CEM I), Cement Type II (CEM II), Cement Type III, (CEM III) ,
Cement Type IV (CEM IV) and Cement Type V, (CEM V) (Ash Ahmed et al.,
2019).

(i) Basics of cement usage

The cement properties must lie within a certain range of standards for the engineer to
have confidence that it will perform satisfactorily (Ul Amin, 2010). Cement is
mainly used to bind hard and coarse aggregates together in concrete (Al-Khateeb,
2013). Currently there are many varieties of concrete such as pumpable, ultra-high
strength, self compacting, sprayable (shotcrete) and early- age strength development
concrete (Biernacki et al., 2017).

(ii)Basic Chemistry of Portland cement

Raw materials for production of cement are limestone, shale, chalk, clay and sand
(Ash et al., 2019). The materials undergo calcinations, whose product, calcium oxide,
is mixed together with silica, ferrous oxide and alumina and burnt at high

20
temperatures to form clinker. Clinker is ground and milled with other additives such
as gypsum & slag etc to the required fineness form cement (Kuruva, 2018).

The main components of Portland cement are dicalcium silicates (Ca2SiO4), tri-
calcium silicates (Ca3SiO5), tricalcium aluminates (Ca3Al2O6), and tetracalcium
alumino ferrite (Ca4Al2Fe2O10). The dicalcium silicate, tri-calcium silicate, tricalcium
aluminates and tetracalcium alumino ferrite are denoted as C2S, C3S, C3A and C4AF
respectively in cement chemist’s notation. The silicates, C3S and C2S, are the most
important compounds, which are responsible for the strength of hydrated cement
paste (Ash et al., 2019). In Kenya, cement is manufactured according to Kenyan
STANDARD KS-EAS- 18-1 2001 which is an adaptation of European Norm EN 197
Cement Standards (Okumu et al., 2017). The European standard specification for the
percentages of the various oxide compositions in cement are as tabulated in Table
2.1;

Table 2.1: Chemical oxide composition of OPC to European standard EN 196-2

Oxides European Standard Concentration

(% by weight )
Calcium oxide CaO 61-67
Iron oxide Fe2O3 0-6
Silica SiO2 19-23
Aluminum oxide Al2O3 2-6
sulphur trioxide SO3 1.5-2.5
Magnesium oxide MgO less than 5%

(Source: Sam et al, 2013).

The chemical analysis of composition of cement is significant since it will be used as

the control while conducting experiments during this research. Also it could give
guidance on what and how much to add to improve the cement’s performance.

The quantity of the cement compounds may be calculated from the oxide
concentrations using the Bogue’s formulae as follows:

C3 S  4.071CaO  7.6SiO2   6.178 Al 2 O3   1.43Fe2 O3   2.852 SO3  (2.1)

21
C 2 S  2.867 SiO2   0.7544C3 S  (2.2)

C3 A  2.65 Al 2 O3   1.692 * Fe2 O3  (2.3)

C4 AF  3.403 Fe2 O3  (2.4)

(Sam et al., 2013).

b) Lime

Lime may be argued as the first true green and versatile building material. The use of
lime in construction however declined in the nineteenth century with the introduction
of cement. Lime is versatile and possesses several advantages over cement: These
include allowing water to escape preventing risk of dampness and erosion, flexibility
to allow minor movements without cracking and low cost of production compared to
cement. Further, it consumes less energy during production and emits 20% less CO2
compared to cement.It also re-absorbs CO2 during setting when used in mortar
(Thirumalini & Sekar, 2013). Use of lime is therefore a good opportunity towards
achieving eco-friendly and sustainable development in construction.

2.1.1.2 Pozzolans and agro-waste ashes as cement replacement materials in

concrete

Many materials have been used to partially replace cement in concrete. These include
industrial by products such as silica fume, fly ash, blast furnace slag and metakaolin.
However scarcity of natural resources has seen a shift towards research and use of
agro-industrial wastes whose accumulation could generate environmental and social
problems (Moises et al., 2012). This research focuses on the use of with agro-waste
namely rice straw and egg shell ashes as partial replacements of cement in concrete.

According to American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) specification C618-

78, pozzolans are siliceous or siliceous and aluminous material which itself possesses
no cementitious value but in finely divided from and moisture present react with
calcium hydroxide to from cementitious compounds (Otoko, 2014).

22
Pozzolans which are also called supplementary cementitious materials (SCM’S) are
used in concrete to partially replace ordinary portland cement. Pozzolans were
originally associated with calcined earth and volcanic ashes. However today the term
pozzolan includes all aluminous/siliceous materials on powder form that in the
presence of water react to form cementitious compounds. Experimental and research
in concrete has led to several cement replacement materials that may be naturally
occurring or by products of industrial processes (Muhamad et al., 2013). Research
has revealed that pozzolans can produce concrete with characteristics close to normal
concrete at 28 days and beyond. Application of various ashes as potential
replacement of cements has attracted researchers due to it’s potential to reduce cost
of concrete and also eliminate classification of ashes as waste materials (Agbenyeku
& Aneke, 2014). The primary focus is currently on the prospects of using the various
suitable agricultural ashes commercially as partial replacement for ordinary portland
cement composites (Ettu et al., 2013).

Agro-wastes cannot be used directly to replace cement; they require to be treated by

heat, a process known as pyroprocessing (a process in which materials are subjected
to high temperatures in order to bring about a chemical or physical change). There
are two important factors to be considered before using an agro-residue to replace
cement. First is the chemical composition and second, the ash content (Parande etal.,
2011). Under chemical composition, silica content is the most important factor
because it will react with the lime to form calcium silicate hydrates for both strength
and other microstructural properties.

2.1.1.2.1 Cement hydration, pozzolanic reactions and Ca (OH)2 consumption

Cement hydration produces calcium silicate hydrates (CSH) gels that give strength
and cohesion to concrete. Though there are other solid hydration products in the
cement paste, the CSH constitutes 60% of the hydrated cement volume (Abalaka,
2013).The other compounds formed in clinker are tetra calcium aluminoferrite
(C4AF) and tri calcium aluminate (C3A). The C4AF and C3A control setting time and
heat evolved during hydration. Addition of gypsum is sometimes done to adjust

23
setting time of cement (Sam et al., 2013). Upon wetting of cement the following
reactions occur:

2(3CaSiO 2 )  6 H 2 O  3CaO.SiO2 .3H 2 O  3Ca (OH ) 2 (2.5)

2(2CaO.SiO2 )  4 H 2 O  3CaO.SiO2 .3H 2 O  Ca (OH ) 2 (2.6)

3CaOAl2 O3  31H 2 O  3CaSO4  3CaO. Al 2 O3 .3CaSO4 .31H 2 O (2.7)

4CaOAl2 O3 Fe2 O3  10 H 2 O  2Ca(OH ) 2  6CaO. Al 2 O3 .Fe2 O3 .12 H 2 O (2.8)

The main strengthening compounds are the CSH produced in Equation 2.5 and
Equation 2.6.Further during the hydration process of the two main components of
cement namely tricalcium silicate and dicalcium silicate, calcium hydroxide is
produced. The calcium hydroxide and ettringite

(3CaO. Al2O3.3CaSO4.32H2O) in Equation 2.7 that are crystalline in nature form the
frame of the gel like products. Hydration of C4AF consumes Ca(OH)2 to form gel
like products (Ettu et al., 2013).

During hydration of Portland cement, one of the products obtained is calcium

hydroxide. It is responsible for concrete deteroriation through leaching (Ettu et al.,
2013). Excess Ca(OH)2 in concrete can be detrimental to concrete strength owing to
the tendency of crystal growth in one direction (Villar et al., 2003).

The calcium hydroxide formed has no cementitious properties. Further, when

calcium hydroxide reacts with carbondioxide, it results in formation of a soluble salt
which is capable of leaching out of concrete leading to a common architectural
problem of efflorescence. High amounts of calcium hydroxide in concrete also
render it vulnerable to sulphate attack and adverse alkali aggregate reactions (Verna
et al., 2012). When a pozzolanic material is added to Portland cement it reacts with
the Ca(OH)2 to produce additional calcium silicate hydrates thus reducing the
quantity of harmful Ca(OH)2 and increasing the amount of beneficial C-S-H thus
improving cementitious properties (Ettu et al., 2013).

24
Pozzolanic reaction occurs when a siliceous or aluminous materials in the pozzolan
chemically reacts with calcium hydroxide in the presence of humidity to form
compounds exhibiting cementitous properties. By adding pozzolanic material to
mortar or concrete mix, the pozzolanic reaction will only start upon release of
calcium hydroxide (Villar et al., 2003). The pozzolanic reaction involves the reaction
of hydroxyl ions (OH-) and calcium (Ca2+) ions from sodium hydroxide and the SiO2
or Al2O3.SiO2 framework to form calcium silicate hydrates(C-S-H), calcium
aluminate hydrates(C-A-H) and calcium aluminate-ferrite hydrate. Tobermorite gel

SiO2  Ca (OH ) 2  H 2 O  CaO.SiO2 .H 2 O (2.9)

Calcium silicate hydrate

Ca(OH ) 2  H 2 O  Al 2 O3  Al 2 O3 .Ca(OH ) 2 .H 2 O (2.10)

Calcium aluminate ferrite hydrate

Ca(OH ) 2  Fe2 O3  Al 2 O3  H 2 O  Ca(OH ) 2 . Al 2 O3 .Fe2 O3 .H 2 O (2.11)

The C-S-H and C-A-H harden with age to form a continuous binding matrix which is
responsible for cement paste strength (Kassim & Chern, 2004). Pozzolana-lime
reactions are slow starting as late as one week after hydration of cement. This
consequently makes concrete more permeable in the early ages and gradually gaining
density with time.

The slow rate pozzolanic-lime reaction behavior can be attributed to two reasons;
first, pozzolan particles act as precipitation sites for early hydration C-S-H and
Calcium hydroxide hinders pozzolanic reaction. Second is the dependence of
breaking down of the glass phase on the alkalinity of pore water which requires
several days of hydration to attain alkalinity. The advantage brought about by
pozzolanic reaction through formation of additional cement gel namely C-S-H and
C-A-H include denser cement by blocking capillary pores and hence making the
concrete denser and durable (Yu et al., 1999).

25
The calcium silicate hydrates and calcium hydroxide have been described as the
dominant products of hydration produced at the early stages of hydration that result
from the selective hydration of dicalcium silicate and tricalcium silicates. Between
the latter two, tricalcium silicate reacts faster and dominates the early days of
hydration. In order to take care of the huge amount of calcium hydroxide produced
by hydration reaction, which might be disadvantageous to the quality of concrete
since it can be a source of instability, any cheap agricultural material rich in silica
may be used. The silica in these materials reacts with the excess amounts of calcium
hydroxide to further produce additional calcium silicate hydrates which is significant
for strength development. The amount of additional calcium silicate hydrates will be
dictated by the amount of calcium hydroxide produced by the hydration reaction of
cement (Okonkwo et al., 2012). Therefore the cementing quality is enhanced when a
good pozzolanic material is blended with Portland cement in suitable proportion
(Ettu et al., 2013). The pozzolans also improve the rate of strength gain and can also
reduce the heat of hydration thus minimizing cracking in mass concrete (Agbenyeku,
2014).

The presence of pozzolans influences both the hydration process and the resultant
compounds. It in fact complicates the hydration process since both the pozzolanic
and hydration reactions take place simultaneously within the same matrix.
Nevertheless they follow different processes and occur at different rates. Hydration
reaction proceeds much faster than the pozzolanic reaction that becomes effective
between 3-14 days (Ozlem et al., 2006).

Ordinary Portland cement is polymineralic in nature. The polymineralic nature

makes the hydration process difficult to completely understand. Hydration of cement
to date is not satisfactorily understood, and since complex reactions are involved it is
difficult to realistically present stoichiometrically. It is worth noting that in addition
to the main compounds C2S, C3S and C4AF, there are minor oxides such as sodium
oxide (Na2O), potassium oxide (K2O), Manganese III Oxide Mn2O3, Tin oxide
(TiO2), and Magnesiun Oxide (MgO); though they are minor by virtue of their
quantities, they are also vital to the hydration of cement (Mtallib & Rabiu, 2009).

26
2.1.1.2.2 Rice straw agro-wastes

Globally, the area under rice cultivation is approximately 150 million hectares and
the global rice production is estimated to be 500 million metric tons annually (Atera
et al., 2018). In Kenya rice is mainly cultivated by small scale farmers in Central
(Mwea), Western (Bunyala), Coast (Tana Delta, Msambweni) and Nyanza (Ahero,
West Kano, Migori and Kuria) (Obura et al., 2017). Presently, 78% of the total area
under rice cultivation is under irrigable land in national rice schemes managed by the
National Irrigation Board (NIB) (Atera et al., 2018). There are about 18 medium to
large size and 11 small size rice mills in Kenya (Ndirangu & Oyange, 2019).

Common rice production estimates are those of Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) for
all milled rice production and the National Irrigation Board (NIB) for all paddy rice
produced in its irrigation schemes (Short et al., 2012). Cropped rice area rose by 17.9
% to 32.3 thousand acres in the last five years (KNBS Economic Survey, 2020).
Most households use family labour to undertake rice field operations (Cheserek et
al., 2012). Rice straw has a high ash content of 19.2% (Chardust, 2004). Every
kilogram of rice paddy harvested produces straw weighing between 0.41 and
3.96(giving an average of 2.185) kilogrammes (Jeng et al., 2012). In the year
2018/2019, paddy rice production by NIB schemes in Kenya was 160,584 tons. Since
Rice straw is highly lignified material with low nutritive value, it has a low potential
value as feed for ruminants (Sarnklong et al., 2010). Thus a large quantity of rice
straw is basically left in the farms with little competing use and is available in
sufficient quantity for utilization in partial substitution of cement. Feeding rice straw
on ruminants is limited due to its high lignin, high silica content, low palatability and
slow digestion of structural carbohydrates.

Most previous research works on rice by-products as pozzolans have concentrated on

rice husk ash. Thus making Rice husk ash is one of the most studied biomass ash as a
pozzolan. The use of rice straw ash as a pozzolan in concrete mixes is limited. Rice
straw ash has been less explored by researchers despite the fact that according to the
United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), rice straw production is
estimated to be 600 million tons per year. This therefore provides an opportunity for

27
characterizing the properties of RSA and assessing its potential for use as a pozzolan
(Samantha et al., 2021).

Rice husk ash is a by-product of paddy rice and forms highly reactive pozzolanic ash
(Pravin, 2012). Rice husk is the outer covering of the grain of rice plant with high
concentration of silica content ranging between 80-85%. The rice plant is among the
plants that also absorbs silica from the soil during growth and assimilates it into its
structure (Alireza et al., 2010).

Mohamad and Taher (2006) conducted chemical analysis on rice straw ash
incinerated at 550º centigrade for one hour and found it to contain 65.92%
silica(SiO2), 1.78% Alumunium Oxide(Al2O3), 0.2% Ferric Oxide (Fe2O3) , 2.4%
Calcium Oxide(CaO), 3.11% Magnesium Oxide(MgO), 0.69% sulphur
trioxide(SO3), and 9.71% Loss on ignition. Researchers Dabai and Muhammad
(2017) found out that incinerating rice straw at 1,100 degrees centigrade for two
hours, resultant rice straw ash were found to be composed of 61.50% silica (SiO 2),
4.67% Alumunium Oxide (Al2O3), 3.08% Ferric Oxide (Fe2O3), 15.45% Calcium
Oxide (CaO), 1.89% Magnesium Oxide (MgO), 2.18% sulphur trioxide (SO3),
1.07% potassium oxide (K2O), 9.79% Loss on ignition and 1.55 free lime. Samantha
et al., (2020) evaluated rice straw ash to as a pozzolanic material in cementitious
mixes. Rice straw was burnt rapidly and energetically at 500ºC. The rice straw ash
was then milled for 15 minutes using a ball mill with 50 large and 60 small alumina
balls. Chemical composition results indicated silica (SiO2) was 52.4, alumina (Al2O3)
was 0.47, ferric oxide (Fe2O3) was 0.71, and calcium oxide (CaO) was 8.01% among
others. The loss on ignition was 14.6%. This research will evaluate suitability of rice
straw ash as a cement partial cement replacement material in concrete.

2.1.1.2.3 Chicken egg shells

The chemical composition of egg shell and its similarity to cement is what makes
them worthy pursing as a possible supplementary material for replacing cement. Egg
shell is typically composed of calcium carbonate with some researchers reporting 94-
97% calcium carbonate, 3-4.5% organic matter and 0.83% magnesium oxide
(Owuanaman & Cree, 2020). It can be observed that calcium carbonate is the
28
predominant composition of egg shells; similarly calcium carbonate is the primary
raw material for cement production (Afolayan, 2017). Their main component is
calcium carbonate (CaCO3) which is about 95% with the remainder including
magnesium, potassium, sodium, phosphorus, aluminum, zinc copper (Chirag et
al.,2013). During incineration to ash, there is decomposition of egg shell (CaCO3) to
calcium oxide (CaO)/lime and carbon (IV) oxide.

CaCO3  CaO  CO2 (2.12)

The CO2 escapes as gas while the CaO / lime remains in the ash (Mtallib and Rabiu,
2009). Hen Egg shells could be used as a source of lime. They are known to be very
rich in calcium carbonate. The ash yield of the calcinations process of egg shells is
65 % (Beck et al., 2010).

As it stands today Kenya has an estimated 28 million birds of which 76% are free
ranging indigenous and 22% are commercial layers and broilers. About 2.2% are
other poultry species such as ostrich, guinea fowl, pigeon, and quail. The weekly
production of chicks by the commercial poultry sector is over one million. There are
four main hatcheries in Kenya namely Kenchic with an annual day old chick
production of 13.0 million based in Athi River, Kajiado, Kisumu and Nairobi
Industrial area, Sigma with an annual chick production of 1.0 million day old chicks
based in Nairobi, Kenbird with annual production of 1.092 million day old chicks
based in Naivasha and Muguku with an annual day old chick production of 1.152
million day old chicks based in Kikuyu (ANAW, 2020). Production of chicken egg
shells at an industrial level leads to considerable quantity of egg shells residue that is
considered to have no economic value despite the fact that they are rich in minerals
and amino acids that could be of beneficial use in other industries (Soumyan &
Aswathi, 2016).

The disposal of the egg shells is a problem to the authorities (Sathish & Kumar,
2017). Chicken egg shells are part of agro-wastes that are normally thrown as litter to
the environment (Afolayan, 2017). The chicken egg shells when left in the

29
environment for long they create some allergies and undesirable smell that can cause
irritation (Ashfaque et al., 2019).

