Heat Transfer Module

User’s Guide
Heat Transfer Module User’s Guide
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Part number: CM020801

C o n t e n t s

Chapter 1: Introduction

About the Heat Transfer Module 22

Why Heat Transfer Is Important to Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
How the Heat Transfer Module Improves Your Modeling . . . . . . . 23
The Heat Transfer Module Physics Interface Guide . . . . . . . . . . 23
Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes . . . . . . 31
The Heat Transfer Module Study Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Additional Materials Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries? . . . . 36

Overview of the User’s Guide 40

Chapter 2: Notations

Symbols 46

Chapter 3: Modeling with the Heat Transfer Module

Heat Transfer Variables 62

Predefined Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Global Variables for Heat and Energy Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Domain Fluxes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Out-of-Plane Domain Fluxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Boundary Fluxes (Heat Transfer Interface) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Internal Boundary Heat Fluxes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Internal Boundary Energy Fluxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Domain Heat Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Boundary Heat Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Line and Point Heat Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Moist Air Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

CONTENTS |3
 Moisture Transport Variables 80
Predefined Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Moist Air Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Domain Moisture Fluxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Boundary Moisture Fluxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Domain Moisture Source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Mass Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

Using the Boundary Conditions for the Heat Transfer

Interfaces 87
Temperature and Heat Flux Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . 87
Overriding Mechanism for Heat Transfer Boundary Conditions . . . . . 88

Handling Frames in Heat Transfer 91

Heat Transfer Analysis with Moving Frames. . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Material Density in Features Defined in the Material Frame . . . . . . . 96

Heat Transfer Consistent and Inconsistent Stabilization

Methods 97
Consistent Stabilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Inconsistent Stabilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow Coupling 99

Coupling Based on Model Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Adding Nonisothermal Flow Coupling in an Existing Model . . . . . . 100
Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer Multiphysics
Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

Boundary Wall Temperature 102

Solver Settings 107

Linearity Property of the Temperature Equation . . . . . . . . . . 107
Linear Solver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Nonlinear Solver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Time-Dependent Study Step . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Guidelines for Solving Surface-to-Surface Radiation Problems . . . . . 114
Guidelines for Solving Multiphysics Problems . . . . . . . . . . . 115

4 | CONTENTS
Plotting and Evaluating Results in Layered Materials 118
Plotting Along and Through the Layered Material . . . . . . . . . 118
Built-in Operators for Evaluation in the Layered Material . . . . . . 119

Evaluating the Bulk Temperature 123

Bulk Temperature Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Evaluation of the Bulk Temperature in 3D Models . . . . . . . . . 124
Evaluation of the Bulk Temperature in 2D Models . . . . . . . . . 124

Ambient Properties 127

Settings for the Ambient Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Processing of ASHRAE Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Ambient Data Interpolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Ambient Variables and Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Use of Ambient Data From the Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

Modeling Heat Transfer by Radiation 143

Interfaces and Features for Radiation in Transparent Media . . . . . . 145
Interfaces and Features for Radiation in Participating Media . . . . . . 147

Specifying the Temperature at a Flow Inlet 150

Using the Temperature Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Using the Inflow Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Temperature Contribution to the Inflow Boundary Condition. . . . . 152
Pressure Contribution to the Inflow Boundary Condition . . . . . . 152
Choosing Between the Temperature and the Inflow Conditions . . . . 153

Heat Part Library 154

Heat Part Library Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Heat Sink — Parameterized Fin Types Part . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Heat Sink — Dissimilar Border Pins Part . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Heat Sink — Pin Fins Part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Heat Sink — Straight Fins Part. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

CONTENTS |5
 References 161

Chapter 4: Theory for the Heat Transfer Module

Foundations of the General Heat Transfer Equation 165

Thermodynamic Description of Heat Transfer. . . . . . . . . . . 165
The Physical Mechanisms Underlying Heat Transfer. . . . . . . . . 170
The Heat Balance Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Consistency with Mass and Momentum Conservation Laws. . . . . . 174

Theory for Heat Transfer in Solids 176

Theory for Heat Transfer in Fluids 177

Theory for the Inflow Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

Theory for Heat Transfer in Moist Air 180

Humidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Saturation State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Moist Air Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

Theory for Bioheat Transfer 187

The Bioheat Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Damaged Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

Theory for Heat Transfer in Porous Media 191

When Should Local Thermal Equilibrium and Nonequilibrium Be
Considered? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Local Thermal Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Local Thermal Nonequilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Packed Bed of Pellets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Theory for Heat Transfer in Moist Porous Media . . . . . . . . . 200

Theory for Heat Transfer with Phase Change 202

Heat Transfer with Phase Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Apparent Heat Capacity Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

6 | CONTENTS
Theory for Heat Transfer in Building Materials 208

Theory for Harmonic Heat Transfer 210

Theory for Lumped Isothermal Domain 212

Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures 215

Modeling Layered Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Theoretical Background of the Different Formulations . . . . . . . 220
Thin Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Thin Film . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Thin Rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

Theory for the Lumped Thermal System Interface 234

Temperature Differences and Heat Rates in the Lumped Thermal
System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Theory for the Conductive Thermal Resistor Component . . . . . . 236
Theory for the Radiative Thermal Resistor Component . . . . . . . 240
Theory for the Thermal Capacitor and Thermal Mass Components . . 242
Theory for the Heat Pipe Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Theory for the Thermoelectric Module Component . . . . . . . . 245

Theory for Surface-to-Surface Radiation 249

Deriving the Radiative Heat Flux for Opaque Surfaces . . . . . . . . 249
Deriving the Radiative Heat Flux for Semitransparent Surfaces . . . . 250
Wavelength Dependence of Surface Properties . . . . . . . . . . 252
Directional Dependence of Surface Properties . . . . . . . . . . 258
The Radiosity Method for Diffuse-Gray Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . 259
The Radiosity Method for Diffuse-Spectral Surfaces. . . . . . . . . 262
View Factor Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

Theory for Radiation in Participating Media 270

Radiation and Participating Media Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Radiative Transfer Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Boundary Condition for the Radiative Transfer Equation . . . . . . . 273
Heat Transfer Equation in Participating Media . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Discrete Ordinates Method (DOM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276

CONTENTS |7
 Discrete Ordinates Method Implementation in 2D . . . . . . . . . 278
P1 Approximation Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media Theory . . . . . . . . . . 283
Polychromatic Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Rosseland Approximation Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286

Theory for Moisture Transport 288

Theory for Moisture Transport in Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Theory for Moisture Transport in Porous Media . . . . . . . . . . 289
Theory for Moisture Transport in Building Materials . . . . . . . . 292

Theory for the Heat Transfer Multiphysics Couplings 295

Theory for the Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer
Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Theory for the Moisture Flow Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Theory for the Thermoelectric Effect Interface . . . . . . . . . . 308
Theory for the Building Materials Version of the Heat and Moisture
Transport Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Theory for the Moist Air Version of the Heat and Moisture
Transport Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Theory for the Moist Porous Media Version of the Heat and
Moisture Transport Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Theory for the Heat and Moisture Flow Interfaces . . . . . . . . . 313
Theory for the Electromagnetic Heating Interfaces . . . . . . . . . 313
Theory for the Thermal Stress Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314

Theory for Thermal Contact 315

Theory for the Thermal Contact Feature . . . . . . . . . . . . 315

Out-of-Plane Heat Transfer 320

Equation Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320

Convective Heat Transfer Correlations 323

Defining the Heat Transfer Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Nature of the Flow — The Grashof Number . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Heat Transfer Coefficients — External Natural Convection . . . . . 327
Heat Transfer Coefficients — Internal Natural Convection . . . . . . 334

8 | CONTENTS
 Heat Transfer Coefficients — External Forced Convection . . . . . . 335
Heat Transfer Coefficients — Internal Forced Convection . . . . . . 338
Using the Heat and Mass Transfer Analogy for the Evaluation of
Moisture Transfer Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339

Nucleate Pool Boiling Correlation 340

Rohsenow’s Correlation for Pool Nucleate Boiling . . . . . . . . . 340
Critical Heat Flux for Nucleate Boiling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341

Equivalent Thermal Conductivity Correlations 342

Horizontal Cavity With Bottom Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Vertical Cavity With Sidewall Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343

Temperature Dependence of Surface Tension 345

Heat Flux and Heat Balance 346

Total Heat Flux and Energy Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Heat and Energy Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347

Frames for the Heat Transfer Equations 350

Material and Spatial Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Conversion Between Material and Spatial Frames . . . . . . . . . 351

References 355

Chapter 5: The Heat Transfer Module Interfaces

About the Heat Transfer Interfaces 362

Space Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
Study Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Versions of the Heat Transfer Physics Interface . . . . . . . . . . 363
Benefits of the Different Heat Transfer Interfaces . . . . . . . . . 364
Versions of the Heat Transfer in Shells Physics Interface . . . . . . . 364
Benefits of the Different Heat Transfer in Shells Interfaces . . . . . . 365
Layer and Interface Selection Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Using the Extra Dimension Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369