From the above figures, there are a lot of egg shells available from production of day
old chicks by hatcheries other than those emanating from small scale hatcheries,
domestic, hotel and confectionery uses of hen eggs. These are generally considered
waste and may be a challenge to dispose them off. The use of lime in construction
should be encouraged since it offers a number of advantages compared to cement
with regard to both environment and economy. The quantity of egg shells available
in Kenya is an enormous source of lime that can be exploited by incorporating it into
concrete production by the construction industry. It is a sustainable and eco-friendly
alternative to quarry limestone.

2.1.1.3 Properties of concrete

The concrete produced by partially replacing cement with rice straw ash and egg
shell ash is expected to have similar properties as the conventional concrete.
Therefore it will be tested for properties similar to those of concrete made with
conventional cement as a binder.

2.1.1.3.1 Properties of fresh concrete

Fresh concrete properties include setting time, heat of hydration, and workability.
Setting time can be categorized into two. Initial set which is the duration that elapses
between the instance of adding water and when the cement ceases to behave like a
paste or plastic fluid and final set which is when the cement paste reaches a state of
hardness capable of sustaining some load. It is tested using the Vicat apparatus. Heat
of hydration refers to the heat generated during the reaction of cement and water. It is
determined by the water-cement ratio, fineness of cement, curing temperature and the
amount of tricalcium silicate and dicalcium silicates present (Al-Khateb, 2013).

Workability is the property of freshly mixed concrete that determines how easy it can
be placed, consolidated and finished without segregation. The workability is usually
measured by means of conventional slump test apparatus, the slump value being

30
determined by the slump cone. This is usually done before the fresh concrete is cast
(Vijaykumar et al., 2013). A concrete that has acceptable workability is a high
quality concrete (around 65 mm slump height). Bigger height of slump means better
workability (Srinivasan & Sathiya, 2010).

2.1.1.3.2 Properties of hardened concrete

Hardened concrete properties include compressive strength, splitting tensile strength

and flexural strength. The compressive strength of cement varies with time and
therefore is generally reported at 7 days, 14 days 28 days or even 90 days (Al-
Khateb, 2013). The strength of concrete is related to the workability and can only be
maximized if the concrete has adequate degree of workability because of self
compacting ability (Srinivasan & Sathiya, 2010).

Determination of compressive strength is very important, since compressive strength

is a criterion for concrete quality. It is this strength that help in the determination of
optimum replacement level of cement (Lavanya et al., 2012). Compressive strength
test provides the breaking strength of the cubes made purposely for determination of
the compressed concrete strength. The compressive strength is obtained by dividing
the maximum load carried by the specimen during the test by the average cross
sectional area:

Compressive strength = Maximum load/Cross sectional area (2.13)

Splitting tensile strength is a measure of the splitting tensile strength of concrete by

application of diametral compressive force on a cylindrical concrete specimen with
its axis horizontal between plates of a testing machine.

Splitting tensile strength T, then is given by

T  2dlP (2.14)

31
Where

P is maximum load at failure of concrete

d is average diameter of cylinder

l is the average length of the concrete specimen

The flexural strength on a simple beam is used to determine the modulus of rapture
(fb) of concrete and it can be calculated as follows

PL
fb 
 
bd 2
(2.15)

Where

P is the maximum applied load

b is the average width of the specimen at point of fracture

d is the average depth of the specimen at point of fracture (Sooraj, 2013).

L = span of the beam between supports

2.2 Empirical Review

Amitkumar et al. (2013) studied the properties of concrete with cement partially
replaced with ceramic ash at 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50% by weight and a water binder
ratio of 0.48. The ceramic was found to contain 63.29% silica, followed by 18.29%
Al2O3 as the main components (Amitkumar et al., 2013).

None of the blended concretes achieved higher compressive strength than the
control. 10% partial cement replacement with ceramic ash yielded the closest
strength to the control at 28 days, no tests were done after 28 days.

Chirag et al., (2013) studied the properties of concrete with cement partially replaced
with rice husk ash (RHA) at 5, 10, 15 & 20% by weight using concrete grade 30 and
32
60 RHA was found to contain 87.2% SiO2, 1.12% Sodium Oxide and 0.55% Calcium
oxide. Compressive strength was found to increase by 4.23% to 10.93% for 7 days
for 5% and 10% replacement and 6.74 to 13.48% for 10 and 15% replacement levels
at 28 days respectively. Further increase in cement substitution to 20% led to
strength reduction of 17.97% compared to the control. While the M60 grade concrete
yielded 7 day strength increase of 4.23% at10% replacement level and 28 days
strength increase of 6.5% for 10% replacement level. They concluded that addition
of RHA at 5-10% will increase the compressive strength, whereas addition 15-25%
RHA would cause a strength reduction. From these findings, it can be concluded that
the strength gain during partial replacement is less affected by the concrete classes
since the order of strength gain for M30 and M60 concrete was the same.

Muhammad et al. (2013) examined effect of metakaolin, silica fume and brick
powder as partial cement replacements in concrete. Cement was replaced at 5, 10 and
15% with water binder ratios of 0.63, 0.54 and 0.47. The compressive strength was
tested at 28 and 90 days while sulphate attack test also performed. The silica fume,
metakaolin and brick powder was found to compose of 92%, 67% and 23.12% silica,
respectively. The compressive test for concrete with 15% silica fume replacement
was higher than that of the control and other pozzolans for all ages. The brick
powder recorded very little pozzolanic behavior with slight compressive strength
increase at 5% replacement level. The increase in strength caused by silica fume and
metakaolin was attributed to both their fineness and pozzolanic action that reduced
calcium hydroxide as well as total voids in concrete. The replacement materials with
high silica lead to more strength gain upon replacing cement partially than those with
low silica content.

Khusbu and Sharma (2014) partially replaced cement with strength fly ash (FA) and
rice husk ash (RHA) in concrete. The strength for the control mix was 31 N/mm2
with a water binder ratio of 0.45. The replacements of cement with RHA and FA
respectively and combined were at 6, 12, 18 and 24%. The compressive strength was
found to increase above the control for FA and RHA up to 12% replacement level,
beyond which it registered decrease in strength. Split tensile strength increased
marginally for fly ash replacement of up to 12%. RHA did not register increase in
33
tensile strength above the control. Replacement of cement with combined RHA and
FA registered lower strength than singly replacing cement with RHA. These findings
are similar to those of Muhammad et al., (2013). Thus there is a limiting percentage
that cement can be partially replaced by pozzolans in concrete, beyond which
strength decrease is recorded. Further combining of pozzolans to simultaneously
replace cement partially offered no advantage in terms of strength gain. This can be
attributed to similarity in chemical composition of pozzolans, RHA had 92.99%
silica and 1.03% CaO while FA had 60.6% silica and 2.19% CaO.

Kanchan et al. (2013) investigated the effect of fly ash (FA) and silica fume (SF)
admixtures on strength and slump of concrete blend. The superplasticizer dosage
required for slump of 100 + 20mm was higher for concrete using binary blend of
OPC+silica fume compared to control mix, but was significantly reduced in binary
blended concrete using OPC + fly ash. They attributed this to spherical particles of
FA that act as small bearings and compensate for higher super plasticizer demand
arising from inclusion of silica fume with very high specific area (Goyal et al., 2008).
These findings agree with those of Muhammad et al. (2013), that the shape of
pozzolan particles and fineness are of significance. In this study compressive
strength was found to increase up to a certain limiting percentage of OPC
replacement level for all water/binder (w/b) ratios. Low water binder ratio of 0.3
recorded higher strength gain above the control than of concrete with w/b ratio of 0.4
and 0.45. The synergic effect of OPC, Fly Ash and Silica was found to result in
higher strength than binary blend of OPC and Fly Ash at both lower and higher
replacement levels. These findings differ with those of Khusbu and Sharma (2014)
who reported lower strength using ternary cements of OPC, Fly ash and RHA. It was
also found that lower water binder ratios recorded higher strengths than higher w/b
ratios for the same partial replacement levels of cement with pozzolans.

Manasseh (2010) reviewed partial replacement of cement with Acha Husk Ash
(AHA), Bambara Groundnut Shell Ash (BGSA), Bone Powder Ash (BPA), Ground
nut Husk Ash (GHA), Rice Husk Ash (RHA), Wood Ash (WA). None of them
satisfied the cement criteria CaO: SiO2 ratio of 3.13, silica ratio (SR) and Alumina
ratio of 1.7-3.5 and 2.44, respectively, and a calcium oxide composition of 60-67%.
34
This implies that the agro wastes cannot serve as substitutes for cement but only as
partial replacements. The decrease in strength with increase partial replacement of
cement was attributed to two factors. Firstly, the reduction in CaO component in the
mix because the contribution of CaO by the agro-waste materials is not
commensurate with the reduction of CaO occasioned by replacing cement with the
agro-waste. Secondly the high SiO2 component in the agro-wastes resulted in the
blended mixes having excess SiO2 that remains unreacted. The decrease in strength is
therefore an indication that more lime (CaO) is required. The lime liberated during
the hydration of cement blended with agro-wastes is insufficient to completely react
with silica in the cement + pozzolan combinations to form cementitious materials
C3S.Thus, it can be said that partial replacement of cement with agro-wastes beyond
the optimum caused a deficit in CaO in relation to the silica content. The CaO ought
to be present in proportions that ensure maximum conversion of the silica content
from the pozzolanic cement replacement material to cementitious materials to ensure
strength gain of concrete. This CaO may come from calcium oxide rich material.

Ettu et al., (2013) partially replaced cement with cassava waste ash (CWA) at 5, 10,
15, 20 and 25% replacement levels. The compressive strength was tested at 3, 7, 14,
21, 28, 50 and 90 days using a concrete mix of 1:2:4 and a water/cement ratio of
0.6.The 3-21 day strength was found to be lower than the control values for all
percentages of replacement. They attributed this to the low rate of pozzolanic
reaction at those ages. At 50 days of curing the strength of the binary blended
concrete was close to that of the control while the 90 day strength of 5-15%
replacement of OPC with CWA was higher than of the control. They concluded that
OPC-CWA binary blended concrete may be used for high strength cements at curing
ages greater than 50 days. No attempt was made to use other water/binder ratios as
Kanchan et al., (2013) found out, lower water/cement ratios result in higher strength.

Agbenyeku and Aneke (2014) incorporated domestically derived cassava peels ash
(DDCPA) and laterite in concrete production at 0 to 30% partial replacement ratios.
The compressive strengths were measured at 56, 90,120 and 150 days and observed a
progressive drop in compressive strength with increase in cement substitution over
the different prolonged periods of curing. They attributed this to excess content of
35
silica and/or alumina from DDCPA and the laterite not used up in the reaction. They
attributed the significant drop in compressive strength to excess silica and alumina
content that were not utilized in the pozzolanic reaction. These findings agree with
those of Manaseh (2010). In order to get maximum gains when substituting cement
with agro waste ashes, there is need to convert the excess silica into cementitious
materials (calcium silicate hydrates) as illustrated by Equations 2.5, 2.6 and 2.7 by
availing sufficient calcium oxide (CaO).

Parande et al. (2011) studied the utilization of Rice Husk Ash and bagasse ash in
concrete. The RHA was found to contain more than 80% silica and a bit of alumina.
The replacement levels ranged from 5-35% in OPC. They found that higher
replacement of cement with RHA in concrete led to lower strength of concrete and
increased water absorption. This was attributed to the excess silica in RHA that did
not combine with lime liberated by the hydration of cement. Strength loss was
caused by the leaching out of excess silica from the concrete while increase in water
absorption was reportedly caused by the fineness and micro-structure of RHA that
gives it the tendency to absorb and retain water. Thus, an excess in silica content in
concrete resulting from partial substitution of cement with agro waste was harmful to
concrete. No proposals were made on how to address this.

Raheem et al. (2012) investigated physical properties of concrete with partial

replacement of cement with saw dust ash (SDA) at 5,10,15,20 and 25% by weight
replacement levels. Compressive strength at was tested at ages 3, 7, 28, 56 and 90
days. Water binder (w/b) ratio of 0.5 was used up to 15% replacement levels while
w/b ratio of 0.65 was used for 20 and 25% replacement levels. The compaction
factor was also found to decrease with increase in SDA content. This was attributed
to the increased amount of silica. The silica-lime reaction required more water in
addition to the water needed for cement hydration as demonstrated by chemical
Equations 2.1, 2.2, 2.3 and 2.7and the findings of Raheem (2012).Compressive
strength results recorded general increase with curing period and decrease with
increase in amount of SDA. At all replacement levels and all ages the compressive
strength of the control with no SDA replacement was the highest. The slow (Ettu et
al., 2013) found out, this strength gains manifest at curing ages beyond 28 days. It
36
was also found out that water is needed for two purposes, first for cement and
second, during pozzolanic reaction.

Ustev and Taku (2012) partially replaced cement with coconut shell ash (CSA) in
concrete production at levels ranging from 0, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30%. They used a
water/binder ratio of 0.5 in their concrete mixes. The concrete was tested at 7, 14 and
28 days curing ages. The optimal 28 day strength recorded was 31.78 N/mm 2 at 10%
replacement while the control which recorded 34.22 N/mm2 at the same age. These
findings differ from those of Raheem et al. (2012) who reported strength close to the
control at 56 days curing age. The 28 day strength at 10% replacement reported was
20.52 N/mm2 for the control and14.8 N/mm2 for 10% replacement. It was found out
that by improving the fineness of the pozzolans through sieving, the age at which
blended cement show strength close to the control may be reduced. This means that
the cementing efficiency of the pozzolan is increased. However there was a
possibility of achieving the similar results at a curing age of 56 days.

The use of Silica fume as a partial replacement of cement in concrete was

investigated by Faseyemi (2012) at replacement levels of 5-25% by weight at 5%
increments and Class 30 concrete mix. There was an increase in compressive
strength attributed to both the high pozzolanic nature of micro-silica and also its
capacity to fill voids. The optimum partial replacement was found to be 10%. These
findings are similar to those of Muhammad et al. (2013) that fineness of pozzolan
particles allows tight packing of particles that improves the concrete matrix density.

Otunyo (2011) used palm kernel husk ash (PKHA) in concrete as an accelerator and
for partial replacement of cement. Setting time of concrete was found to decrease
with increase in PKHA content while strength indicated decrease in strength with
increase in PKHA content. From these results, it was found out that PKHA reduced
setting time at the expense of strength.

Olutoge et al. (2012) used palm kernel shell ash (PKSA) to partially replace Portland
cement at 10 and 30% PKHA in concrete and a water/binder ratio of 0.5. For the two
cement replacement levels, the found to be lower than the control at 7, 14, 21 and 28
days. Strength gained beyond 28 days due to the slow pozzolanic reactions. PKHA
37
was found to have the chemical oxides found in Portland but in different quantities.
These varying quantities alter the chemical composition and content of oxides
responsible for hydration is responsible for strength loss in the resulting blended mix.

Abalaka (2013) partially replaced cement with Rice Husk Ash in concrete with
water/binder ratios of 0.35, 0.4, 0.45, 0.5 and 0.55. The results showed that as the
water binder ratio increased, the amount of maximum RHA replacement also
increased. The increase in maximum RHA as the w/b ratio increased was attributed
to the hygroscopic nature of and microstructure of RHA. Lower water/binder ratio
resulted in lower maximum RHA replacements as less water was available for
absorption by RHA particles, in high w/b ratio mixes there was adequate water
available for absorption by the rice husk ash resulting in higher replacement levels.
The cement replacement with 5% RHA progressively gained strength with age
however they did not record strength higher that of the control at all test ages for w/b
ratio of 0.35. With a water binder ratio of 0.4 and 0.45 compressive strength
increases above the control were recorded at test age of 180 days. At 15%
replacement levels and water binder ratio of 0.5 all the test ages recorded
compressive strength higher than that of the control. At water/binder ratio of 0.55 the
compressive strength higher than the control was recorded at all ages at 5% RHA
content. Thus it can be concluded that water plays a crucial role in pozzolanic
reactivity within concrete. A low water binder ratio of 0.35 recorded no strength
increase, comparing it with the results of water binder ratio of 0.55 suggests that
optimum free water is needed for activation of pozzolanic activity, where free water
is low, no reactivity was recorded conversely where it was high no strength gains
were recorded. These findings agree with those of Raheem (2012). That for a given
percentage partial replacement of portland cement with pozzolan in concrete, there is
an optimum water binder ratio that allows both maximum reactivity of pozzolan and
cement hydration for strength development. Equations 2.1 to 2.7 require water to
proceed.

Akihonbare (2013) evaluated use of agro-waste namely bambara ground nut shell
ash(BGSA), acha husk ash(AHA), groundnut husk ash(GHA), wood ash(WA), palm
oil shell ash(POSA), bone powder ash(BPA) and periwinkle shell ash as partial
38
replacements of cement in concrete at 10,20,30,40 and 50% by weight. The highest
28 day compressive strength was achieved at 10% partial cement replacement with
bone powder ash. 20% cement replacement with Acha husk ash attained optimum
compressive strength. BGSA, BPA, RHA and WA all exhibited reduced compressive
strength with increase in cement replacement levels and their strength did not match
that of the control at all replacement levels. The rice husk ash was found to have the
highest silica content of the agro wastes used yet it recorded the lowest strength at all
replacements levels compared to all other agro wastes. This could be attributed to the
structure of silica which is affected by burning temperature, controlled burning is
required to get rice husk ash that is reactive to lime. These findings differ from those
of Faseyemi (2012), Khusbu and Sharma (2014) where high silica content in the
agro-waste proved to be advantageous in terms of strength gain during partial
replacement of cement. However in the methodology they used 212 micron sieve for
RHA, 75 micron sieve for BGSA and hammer mill for grinding BPA. This gave the
pozzolans different fineness with RHA having the coarsest particles hence low
surface area. This may explain why it recorded lowest strength gain though it had
highest silica. The methodology was bias and comparison of the pozzolans faulty.

Srinivasan and Sathiya (2010) studied sugar cane bagasse ash (SCBA) as partial
replacement of cement in concrete with a water binder ratio of 0.48. The chemical
analysis results found it to contain 78.34% silica, 8.55% Al2O3 and 3.61% Fe2O
among others. The slump of the concrete was found to increase with increase in
SCBA; this was attributed to increase in surface area of the blended cement after
adding SCBA that needs less water compared to wetting the cement particles. The
compressive, tensile flexural strength increased above the control up to 10%
replacement, beyond which the strength decreased. The use of 20% replacement of
cement with SCBA showed a decrease in strength. This was explained by availability
of excess silica in the cement- SCBA mix at that resulted in higher amount of silica
than what is adequate to combine with lime liberated by the hydration process. The
excess silica is leached out of the concrete matrix causing deficiency in strength
since it occupies volume but does not contribute to strength. These findings are
similar to those of Manaseh (2010) and Faseyemi (2012). Failure to achieve strength
close to the control could also be attributed to the fixed water –binder ratio of 0.48,
39
as Abalaka (2013) found out that higher cement replacement levels were achieved by
varying the water – binder ratio.

Lavanya et al. (2012) also examined the compressive strength properties of concrete
with partial replacement of cement with sugar cane bagasse ash in proportions of 0,
10,15,10,25 and 30% for water/binder ratios of 0.35, 0.4 and 0.45. Strength tests on
cubes were done at 7, 14 and 28 days. At 15% partial replacement and 0.35
water/binder ratio, there was an increase in compressive strength above the control.
The rest of the replacement levels and water binder ratios recorded lower strength
than the control. Comparing these findings it can be observed that a higher optimum
replacement level (15%) was achieved at a water/binder ratio of 0.35 whereas
Srinivasan and Sathiya (2010) using a water binder ratio of 0.48 could only achieve
an optimum replacement level of 10%. This can be attributed to the concrete mix
designs, source and treatment of the bagasse ash used.

Ettu et al. (2013) used rice husk ash (RHA) as a replacement of cement at 0, 5, 10,
15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45 and 50% and a water/binder ratio of 0.6. Compressive
strength tests were done at 3, 7, 14, 21, 28, 50 and 90 days. Particle size analysis
found RHA particles to be coarser than cement particles, since RHA was not milled.
The concrete compressive strength of blended concrete was lower than that of the
control at 3-21 days. While a 50-90 days the strength increased was comparable and
even greater than that of the control. 5% replacement level yielded strengths higher
that cement. Other replacement levels yielded lower compressive strength than the
control except at curing ages of 50 days and above. This was explained by the low
rate of the pozzolanic reaction at early ages of hydration. Rate of chemical reaction
and strength gain can be improved by crushing the RHA to make its particle size
finer.

Ettu et al. (2013) also partially replaced OPC with rice husk ash (RHA) and saw dust
ash (SDA) at 0, 10, 15 and 20%. For all the percentage replacement of OPC with
RHA and SDA blended concrete the compressive strength increased to with leanness
of mix to an optimum level beyond which the strength reduced. 10% partial
replacement of cement at a mix proportion of 1:3:5 at a water binder ratio of 0.7 was

40
reported to be ideal for OPC-RHA-SDA binary blended cement mix. Its 50 day
strength was found to be 85-101% that of 100% OPC concrete. The study found that
the strength of the OPC-RHA-SDA blended concrete is not determined much by the
ratio of the coarse to fine aggregate as the proportion of the total aggregate. These
findings are similar to those of Chiraget al. (2013), that strength of blended concrete
is less affected by concrete mix ratios. Further the findings agree with those of
Khusbu and Sharma (2014), Muhammad et al., (2013) that partial replacement
cement to a concrete with more than one pozzolanic material offers no advantage in
terms of strength development. Chemical similarity of pozzolans is responsible for
this. Similar findings were reported by (Khusbu & Sharma, 2014).

Pravin (2012) partially replaced cement with rice husk ash (RHA) and coir fibre in
concrete. The 7 and 14 days age compressive strength of bended concrete was below
that of the control, but nearly matched the control at 28 days. At 90 days age
compressive strength exceeded that of the control. The addition of coir fibres
increased the compressive strength compared to the control by up to 15%. The
optimum replacement of cement with RHA was found to be 15% with 3% coir fibres.

Sooraj (2013) used palm oil fuel ash (POFA) to partially replace cement in concrete
at 10, 20, 30 and 40% and a water/cement ratio of 0.45. A concrete class 30 was
used. Save for 10% replacement of cement with POFA at 7 days age, the rest of the
replacement levels recorded results lower than the control for both 7 and 28 days.
The compressive strength was found to decrease with increase in cement replacement
levels. It was concluded that up to 20% replacement level, targeted 28 days strength
of 30N/mm2 can be achieved. Splitting tensile strength was found to increase with
increase in cement replacement levels up to 10%, for 20% replacement the tensile
strength equaled that of the control while beyond 30% tensile strength decreased.
20% partial replacement of cement was optimum for flexural strength with a value of
6.12N/mm2. Thus it is seen that partial cement replacement with pozzolans shows the
same trend for compressive, tensile and flexural strength. The POFA comprised of
28.81% silica which is similar to typical OPC, making it a have less impact on
strength when used to partially replace cement.

41
Olusola and Akaninyene (2012) examined the effect of periwinkle shell ash (PSA)
blended concrete at 0, 10, 20, 30 and 40% replacement and 25N/mm2 design
strength. PSA recorded silica (SiO2) content of 33.84%. The compressive strength
increased with increased PSA content up to an optimum, beyond which there was a
drop in strength. For ages of up to 28 days, the control recorded higher strength than
the blended concrete while the 90 days and above results indicated that there was
increase in strength attributed to continuous hydration and pozzolanic reactions. The
compressive strength of the blended concrete was found to be lower than the control
at early age but increased continually with curing age compared to the control.

2.3 Summary of literature review and research gap

From literature reviewed, as the percentage of partial of replacement cement in

concrete with pozzolans increased, a decrease in strength below the control was
observed by majority of the researchers: Chirag et al., (2013); Khusbu and Sharma
(2014); Muhammad et al., (2013); Ettu et al., (2013); Agbenyeku and Aneke (2014);
Parande et al. (2011); Raheem et al, (2012); Olutoge et al.,(2012); Srinivisa and
Sathiya (2012); Olusola and Akinyene(2012) and Sooraj (2013). This limits the cost
reduction anticipated from partial replacement of cement. Partial replacement of
cement with agro waste ashes alters the calcium oxide and silica composition of
cement (Manasseh, 2010). Since most pozzolans are rich in silica (Parande et al.,
2011), this results in silica content that is higher than that of un-blended cement.
With continued partial replacement of cement with pozzolans and on examining
Equations 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8 it can be observed that the silica from the pozzolan will
be consumed by the pozzolanic reaction (Equation 2.9, 2.10 and 2.11) up to optimum
partial replacement of cement. Thus with the correct proportioning of cement and
pozzolan, it is possible for the competing reactions presented by Equations 2.5, 2.6
and 2.7 to end up with an equilibrium mineral assemblage that contains no Ca(OH)2.
Eliminating all the Ca(OH)2 through formation of additional calcium silicate
hydrates increases the amount of binder and hence strength. (Richard & Walairat,
2005) This point where all calcium hydroxide from cement hydration is consumed
fully by pozzolanic reaction is the optimum partial replacement of cement with
pozzolan and it results in highest strength of the blended concrete. Beyond the
42
optimum, addition of any agrowaste ash to the mineral assemblage will only result in
the material playing a role of fine aggregate and filler material (Pekmezci & Akyuz,
2004) and will not contribute to strength gain. Higher cement replacement with
pozzolan results in excess silicon dioxide, more than the optimum required to
combine with the calcium oxide content in the blended cement to form calcium
silicate hydrates. The excess silica if not remedied is harmful to concrete and may be
leached out of the concrete leading to decrease in strength. Partial replacement of
cement with pozzolan also leads to reduced reaction opportunity leading to lesser
CSH, lesser bonds and ultimately lower strength. Decrease in CaO is occasioned by
the partial replacement of cement since the contribution of CaO by agro-waste is not
commensurate with that of cement which the agro waste partially replaces. The
excess silica brought about by blending cement with pozzolans can be converted to
calcium silicate hydrates which are responsible for strength.

The purpose of this research is to optimize partial replacement of ordinary Portland

cement with rice straw ash in concrete. Thereafter, the optimum percentage of egg
shell ash that can be added to OPC-RSA blended concrete will also be determined.
The egg shell ash was expected to react with the excess silica from the pozzolan and
form additional cementitious materials. This would mitigate the strength reduction
reported by most researchers at higher partial cement replacement level with
pozzolanic materials. From literature reviewed the optimum partial replacement of
cement was reported to range between 5 – 15% by weight of cement. Optimum
amount of egg shell ash was anticipated to fall within the same range. Although there
are many researches on the use of agro based pozzolans as partial replacements of
cement, there is limited information on a proposed a measure to either overcome the
CaO deficit resulting from partial replacement of cement with agro-wastes and take
advantage of the excess silica in the pozzolanic materials or to achieve higher
replacement levels of cement. This research remedied the problem of CaO deficit by
adding egg shell ash which is rich in CaO (Beck et al., 2010) in addition to the
pozzolan. From the foregoing literature there is a good agreement that pozzolans can
be used to partially replace cement; however at higher percentage of replacement, the
compressive strengths decrease. This is due to high silica content and low calcium
oxide content (Chirag et al., 2013; Amitkumar et al., 2013). When agro wastes ashes
43
are used to partially replace cement, their contribution of CaO is not commensurate
with the reduction in CaO occasioned by the partial replacement of cement with the
pozzolan. This deficit in calcium oxide affects strength development since it is
required to react with silica to form calcium silicate hydrates that are responsible for
strength development. Addition of egg shell ash was expected to reduce the strength
loss at higher replacement levels of ordinary Portland cement with agro based
pozzolanic materials. Since the overall objective is to reduce cement content in
concrete by incorporating agro-wastes, the calcium oxide will be provided in form of
another agro-waste: incinerated egg-shell ash.

2.4 Conceptual framework

A conceptual framework is presented in Figure 2.1. It gives the organization and

relationship between the variables that will be studied to achieve the research
objectives

44
Figure 2.1: Conceptual framework

45
 CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This section confines itself to the materials and methods used in the study. Concrete
tests were conducted at Bungoma County Government Materials Testing Laboratory
located at Webuye Town, Bungoma County, Kenya. Chemical Tests were conducted
at Ministry of Mines and Geology laboratories while hydrometer and density tests
were done at Ministry of Transport and Infrastructure laboratories located along
Machakos Road in Nairobi, Kenya.

3.1 Assessing physical properties of coarse and fine aggregates, and chemical
properties of rice straw, egg shell ash and ordinary Portland cement
3.1.1 Material acquisition and preparation

Rice straw used was of Oryza Sativa (Basmati) species and was obtained from rice
irrigation scheme in Bunyala (Busia County) in Kenya which is one of the main large
scale rice growing areas in Western Kenya. The egg shells used were obtained from
private hatcheries that produce day old chicks within Busia and Bondo Towns and
from the selected hotels and food processors.

Coarse aggregate

Coarse aggregates used were obtained from graded crushed stones, with fractions
sizes ranging from 5 mm to 20 mm. The required quantity was purchased from
reputable quarries with crushing plants in Sirikwa area within Eldoret town.

Fine aggregate

Fine aggregate used was river sand obtained from Malaba River that originates from
the slopes of Mt. Elgon, runs through Bungoma before entering Busia County. The
sand was sieved through sieve size 4.75mm to eliminate oversize particles. It was
then washed by running water to eliminate clay particles. Thereafter, the sand was
drained and sun dried on a steel tray to saturated and surface dry condition.

46
Cement

Cement used was CEM 1- class 42.5 N Ordinary Portland cement formulated from
Portland clinker

Water

The water used in this research was clean potable piped water as supplied by the
Lake Victoria North water services board.

3.1.2 Physical properties

The physical properties tested on the various materials include particle size
distribution, relative density, and setting time.

3.1.2.1 Particle size distribution of coarse aggregate

a) Data collection procedure

Particle size distribution was done to BS 812-103-1. The sampling was done
according to the procedure described in clause 5 of BS 812-102 and reduced using a
riffle box. The aggregates were washed through a fine sieve to eliminate clay and
other materials that are likely to cause agglomeration of particles and dried in the sun
to surface dry condition. The test portions again dried by heating at a temperature
of105± 5 °C to achieve a dry mass which is constant to within 0.1% before
determining particle size distribution. They were allowed to cool and then weighed.
The weight was recorded as M1. Clean dry sieves were nested in a fitting receiver in
order of increasing aperture size from bottom to top. The dried sample was placed on
the top coarsest sieve and covered with a fitting lid. The assembly was shaken by
mechanical shaker for sufficient time to separate the sample into size fractions by
sieve aperture size.

47
b) Data analysis

The mass retained on each sieve size M2 was expressed as a percentage of the
original dry mass, M1. Mass passing each sieve was calculated as a cumulative
percentage of the total sample. The cumulative percentage of the mass of the total
sample passing each of the sieves versus nominal aperture size was plotted on a
semi-log chart and compared with the grading envelope specified.

3.1.2.1 Particle size distribution of fine aggregate

a) Data collection procedure

Particle size distribution of fine aggregate was done according to section 3.1.2.1(a).

b) Data analysis

Data analysis was done according to section 3.1.2.1(b).

3.1.2.2 Particle size distribution of rice straw ash

(a) Data collection procedure

This test was done to BS 1377-2(1990) to determine the sizes of the rice straw
particles and to group them into separate ranges of sizes and so determine the relative
proportion by weight of each size. It involved sieving and sedimentation of the
ash/water/dispersant suspension to separate the particles. Sedimentation is based on
application of Stoke’s law and periodic measurement of the density of the
suspension. The sample was mechanically crushed in a ball mill and 50 grams of
sample was placed in a shaking bottle, then 200ml of de-ionized water added. The
20ml of sodium hexametaphosphate added. The suspension was placed in an end-to-
end shaker and shaken for 16 hr at 15 rpm. The suspension was transferred to 1 litre
capacity measuring jar and filled to the 1 litre mark by de-ionized water. The
hydrometer was placed in the suspension for 20 s before each reading. The
hydrometer readings of the ash in suspension solution were recorded as H. A blank
solution was prepared by adding 20 ml de-ionized water to 25% sodium

48
hexametaphosphate solution. Hydrometer and temperature readings were taken
simultaneously for both the suspension and the blank solution. The hydrometer
readings of the blank solution were recorded as B.

(b) Data Analysis

For each hydrometer reading the summation percentage P was calculated as in

Equation 3.1 below

( H  B) *100
P(%)  (3.1)
W

Where

H = Hydrometer reading ash in suspension (g/L)

B = Hydrometer reading ash in blank solution (g/L)

W = Weight of Dry sample taken for testing (g)

Whereas particle size D at different times was calculated from Equation 3.2

L
D(mm)  0.3315 * K *   (3.2)
T 

Where

K = Sedimentation constant, which varies with temperature and particle

density

L = Tabulated effective length of hydrometer reading, mm

T = Time (minutes)

A plot of cumulative percentage (P) versus particle size diameter (D) was done on a
semi-logarithmic graph and compared with that of Portland cement.

49
3.1.2.3 Loss on Ignition (LOI) for rice straw ash

a) Data collection procedure

The rice straw ash was dried in an oven at 100 ºC for 24 hours. Loss on ignition test
was done to ASTM D 7438-08. A sample of dry rice straw ash was placed on a
crucible and its mass determined as M0.The loss on ignition test was done by placing
on a crucible a mass of dried rice straw ash in a furnace and igniting at 900 ºC for 60
minutes to achieve a constant mass. After ignition, the mass of the rice straw ash was
determined as M1.

(b)Data analysis

The loss on ignition was calculated as mass percentage using the Equation 3.3:

LOI 
M 0  M 1  *100% 3.3
M0

Where

M0 is the mass of the starting sample

M1 is the mass of the sample after ignition

3.1.2.4 Relative density of rice straw ash

a) Data collection procedure

This test was done to determine the density of rice straw ash using Le Chatelier’s
flask to ASTM C 188. It is based on the measurement of the displaced volume of a
liquid by the addition of a powder specimen. A sample of 64g of ash was placed in a
flask filled with kerosene. Care was taken to avoid the ash sticking to the inside of
the flask or the neck by using a funnel. The flask was placed in a constant
temperature water bath to avoid temperature fluctuations. The meniscus readings of
the two levels (before and after addition) of ash were taken to determine the volume

50
of liquid displaced by the ash. Care was taken to avoid meniscus reading errors
arising from parallax.

b) Data analysis

Density was calculated using the Equation 3.4

M
D (3.4)
V

Where

D = Density (Kg/m3)

M = mass of sample in Kg

V = volume of kerosene displaced after adding of material (M3)

Relative density was then calculated using the Equation 3.5

 sample
RD  (3.5)
 water

Where

RD = relative density

ρsample =density of ash (kg/m3)

ρwater = density of water (kg/m3)

The relative density was compared with that of Portland cement that the ash was
used to partially replace in concrete mixes.

51
3.1.2.5 Particle size distribution of egg shell ash

a) Data collection procedure

Particle size distribution of egg shell ash was done as described in section 3.1.2.2(a).

b) Data analysis

Data analysis of particle size distribution of egg shell ash was done as described in
section 3.1.2.2(b).

3.1.2.6 Relative density of egg shell ash

a) Data collection procedure

Relative density of egg shell ash was done as described in section 3.1.2.4(a).

b) Data analysis

Data analysis for relative density of egg shell ash was done as described in section
3.1.2.4(b).

3.1.2.7 Relative density of Portland cement

a) Data collection procedure

Relative density of cement was determined as described in section 3.1.2.4 (a)

b) Data analysis

Data collection and analysis was determined as described in section 3.1.2.4 (b)

3.1.2.8 Particle size distribution of Portland cement

a) Data collection procedure

Was conducted as described in section 3.1.2.2 (a) to determine the particle size
distribution of Portland cement.
52
b) Data analysis

The particle size data was collected and analyzed as described in 3.1.2.2 (b)

3.1.2.9 Setting time of cement pastes

a) Data collection procedure

This test was conducted to determine the initial and final setting time of cement paste
using Vicat apparatus to BS 4550 Part 3.5-1978. 400 g of the cement was placed in a
tray and to it was added 25% water by weight then mixed thoroughly to a consistent
cement paste within 4 to 5 seconds. The paste was filled on a Vicat mould sitting on
a glass plate and made level with the surface of the mould. The assembly was placed
under a rod bearing a plunger, the plunger was lowered gently to touch the surface
and lowered to touch the surface and quickly released to sink into the paste. The
depth of penetration was measured and recorded. Trial mixes of varying water
content were prepared until a penetration depth of 33 to 35mm was achieved. The
percentage of water by dry weight of cement required to prepare a cement paste of
standard consistency was calculated by Equation 3.6

W
P * 100 (3.6)
C

Where

W = Quantity of water added

C = quantity of cement used

Samples were prepared by taking 400 g of cement and mixing with water equivalent
to 0.85P above by weight of cement. This formed the control cement paste. Another
series of samples were prepared having the 400g cement partially replaced with rice
straw ash at 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30% by weight of cement. The Gauge time was 3-5
minutes. A stop watch was started immediately water was added to the sample and
the time recorded at t1.The Vicat mould was filled with cement paste and

53
smoothened on the surface to form a test block. Initial setting time was determined
by lowering a plunger with a needle and recording the penetration of the needle into
the test block. This was repeated every 2 minutes until the needle failed to pierce the
test block for about 5 mm. This time was recorded as t2.