CONTENTS |9
 Versions of the Moisture Transport Physics Interface . . . . . . . . 369
Benefits of the Different Moisture Transport Interfaces . . . . . . . 370
Additional Physics Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
Settings for the Heat Transfer Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer Interface . . . . . . . . . . 374
Settings for the Heat Transfer in Shells Interface . . . . . . . . . . 377
Settings for the Moisture Transport Interface . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Feature Nodes for the Moisture Transport Interface . . . . . . . . 384

The Heat Transfer in Solids Interface 385

The Heat Transfer in Fluids Interface 386

The Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids Interface 387

The Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface 388

The Local Thermal Nonequilibrium Interface 389

The Heat Transfer in Packed Beds Interface 391

The Heat Transfer in Moist Porous Media Interface 393

The Heat Transfer in Building Materials Interface 394

The Heat Transfer in Moist Air Interface 395

The Bioheat Transfer Interface 396

The Heat Transfer in Shells Interface 397

Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Shells Interface . . . . . . . 399

The Heat Transfer in Films Interface 402

Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Films Interface . . . . . . . 404

The Heat Transfer in Fractures Interface 407

Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Fractures Interface . . . . . 409

10 | C O N T E N T S
 The Lumped Thermal System Interface 412
Feature Nodes for the Lumped Thermal System Interface . . . . . . 413

The Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface 415

Settings for the Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface. . . . . . . . 415
Feature Nodes for the Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface . . . . . 422

The Radiation in Participating Media Interface 424

Settings for the Radiation in Participating Media Interface . . . . . . 424
Feature Nodes for the Radiation in Participating Media Interface . . . . 427

The Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media Interface 429

Settings for the Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media Interface . . . 429
Feature Nodes for the Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media
Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432

The Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media Interface 435

Settings for the Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media Interface . . . . . 435
Feature Nodes for the Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media Interface . . 436

The Moisture Transport in Air Interface 438

The Moisture Transport in Porous Media Interface 439

The Moisture Transport in Building Materials Interface 440

Chapter 6: The Heat Transfer Features

Domain Features 442

Absorbing Medium (Radiative Beam in Absorbing Medium Interface) . . 444
Absorbing-Scattering Medium (Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media
Interface) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
Bioheat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
Biological Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
Building Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
Convectively Enhanced Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459

CONTENTS | 11
 Cross Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
Fluid (Porous Medium) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
Geothermal Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
Heat Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
Immobile Fluids (Porous Medium) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
Initial Values (Radiative Beam in Absorbing Medium Interface) . . . . . 480
Initial Values (Radiation in Participating Media and Radiation in
Absorbing-Scattering Media Interfaces) . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
Irreversible Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
Isothermal Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
Liquid Water (Moist Porous Medium) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
Moist Air (Heat Transfer Interface) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Moist Air (Moist Porous Medium) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
Moist Porous Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
Opacity (Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface) . . . . . . . . . . 496
Optically Thick Participating Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
Out-of-Plane Heat Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
Out-of-Plane Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
Participating Medium (Radiation in Participating Media Interface) . . . . 503
Pellets (Porous Medium) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
Pellet-Fluid Interface (Porous Medium) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
Phase Change Material. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
Porous Matrix (Porous Medium, Moist Porous Medium) . . . . . . . 516
Porous Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
Pressure Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
Radiative Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
Shape Memory Alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
Solid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
Thermal Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
Thermal Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
Thermoelastic Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
Thickness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
Translational Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
Viscous Dissipation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546

12 | C O N T E N T S
Boundary Features 548
Boundary Heat Source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
Continuity (Radiation in Participating Media and Radiation in
Absorbing-Scattering Media Interfaces) . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
Continuity on Interior Boundary (Radiation in Participating Media and
Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media Interfaces) . . . . . . . 554
Deposited Beam Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
Diffuse Mirror (Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface) . . . . . . . 557
Diffuse Surface (Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface) . . . . . . . 558
External Temperature (Thin Layer, Thin Film, Fracture) . . . . . . . 565
Fracture (Heat Transfer Interface) and Porous Medium (Heat Transfer
in Shells Interface) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
Harmonic Perturbation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
Heat Flux. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
Heat Source (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface) . . . . . . . . . . 577
Heat Source (Thin Layer, Thin Film, Fracture) . . . . . . . . . . . 579
Incident Intensity (Radiation in Participating Media and Radiation in
Absorbing-Scattering Media Interfaces) . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
Incident Intensity (Radiative Beam in Absorbing Medium Interface) . . . 584
Inflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
Initial Values (Thin Layer, Thin Film, Fracture, and Heat Transfer in
Shells Interface) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
Initial Values (Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface) . . . . . . . . 590
Isothermal Domain Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
Layer Opacity (Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface) . . . . . . . 595
Line Heat Source on Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596
Local Thermal Nonequilibrium Boundary. . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
Lumped System Connector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598
Opaque Surface (Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface) . . . . . . . 599
Opaque Surface (Radiation in Participating Media and Radiation in
Absorbing-Scattering Media Interfaces) . . . . . . . . . . . . 602
Opaque Surface (Radiative Beam in Absorbing Medium Interface) . . . 606
Open Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
Outflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608
Periodic Condition (Heat Transfer Interface) . . . . . . . . . . . 609
Periodic Condition (Radiation in Participating Media and Radiation in
Absorbing-Scattering Media Interfaces) . . . . . . . . . . . . 610

CONTENTS | 13
 Phase Change Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
Phase Change Interface, Exterior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
Prescribed Radiosity (Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface) . . . . . 617
Radiation Group (Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface) . . . . . . 621
Semitransparent Surface (Radiation in Participating Media and
Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media Interfaces) . . . . . . . 623
Semitransparent Surface (Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface). . . . 628
Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Heat Transfer Interface) . . . . . . . 632
Symmetry (Heat Transfer Interface). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634
Symmetry (Radiation in Participating Media and Radiation in
Absorbing-Scattering Media Interfaces) . . . . . . . . . . . . 635
Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635
Thermal Contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
Thermal Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642
Thin Film (Heat Transfer Interface) and Fluid (Heat Transfer in
Shells Interface) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
Thin Layer (Heat Transfer Interface) and Solid (Heat Transfer in
Shells Interface) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
Transparent Surface (Radiative Beam in Absorbing Medium Interface) . . 653

Boundary Interface Features 654

Deposited Beam Power, Interface (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface) . . 654
Heat Flux, Interface (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface) . . . . . . . 657
Heat Source, Interface (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface) . . . . . . 660
Lumped System Connector, Interface (Heat Transfer in Shells
Interface) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
Surface-to-Ambient Radiation, Interface (Heat Transfer in Shells
Interface) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
Temperature, Interface (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface) . . . . . . 668
Thermal Contact, Interface (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface). . . . . 670
Thermal Insulation, Interface (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface) . . . . 673

Edge Features 675

Heat Flux (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface) . . . . . . . . . . . 675
Heat Flux (Thin Layer, Thin Film, Fracture) . . . . . . . . . . . . 678
Heat Source (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface) . . . . . . . . . . 681
Line Heat Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684
Lumped System Connector (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface) . . . . 686

14 | C O N T E N T S
Shell Continuity (Heat Transfer Interface) and Continuity (Heat
Transfer in Shells Interface) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688
Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin Layer, Thin Film, Fracture, and
Heat Transfer in Shells Interface) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689
Symmetry (Thin Layer, Thin Film, Fracture, and Heat Transfer in
Shells Interface) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692
Temperature (Thin Layer, Thin Film, Fracture, and Heat Transfer in
Shells Interface) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694
Thermal Insulation (Thin Layer, Thin Film, Fracture, and Heat
Transfer in Shells Interface) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 696
Thin Rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698

Point Features 700

Point Heat Flux (Thin Rod) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
Point Heat Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701
Point Heat Source on Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702
Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin Rod) . . . . . . . . . . . . 703
Temperature (Thin Rod) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705

Global Features 706

Conductive Thermal Resistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706
Convective Thermal Resistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710
External Radiation Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712
Symmetry for Surface-to-Surface Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . 718
External Terminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 722
Heat Pipe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723
Heat Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 726
Heat Rate Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
Nucleate Boiling Heat Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 730
Radiative Heat Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731
Radiative Thermal Resistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733
Subsystem Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 734
Subsystem Instance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735
Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736
Thermal Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736
Thermal Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 738
Thermoelectric Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739

CONTENTS | 15
 Chapter 7: The Moisture Transport Features

Domain Features 746

Building Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 746
Hygroscopic Porous Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 752
Liquid Water (Hygroscopic Porous Medium) . . . . . . . . . . . 752
Moist Air (Hygroscopic Porous Medium). . . . . . . . . . . . . 754
Moist Air (Moisture Transport Interface). . . . . . . . . . . . . 755
Moisture Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 758
Porous Matrix (Hygroscopic Porous Medium) . . . . . . . . . . . 758
Turbulent Mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 760

Boundary Features 761

Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761
Inflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 762
Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764
Moist Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764
Moisture Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 766
Moisture Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 768
Open Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 770
Outflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 772
Periodic Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774
Thin Moisture Barrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774
Wet Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 776

Global Features 778

Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 778

Chapter 8: Multiphysics Interfaces

The Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer

Interfaces 782
Advantages of Using the Multiphysics Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . 782