Final setting time was determined by replacing the needle of the Vicat apparatus with
an annular attachment. Final setting time t3 was determined as the time at which the
needle makes an impression and the annular attachment fails to make an impression
on the surface of the test block. The setting times were determined for unblended
cement paste and also for cement paste with cement partially replaced with various
percentages of rice straw ash.

(b) Data Analysis

Initial setting time was calculated as determined by Equation 3.7:

Initial Setting Time = t2 – t1 (3.7)

Final setting time was calculated as determined by Equation 3.8

Final Setting Time = t3 – t1 (3.8)

Where:

t1 = time at which water is first added to cement

t2 = time when needle fails to penetrate 5-7 mm from bottom of mould

t3 = time when needle makes an impression and annular attachment fails to do

so

3.1.3 Chemical properties

The chemical properties tested on the various materials were chemical composition.

54
3.1.3.1 Chemical properties of rice straw ash

(a) Data collection procedure

The test was done to determine the chemical composition of incinerated rice straw
ash. The straw was sun dried and incinerated in an incinerator made of two
concentric cylinders made of expanded metal at a temperature of 650 ºC for 11/2
hours (Ettu et al., 2013). The resultant ashes were sieved through 600µm BS sieve
size to eliminate coarse particles, and then followed by sieving through 425 µm BS
sieve size and finally sieving through 75µm BS sieve size. Thereafter, the resultant
ash was placed in a ball mill made of a cylinder of 300 mm diameter and 400 mm
length with a grinding media of steel ball bearings of 20mm diameter powered by a
5.5 Hp mortar rotating at 1,400 revolutions per minute for four minutes. The particles
retained on these sieves were discarded while a sample of those passing were
subjected to chemical analysis by X-ray diffractometer and the rest used for partial
replacement of cement (Abalaka, 2013). X ray diffraction analysis technique was
used to determine crystallographic structure of material by irradiating the sample
material with incident rays and measuring the intensities and scattering angles of the
x rays that leave the material. The scattering was observed by applying Bragg’ law
and a suitably placed detector, and the crystalline structure of the material was
determined at an atomic level.

(b) Data Analysis

A print out of the percentages of the chemical composition by weight of the material
was obtained from the X-ray diffractometer machine. The composition of the
combined percentages of silica (SiO2), Alumina (Al2O3) and ferric oxide (Fe2O3) was
compared with ASTM C 618 specifications for pozzolans.

55
3.1.3.2 Chemical properties of egg shell ash

a) Data collection procedure

The test was done to determine the chemical composition of incinerated and ground
egg shells. The egg shells were incinerated at 900 ºC for 2hr to produce egg shell ash
which is rich in calcium oxide (Beck et al., 2010). The resulting ash was sieved using
600µm sieve (Mtallib & Raibu, 2009). The resultant ashes were further ground in
fabricated steel grinding ball mill with a drum diameter of 300mm and length of
400mm, powered by a 240 Volts/50Hz, 5.5 Hp electric motor with a capacity of
70uF and rotating at 1,400 rpm for 4 minutes per batch. The grinding medium was
steel ball bearings of 20.0mm diameter. A sample of the ash was taken to the X ray
diffractometer for chemical analysis as described in section 3.1.3.1(a).

b) Data Analysis

X ray diffraction data on chemical composition was obtained as described in 3.1.3.1

(b). The percentage composition of CaO by weight in egg shell ash was compared
with that of Portland cement

3.1.3.3 Chemical properties of Portland cement

a) Data collection procedure

Cement sample was subjected to analysis by X-ray diffractometer as described in

section 3.1.3.1(a)

b) Data Analysis

X ray diffraction data on chemical composition was obtained as described in 3.1.3.1

(b).

56
3.2 Determining physical and mechanical properties of concrete having cement
partially replaced with rice straw ash

The physical and mechanical properties of concrete tested were slump, compaction
factor, water absorption, compressive strength, split tensile strength and durability.

3.2.1 Mix design

The mix design was done according to Building Research Establishment (BRE,
1988) method with a target characteristic strength of 35 N/mm2 at 28 days. The
choice of class concrete strength was informed by compressive strengths used by
previous researchers: Khusbu and Sharma (2014) used a concrete strength of 32
N/mm2, Faseyemi (2012) used a concrete strength of 30 N/mm2, Olutoge et al.
(2012) used a concrete strength of 34 N/mm2, Lavanya and Taku (2012) used a
concrete strength of 34 N/mm2, Razak et al. (2022) used a concrete strength of 50
N/mm2 , Sharma and Charlotra used a concrete strength of 44.5N/mm2 while Dey
and Sharna (2013) used a concrete strength of 28 N/mm2 . Cement type 1 (42.5) was
selected as opposed to blended Portland cement because Victoria (2018) while
studying suitability of Kenyan blended Portland cement for production of structural
concrete reported that none of the Kenyan blended cements is suitable for production
of class 25 and above concrete. Secondly the blended Portland cements already
contain a pozzolan in the form of silica fume, blast furnace slag or fly ash. This
makes them unsuitable for use in concretes having cement partially replaced with
pozzolans (Victoria, 2018). Batching was by weight. It was also chosen to cover the
range of strength that can be used for in situ, pre-cast and four dimensional design
and construction. The latter two methods have been reported to lower the cost of
construction significantly. The BRE method of design involved the selection of
correct proportions of cement, fine aggregate and water to produce concrete having
specified properties namely: workability of fresh concrete, compressive strength at
specified age and durability by specifying minimum cement content and/or
maximum free water/cement ratio.

57
Table 3.1: Mix proportions for one cubic metre of concrete

Mix Code Coarse Fine Water(Kg) Cement(Kg)

Aggregate Aggregate
(Kg) (Kg)
Control M-35 1,010 700 238 476

The mix design using this method is attached in Appendix I. The control specimens
for concrete were cast using the designed mix ratio. The first series had Ordinary
Portland cement replaced with rice straw ash at 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30% by weight
of cement and a water-binder ratio of 0.5 was used during mix design.

3.2.1.1 Slump Test

a) Data collection procedure

Slump test was conducted to determine the workability or consistency of concrete

from a freshly mixed batch. The concrete mix was placed in a frustrum slump cone
with a bottom diameter of 200 mm and top diameter of 100 mm placed on a smooth
horizontal non-porous flat plate. The concrete was placed in four equal layers and
each layer tamped evenly with 25 strokes steel rod of 16 mm diameter. Excess
concrete was removed and the surface leveled with a trowel. The mould was raised
slowly in vertical direction. Slump was measured as the difference between height of
the mould and the height of concrete specimen.

b) Data analysis

The slump readings were read directly from a steel rule and recorded in millimeters
of subsidence of the specimen. The readings were plotted on a graph for the various
mixes for comparison.

58
Plate 3.1: slump test

3.2.1.2 Compaction factor test

a) Data collection procedure

Compaction factor test was done to determine the consistency for concretes where
workability was low and therefore were insensitive to slump test. The concrete was
placed in the upper hopper of the compaction factor apparatus that consisted of three
hoppers at three different heights. The hoper was filled to the brim and the trap door
was opened so that the concrete falls into the lower hopper. When concrete came to
rest the lower hopper was opened and concrete allowed to fall into the cylinder.
Excess concrete was cut off the cylinder by a trowel and outside of the cylinder
wiped clean. This was weighed on an electronic balance and recorded as weight of
partially compacted concrete.

The cylinder was refilled with concrete in layers of 50 mm approximately and

heavily rammed to full compaction. The top surface of fully compacted concrete was
struck level and weight of fully compacted concrete determined using an electronic
balance.

59
 b) Data analysis

Compaction factor for the various concrete mixes was determined as in Equation 3.9
as follows

WP W2  W1 
Compactionfactor   (3.9)
WF W3  W1 

Where

WF = weight of fully compacted concrete

WP = weight of partially compacted concrete

W1 = weight of empty cylinder

W2 = weight of empty cylinder + free fall concrete

W3 = weight of empty cylinder + hand compacted concrete

Plate 3.2: compaction factor

60
3.2.1.3 Water Absorption

a) Data collection procedure

This test was used to determine the water absorption properties of hardened concrete
specimens as a measure of the durability of the concrete that is blended with rice
straw ash and egg shell ash. The test was carried out to BS 1881 Part 114 (1983) and
BS 1881 Part 122 (1983) respectively. Concrete cube specimens were cast and cured
for 90 days in water, then oven dried for 24 hours at 110oC until mass became
constant. The dry weight was noted (W1). The specimens were then immersed in hot
water at 85oC for 3.5 hr. The weight of the specimens immersed in hot water was
recorded determined and as (W2).

b) Data analysis

The percentage water absorption was determined from the specimen weights
recorded using Equation 3.10:

 W  W1 
% Water absorption   2  *100 (3.10)
 W1 

Where

W1= oven dry weight in grams

W2= weight in grams after 3.5 hours of immersion

3.2.1.4 Compressive strength test

a) Data collection procedure

This test was done on hardened concrete cube specimens measuring 150x150x150
mm. For each mix code, the concrete was cast in cubes, vibrated and de-moulded
after 24 hours. A total of 21 cubes were cast for each of the 7 mix codes, making a
total of 105 cubes for the five ages of testing. They were then immersed in curing
tanks. After 7, 14, 28 and 90 days before the test, the cubes were taken out of the
61
curing tank and allowed to drip off excess water for 20 minutes. The cubes were then
be subjected to the compression testing machine with maximum capacity of
1,000KN according to BS 1881 Part 116 (1983)-Reprinted 1991 including
Amendments No.1 & No. 2. The load was applied slowly to failure without causing
any shock.

b) Data analysis

The compressive strength was obtained from readings recorded during the tests using
Equation 3.11 below by dividing the maximum load carried by the specimen
recorded during the test by the average cross sectional area

Compressive strength = Maximum load/Cross sectional area (3.11)

The compressive strength for the control and the concrete mixes with cement
partially replaced with various proportions of rice straw ash were plotted on line
graphs and bar charts for comparison and trend analysis.

Plate 3.3: Casting cubes for compressive strength test

62
3.2.1.5 Splitting Tensile strength test

a) Data collection procedure

This test was done to determine the tensile strength of hardened concrete specimens.
For each concrete mix series, concrete cylinders measuring 150mm diameter and
300mm height were cast, de-moulded after 24 hours and placed in a curing tank for
6, 13, 27, 55 and 89 days. A total of 21 cylinders were cast for each of the 7 mix
codes, making a total of 105 cylinders for the five ages of testing. They were
subjected to diametral load on a compressive strength testing machine to failure. The
test was done to BS 1881 Part 117 (1983) at the ages of 7, 14, 28, 56 and 90 days.

Splitting tensile strength is a measure of the splitting tensile strength of concrete by

application of diametral compressive force on a cylindrical concrete specimen with
its axis horizontal between plates of a testing machine.

b) Data analysis

Splitting tensile strength T, was then calculated using Equation (3.12):

2P
T (3.12)
dl 

Where

P is maximum load at failure of concrete

d is average diameter of cylinder

l is the average length of the concrete specimen

The splitting tensile strength for the control and the concrete mixes with cement
partially replaced with various proportions of rice straw ash were plotted on graphs
for comparison.

63
Tensile strength of concrete can be determined from three different types of tests:
direct pull test on briquettes, modulus of rapture on test on beams and splitting
tensile strength test. Technical difficulties in executing true tensile strength test are
numerous. Flexural strength calculates tensile strength from bending stress at failure,
assuming Hooke’s law and straight line stress-strain distribution. This is not entirely
true; the calculated flexural strength may be about twice as high as the true tensile
strength. Among the three testing methods (direct tensile, splitting tensile, and
flexural tests), researchers have pointed that the splitting tensile test gives the most
accurate measurement of the true tensile strength of concrete like materials (Fanlu et
al., 2014). Therefore splitting tensile strength test will be considered in this research.

3.2.1.7 Durability test

a) Data collection procedure

This test was done to evaluate the resistance to deterioration. Concrete cube
specimens made with both the unblended cement and with cement partially replaced
with agro-waste ashes were cast and cured for 56 days in water. They were removed
from water, oven dried at 105oC for 2 hours and their weights determined. They were
then immersed in testing baths containing 0.5% dilute sulphuric acid solution for 30
days. Thereafter, they were removed from the solution, had their surfaces cleaned
and both their weights and dimensions measured. Further the compressive strengths
of the cubes were also determined

b) Data analysis

Compression testing machine under uniform load was used to determine the
compressive strengths of the specimens while an electronic balance was used to
measure their weights. Both the percentage loss in mass and loss in strength were
determined using Equations 3.13 and 3.14 respectively (Vysvaril et al., 2014).

% mass loss 
M 1  M 2  * M *100
1 (3.13)
M1

64
Where

M1 = mass of specimen before immersion in acid solution

M2 = mass of specimen after immersion in acid solution

% Loss in Strength 
S1  S 2  *100
(3.14)
S1

Where

S1 = Compressive strength of specimen not immersed in acid solution

S2 = Compressive strength of specimen immersed in acid solution

3.3 Assessing the mechanical properties and durability of concrete having

cement partially replaced with rice straw and egg shell ash

The mechanical and durability properties of concrete tested were compressive

strength, compaction factor and accelerated durability.

3.3.1 Mix Design

The physical and mechanical properties of concrete made with cement partially
replaced with rice straw were determined. From the compressive and tensile strength
concrete tests, the optimum percentage replacement of cement with rice straw
ash/pozzolana was determined as the percentage replacement that produced the
highest strength gain above the control. The trend of compressive strength results
was observed for partial replacements of cement beyond the optimum.

The cement-pozzolan concrete mixes that exhibited a reduction in compressive

strength below that of the control were deemed to be the ones containing excess
silica from the pozzolan that did not have opportunity to react with CaO from
ordinary Portland cement. Mixes that exhibited compressive strength reduction were
prepared, and to them CaO oxide being the main component that forms cementitious
compounds in cement was increased, This was achieved by addition of egg shell ash
65
in percentage increments by weight of cement. This was done to compensate for the
amount of CaO lost through partial replacement of cement with rice straw ash and to
ensure that CaO is available to react with excess silica from the pozzolan to form
additional cementitious materials. The CaO from egg shell was expected to react
with the excess silica (SiO2) contributed by pozzolanic material in the blended mix
and form additional cementitious materials. The amount of egg shell ash added to
each mix that exhibited strength reduction were 2.5, 5, 10 and 15% by weight of
cement. The compressive strength of the resulting blended concrete mixes was
determined at various ages of curing and compared with those of the first series.

3.3.2 Compressive strength test

a) Data collection procedure

The compressive strength of the concrete mix with cement partially replaced with
rice straw and egg shell ash were determined as described in section 3.2.1.4 (a).

b) Data analysis

Data on compressive strength was analyzed as described in section 3.2.1.4(b).

3.3.3 Compaction factor Test

a) Data collection procedure

Compaction factor test was done as described in section 3.2.1.2 (a).

b) Data analysis

Data on compaction factor for the optimum mix was collected and analyzed as
described in section 3.2.1.2 (b).

66
3.3.4 Accelerated durability test

a) Data collection procedure

Accelerated durability test was done as described in section 3.2.1.7 (a).

b) Data analysis

Data on accelerated durability test for the optimum mix was collected and analyzed
as described in section 3.2.1.7 (b).

67
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Physical and chemical properties of materials used in the study

4.1.1 Physical properties of materials used in the study

4.1.1.1 Particle size distribution of coarse aggregate

The results of sieve analysis of coarse aggregate in form semi-log graph of

cumulative % passing versus sieve size is illustrated in Figure 4.1 and from the
results as shown in Appendix VII.

Figure 4.1: Grading curve for coarse aggregates

Particle size distribution was done by sieve analysis from a sample of aggregate. The
grading of aggregates influences the extent to which the aggregates will pack or
packing density during preparation of concrete mixes. From Appendix II, it can be
observed that for every sieve size there was a proportion of aggregate retained. The
68
proportions retained were 99, 80, 70, 52, and 4% for nominal sieve size 2.5, 5, 10, 14
and 20mm respectively. Results show that the grading curve was found to fit within
the grading envelope specified. The aggregate did not have gap in gradation of
particle size. The grading curve was found to fall within the specified grading
envelope. The availability of various particle sizes ensured good particle interlock in
the cement matrix with smaller sized particles fitting into voids left between larger
sized particles. This ensured a dense concrete matrix without many voids hence
maximized load bearing capacity of the concrete (Buertey et al., 2018).

4.1.1.2 Particle size distribution of fine aggregate

Results for fine aggregate sieve analysis and the semi-log graph of cumulative %
passing versus sieve size is illustrated in Figure 4.2 and from the results as shown in
Appendix III.

Figure 4.2: Grading curve for fine aggregates

Figure 4.2 shows the grading of fine aggregates. It was observed that the grading
curve fell within the grading envelope specified. This implies that the particle sizes
69
within the fine aggregate range were available in recommended percentage ranges.
This ensured that the resultant concrete was neither susceptible to bleeding nor
exerted high water demand owing to the large surface area of fine aggregate
particles.

4.1.1.3. Particle size distribution of rice straw ash

Particle size distribution of rice straw ash was conducted by hydrometer analysis and
the results are illustrated in Figure 4.3 and presented in Appendix IV.

Figure 4.3: Particle size distribution of rice straw ash

From Figure 4.3 and appendix IV, comparison of the results of particle size
distribution shows that for sieve size 0.01 the percentage passing was found to be
17% for rice ash. While for sieve size 0.026 mm the percentage passing was found to
be 28%. Further for sieve size 0.038 mm the percentage passing was found to be
30%, finally for sieve size 0.1 mm the percentage passing was found to be 62%.

70
4.1.1.4 Loss on ignition of rice straw ash

Weight loss on ignition for rice straw ash is indicated in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1: Weight loss on ignition for rice straw ash

Description of sample Wt of sample + Wt of crucible, Weight of rice

crucible, kg kg straw sample
alone , kg
Before ignition 0.624 0.489 0.135
After ignition 0.518 0.489 0.029

Weight loss on ignition = 0.135 – 0.029 = 0.106

Percentage Weight loss on ignition = (0.135 – 0.029)/0.135 x 100% = 78.5%

The percentage weight loss on ignition was found to be 78.5%. This is close to but
higher than 71.99 and 76% reported on three samples by Surajit and Sharma (2018)
who tested rice straw samples incinerated in a muffle furnace at 400 and 600ºC
controlled temperatures respectively. The disparity could be due to different method
of preparation of the ash. An incinerating temperature of 650ºC and open air burning
was used in this research. Loss on ignition (LOI) is generally used as an indicator of
residual carbon content in pozzolans. It was found that the ash yield of the rice straw
was 21.5%. This is in agreement withs with Arunabh and Kumar (2016) who
reported ash yield of 22.96%. Rice agro-wastes have been reported to produce higher
ash yields than other agro-wastes by Nguyen et al. (2019), which makes them a
better choice for partial replacement of cement compared to other agro wastes.

The combustion of carbon is therefore a major contributing component in ignition

loss. Carbon content and fineness are properties of most concern in the pozzolans
used for partial replacement of cement and they are interdependent since carbon
particles tend to be coarser and porous. The presence of coarser carbon in a pozzolan
leads to low fineness which in turn decreases surface area for the pozzolanic
reaction. Further when residual carbon particles are present in a pozzolan, they may

71
absorb water meant for hydration reactions owing to their porous nature which is
detrimental to strength development. The absorption of water by carbon particles
may also lower the workability of concrete mix (Chen et al., 2019). A higher loss on
ignition as obtained above indicates that there was only a small percentage of
residual carbon content in the rice straw ash (Morsy & Rashwan, 2015). This was
favourable for the strength development of concrete as well as the workability of
concrete made with cement partially replaced with rice straw ash up to the optimum
percentage replacement. There were fewer carbon particles that are normally coarser
and porous whose presence in a mix would have reduced the workability by
absorbing water meant for hydration and increased friction in the concrete matrix due
to their shape.

4.1.1.5 Relative density of ordinary Portland cement

The relative density of cement was found to be 2.908. Comparison was made with
the relative density of rice straw ash which was found to have a lower relative
density than that of cement. Therefore, a larger volume of rice straw ash was
required to replace the same mass of cement in concrete.

4.1.1.6 Relative density of rice straw ash

The relative density of rice straw ash was found to be 2.099. This was 2.39% lower
than that of cement which was found to have a relative density of 2.908. Morsy and
Rashwan (2018), reported a relative density of 2.13, however they used a helium
pycnometer which is more accurate than the LeChatelier’s flask apparatus used in
this study. Apart from the burning temperature range of 600-700ºC, the difference
could be attributed to geographical differences and species variation in the rice straw
used. This means that for partial replacement of cement in concrete with rice straw
ash, the volume of rice straw replacing the same mass of cement will be slightly
larger. A larger volume means more particles which in turn meant an increase in
specific surface area. This increase in surface area led to increase in water demand
for concrete mixes having cement partially replaced with rice straw ash. The water
demand led to reduced workability with increase in percentage replacement of

72
cement with rice straw ash hence more compaction effort. On the other hand a larger
surface area increased potential for chemical reaction within the cement matrix.

4.1.1.7 Particle size distribution of egg shell ash

Particle size distribution of egg shell ash was conducted by hydrometer analysis and
the results are illustrated in Figure 4.4 and presented in Appendix V.

Figure 4.4: Particle size distribution of egg shell ash

From Figure 4.4 and Appendix 4, the results of particle size distribution show that
for sieve size 0.01 the percentage passing was found to be 3.8% for egg shell ash and
4% for cement. While for sieve size 0.026 mm the percentage passing was found to
be 20.43%. Further for sieve size 0.038 mm the percentage passing was found to be
25.95%, finally for sieve size 0.15 mm the percentage passing was found to be
59.04%. Thus for all the above sieve sizes it follows that the egg shell ash particles
were smaller in size compared to those of cement. These results imply that, for the
73
same mass, they had a larger surface area for chemical reaction than cement and had
the effect of filling the voids and increasing the density of the concrete matrix when
used to partially replace cement in concrete. Hence it improved the density and
strength of the blended concrete mix.

4.1.1.8 Relative density of egg shell ash

The relative density of egg shell was ash found to be 2.59. In comparison with the
relative density of cement, the relative density of cement was found to be higher at
2.908. Therefore for replacement by mass, a larger volume of egg shell ash was
required to replace the same mass of cement in concrete.

4.1.1.9 Particle size distribution of Portland cement

Particle size distribution of cement was analyzed by hydrometer analysis and the
grading curve for the particle size distribution of cement is illustrated by Figure 4.5
and results presented in Appendix VI. Analysis of compliance with the standard for
particle size distribution of cement ASTM C 115 could not be done due to its
limitation in scope. ASTM C 115 has a lower detection limit of 7.5 micrometers
while the results in Appendix 6 recorded smaller sizes than the 7.5 micrometer limit.

74
 Figure 4.5: Particle size distribution of ordinary Portland cement

From Figure 4.5 and Appendix VI, the results of particle size distribution shows that
for sieve size 0.01 the percentage passing was found to be 4% While for sieve size
0.026 mm the percentage passing was found to be 9%. Further for sieve size 0.038
mm the percentage passing was found to be 17%, finally for sieve size 0.1 mm the
percentage passing was found to be 49%.

75
4.1.2 Chemical properties

4.1.2.1 Chemical properties of rice straw ash

The findings of chemical analysis of rice straw ashes are illustrated by Figure 4.6

Figure 4.6: Chemical properties of rice straw ash

From the results in Figure 4.6, it is observed that the rice straw ash was composed of
72.38% SiO2 (silica) followed by 16.17% K2O by weight. The data is also presented
in Appendix VII. ASTM C 618 specifications combined percentages of silica (SiO2),
Alumina (Al2O3) and ferric oxide (Fe2O3) should be greater than 70%. From Figure
4.1, the combined percentage of silica and alumina is 74.34% .This satisfies the 70%
minimum specified by ASTM C 618. The RSA was found to be of class F pozzolan.

76
Class F pozzolan is one that requires a cementing agent in order to react and produce
cementitious compounds. Previous researches Arunabh and Kumar (2016) reported
79.82% SiO2 (silica) followed by 7.54% Mg followed by phosphorus pentoxide
(P2O) by weight as the pre-dominant chemicals. Morsy and Rashwan (2015) reported
69.2% SiO2 followed by 6.4 % K2O and 5.3% Al2O3 as the pre-dominant chemicals
in rice straw ash. Thus there is a consensus among researchers that Silica is the
predominant compound in rice straw ash. The differences are can attributed to
differences in treatment procedures and equipment used for chemical analysis by the
different researchers.

4.1.2.2 Chemical properties of egg shell ash

The results of the chemical oxide analysis of egg shell ash are presented in Table 4.2.

Table 4.2: Chemical analysis of egg shell ash

Analyte Result Standard Deviation

CaO 96.755% (0.173)
K2O 2.523% (0.116)
SrO 0.606% (0.006)
SO3 0.116% (0.006)
Total 100.0%

From the results in Table 4.2, egg shell ash comprised of 96.76 % CaO (Calcium
Oxide). Portland cement was found to be composed of 72.0% CaO. It can be
observed that there are similarities in terms of the pre-dominant chemical oxide
between Portland cement composition in Appendix 6 and egg shell ash as in Table
4.2. On the basis of this, the addition of egg shell ash to cement-rice straw ash
blended concrete mixes had an effect of minimizing the CaO deficit arising from
partial replacement of cement with rice straw ash. Calcium oxide content in egg shell
ash has been reported to be 50.7%, 49.02% and 50.7% by Soumyam and Aswathi
(2016), Afolayan(2017), and 63.8% Ashfaque et.al.,(2019), respectively. The
disparity can be attributed to differences in pre-treatment method, genotype, age,
ratio of egg shell to the protenous egg membrane and nutrition regimes of the
77
breeders (Crosara et. al., 2018). Afolayan (2017). The presence of CaO from egg
shell ash facilitated the formation of additional Calcium Silicate Hydrates which are
cementitious products related to strength development by reacting with silica from
the pozzolan as presented in Equation 2.9.

4.1.2.3 Chemical properties of Portland cement

The cement used was Ordinary Portland CEM 1- class 42.5 N. The results of the
chemical analysis are illustrated by Figure 4.7 and tabulated in Appendix VIII.

Figure 4.7: Chemical properties of ordinary Portland cement

It was observed that the main chemical oxide compositions for cement were found to
be within the tolerances specified by Kenyan standard for cement KS EAS 18-
1:2001. The cement therefore met the specifications for cement in Kenya and was
therefore suitable for use in concrete.

78
4.2 Physical and mechanical properties of concrete having cement partially
replaced with rice straw ash
4.2.1 Physical properties

4.2.1.1 Setting time of Portland cement and OPC-ESA cement pastes

The results for initial and final setting time of Ordinary Portland cement paste and
rice straw ash-cement pastes for the various percentage partial replacements of
cement are illustrated in bar chart form by Figure 4.8 and presented in Appendix VI.

Figure 4.8: Initial and final setting time of cement pastes having cement
replaced with RSA

The initial and final setting time of cement with 5 – 30 % partial replacement of
cement with rice straw ash was found to range between 85 minutes to 615 minutes
compared to the control which recorded an initial and final setting time of 65 and 495
minutes respectively.

79
Two main factors that affect setting time of cement are chemical composition of
cement and fineness. From the results above, it can be observed that as the partial
replacement of cement with rice straw ash increased, the initial and final setting time
increased. Initial and final setting time of cement depends on chemical reactions that
take place in cement. Al2O3 present in cement is responsible for formation of
tricalcium aluminate which aids the quick setting of cement. From the chemical
analysis of cement in Appendix 6, it can be observed that Cement was found to
contain 4.076% Al2O3, while the chemical oxide analysis of rice straw ash in
Appendix 2, rice straw ash was found to contain 1.094% Al2O3. Hence partially
replacing cement with an equal mass of rice straw ash leads to reduction cement
content and hence the amount of Al2O3 available for formation of tricalcium
aluminate which is responsible for setting time of cement in concrete leading to
increased setting times for cement pastes with cement partially replaced with rice
straw ash.

These findings agree with those of Morsy and Rashwan (2015) and Dey and Sharma
(2013) who reported an increase in both initial and final setting time with increase in
rice straw ash content in cement pastes.

4.2.1.2 Slump test for concrete having cement partially replaced with rice straw
ash

Upon mixing the concrete with various percentages of cement replacement levels,
the results of slump test are illustrated by Figure 4.9.

80
 Figure 4.9: Slump versus percentage partial replacement of cement with RSA

The results indicate a steady decline in slump value recorded for various level of
partial cement replacement. The control mix had the highest slump of 62.0 mm while
concrete mixes with 25 & 30% partial cement replacement were found to have zero
slump. This means that the concrete became less workable with increase in rice straw
ash. These findings are consistent with those of Raheem et al. (2012). The reduction
in consistency can be attributed to additional water requirement occasioned by
smaller particle sizes of rice straw ash (particle size ranging from 0.01 – 0.1 from
sieve analysis in Appendix 10) hence increased specific surface area compared to
cement particles with particle size ranging between 0.1 and 0.019 presented in
Appendix XI. The implication of this is that the concrete mixes became less
workable with increase in the percentage of partial replacement of cement with rice
straw ash hence required more compaction effort to achieve the same density as the
control.

81
4.2.1.3 Water absorption of concrete having cement partially replaced with rice
straw ash

The percentages of water absorption for the various mix codes after curing for 90
days and subjecting them to water absorption test are illustrated in Figure 4.10.

Figure 4.10: Percentage water absorption for concrete having cement

replaced with rice straw ash

From Figure 4.10, it can be observed that there was a general reduction in water
absorption with increase in percentage partial replacement of cement. The control
recorded the higher capillary water absorption of 1.198% while the concrete with 10
% (optimum) partial cement replacement with rice straw ash was found to have a
lower percentage water absorption of 0.956%. The reduction in percentage water
absorption observed in samples with partial replacement of cement with rice straw
ash can be attributed to both the micro-filler effect of the rice straw ash particles
owing to their smaller size and the formation of calcium silicate hydrate gel from
secondary pozzolanic reaction between silica in rice straw ash and calcium hydroxide
82
from cement hydration that filled the voids of the concrete matrix causing it to be
less porous to drawing of fluid by capillarity (Jawad et al., 2022).

4.2.2 Mechanical properties

4.2.2.1 Compressive strength

The variation of compressive strength with percentage partial replacement of cement

with rice straw ash is illustrated by Figure 4.11 and presented in Appendix VIII.

Figure 4.11: Compressive strength versus age of concrete for concrete having
cement replaced with rice straw ash

An increase in compressive strength above the control was observed for concrete
mixes with 5 and 10% partial cement replacement for all the ages of testing. The 7,
14, 28, 56 and 90 days compressive strength was found to be 27.9, 33.0, 35.95, 36.55
and 38.7 N/mm2 for the control mix while the compressive strengths were found to
be 32.70, 36.7, 38.8, 40.25 and 41.3 N/mm2 representing, 17.2, 11.2, 7.9, 10.1 and
6.7% increase above the control respectively for 5% partial cement replacement. For
10% partial replacement of cement the strength was found to be 33.65, 37.10, 40.20,
83
41.80 and 42.65 N/mm2 for 7, 14, 28, 56 and 90 days representing 20.6, 12.42, 11.8,
14.3, and 10.2% increase above the control respectively. The increase in concrete
strength can be attributed to two factors. First, the filler effect of pozzolanic material
which from the particle size distribution results were found to be smaller than those
of cement. This resulted in denser packing of particles within the concrete matrix and
at the aggregate/concrete interface. The second reason is the pozzolanic reaction
between the silica in the rice straw ash and Ca(OH)2 produced by cement hydration
as illustrated in Equation 2.5 to from additional calcium silicate hydrates that are
responsible for strength in concrete (Razal et. al., 2022). This reaction occurs after
the hydration reaction and is responsible for strength gain during later days of
concrete curing. Further the smaller sized, irregular, and porous particles of rice
straw ash meant there was increased surface area for chemical reaction leading to
faster pozzolanic reaction (Surajit & Sharma, 2018).

For mixes with partial cement replacement of 15, 20, 25 and 30%, a drop in
compressive strength below the control was observed. The 7, 14, 28, 56 and 90 day
compressive strengths were found to be 28.7, 31.6, 32.3, 33.7 and 34.7 N/mm2
respectively, for 15% partial cement replacement and 28.4, 29.6, 31.8, 32.6 and 33.5
N/mm2 respectively, for 20% partial cement replacement. Further, for 25% partial
cement replacement the strengths were found to be 24, 26.2, 28.7, 31.9 and 32.8
N/mm2 while for 30% partial cement replacement the compressive strength was
found to be 10.9, 15.3, 18.9, 20.0 and 23.1 N/mm2 for 7, 14, 28, 56 and 90 days
curing age, respectively. Since the rice straw ash was found to have a CaO: Silica
ratio of 1:14.3 instead of the recommended 3:13 and a CaO content of 5.1% instead
of the recommended 61-67% as in Table 2.2, partial replacement of cement with the
same mass of rice straw ash results into a surplus in silica content. At low
percentages of cement replacement, the silica in pozzolana reacts with the Ca(OH)2
released by hydration of cement to form cementitious materials. At higher
replacement levels of cement, there is an increase in the amount of pozzolana in the
concrete mix. However, the replacement of cement with pozzolan has an effect of
reducing the cement content in the concrete which in turn reduces the quantity of
Ca(OH)2 released by hydration of Portland cement. This reduction in Ca(OH)2
production leads to reduced production of cementitious product (C-S-H) that is
84
responsible for strength development in concrete as was illustrated by Equations 2.1
and 2.2 (Ash et al., 2019; Marangu et al., 2018).

Eldin et al. (2013) reported that 10% was the optimum partial replacement of cement
with RSA in concrete similar to this research. On the other hand, Sharma and
Chalotra (2022), and Razak et al., (2022), reported 15% as the optimum replacement
of cement with RSA in concrete at 28 days. The difference in the optimum
percentage partial replacement of cement with RSA in concrete reported by these
researchers can be explained by the following. Sharma and Chalotra (2022), replaced
normal sand with foundry sand in concrete (in addition to RSA) which is cleaner,
more uniform-sized, finer and with higher silica content than normal sand. Foundry
sand enhanced pozzolanic activity and densified the concrete matrix. While Razal et
al., (2022) used a low water/cement ratio of 0.35 and superplasticizer than the 0.5
used in this research. The lower the water/cement ratio, the higher the compressive
strength. Nevertheless there was consensus among the researchers that strength
decreased with partial cement replacement above the optimum cement replacement
reported. Afolayan (2017) reported a general increase in compressive strength with
increase in percentage partial replacement of cement with egg shell ash in concrete.

In order to consume the excess silica and form additional cementitious materials
requires the addition of a substance rich in CaO. The CaO in the substance will react
with the silica (SiO2) to form additional cementitious materials. These additional
cementitious materials contribute to strength of concrete. In an unreacted form, the
SiO2 has no cementitious properties and does not contribute to strength of concrete.
It only acts as a mineral filler. The compressive strength was also observed to
increase gradually with age of concrete for both the control concrete and the blended
concretes with various percentage partial replacements of cement. For the control,
the curve flattened after 28 days. This was attributed to little strength gain beyond 28
days owing to lack of pozzolanic reactions in the mix.

Further, concretes with 5 and 10% partial replacement of cement with rice straw ash
recorded a compressive strength above the control for all ages of testing while the

85
concretes with 15, 20, 25 and 30% partial replacement recorded strength below the
control for all ages of testing.

The concrete with 10% partial replacement of cement with rice straw ash recorded
the highest strength at all ages while the concrete with 30% partial replacement of
cement with rice straw ash recorded the lowest strength at all ages.

From the foregoing, it can be concluded that 10% partial replacement of cement with
rice straw ash is the optimum. Further, the concrete mixes with partial replacement of
cement showed significant gain in compressive strength beyond 28 days compared to
the control. This can be attributed to pozzolanic reactions that take place in later
curing ages that form additional cementitious materials that are responsible for
increase in strength beyond 28 days age of curing.

4.2.2.2 Splitting Tensile Strength

The results of the splitting tensile strength tests are illustrated in Figure 4.12 and
presented in Appendix IX.