16 | C O N T E N T S
The Nonisothermal Flow, Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow
Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783
The Conjugate Heat Transfer, Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow
Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784
Settings for Physics Interfaces and Coupling Features . . . . . . . . 785
Coupling Feature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 786
Physics Interface Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 786
Preset Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 787

The Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface

789
The Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation Multiphysics
Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 789
Physics Interface Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791
Coupling Feature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791

The Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media

Interface 792
The Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media Multiphysics
Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 792
Physics Interface Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 793
Coupling Feature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 794

The Heat Transfer with Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering

Media Interface 795
The Heat Transfer with Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media
Multiphysics Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795
Physics Interface Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 796
Coupling Feature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 797

The Heat Transfer with Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media

Interface 798
The Heat Transfer with Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media
Multiphysics Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 798
Physics Interface Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 799
Coupling Feature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 799

CONTENTS | 17
 The Thermoelectric Effect Interface 800
About The Thermoelectric Effect Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . 800
Settings for Physics Interfaces and Coupling Features . . . . . . . . 801
Coupling Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 802
Physics Interface Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803

The Heat and Moisture Transport Interfaces 804

The Heat and Moisture Transport Multiphysics Interfaces . . . . . . 804
The Moist Air Version of the Heat and Moisture Transport
Multiphysics Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 805
The Moist Porous Media Version of the Heat and Moisture
Transport Multiphysics Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 806
The Building Materials Version of the Heat and Moisture Transport
Multiphysics Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 808
Physics Interface Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 810
Coupling Feature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 810

The Moisture Flow Interfaces 811

The Moisture Flow, Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow Multiphysics
Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811
Physics Interface Features for the Laminar and Turbulent Flow
Versions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 814
The Moisture Flow, Brinkman Equations Multiphysics Interface . . . . 815
Physics Interface Features for the Brinkman Equations Version . . . . 816
Preset Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 816
Coupling Feature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 816

The Heat and Moisture Flow Interfaces 817

The Heat and Moisture Flow, Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow
Multiphysics Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 817
Physics Interface Features for the Laminar and Turbulent Flow
Versions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821
The Heat and Moisture Flow, Brinkman Equations Interface . . . . . 822
Physics Interface Features for the Brinkman Equations Version . . . . 825
Coupling Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825

The Joule Heating Interface 826

The Joule Heating Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 826

18 | C O N T E N T S
 Coupling Feature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 826

The Laser Heating Interface 827

The Laser Heating Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827
Coupling Feature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827

The Induction Heating Interface 828

The Induction Heating Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 828
Coupling Feature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 828

The Microwave Heating Interface 829

The Microwave Heating Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 829
Coupling Feature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 829

Chapter 9: Multiphysics Couplings

Domain Multiphysics Couplings 833

Electromagnetic Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 833
Heat and Moisture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 834
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media . . . . . . . . . 837
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media . . . . . 839
Heat Transfer with Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media . . . . . . . 840
Moisture Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 841
Nonisothermal Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 845
Thermal Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851
Thermoelectric Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851

Boundary Multiphysics Couplings 855

Electromagnetic Heating, Layered Shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . 855
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation . . . . . . . . . . 856
Layered Thermal Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 859
Marangoni Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 859
Thermoelectric Effect, Layered Shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 861

Index 865

CONTENTS | 19
20 | C O N T E N T S
 1

Introduction

This guide describes the Heat Transfer Module, an optional package that extends
the COMSOL Multiphysics® modeling environment with customized physics
interfaces for the analysis of heat transfer.

This chapter introduces you to the capabilities of this module. A summary of the
physics interfaces and where you can find documentation and model examples is
also included. The last section is a brief overview with links to each chapter in this
guide.

• About the Heat Transfer Module

• Overview of the User’s Guide

21
 About the Heat Transfer Module
In this section:

• Why Heat Transfer Is Important to Modeling

• How the Heat Transfer Module Improves Your Modeling
• The Heat Transfer Module Physics Interface Guide
• Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes
• The Heat Transfer Module Study Capabilities
• Additional Materials Database
• Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries?

The Physics Interfaces and Building a COMSOL Multiphysics Model in

the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Why Heat Transfer Is Important to Modeling

The Heat Transfer Module is an optional package that extends the COMSOL
Multiphysics modeling environment with customized physics interfaces and
functionality optimized for the analysis of heat transfer. It is developed for a wide
audience including researchers, developers, teachers, and students. To assist users at all
levels of expertise, this module comes with a library of ready-to-run examples that
appear in the companion Heat Transfer Module Applications Libraries.

Heat transfer is involved in almost every kind of physical process, and can in fact be the
limiting factor for many processes. Therefore, its study is of vital importance, and the
need for powerful heat transfer analysis tools is virtually universal. Furthermore, heat
transfer often appears together with, or as a result of, other physical phenomena.

The modeling of heat transfer effects has become increasingly important in product
design including areas such as electronics, automotive, and medical industries.
Computer simulation has allowed engineers and researchers to optimize process
efficiency and explore new designs, while at the same time reducing the need for costly
experimental trials.

22 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
How the Heat Transfer Module Improves Your Modeling
The Heat Transfer Module has been developed to greatly expand upon the base
capabilities available in COMSOL Multiphysics. The module supports all fundamental
mechanisms including conductive, convective, and radiative heat transfer. Using the
physics interfaces in this module along with the inherent multiphysics capabilities of
COMSOL Multiphysics, you can model a temperature field in parallel with other
physics — a versatile combination increasing the accuracy and predicting power of your
models.

This book introduces the basic modeling process. The different physics interfaces are
described and the modeling strategy for various cases is discussed. These sections cover
different combinations of conductive, convective, and radiative heat transfer. This
guide also reviews special modeling techniques for thin layers, thin shells, participating
media, and out-of-plane heat transfer. Throughout the guide the topics and examples
increase in complexity by combining several heat transfer mechanisms and also by
coupling these to physics interfaces describing fluid flow — conjugate heat transfer.

Another source of information is the Heat Transfer Module Applications Libraries, a

set of fully-documented examples that is divided into broadly defined application areas
where heat transfer plays an important role — electronics and power systems,
processing and manufacturing, and medical technology — and includes tutorial and
verification models.

Most of the examples involve multiple heat transfer mechanisms and are often coupled
to other physical phenomena, for example, fluid dynamics, moisture transport, or
electromagnetics. The authors developed several state-of-the art examples by
reproducing examples that have appeared in international scientific journals. See
Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries?.

The Heat Transfer Module Physics Interface Guide

The table below lists all the physics interfaces specifically available with this module.
Having this module also enhances these COMSOL Multiphysics basic interfaces: Heat
Transfer in Fluids, Heat Transfer in Solids, Joule Heating, and the Single-Phase Flow,
Laminar interface.

ABOUT THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE | 23

 If you have a Subsurface Flow Module combined with the Heat Transfer Module, this
module also enhances the Heat Transfer in Porous Media interface.

The Nonisothermal Flow, Laminar Flow (nitf) and Nonisothermal Flow,

Turbulent Flow (nitf) interfaces found under the Fluid
Flow>Nonisothermal Flow branch are identical to the Conjugate Heat
Transfer interfaces (Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow) found under the
Heat Transfer>Conjugate Heat Transfer branch. The difference is that Fluid
is the default domain node for the Nonisothermal Flow interfaces.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Studies and Solvers

• The Physics Interfaces
• For a list of all the core physics interfaces included with a COMSOL
Multiphysics license, see Physics Interface Guide.

PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE PRESET STUDY

DIMENSION TYPE

Chemical Species Transport

Moisture Transport

Moisture Transport in mt all dimensions stationary; time dependent

Air
Moisture Transport in mt all dimensions stationary; time dependent
Porous Media
Moisture Transport in mt all dimensions stationary; time dependent
Building Materials
Moisture Flow

Laminar Flow(2) — all dimensions stationary; time dependent

Turbulent Flow

24 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE PRESET STUDY
DIMENSION TYPE

Turbulent Flow, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with

Algebraic yPlus(2) axisymmetric initialization; transient with
initialization
Turbulent Flow, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
L-VEL(2) axisymmetric initialization; transient with
initialization
Turbulent Flow, k-ε(2) — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
axisymmetric
Turbulent Flow, Low — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
Re k-ε(2) axisymmetric initialization; transient with
initialization
Porous Media Flow(2) — all dimensions stationary; time dependent

Fluid Flow

Single-Phase Flow

Laminar Flow(1) spf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

axisymmetric
Turbulent Flow

Turbulent Flow, spf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with

Algebraic yPlus axisymmetric initialization; transient with
initialization
Turbulent Flow, L-VEL spf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
axisymmetric initialization; transient with
initialization
Turbulent Flow, k-ε spf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
axisymmetric
Turbulent Flow, Low spf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
Re k-ε axisymmetric initialization; transient with
initialization
Nonisothermal Flow

Laminar Flow(1,2) — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

axisymmetric

ABOUT THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE | 25

 PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE PRESET STUDY
DIMENSION TYPE