86
 Figure 4.12: Splitting tensile versus age for concrete having cement replaced
with rice straw ash

Splitting tensile strength was found to range between 1.2 N/mm2 and 3.85 N/mm2.
Test results showed an increase in strength above the control for partial cement
replacement of 5 and 10%. The 7, 14, 28, 56 and 90 days splitting tensile strength for
the control mix was found to be 2.0, 3.1, 3.4, 3.5 and 3.6 N/mm2, respectively while
that of 5% partial cement replacement was found to be 2.3, 3.2, 3.6, 3.7 and 3.8
N/mm2 at ages of 7, 14, 28, 56 and 90 days, respectively, representing splitting
tensile strength increase of 13.0, 1.9, 5.5, 6.6 and 9.3% respectively above the
control. The concrete mix with 10% partial cement replacement was found to have
split tensile strength of 2.45, 3.40, 3.75, 3.8 and 3.85 N/mm2 representing an increase
of 23.5, 9.3, 8.8, 8.6 and 11.3% strength increase above the control for concrete ages
of 7, 14, 28, 56 and 90 days, respectively. However, for mixes with partial cement

87
replacements of 15, 20, 25 and 30%, the results showed a progressive decline in
tensile strength below the control for all ages. These findings are similar to those of
Muhammad et al., (2013) and Khusbu and Sharma (2014) that tensile strength
increases marginally for partial cement replacement of up to a limit and then any
further replacement of cement results in a decline in strength. The decrease in
strength with increase in cement replacement can be attributed to the reduction in
CaO required to form cementitious materials as illustrated in Equations (2.1) and
(2.2). This is occasioned by differences in CaO content as illustrated by the chemical
oxide analysis in Appendix 6. Cement was found to have 72.4% CaO by weight with
rice straw ash which from Appendix 3 was found to have only 5.0% CaO by weight.

The split tensile strength was found to vary with percentage partial replacement of
cement with rice straw ash. The concrete with 5 and 10% replacement of cement
with rice straw ash recorded higher strength than the concrete with zero replacement
of cement with rice straw ash at all ages. The ratio of 90 days compressive to 90 days
splitting tensile strength for concrete having cement replaced with 10% RSA was
found to be 11.08 for concrete with 10% partial replacement of cement and
10.92.While the ratio for 90 days compressive strength to 90 days splitting tensile
strength the control concrete having 0% partial cement replacement with RSA was
found to be 10.92. These ratios are within the range of 8 – 15% of the compressive
strength as reported by Nihal et al., (2006). It was observed that rice straw ash
affected splitting tensile strength the same way it affected compressive strength. The
splitting tensile strength generally increased with curing age. This can be attributed
to the filler effect of pozzolans at early ages of curing and pozzolanic reactions
between silica from the pozzolan and Ca(OH)2 from cement hydration that formed
additional cementitious materials during latter days of curing.

From the foregoing results, it can be observed that the strength of mixes was found to
increase with partial replacement of cement with rice straw ash up to 10% partial
replacement. After which a decline in strength is observed. It can, therefore, be
concluded that for this mix, the optimum percentage partial cement replacement of
cement with rice straw ash is 10%. Therefore, it can be said that beyond 10% partial
replacement of cement with rice straw ash leads to excess silica which has no
88
matching Ca(OH)2 produced by the hydration of cement to react with and form
additional cementitious materials. This is what led to decrease in compressive
strength since the unreacted silica only acts as a filler material in the cement matrix
with no cementitious properties.

4.3 Mechanical properties and durability of concrete having cement partially

replaced with rice straw and egg shell ash

To address the deficit in CaO in the concrete, egg shell ash was added to the cement-
rice straw ash blended concretes so as to consume the silica brought about by the rice
straw by combining with CaO from egg shell ash in presence of water to form
additional calcium silicate hydrates and enhance the concrete strength.

4.3.1 Compressive strength for concrete having cement replaced with 15%RSA
and various percentages of egg shell ash

Egg shell ash was added in increments of 2.5, 5, 10, 15 and 20% by weight of
concrete to the concrete with 15% partial replacement of cement with rice straw ash
and the strength determined for various ages of curing. The results of the
compressive strength tests are illustrated by Figure 4.13 and presented in Appendix
XI.

89
 Figure 4.13: Compressive strength versus age of concrete having cement
replaced with 15% RSA and various percentages of ESA

From Figure 4.13, it can be observed that there was an increase in compressive
strength with continued increase in the percentage of egg shell ash. The addition of
2.5% egg shell recording the lowest percentage increment of 0.35% at 7days age.
Addition of 10% egg shell ash to concrete mix with 15% partial cement replacement
recorded the highest strength increment of 17.9% at 56 days age compared to the
concrete with OPC+15% RSA at the same age of testing. For 2.5, 5 and 10% egg
shell ash that was added to the concrete with OPC+15%RSA and a water/cement
ratio of 0.5 used in this study, it can be concluded that 10% addition of egg shell ash
was the optimum.

Afolayan (2017) also reported an optimum partial replacement of cement with egg
shell powder to be 5%. This result is lower than the 10% obtained in this research.
The researcher substituted cement with egg shell ash alone in concrete. Therefore
90
low replacement level could have been caused by both chemical similarity between
cement and egg shell ash and lack of a pozzolan to provide silica to react with CaO
from egg shell ash to form additional cementitious materials. Higher additions of egg
shell ash beyond the 10% were not possible for the water/cement ratio of 0.5 owing
to the fineness, porosity and hygroscopic nature of RSA particles and ESA particles
that reduced water meant for workability (Bali & Singh, 2019).

The 28 day compressive strength for OPC+15%RSA and OPC+15%RSA+10% ESA

is illustrated in Figure 4.14 and presented in Appendix 12.

Figure 4.14: 28 days compressive strength for concrete having cement

replaced with various % of RSA and concrete having cement replaced with
15% RSA and 10% ESA

From Figure 4.13, it can be observed that the concretes with OPC+15% RSA and
above exhibited a decrease in compressive strength. When 10% ESA was added to
the OPC+15% RSA concrete, the OPC+15% RSA+10%ESA blended concrete

91
recorded a higher compressive strength than concrete with OPC+15%RSA alone for
the same age of testing. The 28, 56 and 90 day compressive strength for
OPC+15%RSA concrete was found to be 32.3, 33.7 and 34.7 N/mm2 while the
compressive strength for OPC+15% RSA+10 % ESA concrete was found to be 41.3,
42.7 and 44.85 N/mm2 representing a strength increase of 25.3, 26.7 and 29.2%
increase respectively. The increases in strength can be attributed to the chemical
composition of egg shell ash. Egg shell ash is rich in CaO (with 97.04% CaO by
weight). Therefore its addition restored the CaO deficit created by partial
replacement of cement (found to comprise of 72.04% CaO, and 14.18% Silica by
weight respectively) with rice straw ash (found to be composed of 72.37% silica and
5.087% CaO). CaO is one of the most important ingredients in cement and is
responsible for formation of compounds that are responsible for development of
strength in cement during hydration and therefore should be available in prescribed
optimum quantity in order for a concrete mix to develop the required strength
(Abdullah et al., 2012, Afolayan, 2017, Quariconi et al., 2015). This is what formed
the basis of adding egg shell ash which from chemical analysis was found to be
composed of 96.76% CaO by weight.

4.3.2 Compaction Factor for concrete having cement partially replaced with rice
straw and egg shell ash

Table 4.3 presents the results of compaction factor for cement-rice straw ash blended
concretes with various percentages of egg shell ash.

Table 4.3: Compaction factor for concrete with 15% partial replacement of
cement with RSA and various percentages of egg shell ash

Mix Blended Concrete Mix Description Compacting factor

No.
1 OPC + 15% Rice Straw Ash +10% ESA 0.6617
2 OPC + 15% Rice straw ash +15% ESA 0.6347

The compaction factor for concrete with 15% RSA alone was 0.6685 as presented in
Table 4.2, whereas that of concrete with 15% RSA and 10% ESA was found to be
92
0.6617 in Table 4.3. The compaction factor for concrete with 15% RSA and 15%
ESA was found to be 0.6347. It can be observed that the compaction factor decreased
with increase in the amount of egg shell ash. A decrease in compaction factor shows
a decrease in workability. This can be attributed to the water demand exerted by the
CaO in the egg shell ash as it reacts to form Ca(OH)2 in the concrete mix that
consumed part of the water meant for workability hence making the concrete mix
less workable.

4.3.3 Accelerated Durability Test

Table 4.4 presents the results of reduction in compressive strength of various

concrete mixes immersed in dilute sulphuric acid solution.

Table 4.4: Compressive strength for concrete having cement replaced with RSA
before and after immersion in 0.5% sulphuric acid

Sample Concrete Compressive Compressive Percentage

No. Mix ID strength before strength change in
immersion in after strength
dilute sulphuric immersion in
acid, MPa dilute
sulphuric
acid, MPa
1 0% Partial 38.7 36.47 -5.77
replacement of
cement( control)
2 10% Partial 42.65 41.1 -3.56
replacement of
cement with rice
straw ash
3 15% Partial 44.85 42.57 -5.09
replacement of
cement with rice
straw ash and
10% egg shell
ash

93
The mix without partial replacement of cement with rice straw ash had the highest
reduction in compressive strength at 5.77% while the concrete with 10% partial
replacement of cement with rice straw ash recorded the lowest compressive strength
reduction of 3.56% Since the rice straw particles were found to be smaller in particle
size than those of cement from Appendix 5, the concretes with partial replacement of
cement with rice straw ash achieved denser packing of particles and therefore were
less porous to penetration of acid solution. Further, the density of rice straw ash was
found to be lower than that of cement. Consequently, for the same mass of partial
replacement of cement with rice straw ash there was a greater volume of rice straw
ash. The smaller sizes of rice straw ash particles had an impregnating filling the
voids in the cement matrix. Further the silica in rice straw ash reacted with Ca(OH)2
from cement hydration to form calcium silicate hydrates gel that further sealed the
voids in cement matrix. This filling of voids enhanced the chemical resistance and
capillary penetration of acid solution in the concrete matrix resulting in slowed
corrosion effect and leading to reduced mass loss. These findings are consistent with
those of (Salim & Davin, 2017).

Loser and Leemann (2015), in their study on accelerated sulphate resistance testing
protocols concluded that eight weeks (56 days) is the best balance between sulphate
ingress, expansion and test duration. The results of the tests on concrete cubes cured
for 56 days in water and immersed in bath containing 0.5% dilute sulphuric acid for
30 days are presented in Table 4.4. It shows variation of mass for concrete cubes
after subjecting them to sulphuric acid for 30 days. It was observed that the control
recorded the highest mass loss of 1.01%, while the cubes with 10% partial cement
replacement with rice straw ash recorded the least of loss in mass at 0.29%. The mass
loss in concrete cube specimens can be attributed to formation of gypsum, part of
which dissolved in the solution and part of which appeared as a precipitate in the acid
solution bath. Equation 4.1 represents the sulphuric attack on concrete to form
gypsum.

H 2 SO4  Ca (OH ) 2  CaSO 4 .2 H 2 O(Gypsum ) (4.1)

(Reddy, Rao, George, 2012)

94
For the specimen with no partial replacement of cement the above reaction takes
place and consumes the Ca(OH)2 that was formed by hydration reaction. These
specimens did not have a pozzolan in their mixes to consume the Ca(OH)2 formed by
hydration hence there was greater opportunity for the Equation 4.1 above to occur.
They also lacked the packing effect of pozzolan particles in their concrete matrix to
prevent percolation of acid solution into the concrete cube matrix. These factors
could explain why they recorded the highest mass loss through formation of gypsum.

On the other hand, the specimens with 10% partial replacement of cement with rice
straw ash, the Ca(OH)2 formed during hydration (Equation 2.5 and 2.6) was
consumed by the pozzolanic reactions presented by equation 2.9, with silica in rice
straw ash to form additional cementitious materials hence reducing opportunity for
reaction that lead to formation of gypsum to take place hence reducing mass loss.

Finally for the specimen with 15% partial cement replacement with rice straw ash
and 10% egg shell ash, there was a slight increase in mass loss compared to the
concrete with 10% partial replacement of cement with rice straw ash alone owing to
the availability of Ca(OH)2 that was not consumed by hydration reactions occasioned
by the addition of egg shell ash. This Ca(OH)2 provided opportunity for the reaction
that leads to formation of gypsum to take place hence leading to a slight increase in
mass loss compared to the specimen with 10% partial replacement of cement with
rice straw ash.

95
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusions

This study evaluated the properties of concrete with cement partially replaced with
rice straw ash and egg shell ash. The main findings of the study are listed below:

Objective No.1

1. Cement used in this research met the requirements of Kenyan standards

for cement. Rice straw ash used in this study obtained from Bunyala
irrigation scheme in Busia County, Kenya was found to contain 72.38 %
silica, 1.09 % alumina which when combined gives 74.34 %. This meets
the requirements of ASTM C 618 that the combined percentage of silica
(SiO2), alumina (Al2O3) and ferric oxide (Fe2O3) should be 70 %
minimum. Therefore the rice straw ash is suitable for use as a pozzolan.
2. Egg shells used in this study were found to contain 96.8 % CaO, 2.5 %
K2O and 0.61 % SrO. The CaO is the ingredient present in raw materials
used in the manufacture of cement and therefore were suitable for
enhancing CaO content in Portland cement.
3. The grading of the coarse and fine aggregate used in this study was found
to fall within the grading envelopes specified

Objective No.2

4. The optimum percentage partial replacement of Portland cement with rice

straw ash in concrete was found to be 10 % by weight of cement. The
control concrete recorded a 7, 14, 28, 56 and 90 days compressive
strength of 27.9, 33.0, 35.9, 36.6 and 38.7 N/mm2 while the concrete with
cement partially replaced with 10 % rice straw ash recorded a 7, 14, 28,
56 and 90 day compressive strength of 33.7, 37.1, 40.2, 41.1 and 42.65
N/mm2

96
 5. The concrete with cement partially replaced with rice straw ash at 10%
was found to have higher residual compressive strength when subjected to
acid attack than the control concrete.

Objective No. 3

6. The optimum amount of egg shell ash that can be added to a concrete
with 15% replacement of cement with rice straw ash for the range of
percentages that could form a concrete paste with a fixed water/cement
ratio of 0.5, that is 2.5%, 5% and 10% was found to be 10% by weight of
cement. The 7, 14, 28, 56 and 90 days compressive strength for concrete
with 15% RSA and 10% ESA were found to be 27.0, 34.2, 41.3, 42.7, and
44.9 N/mm2 ,respectively, compared to the control which recorded 27.9,
33.0, 35.9, 36.6 and 38.7 N/mm2 for the 7, 14, 28 56 and 90 days,
respectively. The strengths for the OPC-RHA-ESA blended concrete were
higher than for OPC concrete for all of testing ages except 7 days.
7. Addition of egg shell ash to rice straw ash-cement blended concrete
resulted in achieving strength higher by between 3.26 and 29.2% for the
various ages of curing at a higher percentage partial replacement of
cement with RSA (15%) compared to that obtained at the 10% optimum
cement replacement with rice straw ash. This allowed recovery of
strength lost by partial substitution of cement with rice straw ash in
concrete at percentage replacements beyond the optimum.

5.2 Recommendations

The following are the recommendations from this research:

5.2.1 Recommendation from the study

1. Rice straw ash may be used to partially replace cement in concrete up to

10% by weight of concrete resulting not only in cost savings but also in
environmental sustainability by consuming agro based wastes that
currently pose a disposal problem.

97
 2. Egg shell ash and rice straw ash may be used in combination at 10% and
15% partial replacement of cement in concrete reducing the cement
content required in concrete and hence cost of concrete and still achieve
the design strength.
3. Incorporating rice straw and egg shell ash in concrete may be used as an
avenue to reduce cement demand and production by the construction
industry and consequently reduce the damage to the environment through
reduced extraction of raw materials, reduce green house gases emissions
and energy demand by cement industries.
4. The rice straw ash-cement blended concrete can be used for construction
in environments that are susceptible to acid attack or with acidic soils
since they have demonstrated better resistance to acid attack that the
unblended concretes. The areas with acid soils in Kenya constitute 13%
of Kenyan land area and are located in the highlands East of Rift Valley
and Western regions (Kisinyo, 2011).

5.2.2 Recommendation for further research

1. Using the concrete mix in this research but varying the water/cement ratio
above 0.5 or below 0.5 with addition of super plasticizers and evaluate the
performance of resultant concretes.
2. Conduct microstructure and morphology investigations on the mineral
assemblage for the OPC-Rice straw ash, and OPC-Rice straw ash- egg shell
ash blended concrete by use of scanning electron or x-ray microscopy.
3. Incinerating the straw at different temperatures and different durations from
those used in this study and evaluate the effect of partial substitution of
cement with the rice straw ash on concrete properties.
4. Use egg shell ash with pozzolans of mineral origin (non – agricultural) to
partially replace cement in concrete and study the effects on the properties of
concrete.

98
 REFERENCES

Abalaka, A.E. (2013). Strength and durability of concrete containing rice husk ash
produced in a charcoal incinerator at low specific surface. International
Journal of Concrete Structures and Materials, 1(4), 287-293.

Abdullah, A., Jaafar, M.S., Taufiq-Yap, H., Alhozaimy, A., Al-Negheimish, A. &
Noorzaei, J. (2012). The effect of various chemical activators on
pozzolanic reactivity: a review. Scientific Research and Essays Journal,
7(7), 719-729.

Adenyanju, E., & Chukwueloka, A.O. (2019). Exposure effect to cement dust
pollution: a mini review. Springer Nature Journal Applied
Sciences,1(1572); https://doi.org/10.1007/s2452-019-1583-0.

Afolayan, J.O. (2017).Experimental Investigation of the effect of Partial

Replacement of cement with egg shell ash on the rheological properties
of concrete. International Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences,
4(12), 1 - 7.

African Network for Animal Welfare. (2020). Policy and legislative framework
analysis of poultry battery cage farming in Kenya

Agbenyeku, E. O., & Aneke, I.F. (2014). Prolonged curing of green concrete from
domestically derived cassava peels ash and laterite. International
Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, 5(1), 900-905.

Ahmad, J., Ali, M., Mohamed, A.M., & Deifalla, A.F. (2022). Mechanica,
durability and microstructure analysis overview of concrete made with
metakaolin (MTK). Buildings Journal, 12(1401), 1-23.

Akihonbare,W.N. (2013). A comparative evaluation of the application of agro-

waste as construction material, International Journal of Science and
Nature, 4(1), 141-144.

99
Akoba A.S., Phulari, R.C., Kembhavi S.B., & Gram, N.A. (2020). Comparison of
strength between normal concrete & admixture concrete. International
Journal on Human Computing Studies, 2(2), 51 - 57.

Alireza, N.G, Suraya, A.R., Farah, N.A.A. & Mohamad, A.M.S. (2010).
Contributionof rice husk ash to the properties of mortar and concrete: a
review. Journal of American Science 6(3), 157-165.

Al-Khateeb, R. (2013). Chemical analysis of ordinary Portland cement of Iraq.

International Journal of Chemical and Petrochemical Technology, 4(1),
23-30.

Alp, I., Deveci, H., Sungun, Y.H., Yilmaz, A.O., Kesimal, A. & Yilmaz, E. (2009).
Pozzolanic characteristics of natural raw materials for use in blended
cements. Iranian Journal of Science and Technology Transaction
Engineering, 33(4), 291-300.