Turbulent Flow

Turbulent Flow, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with

Algebraic yPlus(2) axisymmetric initialization; transient with
initialization
Turbulent Flow, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
L-VEL(2) axisymmetric initialization; transient with
initialization
Turbulent Flow, k-ε(2) — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
axisymmetric
Turbulent Flow, Low — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
Re k-ε(2) axisymmetric initialization; transient with
initialization
Heat Transfer

Heat Transfer in Solids(1) ht all dimensions stationary; time dependent;

thermal perturbation,
frequency domain; thermal
perturbation,
eigenfrequency
Heat Transfer in Fluids(1) ht all dimensions stationary; time dependent;
thermal perturbation,
frequency domain; thermal
perturbation,
eigenfrequency
Heat Transfer in Solids and ht all dimensions stationary; time dependent;
Fluids(1) thermal perturbation,
frequency domain; thermal
perturbation,
eigenfrequency
Conjugate Heat Transfer

Laminar Flow(1,2) — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;

axisymmetric stationary, one-way NITF;
time dependent, one-way
NITF; thermal
perturbation, frequency
domain

26 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE PRESET STUDY
DIMENSION TYPE

Turbulent Flow

Turbulent Flow, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with

Algebraic yPlus(2) axisymmetric initialization; transient with
initialization; stationary,
one-way NITF; time
dependent, one-way NITF
Turbulent Flow, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
L-VEL(2) axisymmetric initialization; transient with
initialization; stationary,
one-way NITF; time
dependent, one-way NITF
Turbulent Flow, k-ε(2) — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;
axisymmetric stationary, one-way NITF;
time dependent, one-way
NITF; thermal
perturbation, frequency
domain
Turbulent Flow, Low — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;
Re k-ε(2) axisymmetric stationary, one-way NITF;
time dependent, one-way
NITF; thermal
perturbation, frequency
domain
Radiation

Heat Transfer with — all dimensions stationary; time dependent;

Surface-to-Surface thermal perturbation,
Radiation(2) frequency domain
Heat Transfer with — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;
Radiation in axisymmetric thermal perturbation,
Participating Media(2) frequency domain
Heat Transfer with — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;
Radiation in axisymmetric thermal perturbation,
Absorbing-Scattering frequency domain
Media(2)
Heat Transfer with — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;
Radiative Beam in axisymmetric thermal perturbation,
Absorbing Media(2) frequency domain

ABOUT THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE | 27

 PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE PRESET STUDY
DIMENSION TYPE

Surface-to-Surface rad all dimensions stationary; time dependent

Radiation
Radiation in rpm 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
Participating Media axisymmetric
Radiation in rasm 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
Absorbing-Scattering axisymmetric
Media
Radiative Beam in rbam 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
Absorbing Media axisymmetric
Electromagnetic Heating

Joule Heating(1,2) — all dimensions stationary; time dependent;

thermal perturbation,
frequency domain
Lumped Thermal System lts all dimensions stationary; time dependent

Thin Structures

Heat Transfer in Shells htlsh 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;

axisymmetric thermal perturbation,
frequency domain; thermal
perturbation,
eigenfrequency
Heat Transfer in Films htlsh 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;
axisymmetric thermal perturbation,
frequency domain; thermal
perturbation,
eigenfrequency
Heat Transfer in htlsh 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;
Fractures axisymmetric thermal perturbation,
frequency domain; thermal
perturbation,
eigenfrequency
Heat and Moisture Transport

28 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE PRESET STUDY
DIMENSION TYPE

Moist Air(2) — all dimensions stationary; time dependent;

thermal perturbation,
frequency domain
Moist Porous Media(2) — all dimensions stationary; time dependent;
thermal perturbation,
frequency domain
Building Materials(2) — all dimensions stationary; time dependent;
thermal perturbation,
frequency domain
Heat and Moisture Flow

Laminar Flow(2) — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;

axisymmetric stationary, one-way NITF;
time dependent, one-way
NITF; one-way MF; time
dependent, one-way MF;
thermal perturbation,
frequency domain
Turbulent Flow

Turbulent Flow, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with

Algebraic yPlus(2) axisymmetric initialization; transient with
initialization; stationary,
one-way NITF; time
dependent, one-way NITF;
one-way MF; time
dependent, one-way MF
Turbulent Flow, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
L-VEL(2) axisymmetric initialization; transient with
initialization; stationary,
one-way NITF; time
dependent, one-way NITF;
one-way MF; time
dependent, one-way MF

ABOUT THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE | 29

 PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE PRESET STUDY
DIMENSION TYPE

Turbulent Flow, k-ε(2) — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;

axisymmetric stationary, one-way NITF;
time dependent, one-way
NITF; one-way MF; time
dependent, one-way MF;
thermal perturbation,
frequency domain
Turbulent Flow, Low — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;
Re k-ε(2) axisymmetric stationary, one-way NITF;
time dependent, one-way
NITF; one-way MF; time
dependent, one-way MF;
thermal perturbation,
frequency domain
Porous Media Flow(2) — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;
axisymmetric stationary, one-way NITF;
time dependent, one-way
NITF; one-way MF; time
dependent, one-way MF;
thermal perturbation,
frequency domain
Porous Media

Heat Transfer in ht all dimensions stationary; time dependent;

Porous Media thermal perturbation,
frequency domain; thermal
perturbation,
eigenfrequency
Local Thermal ht all dimensions stationary; time dependent;
Nonequilibrium thermal perturbation,
frequency domain; thermal
perturbation,
eigenfrequency
Heat Transfer in ht all dimensions stationary; time dependent;
Packed Beds thermal perturbation,
frequency domain; thermal
perturbation,
eigenfrequency

30 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE PRESET STUDY
DIMENSION TYPE

Bioheat Transfer ht all dimensions stationary; time dependent;

thermal perturbation,
frequency domain; thermal
perturbation,
eigenfrequency
Thermoelectric Effect(2) — all dimensions stationary; time dependent;
thermal perturbation,
frequency domain
(1)
This physics interface is included with the core COMSOL package but has added
functionality for this module.
(2)
This physics interface is a predefined multiphysics coupling that automatically adds all the
physics interfaces and coupling features required.

Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes

There are several common settings and sections available for the physics interfaces and
feature nodes. Some of these sections also have similar settings or are implemented in
the same way no matter the physics interface or feature being used. There are also some
physics feature nodes that display in COMSOL Multiphysics.

In each module’s documentation, only unique or extra information is included;

standard information and procedures are centralized in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for

links to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes.
You can also search for information: press F1 to open the Help
window or Ctrl+F1 to open the Documentation window.

The Heat Transfer Module Study Capabilities

Table 1-1 lists the Preset Studies available for the physics interfaces most relevant to
this module.

Studies and Solvers in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

ABOUT THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE | 31

 TABLE 1-1: HEAT TRANSFER MODULE DEPENDENT VARIABLES AND PRESET STUDY AVAILABILITY
1
PHYSICS INTERFACE NAME DEPENDENT PRESET STUDIES
VARIABLES

THERMAL PERTURBATION, FREQUENCY

STATIONARY WITH INITIALIZATION

TRANSIENT WITH INITIALIZATION

THERMAL PERTURBATION,
EIGENFREQUENCY
TIME DEPENDENT
STATIONARY

DOMAIN
CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT>MOISTURE TRANSPORT

Moisture Transport in Air mt φ √ √

Moisture Transport in Porous mt φ √ √
Media
Moisture Transport in Building mt φ √ √
Materials
CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT>MOISTURE FLOW

Laminar Flow(2) — u, p, φ √ √
Turbulent flow, Algebraic — u, p, G, √ √
yPlus(2) yPlus, φ
Turbulent flow, L-VEL(2) — u, p, G, √ √
uPlus, φ
Turbulent Flow, k-ε(2) — u, p, k, ep, φ √ √
(2)
Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε — u, p, k, ep, G, √ √
φ
Porous Media Flow(2) — u, p, φ √ √
FLUID FLOW>SINGLE-PHASE FLOW

Laminar Flow spf u, p √ √

Turbulent flow, Algebraic yPlus spf u, p, G, yPlus √ √
Turbulent flow, L-VEL spf u, p, G, √ √
uPlus
Turbulent Flow, k-ε spf u, p, k, ep √ √

32 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
TABLE 1-1: HEAT TRANSFER MODULE DEPENDENT VARIABLES AND PRESET STUDY AVAILABILITY
1
PHYSICS INTERFACE NAME DEPENDENT PRESET STUDIES
VARIABLES

THERMAL PERTURBATION, FREQUENCY

STATIONARY WITH INITIALIZATION

TRANSIENT WITH INITIALIZATION

THERMAL PERTURBATION,
EIGENFREQUENCY
TIME DEPENDENT
STATIONARY

DOMAIN
Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε spf u, p, k, ep, G √ √
FLUID FLOW>NONISOTHERMAL FLOW

Laminar Flow(2) — u, p, T √ √
Turbulent flow, Algebraic — u, p, G, √ √
yPlus(2) yPlus, T
Turbulent flow, L-VEL(2) — u, p, G, √ √
uPlus, T
Turbulent Flow, k-ε(2) — u, p, k, ep, T √ √
(2)
Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε — u, p, k, ep, G, √ √
T
HEAT TRANSFER