Amitkumar, D.R., Indrajit, N. & Jayeshkumar, P. (2013). Eco efficient concretes:

use of ceramic powder as a partial replacement of cement. International
Journal of Innovation Technology and Exploring Engineering, 3(2), 1-
26.

Andreola, V.M., Gloria da Rajiv, M.Y., Justo dos Santos, D.O., & Toledo Filho
R.D. (2018, June 26 – 28 ).Partial replacement of cement by combination
of fly ash and metakaolin in bamboo bio-concretes [Paper presentation]
3rd International Conference on Bio – Based Building Materials, Belfast,
UK.

Arunabh P., & Kumar, B. (2016). Analysis of rice straw ash for part replacement of
opc in Pavement quality cement. International Journal of Advances in
mechanical and civil engineering, 3(3), 1-4.

100
Ash, A., Kamau, J., & Pone, J., Hyndan, F., & Fitriani, H. (2019). Chemical
reactions in pozzolanic concrete. Modern Approaches on Materials
Science, 1(4), 128 - 132.

Ashfaque, A.J., Goh W.I., Mo, K.H., Sohu, S., & Bhatti, I.A. (2019). Green and
sustainable concrete – The potential utilization of rice husk ash and egg
shells. Civil Engineering Journal, 5(1), 74 - 80.

Atera, E.A., Onyancha, F.N., & Majiwa, E.B.O. (2017). Production and marketing
of rice in Kenya: Challenges and opportunities. Journal of Development
and Agricultural Economics, 10(3), 64 - 70.

Bagcal, O., & Baccay, M. (2019). Influence of agricultural waste ash as pozzolana
on the physical properties and compressive strength of cement mortar.
Journal of Applied Engineering Services, 9(22), 29-36.

Balagopal, V., Rahim, A., & Viswanathan, T.S. (2017). Sustainable supplementary
cementitious materials derived from agro – wastes – a review.
International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology, 8(12), 572 -
582.

Bali, A., & Singh, H. (2021). SFeasibility of using rice straw ash as a construction
material in concrete. International Journal of Engineering Research in
Mechanical and Civil Engineering, 6(3), 1-7.

Beck, K., Xavier, B., Jean-Didier, M., & Muzahim, A. (2010). Use of egg shell
lime and tuffeu powder to formulate an appropriate mortar for restoration
purposes. Geological Society, London Special Publications331, 137–145.

Biernacki, J.J., Bullard, W.J., & Sant, G. (2017). Cements in the 21st century:
challenges, perspectives, and opportunities. Journal of American
Ceramic Society, 100(7), 2746 - 2773.

Buertey. J.I., Offwe W.S., Kumi A.T., & Astrim, F., (2018). Effect of aggregates
minerology on the strength of concrete: Case study of three selected
101
 quarry products in Ghana. Journal of Civil Engineering and Construction
Technology, 7(11), 9 - 10.

Building Research Establishment (1988). Design of Normal Concrete Mixes. pp 1-

33. Garston: Watford.

Campo Neto T.F., & Geyer A.L.B. (2019). Effects of using chemical admixture
with nanosilica in the consistency and mechanical strength of concrete.
Ibracon Structures and Materials Journal, 12(2), 371 - 385.

Chaeyeon, L., Jung’, E., Lee, S., Chaewoon, O., & Kyung, N.S. (2020). Global
trend in cement production and utilization of circular resources. Journal
of Energy Engineering, 29(3), 57 - 63.

Chardust Limited., Spectrum Technical Services, (2004). The use of biomass waste
to fabricate charcoal substitutes in Kenya.”

Chen, H., Shi, H., Chunh-Hao, W., & Shu-Ken, L. (2019).Effects of the Loss on
Ignition of Fly Ash on the Properties of High-Volume Fly Ash Concrete.
Sustainability Journal, 11(2704), 1-23. doi:10.3390/su11092704

Cheserek, G.J., Kipkorir, E.C., Daudi, F., Kiptoo, K.G., Mugalavi, E.M. &
Kiplagat, L.K. (2012). Assessment of farmers challenges with rice
productivity in selected irrigation schemes in western Kenya.
International Journal of Current Research, 4(8), 029–033.

Chirag, J.S., Vyom, G.P., & Rushabh, A.S. (2013). A study of future trend for
sustainable development by incorporation of supplementary cementitious
materials. International Journal of Inventive Engineering and Sciences,
1(11), 19-26.

Chukwu, M.N., & Ubosi, N.I. (2016). Impacts of cement dust on respiratory
systems of Lafarge cement workers, Ewekoro, Ogun state, Nigeria.
Global Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences, 22( ), 1 - 5.

102
Crosara, F.S.G., Pereira, V.J., Barra, K.C., Santos, S.K.A., Souza, L.C.G.M., &
Morais, T.A. (2018). Is the eggshell quality influenced by the egg weight
or breeder age? Brazilian Journal of Poultry Science, 21(2), 1-8.

Dabai, M.U., & Muhammad, M. (2017). Studies on the effect of rice straw ash as
admixture of ordinary portland cement mortar. International Journal of
Innovative Science, Engineering and Technology, 4(11), 112-119.

Devinder, S., & Jaspal S. (2016). Use of agrowaste in concrete construction.

International Journal of Environment, Ecology, Family, and Urban
Studies, 6(1), 119-130.

Devinder, S., & Jaspal, S., (2016). Effects of elevated temperature on compressive
strength of sugarcane bagasse ash concrete. International Journal of
Research in Applied, Natural and Social Sciences, 4(1), 37 – 44

Dey, G., & Sharma, P.R.., (2013). Use of rice straw ash as pozzolanic material in
cement mortar. International Journal of Engineering and Technology,
5(5), 603 – 605

Egbe-Ngu, N.O., & Solomon A. (2014). Influence of saw dust ash as admixture in
cement paste and concrete. International Journal of Innovative Science,
Engineering and Technology, 1(10), 736-743.

Eldin, S.N., Mokhtar, H., Hussein, N.A., & Sharobim, K. (2013). Effect of rice
straw ash on behavior of high performance concrete mixes. Port Said
Engineering research Journal, 17(2), 129-135.

Ettu, L.O., Ajoku, C.A., Nwachukwu, K.C., Awodiji, C.T.G. & Eziefula, U.G.
(2013). Strength varriation of opc-rice husk ash composites with
percentage rice husk ash. International Journal of Applied Sciences and
Engineering Research, 2(4), 420-424.

Ettu, L.O., Ezeh, J.C., Ibearugbulem, O.M., Anya, U.C., & Njoku, K.O. (2013).
Strength of binary blended cement composites containing cassava waste
103
 ash. International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced
Engineering, 3(4), 15-20.

Ettu, L.O., Njoku, F.C., Awodiji, C.T.G., Amanze, A.P.C., Arimanwa, M.C.
(2013).Variation of opc-rice husk ash-saw dust ash composites strength
with mix proportion. International Journal of Engineering Sciences
Research and Technology, 2(8), 1964-1969.

Fanlu, M, Yao, Z., & Jiang’. T. (2014).Experimental and numerical study of tensile
strength of concrete under different strain rates. The Scientific World
Journal http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/173531.

Faseyemi, V.A. (2012). Investigations on microsilica (silica fume) as partial

replacement in concrete. Global Journal of Researches in Engineering,
Civil and Structural Engineering, 12(1), 17-23.

Goyal, S., Kumar, M., & Bhattacharjee, B. (2008). Effect of relative proportion of
pozzolana on compressive strength of concrete under different curing
conditions. International Journal of Engineering, 2(1), 20–34.

Iwok, I.A., & Akpan, N.P., (2017). Multiple linear regression centre mean and
actual value – a comparative approach. Scholars Journal of Physics,
Mathematics and Statistics, 4(1), 17- 22.

Jeng, S.L., Zainuddin, A.M., Sharifah, R.A.A., & Haslend, A.H. (2012). A review
on utilization of biomass from rice industry as a source of renewable
energy. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews Journal, 16, 3084–
3094.

Jimoh, R.A., Banuso, O.R., & Onyekele, F. M. (2013). Exploratory assessment of

strength characteristics of millet husk ash (MHA) blended cement
laterized concrete. Advances in Applied Research Journal, 4(1), 453-457.

104
Jing, H., Kawasaki, S., & Achal, V. (2020).The utilization of agricultural waste as
agro-cement in concrete; a review. Sustainability Journal, 12, 6971,
doi:10.3390/su12176971

Joel, M., & Mbapuun I.D. (2016).Comparative analysis of the properties of

concrete produced with Portland limestone cement grade 32.5N and
42.5R for use in rigid pavement work. Global Journal of Engineering
Research, 15(1), 17 - 25.

Kanchan, M., Mullick, A.K., Jain, K.K. & Singh, P.K. (2013). Effect of relative
levels of mineral admixtures on strength of concrete with ternary cement
blend. International Journal of Concrete Structures and Materials, 7(3),
239-249.

Kassim, K.A., & Chern, K.K. (2004). Lime stabilized Malaysian cohesive soils,
Civil Engineering National Journal, 16(1), 13-23.

Kenya National Bureau of Statistics, (2020). Comprehensive poverty report,

children, youth, women and the elderly from national to county level.

Kenya National Bureau of Statistics, (2020). Economic survey 2020.

Khusbu, R., & Sharma, C.R. (2014). Studies on concrete characteristic strength
using fly ash and rice husk ash. International Journal of Engineering
Research and Applications, 4(2), 40-44.

Kisinyo, P.O. (2011). Constraints of soil acidity and nutrient depletion on maize
production in Kenya. Unpublished PHD Thesis, Eldoret: Moi University.

Kuruva, S.D. (2018). Impacts of cement industry on environment – an overview.

Asian Pacific Journal of Research, 1(57), 157 - 161.

Lamere, E.R., & Singh, O.P. (2020). Effect of cement dust on soil physico-
chemical properties around cement plants in Jaintia Hills, Meghalaya.
Environmental Engineering and Research Journal, 25(3), 409 - 417.

105
Lavanya, M.R., Sugumaran, B., & Pradeep, T. (2012). An experimental study on
the compressive strength of cement with sugarcane bagasse ash.
International Journal of Engineering Inventions, 1(11), 1-4.

Legeto, C.K., Mbiti, T.K., & Alkizim, A. (2016). Investigating the effect of
chemical admixtures on the quality of concrete in the construction
industry. International Journal of Recent Technology and Engineering,
5(2), 44 - 51.

Loser, R., & Leemann, A. (2015). Accelerated sulphate resistance test for concrete.
Materials and Structures Journal, 1(13), DOI. 10.1617/S 11527-015-
0731-2.

Luigi, C., Tiziano, B., & Alberto B., (2018). Binders alternative to Portland cement
and waste management for suitable construction – part 1. Journal of
Applied Biomaterials & Functional Materials, 16(3), 186 - 202.

Mahesh, A.B., & Satone, S.R. (2012). An experimental investigation of partial

replacement of cement by various percentage of phosphogypsum in
cement concrete. International Journal of Engineering Research and
Application, 2(4), 785-787.

Manaseh, J. (2010). A review of partial replacement of cement with some agro-

wastes. Nigerian Journal of Technology, 29(2), 12-20.

Manning, A.C., Tangtinthai, N., & Heidrich, O. (2019). Evaluation of raw materials
extraction, processing, construction and disposal of cement and concrete
products.Data in Brief Journal, 24(103929);
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.11.141.

Marangu, J.M., Karanja, T.J., & Wachura, J.M., (2018). Properties of sctivated
blended cement containing high content of calcined clay Heliyon
Journal, 4(7903); doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2018.e00742

106
Maria, C.C., Giacomo, C., Paola, R., Marco, C.M., Toretta, V., Rada, E.C., &
Alessandro, A. (2020). The production of sustainable concrete with use
of alternative aggregates. Sustainability Journal, 12(7903);
doi:10.3390/su1219703.

Marijana S., Dubravka, B., Stirmer, N., & Ivana, B.C. (2019). Research challenges
for broader application of alternative binders in concrete. Gradevinar
Journal, 71(10), 877 - 888.

Masud, A.A., Saiyad, A., & Vishal, K. (2020). Major ingredients and raw materials
of ordinary concrete including optimum water for sufficient reaction.
International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology, 7(6),
2789 - 2795.

Mehmet, K. (2019).A study over the formulation of the parameter 5 or less

independent variables of multiple Linear Regression. Journal of
Functional Spaces, 2019. https.doi.org/10.1155/2019/1526920.

Mijedu, K.A., Adebara, S.A., & Lamidi, O.I. (2014). The use of corn cob ash and
saw dust ash as cement replacement in concrete works. The International
Journal of Engineering and Science, 3(4), 22-28.

Ministry of Agriculture (2008). Kenya national rice development strategy 2008-

2018”.

Mohamed, A.E., & Taher, M.E. (2006). Physical and chemical properties of rice
straw and its effect on the cement paste produced from different cement
types. Journal of King Saud University, 19(1), 21-30.

Moises, F., Holmer, S., Ernesto, V., Isabel, S.M., & Sergio, S. (2012).
Characterization and properties of blended cement matrices containing
bamboo leaf wastes. Elsiever Cement and Concrete Journal, 34(2), 1019-
1023.

107
Morsy, M.I., & Rashwan, M.A., (2015). Replacement of cement by rice straw ash
on cement mortar properties. Misr Journal of Agricultural Engineering,
32(4), 1685-1708.

Mtallib, M.O.A., & Rabiu, A. (2009). Effect of egg shell ash on setting time of
cement. Nigerian Journal of Technology, 28 (2), 29-38.

Mugahed, A., Fediuk, R., Murali, G., & Vatin, N., (2021). Rice husk based
pozzolans; A critical review of their properties and applications. Crystals
Journal, 11(168); https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst1120168.

Muhamad, B.S., Anjum, A., Tahir, A.M., & Yousaf, M. (2013). Performance of
pozzolanic concrete using different mineral admixtures. Pakistan Journal
of Engineering and Applied Science, 12, 73-81.

Muhamad, N.A., Tariq, M., Khan, D., Kaffayatullah, K., & Muhammad, A.
(2019).Pozzolanic potential of and mechanical performance of wheat
straw ash incorporated sustainable concrete. Sustainability Journal,
11(519), 1-20

Naqash, J.A., Zahid, B.B., Mohammad, I.M., Subzar, A., & Dharvinder, K. (2014).
Effect of accelerating admixture on properties of concrete. IOSR Journal
of Civil Engineering, 4(3), 48-55.

Narain, D.B., Ibrahm, W.H.M., Adeyemi. A., & Kennedy, C. (2021). Mechanical
performance of concrete incorporating wheat straw ash as partial
replacement of cement. Journal of Building Pathology and
Rehabilitation, 6, 4, https://doi.org/10.1007/s41024-020-00099-7

Ndefo, O. (2013). Properties of cement-ground nut shell ash concrete. International

Journal of Innovative Research in Engineering and Science, 8(2), 6-23.

Nguyen, H., Mohgadam, M.J., & Moayedi, H. (2019). Agricultural wastes

preparations, management and application in civil engineering: a review.

108
 Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management,
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10163-019-00872-y.

Nihal, A., Girgin, Z.C., E., & Ergin, A. (2006). Evaluation of ratio between
splitting tensile strength and compressive strength for concretes of up to
120 Mpa and its application in strength criterion. ACI Materials Journal,
103(3), 18-24.

Nurdeen, M., Alwatir, M.A.J., & Syed, F.H. (2011). Strength activity index and
microstructural characteristics of treated palm oil fuel ash. International
Journal of Civil and Environmental Engineering, 11(5), 100-107.

Nyaga, P. (2007). Poultry sector country review. Food and Agriculture

Organization of the United Nations, Animal Production and Health
Division.

Obi, E.L. (2017). Evaluation of the effects of coarse aggregate sizes on the concrete
quality. European Journal of Engineering Research Science, 2(10), 1 - 5.

Obura, J., Ombok, O.B., & Omuga, B. (2017). Analysis of rice supply chain in
Kenya. International Journal of Managerial Studies and Research, 5(8),
12 - 17.

Okere, C.E. (2013). Strength and properties of coconut fibre ash concrete. Journal
of Research in Architecture and Civil Engineering, 1(1), 1-4.

Okonkwo, U.N., Odiong,’ I.C., Akpabio, E.E. (2012).The effect of egg shell ash on
strength properties of cement-stabilized lateritic soil. International
Journal of Sustainable Construction Engineering and Technology, 3(1),
18-25.

Okumu, V.A., Shitote, S.M., & Oyawa, W.O. (2017). Determination of appropriate
mix proportions for the Kenyan blended Portland cement. American
Scientific Journal for Engineering, Technology, and Sciences
(ASRJETS), 31(1), 265 - 286.
109
Olayinka, O.O., Adedeji, O.H., Oresanya, O.J., & Alabi – Thompson, O.F. (2016).
Environmental and Health Impact of Cement Factory Production in
Ibese, Ogun state, Nigeria. Applied Environmental Research Journal,
38(2), 93 – 110

Olusola, O.K., & Akaninyene, A.U. (2012). Strength characteristics of periwinkle

shell ash blended cement concrete. International Journal of Architecture,
Engineering and Construction, 1(4), 213-220.

Olutoge, A.F., Quadric, A.H. & Olafusi, S.O. (2012). Investigation of the strength
ofpalm kernel shell ash concrete. Engineering Technology and Applied
Science Research, 2(6), 315-319.

Omparakash, K., Chandra J.K., & Bharath, B.B. (2018). An experimental study of
concrete using GGBS, rice husk ash and egg shell powder. International
Journal of Scientific Research and Review, 7(7), 337 - 345.

Onyango, O.A. (2014). Exploring options for improving rice production to reduce
hunger in Kenya. World EnvironmentJournal, 4(4), 172–179.

Otoko, R.G. (2014). Use of bagasse ash as partial replacement of cement in

concrete. International Journal of Innovative Research and Development,
3(4), 285-289.

Otunyo, A.W. (2011). Palm kernel husk ash (PKHA) as an admixture (accelerator)
in concrete. Nigerian Journal of Technology, 30(3), 60-66.

Owuamanam, S., & Cree D. (2020). Progress of bio-calcium carbonate waste egg
shell and seashell fillers in polymer composites: a review. Journal of
Composites Science, 4(70), 2-22.

Ozlem, C., Jan, C., Koen, V.B., Jan, E., & Dionys, V.G. (2006). Hardening of
calcium hydroxide and calcium silicate binders due to hydration and
carbonation. Department of Civil Engineering, Building Materials and
Technology Division Research Project pp 1-11.
110
Pamenter, S., & Meyers, J.R. (2021). Decarbonizing the cementitious materials
cycle.Journal of Industrial Ecology, 25( ), 359 - 376.