Heat Transfer in Solids ht T √ √ √ √

Heat Transfer in Fluids ht T √ √ √ √
Heat Transfer in Solids and ht T √ √ √ √
Fluids
HEAT TRANSFER>CONJUGATE HEAT TRANSFER

Laminar Flow(2) — u, p, T √ √
Turbulent flow, Algebraic — u, p, G, √ √
yPlus(2) yPlus, T
Turbulent flow, L-VEL(2) — u, p, G, √ √
uPlus, T
Turbulent Flow, k-ε(2) — u, p, k, ep, T √ √
(2)
Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε — u, p, k, ep, G, √ √
T

ABOUT THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE | 33

 TABLE 1-1: HEAT TRANSFER MODULE DEPENDENT VARIABLES AND PRESET STUDY AVAILABILITY
1
PHYSICS INTERFACE NAME DEPENDENT PRESET STUDIES
VARIABLES

THERMAL PERTURBATION, FREQUENCY

STATIONARY WITH INITIALIZATION

TRANSIENT WITH INITIALIZATION

THERMAL PERTURBATION,
EIGENFREQUENCY
TIME DEPENDENT
STATIONARY

DOMAIN
HEAT TRANSFER>RADIATION

Heat Transfer with — T, J √ √ √ √

Surface-to-Surface Radiation(2)
Heat Transfer with Radiation in — T, I (radiative √ √ √ √
Participating Media(2) intensity)
Heat Transfer with Radiation in — T, I (radiative √ √ √ √
Absorbing-Scattering Media(2) intensity)
Heat Transfer with Radiative — T, I (radiative √ √ √ √
Beam in Absorbing Media(2) intensity)
Surface-to-Surface Radiation rad J √ √
Radiation in Participating rpm I (radiative √ √
Media intensity)
Radiation in rasm I (radiative √ √
Absorbing-Scattering Media intensity)
Radiative Beam in Absorbing rbam I (radiative √ √
Media intensity)
HEAT TRANSFER>ELECTROMAGNETIC HEATING

Joule Heating(2) — T, V √ √ √
Lumped Thermal System lts not applicable √ √
HEAT TRANSFER>THIN STRUCURES

Heat Transfer in Shells htlsh T √ √ √ √

Heat Transfer in Films htlsh T √ √ √ √
Heat Transfer in Fractures htlsh T √ √ √ √
HEAT TRANSFER>HEAT AND MOISTURE TRANSPORT

34 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
TABLE 1-1: HEAT TRANSFER MODULE DEPENDENT VARIABLES AND PRESET STUDY AVAILABILITY
1
PHYSICS INTERFACE NAME DEPENDENT PRESET STUDIES
VARIABLES

THERMAL PERTURBATION, FREQUENCY

STATIONARY WITH INITIALIZATION

TRANSIENT WITH INITIALIZATION

THERMAL PERTURBATION,
EIGENFREQUENCY
TIME DEPENDENT
STATIONARY

DOMAIN
Moist Air(2) — T, φ √ √
(2)
Moist Porous Media — T, φ √ √
(2)
Building Materials — T, φ √ √
HEAT TRANSFER>HEAT AND MOISTURE TRANSPORT>HEAT AND MOISTURE FLOW

Laminar Flow(2) — u, p, T, φ √ √
Turbulent flow, Algebraic — u, p, G, √ √
yPlus(2) yPlus, T, φ
Turbulent flow, L-VEL(2) — u, p, G, √ √
uPlus, T, φ
Turbulent Flow, k-ε(2) — u, p, k, ep, T, √ √
φ
Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε(2) — u, p, k, ep, G, √ √
T, φ
Porous Media Flow(2) — u, p, T, φ √ √
Heat Transfer in Porous Media ht T √ √ √ √
Local Thermal Nonequilibrium ht T √ √ √ √
Heat Transfer in Packed Beds ht T √ √ √ √
Bioheat Transfer ht T √ √ √ √
(2)
Thermoelectric Effect — T √ √ √ √
1
Custom studies are also available based on the physics interface.
2 Multiphysics interfaces.

ABOUT THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE | 35

 Additional Materials Database
The Heat Transfer Module includes additional material databases:

• The Liquids and Gases material database provides temperature-dependent fluid

dynamic and thermal properties (dynamic viscosity, heat capacity at constant
pressure, density, and thermal conductivity).
• The Bioheat material database contains materials used with the Bioheat Transfer
interface. In addition to thermal properties (heat capacity at constant pressure,
density, and thermal conductivity), properties for thermal damage analysis of
biological tissues are provided.
• The Building material database contains hygroscopic and thermal properties for
materials used with the Moisture Transport interface.

For detailed information, see Liquids and Gases Materials Library,

Bioheat Materials Library, Building Material Library, and Materials in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries?

A number of internet resources have more information about COMSOL, including
licensing and technical information. The electronic documentation, topic-based (or
context-based) help, and the application libraries are all accessed through the
COMSOL Desktop.

If you are reading the documentation as a PDF file on your computer,

the blue links do not work to open an application or content
referenced in a different guide. However, if you are using the Help
system in COMSOL Multiphysics, these links work to open other
modules, application examples, and documentation sets.

THE DOCUMENTATION AND ONLINE HELP

The COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual describes the core physics interfaces
and functionality included with the COMSOL Multiphysics license. This book also has
instructions about how to use COMSOL Multiphysics and how to access the
electronic Documentation and Help content.

36 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Opening Topic-Based Help
The Help window is useful as it is connected to the features in the COMSOL Desktop.
To learn more about a node in the Model Builder, or a window on the Desktop, click
to highlight a node or window, then press F1 to open the Help window, which then
displays information about that feature (or click a node in the Model Builder followed
by the Help button ( ). This is called topic-based (or context) help.

To open the Help window:

• In the Model Builder, Application Builder, or Physics Builder click a node or

window and then press F1.
• On any toolbar (for example, Home, Definitions, or Geometry), hover the
mouse over a button (for example, Add Physics or Build All) and then
press F1.
• From the File menu, click Help ( ).
• In the upper-right corner of the COMSOL Desktop, click the Help ( )
button.

To open the Help window:

• In the Model Builder or Physics Builder click a node or window and then
press F1.
• On the main toolbar, click the Help ( ) button.
• From the main menu, select Help>Help.

Opening the Documentation Window

To open the Documentation window:

• Press Ctrl+F1.
• From the File menu select Help>Documentation ( ).

ABOUT THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE | 37

 To open the Documentation window:

• Press Ctrl+F1.
• On the main toolbar, click the Documentation ( ) button.
• From the main menu, select Help>Documentation.

THE APPLICATION LIBRARIES WINDOW

Each model or application includes documentation with the theoretical background
and step-by-step instructions to create a model or application. The models and
applications are available in COMSOL Multiphysics as MPH files that you can open
for further investigation. You can use the step-by-step instructions and the actual
models as templates for your own modeling. In most models, SI units are used to
describe the relevant properties, parameters, and dimensions, but other unit systems
are available.

Once the Application Libraries window is opened, you can search by name or browse
under a module folder name. Click to view a summary of the model or application and
its properties, including options to open it or its associated PDF document.

The Application Libraries Window in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual.

Opening the Application Libraries Window

To open the Application Libraries window ( ):

• From the Home toolbar, Windows menu, click ( ) Applications

Libraries.
• From the File menu select Application Libraries.

To include the latest versions of model examples, from the File>Help

menu, select ( ) Update COMSOL Application Library.

Select Application Libraries from the main File> or Windows> menus.

To include the latest versions of model examples, from the Help menu
select ( ) Update COMSOL Application Library.

38 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
CONTACTING COMSOL BY EMAIL
For general product information, contact COMSOL at [email protected].

COMSOL ACCESS AND TECHNICAL SUPPORT

To receive technical support from COMSOL for the COMSOL products, please
contact your local COMSOL representative or send your questions to
[email protected]. An automatic notification and a case number are sent to you by
email. You can also access technical support, software updates, license information, and
other resources by registering for a COMSOL Access account.

COMSOL ONLINE RESOURCES

COMSOL website www.comsol.com

Contact COMSOL www.comsol.com/contact
COMSOL Access www.comsol.com/access
Support Center www.comsol.com/support
Product Download www.comsol.com/product-download
Product Updates www.comsol.com/support/updates
COMSOL Blog www.comsol.com/blogs
Discussion Forum www.comsol.com/community
Events www.comsol.com/events
COMSOL Application Gallery www.comsol.com/models
COMSOL Video Gallery www.comsol.com/video
Support Knowledge Base www.comsol.com/support/knowledgebase

ABOUT THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE | 39

 Overview of the User’s Guide
This Heat Transfer Module User’s Guide gets you started with modeling heat transfer
using COMSOL Multiphysics. The information in this guide is specific to this module.
Instructions on how to use COMSOL in general are included with the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

As detailed in the section Where Do I Access the Documentation and

Application Libraries? this information can also be searched from the
COMSOL Multiphysics Help menu in the COMSOL Desktop.