Parande, A.K., Karthick, S., Ravi, K.T., & Karthikeyan, M.S. (2011). Utilization of
agroresidual waste in effective blending in portland cement. International
Scholarly Research Network, 1-12.

Pekmezci, B.Y., & Akyuz S. (2004). Optimum usage of natural pozzolan for the
maximum compressive strength of concrete. Cement and Concrete
Research, 34, 2175-2179.

Pravin, V.D. (2012). Improvement in the strength of concrete by using industrial

and agricultural waste. IOSR Journal of Engineering, 2(4), 755-759.

Quaricovi, V.A., Chtoi F.F., & Cincotto, M.A. (2015). Indirect and direct Chapelle
methods for the determination of lime consumption in pozzolanic
materials. Ibracon Structures and Materials Journal, 8(1), 1-7.

Raheem, A.A., Olasunkanmi, B.S., & Folorunso, C.S. (2012). Saw dust ash as
partial replacement for cement in concrete. Organization, Technology
and Management in Construction, an International Journal, 4(2), 474-
480.

Razak, A.B.D., Chin, Y.Q., Abdullah, B.M.M, & Yahya, Z. (2022). Effect of rice
straw ash as partially replacement of cement toward fire resistance of self
compacting concrete. Polish Academy of Science Journal, LX(1), 354-
363.

Reddy, M.B., Rao S.H., & George, M.P. (2012). Effect of sulphuric acid on
blended cement (fly ash based) and its concrete. International Journal of
Applied Engineering and Technology, 2(2), 1-6.

Richard, A.L., & Walairat, B. (2005). Optimization of silica fume, fly ash and
cement mixes for high performance concrete. Paper presented at the
World of Coal Ash Conference (WOCA), Lexington, Kentucky, USA.
111
 Retrieved from http://www.flyash.info/AshSymposium/AshLibrary
Authors.asp#R

Robbie, M.A. (2019). Global CO2 emissions from cement production, 1928 – 2018
[Paper presentation] International Climate Research Conference, Oslo,
Norway.

Sagrario, M.R., Moises F., Erika, Y.N., & Savastano, H. (2019). Pozzolanic
reaction of biomass waste as mineral addition to cement based materials:
studies by nuclear magnetic resonance. International Journal of Concrete
Structures and Materials, 13, 31, https.doi.org/10.1186/s40069-019-
0342-3

Salim, B., & Davin, K. (2017). Behaviour of sustainable concrete in acidic

environment. Sustainability Journal, 9(1556), 1-13

Sam, R.A., Bamford, S.A., Fletcher, J.J., Ofosu, F.G., & Fuseini A. (2013).
Assessment of the various brands of Portland cement available in the
Ghanian market. International Journal of Science and Technology, 2(3),
252-258.

Samantha, H., Lourdes, S., Monzo, J., Paya, J., & Font A. (2021). Evaluation of
rice straw ash as a pozzolanic addition in cementitious mixtures. Applied
Sciences Journal, 11(773); https://doi.org/10.3390/app11020773.

Samuel N.N., & Oyange, W.A. (2019). Analysis of millers in Kenya’s rice value
chain. Journal of Agriculture and veterinary sciences, 12(1), 38-47.

Santiago, Y., Gaya, G.C., Prieto R.V., & Lite, A.S. (2020). Sustainable eco
cements: Chemical and morphological analysis of granite sawdust waste
as pozzolan material. Materials Journal, 13, 4941,
https.doi.org/10.3390/ma13214941

112
Sarnklong, J.W., Pellikaan W., & Hendriks, W.H. (2010). Utilization of rice straw
and different treatments to improve its feed value for ruminants: a
review. Australian Journal of Animal Science, 23(5), 680-692.

Sathish, K.R. (2012). Experimental study on the properties of concrete made with
alternative construction materials. International Journal of Modern
Engineering Research, 2(5), 3006-3012.

Sathish, L., & Kumar, L.M. (2017). Experimental investigation of ecofriendly

concrete using rice husk ash and egg shell partially replacement with
cement and fine aggregate. International Journal of Current Engineering
and Scientific Research, 4(12), 44 - 50.

Senani, M., Ferhoune N., Guettala, A., & Aguiar, J.B. (2018). Eco concrete with
incorporation of blast furnace slag as a natural aggregates replacement.
Science and Technology of Materials Journal, 30( ), 144 - 150.

Sharma, M., & Chalotra, S. (2022). Study of strength and durability characteristics
of concrete containing rice straw ash and foundry sand. Journal of
university of shanghai for science and technology, 24(8), 561 - 567.

Short, C., Mulinge, W., & Witwer, M. (2012). Analysis of incentives and
disincentives for rice in Kenya. Technical Notes Series, Monitoring
African Food And Agricultural Policies, Food and Agriculture
Organization, Rome.

Sooraj, V.M. (2013). Effect of palm oil fuel ash (POFA) on strength properties of
concrete. International Journal of Scientific Research and Publications,
3(6), 1-7.

Soumyan, K., & Aswathi, V. K. (2016). Experimental Study to check the effect of
egg shell powder and rice husk ash on the property of concrete.
International Journal of Engineering & Technology, 4(33), 1 - 5.

113
Srinivasan, R., & Sathiya, S. (2010). Experimental study on bagasse ash in
concrete. International Journal of Service Learning in Engineering, 5(2),
60-66.

Sumit, A.B., & Raut, S.P. (2011). Utilization of waste paper pulp by partial
replacement of cement in concrete. International Journal of Engineering
Research and Applications, 1(2), 300-309.

Surajit, M., & Sharma, P., (2017). Investigation on the pozzolanic properties of rice
straw ash prepared at different temperatures Materials Express Journal,
8(2), 157 - 163.

Surender, S., & Upasana. (2017). Different types of admixtures in concrete – a

review. International Journal of Advanced Research in Science and
Engineering, 6(1), 998 - 1006.

Syamala, K.D., Lakshmi, V.V., & Alakanandana, A. (2017). Impacts of cement

industry on environment – an overview. Asia Pacific Journal of
Research, 1(57), 156 - 161.

Teye, B.I.J., Offei, W.S., Kumi, A.T., & Astrim, F. (2018). Effect of aggregates
mineralogy on the strength of concrete: case study of three selected
quarry products in Ghana. International Research Journal of Engineering
and Technology, 7(6), 2789 - 2795.

Thirumalini, P. & Sekar, S.K. (2013). Review on herbs used as admixture in lime
mortar used in ancient structures. Indian Journal of Applied Research,
3(8), 295-298.

Thomas, R.E., Hawkins, E, & Jones E.P. (2016). CO2, Green house effect and
global warming: from pioneering work of Arrhenius and Callendar to
earth system models. Endeavour Journals, 40(3), 179 - 187.

114
Tiwari, J.K., & Riwani, A.M. (2012). Environmental impact analysis: a case study
of ACC cements plant. Journal of Environmental Research and
Development, 7(3), 802- 808.

Tomas, U.G. (2013). Influence of polymer fiber on strength of concrete.

International Journal of Advanced Science and Technology, 55, 53-66.

Ul Amin, N. (2010). Study of the physical parameters of ordinary portland cement

of Khyber Pakhtoon khwa, Pakistan and their comparison with Pakistan
standard specifications. Chemical Engineering Research Journal, 14, 7-
10.

Ustev, J.T. & Taku, J.K. (2012). Coconut shell ash as a partial replacement of
ordinary portland cement in concrete production. International Journal of
Scientific & Technology Research, 1(8), 86-89.

Vesa, P. (1997). Concrete and sustainable development. ACI Materials Journal,

4(5), 409-416.

Victoria, A. O., (2018). Suitability of Kenyan blended cement for structural

concrete production. Journal of Sustainable Research in Engineering,
4(2), 55-68.

Vijayakumar, G., Vishaliny, H. & Govindarajulu, D. (2013). Studies on glass

powder as partial replacement of cement in concrete production.
International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced
Engineering, 3(2), 153-157.

Villar-Cocin, E., Valencia, M.E., Gonzalez R.R., & Hernandez-Ruiz J. (2003).

Kinetics of pozzolanic reaction between lime and sugar cane straw ash by
electric conductivity measurements: a kinetic diffusive model. Cement
and Concrete Research Journal, 33(4), 517-524.

115
Vysvaril, M., Marketa, R., & Partik, B. (2014).The effect of water/cement ratio on
the sulfate corrosion of fine grained concrete. International Journal of
Research in Engineering Technology, 3(13), 71-76.

Wolfram, S., Ngassam T.L.I., Breitschaft, G., (2018).Challenges of the growing

African cement market – environmental issues, regulative framework,
and quality infrastructure requirements [paper presentation] MATEC
web conferences.

Yu, P., et al. (1999). Structure of calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H): near, mid, and
far infrared spectroscopy. Journal of American Ceramic Society, 82(3),
742–748.

116
 APPENDICES

Appendix I: Concrete mix proportions for making one cubic metre of concrete

Mix code Water/cement Cement Water Fine Coarse % cement RSA No. of
ratio (Kg), (Kg), Aggregate(Kg) aggregate replacement (Kg), Specimens
(Kg),
1 0.5 476 238.4 700 1010 0 0 15 Cubes, 15
cylinders
2 0.5 452.2 238.4 700 1010 5 23.8 15 Cubes, 15
cylinders
3 0.5 428.4 238.4 700 1010 10 47.6 15 Cubes, 15
Cylinders
4 0.5 404.6 238.4 700 1010 15 71.4 15 Cubes, 15
cylinders
5 0.5 380.8 238.4 700 1010 20 95.2 15 Cubes,15
cylinders
6 0.5 357 238.4 700 1010 25 119 15 Cubes, 15
cylinders
7 0.5 333.2 238.4 700 1010 30 142.8 15 Cubes, 15
cylinders
Total 30x7= 210
specimens

The water/cement ratios used was 0.5 for all the mixes.

Concrete mix design using Building Research Establishment (BRE) method.

Mix design calculation sheet for 35N/mm2 concrete mix (28 Day strength)

Job title: Thesis Proposal: Use of Rice straw & Egg shell ash as partial
replacements of cement in concrete

Reference: EN352/0769/2013

Stage Item or calculation Values

1.1 Characteristic strength Specified 30 N/mm2 at 28 days

Proportion defective10%

117
1.2 Standard deviation selected from Fig 3____N/mm2 or where there is no data 4
N/mm2 (for over 20 results, page 8)

1.3 Margin C1 = k x standard deviation, (k =X1.28 for 10% defectives) tthus C1 =

1.284= 5.12 N/mm2

Or Specified ____N/mm2

1.4 Target mean strength, C2 =305.12=35.12N/mm2

1.5 Cement strength class Specified: 42.5/52.5 MPa (Cement strength is 42.5 MPa)

1.6 Aggregate type: coarse Crushed/uncrushed, (crushed coarse aggregate will be

used)

Aggregate type: fine Crushed/uncrushed, (uncrushed fine aggregate will be used)

1.7 Free-water/cement ratio (Selected from Table 2, Fig 4) …0.4

……………………………………… Use the lower

value

1.8 Maximum free-water/cement ratio Specified N/A (not specified) 

2.1 Slump or Vebe time Specified Slump60-180 mm or Vebe time_____ s

2.2 Maximum aggregate size specified 20mm

2.3 Free-water content selected from Table 3, 205 kg/m3

3.1 Cement content C3 = 205 0.43 = 476kg/m3

3.2 Maximum cement content Specified _________kg/m3 (not specified)

3.3 Minimum cement content Specified __________ kg/m3 (not specified)

use 3.1 if 3.2

118
use 3.3 if > 3.1 kg/m3

3.4 Modified free-water/cement ratio 0.43 (Selected from Table 2, Fig 4)

4.1 Relative density of aggregate (SSD) 2.65 known/assumed (assumed value of

2.65)

4.2 Concrete density selected from Fig 5 2360 kg/m3

4.3 Total aggregate content C4 is given by 2360– 205–476=1679kg/m3

5.1 Grading of fine aggregate Percentage passing 600 μm sieve (to be determined),
54%

5.2 Proportion of fine aggregate selected from Fig 6, 41%

5.3 Fine aggregate content 1679 41% = 688.4kg/m3

C5

5.4 Coarse aggregate content1679–688.4 = 990.6kg/m3

Summary of Quantities for 1m3 Trial Mix (SSD)

Cement Water Fine aggregate Coarse

aggregate
Quantities Kg Kg or litres Kg Kg(10mm/20m
m/40mm)
Per m3 to the 475 205* 690 990
nearest 5kg
Per trial mix
of __m3 to the
nearest 5kg

*Water content increased to 0.5 was used to take care of pozzolanic reactions. This
Water /cement ratio of 0.5 was as determined during trial mixes.
119
Items in italics are optional limiting values that may be specified (see Section 7).

Concrete strength is expressed in the units N/mm2. 1 N/mm2 = 1 MN/ m2 = 1 MPa.

(N = newton; Pa = pascal.)

The internationally known term ‘relative density’ used here is synonymous with
‘specific gravity’ and is the ratio of the mass of a given volume of substance to the
mass of an equal volume of water.

SSD = based on the saturated surface-dry condition.

The quantities for the trial mix were used to prepare a mix, test whether or not the
aggregate and cement selected for use will behave as anticipated. Adjustments were
made according to how much the results differ from design values line with section.

120
Appendix II: Sieve analysis of coarse aggregates

Nominal Size, mm. % Passing BS Specification Limit For Single

Sieve Size Size Aggregates (20mm)

2.5 1 0 – 20 %
5.0 20.0 10 – 40 %
10.0 30.0 25 – 55 %
14.0 48.0 35 – 70 %
20.0 96.0 90 – 100 %
37.5 100.0 100 – 100 %

Flakiness index % 27
Aggregate crushing 19
value %

121
Appendix III: Sieve analysis of fine aggregates

BS sieve size, Cumulative % passing ( by Specification limits for fine

mm weight ) aggregates (overall limits)
Dry sieving
37.5 100 100 - 100
20 100 90 - 100
14 48 35 - 70
10 29 25 - 55
5 13 10-40
2.5 1 5-10

122
Appendix IV: Particle size distribution of rice straw ash

Sieve size ,mm % passing

0.01 17
0.013 21
0.018 22
0.026 28
0.038 30
0.052 54
0.075 60
0.1 62

123
Appendix V: Particle Size distribution of egg shell ash by hydrometer analysis

Sieve size % Passing

0.0152 3.85
0.037 3.87
0.053 3.87
0.074 3.87
0.01 6.62
0.014 9.39
0.02 14.9
0.03 20.4
0.04 25.9
0.05 31.47
0.07 36.53
0.15 59.60
0.21 65.25
0.30 73.33
0.43 85.05
0.6 94.74
1.18 99.19
2.0 99.19

124
Appendix VI: Particle size distribution of Portland cement

Sieve size ,mm % passing

0.019 4
0.026 9
0.038 17
0.05 36
0.071 44
0.1 49

125
Appendix VII: Chemical analysis of rice straw ash

Element name Result (%)

Al2O3 1.094
SiO2 72.379
P205 1.513
S 0.919
Cl 1.450
K2O 16.174
CaO 5.067
Ti 0.1
V 0.006
Cr 0.006
Mn 0.256
Fe 0.836
Ni 0.002
Cu 0.013
Zn 0.080
Rb 0.070
Sr 0.021
Zr 0.007
Nb 0.003
Total 99.996

126
Appendix VIII: Chemical properties of Portland cement

Element name Percentage composition Tolerance (KS EAS 18-

1:2001 STANDARD)
Al2O3 4.076 3 – 8%
SiO2 14.18 17 – 25%
P205 0.857
S 4.303
Cl 0.138 0 - 5%
K2O 0.746
CaO 72.041 60 – 67%
Ti 0.222
V 0.003
Mn 0.057
Fe 3.087
Cu 0.004
Zn 0.005
Rb 0.004
Sr 0.204
Y 0.003
Total 99.973

127
Appendix IX: Compressive strength for concrete having cement partially
replaced with rice straw ash

Grade Mix Percenta Compressive Strength, MPa

of Code ge
concrete Partial
Cement
Replace
ment
with
rice
straw
ash
7 Days 14 Days 28 Days 56 Days 90 Days
M-35 1 0% 27.90 33.00 35.95 36.55 38.70
(Control
)
2 5% 32.70 36.70 38.80 40.25 41.30
3 10% 33.65 37.10 40.20 41.80 42.65
4 15% 28.70 31.60 32.30 33.70 34.70
5 20% 28.40 29.55 31.80 32.60 33.45
6 25% 24.00 26.20 28.70 31.85 32.80
7 30% 10.85 15.25 18.9 20.05 23.1

128
Appendix X: Splitting tensile strength concrete having cement partially
replaced with rice straw ash

Grade of concrete Mix Percentage Splitting Tensile Strength, MPa

Code Partial
Cement
Replacement
with rice
straw ash
7 14 28 56 90
Days Days Days Days Days
M-35 1 0% 2.0 3.15 3.45 3.5 3.55
(Control)
2 5% 2.35 3.20 3.65 3.70 3.80
3 10% 2.45 3.40 3.75 3.80 3.85
4 15% 2.4 2.75 3.05 3.25 3.30
5 20% 2.2 2.5 2.65 2.7 2.75
6 25% 1.85 2.20 2.40 2.45 2.60
7 30% 1.20 1.50 1.65 1.80 1.95

129
Appendix XI: Compressive strength of concrete having cement partially
replaced with rice straw ash and egg shell ash

Grade of Mix Percentage Egg shell Compressive Strength, MPa

concrete Cod Partial ash added
e Cement as a
Replacemen Percentag
t with rice e Cement
straw ash
7 14 28 56 90
Days Days Days Days Days
M-35 4 15% 0 28.7 31.6 32.3 33.7 34.7
0 0 0 0
4 15% 2.5% 28.8 30.7 32.7 34.3 35.1
0 0 5 5 5
4 15% 5% 27.6 32.4 33.2 36.2 38.7
5 0 5 0 0
4 15% 10% 27.0 34.2 41.3 42.7 44.8
5 0 5 0 5

130
Appendix XII: Compressive strength results for concrete having cement
replaced with -rice straw ash and egg shell ash

% Partial replacement of cement in concrete

Age of testing 15% RSA + 15% RSA+5% 15% 20%
( Days) 2.5% ESA ESA RSA+10% RSA+10%
ESA ESA
7 28.8 27.6 27.0 25.7
14 30.7 32.4 34.2 28.6
28 32.75 33.3 41.3 33.5
56 34.35 36.2 42.7 34.7
90 35.15 38.7 44.85 34.9

131
Appendix XIII: Particle size distributions of cement and rice straw ash

132