TABLE OF CONTENTS, NOTATIONS AND INDEX

To help you navigate through this guide, see the Contents, Notations, and Index.

MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

The Modeling with the Heat Transfer Module chapter includes the following topics:

• Heat Transfer Variables

• Moisture Transport Variables
• Using the Boundary Conditions for the Heat Transfer Interfaces
• Handling Frames in Heat Transfer
• Heat Transfer Consistent and Inconsistent Stabilization Methods
• Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow Coupling
• Boundary Wall Temperature
• Solver Settings
• Plotting and Evaluating Results in Layered Materials
• Ambient Properties
• Modeling Heat Transfer by Radiation
• Heat Part Library

THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

The Theory for the Heat Transfer Module chapter includes the theory related to the
heat transfer and moisture transport interfaces and multiphysics interfaces, and also to
some nodes.

40 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
After the establishment of the heat balance equation from the energy conservation laws
in Foundations of the General Heat Transfer Equation, the various versions of the heat
equation solved in COMSOL Multiphysics are presented in the following sections:

• Theory for Heat Transfer in Solids

• Theory for Heat Transfer in Fluids
• Theory for Bioheat Transfer
• Theory for Heat Transfer in Porous Media
• Theory for Heat Transfer with Phase Change
• Theory for Heat Transfer in Building Materials
• Theory for Harmonic Heat Transfer
• Theory for Lumped Isothermal Domain
• Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures
• Theory for the Lumped Thermal System Interface
• Theory for Surface-to-Surface Radiation
• Theory for Radiation in Participating Media
• Theory for Moisture Transport

Then the theory related to multiphysics interfaces is described in the section Theory
for the Heat Transfer Multiphysics Couplings.

Finally, topics related to specific features or variables are treated in the sections Theory
for Thermal Contact, Theory for Heat Transfer in Moist Air, Out-of-Plane Heat
Transfer, Convective Heat Transfer Correlations, Equivalent Thermal Conductivity
Correlations, Temperature Dependence of Surface Tension, Heat Flux and Heat
Balance, and Frames for the Heat Transfer Equations.

THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE INTERFACES

The chapter The Heat Transfer Module Interfaces describes the main Heat Transfer
interface (ht) that forms the backbone for all the fundamental interfaces in this
module, and the other interfaces (Heat Transfer in Shells (htlsh), Radiation in
Participating Media (rpm), Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media (rasm), Radiative
Beam in Absorbing Media (rbam), Surface-to-Surface Radiation (rad), and Moisture
Transport (mt)).

The sections The Heat Transfer in Solids Interface, The Heat Transfer in Fluids
Interface, and The Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids Interface discuss modeling heat
transfer in solids and fluids.

OVERVIEW OF THE USER’S GUIDE | 41

 The sections The Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface, The Local Thermal
Nonequilibrium Interface, and The Heat Transfer in Moist Porous Media Interface
discuss modeling heat transfer in porous media.

The particular case of heat transfer in moist air and building materials is considered in
the sections The Heat Transfer in Moist Air Interface and The Heat Transfer in
Building Materials Interface.

The section The Bioheat Transfer Interface discusses modeling heat transfer within
biological tissue using the Bioheat Transfer interface.

The sections The Heat Transfer in Shells Interface, The Heat Transfer in Films
Interface, and The Heat Transfer in Fractures Interface describe the physics interfaces
which are suitable for solving thermal conduction, convection, and radiation problems
in layered materials defined on boundaries.

The section The Lumped Thermal System Interface describes the modeling of heat
transfer in a system using a thermal network representation.

The sections The Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface, The Radiation in

Participating Media Interface, The Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media
Interface, and The Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media Interface discuss the modeling
of radiative heat transfer in transparent and participating media.

Finally, the sections The Moisture Transport in Air Interface, The Moisture Transport
in Porous Media Interface, and The Moisture Transport in Building Materials
Interface describe the modeling of moisture transfer in a porous medium through
moisture storage, vapor diffusion and capillary moisture flows; or in air, through
convection and diffusion.

THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

The chapter The Heat Transfer Features describes the Domain Features, Boundary
Features, Edge Features, Point Features, and Global Features available with the Heat
Transfer interfaces.

THE MOISTURE TRANSPORT FEATURES

The Moisture Transport Features chapter describes the Domain Features and
Boundary Features available with the Moisture Transport interface.

THE HEAT TRANSFER MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

The Multiphysics Interfaces chapter describes the predefined multiphysics interfaces.

42 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
The chapter The Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer Interfaces
describes the multiphysics versions of both the Nonisothermal Flow Laminar Flow and
Turbulent Flow interfaces found under the Fluid Flow branch, which are identical to
the Conjugate Heat Transfer interfaces. Each section describes the applicable physics
interfaces in detail and concludes with the underlying theory.

The section The Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface describes
the predefined multiphysics interface used to model heat transfer by conduction,
convection, and radiation in a transparent media.

The section The Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media Interface
describes the predefined multiphysics interface used to model heat transfer by
conduction, convection, and radiation in semitransparent media. The radiative
intensity equations are approximated by the Discrete Ordinates Method or the P1
Approximation. When no emission should be considered, see the section The Heat
Transfer with Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media Interface.

The section The Heat Transfer with Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media Interface
describes the predefined multiphysics interface used to model heat transfer by
conduction, convection, and radiation in semitransparent media. The Beer-Lambert
law is used for the approximation of the radiative intensity.

The section The Thermoelectric Effect Interface describes the predefined multiphysics
interface used to model the Peltier-Seebeck-Thomson effect.

The section The Heat and Moisture Transport Interfaces describes the predefined
multiphysics interfaces used to model coupled heat and moisture transport either in
building materials, by taking into account heat and moisture storage, latent heat
effects, and liquid and convective transport of moisture; or in moist air by convection
and diffusion of moisture and heat.

The section The Moisture Flow Interfaces describes the predefined multiphysics
interfaces used to model moisture transport in air by laminar flow (in free and porous
media) and turbulent flows (in free media).

The section The Heat and Moisture Flow Interfaces describes the predefined
multiphysics interfaces used to model heat transfer and moisture transport in air by
laminar and turbulent flows, and in porous media by laminar flows.

OVERVIEW OF THE USER’S GUIDE | 43

 THE HEAT TRANSFER MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS
The Multiphysics Couplings chapter describes the Domain Multiphysics Couplings
and the Boundary Multiphysics Couplings available with the predefined multiphysics
interfaces.

44 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
 2

Notations

This chapter introduces the notations used in the remaining of the guide. The
notations are listed in alphabetical order and grouped in two tables for Latin and
Greek symbols, respectively.

For each entry the SI unit and a short description are given.

45
 Symbols
LATIN SYMBOLS

NOTATION SI UNIT DESCRIPTION

A 1/s Frequency factor, damage integral analysis

2
A m Total boundaries area
a1,…, a12 dimensionless Legendre coefficients
Ac m2 Cross sectional area of domain
2
Al m Cross sectional area of thin rod
Bi m Spectral band i
b dimensionless Thermal conductivity supplement
3
c mol/m Concentration
3
c kg/m Concentration
2
cl mol/m Liquid water concentration on moist surface
Cp, b J/(kg·K) Specific heat capacity at constant pressure, blood
Cp, l J/(kg·K) Specific heat capacity at constant pressure of thin rod
Cμ dimensionless Turbulence modeling constant
Cp J/(kg·K) Specific heat capacity at constant pressure
Cp, a J/(kg·K) Specific heat capacity at constant pressure, dry air
Cp, A J/(kg·K) Specific heat capacity at constant pressure, Austenite state
Cp, d J/(kg·K) Specific heat capacity at constant pressure, damaged tissue
Cp, f J/(kg·K) Specific heat capacity at constant pressure, fluid phase
Cp, imf J/(kg·K) Specific heat capacity at constant pressure of immobile fluid
in porous media
Cp, imfi J/(kg·K) Specific heat capacity at constant pressure of immobile fluid i
in porous media
Cp, m J/(kg·K) Specific heat capacity at constant pressure, mixture (moist
air)
Cp, M J/(kg·K) Specific heat capacity at constant pressure, Martensite state
Cp, s J/(kg·K) Specific heat capacity at constant pressure, solid phase
Cp, si J/(kg·K) Specific heat capacity at constant pressure of solid material i
in porous media
Cp, v J/(kg·K) Specific heat capacity at constant pressure, water vapor

46 | CHAPTER 2: NOTATIONS
NOTATION SI UNIT DESCRIPTION

Cp, s J/(kg·K) Specific heat capacity at constant pressure of thin layer

Cp, si J/(kg·K) Specific heat capacity at constant pressure of layer i in thin
layer
csat mol/m3 Saturation concentration of water vapor
custr mol/m3 Upstream concentration of water vapor
Cp, w J/(kg·K) Specific heat capacity at constant pressure of water
3
cv mol/m Water vapor concentration
d m Average particle diameter
D m Cylinder diameter (heat transfer coefficient)
D m Cylinder or sphere diameter (heat transfer coefficient)
D W/(m·K) Dispersion tensor
D m Parallel-plate gap average gas particle diameter
D 1/s Strain-rate tensor
2
D m /s Vapor diffusion coefficient in air
2
Deff m /s Vapor diffusion coefficient in moist porous media
Da dimensionless Darcy number
ΔE J/mol Activation energy, damage integral analysis
df m Thickness of thin film
dfr m Thickness of fracture
dpe m Average pellets diameter
DP1 m2/s P1 method diffusion coefficient
ds m Thickness of shell or thin layer
dsi m Thickness of layer i in thin layer
2
DT m /s Turbulent diffusivity
Dw m2/s Moisture diffusivity
dz m Thickness of domain in the out-of-plane direction
DPTamb K Ambient dew point temperature
e m Beam orientation
E J/kg Internal energy
E Pa Young’s modulus
E0 J/kg Total internal energy
EΩ J Internal energy of a body

SYMBOLS | 47
 NOTATION SI UNIT DESCRIPTION

eb, λ(λ, T) W/m2 Blackbody spectral emissive power

eb(T) W/m2 Blackbody total emissive power
Econtact Pa Effective contact interface Young’s modulus
Ed Pa Young’s modulus, down contact surface
Ek J/kg Kinetic energy
ep m2/s3 Turbulent dissipation rate
Ep J/kg Potential energy
Eu Pa Young’s modulus, up contact surface
etot W/m2 Total energy flux
F N/m3 Body force vector
F dimensionless Deformation gradient tensor
Famb dimensionless Ambient view factor
Famb, d dimensionless Ambient view factor, downside
Famb, u dimensionless Ambient view factor, upside
g m/s2 Acceleration of gravity
Gevap kg/m3 Evaporation source
gevap kg/(m2·s) Evaporation flux
G W/m3 Moisture source
G 1/m Reciprocal wall distance
G W/m2 Surface irradiation
Gamb W/m2 Ambient irradiation
Gamb, d W/m2 Ambient irradiation, downside
Gamb, u W/m2 Ambient irradiation, upside
Gd W/m2 Surface irradiation, downside
Gext W/m2 External irradiation
Gext, d W/m2 External irradiation, downside
2
Gext, u W/m External irradiation, upside
2
Gm W/m Mutual surface irradiation
Gm, d W/m2 Mutual surface irradiation, downside
2
Gm, u W/m Mutual surface irradiation, upside
GrL dimensionless Grashof number associated with characteristic length L
2
Gu W/m Surface irradiation, upside

48 | CHAPTER 2: NOTATIONS
NOTATION SI UNIT DESCRIPTION

H m Chimney height (heat transfer coefficient)

H J/kg Enthalpy
h W/(m2·K) Gap conductance (thermal contact)
h W/(m2·K) Heat transfer coefficient
H0 J/kg Total enthalpy
HB Pa Brinell hardness
hc W/(m2·K) Constriction conductance
Hc Pa Microhardness
hd W/(m2·K) Out-of-plane heat transfer coefficient, downside
Hd J/kg Enthalpy, downside
Hext J/kg External enthalpy
hg W/(m2·K) Parallel-plate gap gas conductance
hm m/s Moisture transfer coefficient
hr W/(m2·K) Radiative conductance
Href J/kg Reference enthalpy
hsf W/(m2·K) Interstitial heat transfer coefficient
hth W/K Thermal conductance (isothermal domain interface)
hu W/(m2·K) Out-of-plane heat transfer coefficient, upside
Hu J/kg Enthalpy, upside
hz W/(m2·K) Out-of-plane heat transfer coefficient, 1D
I(Ω) W/(m2·sr) Radiative intensity traveling in direction Ω
Ib(T) W/(m2·sr) Blackbody radiative intensity
Idiff W/m2 Diffuse irradiance
Iext W/(m2·sr) Incident radiative intensity
Ii W/(m2·sr) Radiative intensity traveling in ith discrete direction
is dimensionless Incident radiation direction (external radiation source)
2
Is W/m Solar irradiance
2
Is,amb W/m Ambient solar irradiance
Ish,amb W/m2 Clear sky noon diffuse horizontal irradiance
2
Isn,amb W/m Clear sky noon beam normal irradiance
isx, isy, dimensionless Solar source direction vector components
isz

SYMBOLS | 49
 NOTATION SI UNIT DESCRIPTION

Iwall W/(m2·sr) Boundary radiative intensity

J W/m2 Surface radiosity
Jd W/m2 Surface radiosity, downside
Ju W/m2 Surface radiosity, upside
k W/(m·K) Thermal conductivity
k J/kg Turbulent kinetic energy (turbulent nonisothermal flow)
ka W/(m·K) Dry air thermal conductivity
kA W/(m·K) Thermal conductivity of Austenite state
kB J/K Stefan-Boltzmann constant
kbnd W/(m·K) Thermal conductivity in shell local coordinate system
kcontact W/(m·K) Harmonic mean of contacting surface conductivities
kd W/(m·K) Thermal conductivity, damaged tissue
kdisp W/(m·K) Dispersive thermal conductivity tensor
keff W/(m·K) Effective thermal conductivity
kf W/(m·K) Thermal conductivity, fluid phase
kimf W/(m·K) Thermal conductivity of immobile fluid in porous media
kgap W/(m·K) Parallel-plate gap gas thermal conductivity
kimfi W/(m·K) Thermal conductivity of immobile fluid i in porous media
kl W/(m·K) Thermal conductivity of thin rod
kL W/(m·K) Thermal conductivity of mobile fluid in porous media
kM W/(m·K) Thermal conductivity of Martensite state
kR W/(m·K) Rosseland radiative conductivity
ks W/(m·K) Thermal conductivity, solid phase
ksi W/(m·K) Thermal conductivity of solid material i in porous media and
fractures
ks W/(m·K) Thermal conductivity of thin layer
ksi W/(m·K) Thermal conductivity of layer i in thin layer
kT W/(m·K) Turbulent thermal conductivity
kv W/(m·K) Water vapor thermal conductivity
K m/s Evaporation rate factor
KΩ J Kinetic energy of a body
L J/kg Latent heat

50 | CHAPTER 2: NOTATIONS
NOTATION SI UNIT DESCRIPTION

L m Total edge length

L m Wall height or plate diameter, distance or length (heat
transfer coefficient)
Ld, c J/kg Damage enthalpy change, cryogenic analysis
Ld, h J/kg Damage enthalpy change, hyperthermia analysis
Lit, c J/kg Transformation enthalpy change, overcooling analysis
Lit, h J/kg Transformation enthalpy change, overheating analysis
Lv J/kg Latent heat of evaporation
m kg Mass
ma kg Dry air mass
Ma kg/mol Dry air molar mass
masp m Asperities average slope (surface roughness)
Mg m Parallel-plate gap gas parameter
Mn kg/mol Mean molar mass
mtot kg Total mass (moist air)
mv kg Water vapor mass
Mv kg/mol Water vapor molar mass
n dimensionless Refractive index, transparent media
n dimensionless Normal vector toward exterior
na mol Amount of dry air
nr dimensionless Refractive index, participating media
ntot mol Amount of moist air
Nu dimensionless Nusselt number
NuL dimensionless Nusselt number associated with characteristic length L
nv mol Amount of water vapor
O m Beam origin point
p Pa Contact pressure, pressure
2
P N/m First Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor
P V Peltier coefficient
P0 W Heat rate
pa Pa Dry air partial pressure
pA Pa Absolute pressure

SYMBOLS | 51
 NOTATION SI UNIT DESCRIPTION

Pb W Heat rate, boundary heat source

Pc m Cross sectional perimeter of domain
pext Pa External absolute pressure
Pext W Power of applied forces
pgap Pa Parallel-plate gap gas pressure
Pindex dimensionless Performance index of the discrete ordinates method
Pl W Heat rate, line heat source, deposited beam power
Pr dimensionless Prandtl number
pamb Pa Ambient absolute pressure
pref Pa Reference pressure
PrT dimensionless Turbulent Prandtl number
Ps W Heat rate, layer heat source
Ps W Source power (external radiation source)
psat Pa Saturation pressure of water vapor
Pstr W Stress power
pustr Pa Upstream absolute pressure
pv Pa Water vapor partial pressure
q W/m2 Conductive heat flux
qf W/m2 Conductive heat flux in fluid phase
qs W/m2 Conductive heat flux in solid phase
Q W/m3 Heat source
q0 W/m2 Inward heat flux
Q0 W/m3 Distributed heat source
q0, d W/m2 Out-of-plane heat flux, downside
q0, s W/m2 Source heat flux (external radiation source)
q0, u W/m2 Out-of-plane heat flux, upside
2
Qb W/m Boundary heat source
2
Qb, tot W/m Total boundary heat source
Qe W/m3 Electromagnetic heat source
3
Qevap W/m Latent heat source in domains
2
qevap W/m Latent heat source on surfaces
Qexch W Exchanged heat source rate

52 | CHAPTER 2: NOTATIONS
NOTATION SI UNIT DESCRIPTION

Qf W/m3 Heat source in fluid phase

qgeo W/kg Radiogenic heating per mass
Qgeo W/m3 Geothermal heat source
QInt W Total heat source over interior boundaries
Qit W/m3 Irreversible transformation heat source
Ql W/m Line heat source
Qmet W/m3 Metabolic heat source
Qp W Point heat source
Qp W/m3 Pressure work
Qr W/m3 Radiative heat source term
qr W/m2 Radiative heat flux
qr, net W/m2 Net radiative heat flux
qr, out W/m2 Radiative heat flux striking the wall
qs W/(m3·K) Production/absorption coefficient
Qs W/m3 Heat source in solid phase
Qs W/m3 Thin layer heat source
qsf W/(m3·K) Interstitial convective heat transfer coefficient
Qsi W/m3 Layer i heat source
Qted W/m3 Thermoelastic damping
qtot W/m2 Total heat flux
Qtot W/m3 Total domain heat source
Qvd W/m3 Viscous dissipation
r m Distance of the irradiated surface from the source
r dimensionless Heat partition coefficient (thermal friction)
R m Heat source radius, beam radius
R J/(mol·K) Universal gas constant
Ra dimensionless Rayleigh number
RaD dimensionless Rayleigh number associated with cylinder diameter D
RaL dimensionless Rayleigh number associated with characteristic length L
Reinf dimensionless Reynolds number at infinity
ReL dimensionless Reynolds number associated with characteristic length L
Rep dimensionless Particle Reynolds number

SYMBOLS | 53
 NOTATION SI UNIT DESCRIPTION

rh m Hydraulic radius
rl m Rod radius
rpe m Average pellets radius
Rs J/(kg·K) Specific gas constant
Rt,s K·m2/W Surface thermal resistance
Rt K/W Thermal resistance
Sb 1/m Specific surface area
sd m Vapor diffusion equivalent air layer thickness
S N/m2 Second Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor
S V/K Seebeck coefficient
ScT dimensionless Turbulent Schmidt number
Si dimensionless Unit vector of discrete direction in space, i-th component
(angular space discretization)
Sp dimensionless Sparrow number
T K Temperature
T0 K Equilibrium temperature
T’ K Complex amplitude of harmonic perturbation
+
T dimensionless Dimensionless temperature
Tamb K Ambient temperature
Tamb, d K Ambient temperature, downside
Tamb, u K Ambient temperature, upside
Tb K Arterial blood temperature
Td K Temperature, downside
td, c s Damage time, cryogenic analysis
Td, c K Damage temperature, cryogenic analysis
td, h s Damage time, hyperthermia analysis
Td, h K Damage temperature, hyperthermia analysis
Text K External temperature
Text, d K Out-of-plane external temperature, downside
Text, u K Out-of-plane external temperature, upside
Text, z K Out-of-plane external temperature, 1D
Tf K Temperature, fluid phase

54 | CHAPTER 2: NOTATIONS
NOTATION SI UNIT DESCRIPTION

tit, c Transformation time, overcooling analysis

Tit, c Transformation temperature, overcooling analysis
tit, h Transformation time, overheating analysis
Tit, h Transformation temperature, overheating analysis
Tn, c K Temperature of necrosis, cryogenic
Tn, h K Temperature of necrosis, hyperthermia
Tpc K Phase change temperature
Tref K Reference temperature
Tref K Strain reference temperature
Ts K Temperature, solid phase
Tu K Temperature, upside
Tustr K Upstream temperature
Tw K Wall temperature
u m/s Fluid velocity vector
u, v, w m/s Fluid velocity vector’s components
uf m/s Average linear velocity
up m/s Porous velocity field
utrans m/s Translational motion velocity vector
vamb m/s Wind velocity
V V Electric potential
V m3 Total domain volume
W W/m3 Work source
w kg/m3 Moisture storage function
WInt W Work from custom volume forces
Wdiss W Dissipative work from momentum equation
Xa dimensionless Molar fraction of dry air
xpl m Position along the plate (heat transfer coefficient)
xs m Source location (external radiation source)
Xv dimensionless Molar fraction of water vapor
xvap dimensionless Moisture content
xvap,amb dimensionless Ambient moisture content
Y m Parallel-plate gap mean separation thickness

SYMBOLS | 55
 GREEK SYMBOLS

NOTATION SI UNIT DESCRIPTION

(ρCp)eff J/(m3·K) Effective volumetric heat capacity at constant pressure

∂Ω - Geometry domain’s boundaries
∂Ωext - Geometry domain’s exterior boundaries
∂Ωint - Geometry domain’s interior boundaries
∇t - Tangential gradient operator
α 1/K Coefficient of thermal expansion tensor in a solid
α dimensionless Degree of tissue injury (Arrhenius equation)
α dimensionless Irreversible transformation indicator (Arrhenius equation)
α dimensionless Parallel-plate gap gas thermal accommodation parameter
α dimensionless Surface absorptivity
α m2/s Thermal diffusivity
α dimensionless Damaged tissue indicator
αnecr dimensionless Necrosis time indicator
αm dimensionless Vapor mass fraction
αp 1/K Coefficient of thermal expansion in a fluid
β 1/m Extinction coefficient
βp s/m Moisture transfer coefficient
β dimensionless Parallel-plate gap gas property parameter
βR 1/m Rosseland mean extinction coefficient
γ dimensionless Ratio of specific heats
γTeq Pa/K Psychrometer constant
ΔR m Size of transition zone (deposited beam power)
ΔT K Temperature offset for periodic condition
ΔT0 K Temperature perturbation
δ s Vapor permeability of still air
δp s Vapor permeability
δw m Distance between the computational fluid domain and the
wall
εp dimensionless Porosity
ε dimensionless Surface emissivity
εd dimensionless Surface emissivity, downside

56 | CHAPTER 2: NOTATIONS
NOTATION SI UNIT DESCRIPTION

ελ dimensionless Surface spectral emissivity

εu dimensionless Surface emissivity, upside
εz dimensionless Surface emissivity, 1D out-of-plane radiation
θ rad Angle between the normal to the irradiated surface and the
direction of the source
θd dimensionless Volume fraction of necrotic tissue
θimf dimensionless Volume fraction of immobile fluid in porous media
θimfi dimensionless Volume fraction of immobile fluid i in porous media
θit dimensionless Fraction of transformation
θg dimensionless Volume fraction of mobile fluid in porous media
θs dimensionless Volume fraction of solid material in porous media and
fractures
θsi dimensionless Volume fraction of solid material i in porous media
θs rad Zenith angle of the Sun
κ 1/m Absorption coefficient (radiation)
2
κ m Permeability (porous media)
λ W/(m·K) Thermal conductivity (turbulent nonisothermal flow)
λ m Wavelength
Λ m Parallel-plate gap gas mean free path
λi m Wavelength band i endpoint
λijkl m Fourth-order dispersivity tensor’s component
λlo m Longitudinal dispersivity
λtr m Transverse dispersivity
λtr, h m Transverse horizontal dispersivity
λtr, v m Transverse vertical dispersivity
μ Pa·s Dynamic viscosity
μ dimensionless Vapor resistance factor
μ0 dimensionless Scattering angle
μa Pa·s Dry air dynamic viscosity
μf Pa·s Dynamic viscosity
μm Pa·s Mixture dynamic viscosity (moist air)
μT Pa·s Turbulent dynamic viscosity
μTh V/K Thomson coefficient

SYMBOLS | 57
 NOTATION SI UNIT DESCRIPTION

μv Pa·s Water vapor dynamic viscosity

ν dimensionless Poisson ratio
νd dimensionless Poisson ratio, down contact surface
νu dimensionless Poisson ratio, up contact surface
ρ kg/m3 Density
ρ dimensionless Surface reflectivity
ρb kg/m3 Density, blood
ρd kg/m3 Density, damaged tissue
ρf kg/m3 Density, fluid phase
ρimf kg/m3 Density of immobile fluid in porous media
ρgeo kg/m3 Geothermal density
ρimfi kg/m3 Density of immobile fluid i in porous media
ρl kg/m3 Density of thin rod
ρg kg/m3 Mixture density (moist air)
ρs kg/m3 Density of solid material
ρsi kg/m3 Density of solid material i in porous media
ρs kg/m3 Density of thin layer
ρsi kg/m3 Density of layer i in thin layer
σ Pa Cauchy stress tensor
σ m Standard deviation (deposited beam power)
σ W/(m2·K4) Stefan-Boltzmann constant
σ N/m Surface tension coefficient
σasp m Asperities average height (surface roughness)
σs 1/m Scattering coefficient
τ dimensionless Optical thickness
τ Pa Viscous stress tensor
φw dimensionless Relative humidity
φ amb dimensionless Ambient relative humidity
φ rad Tilt angle (heat transfer coefficient)
φ w, ext dimensionless External relative humidity
φ w, d dimensionless Relative humidity, downside
φ w, s dimensionless Surface relative humidity

58 | CHAPTER 2: NOTATIONS
NOTATION SI UNIT DESCRIPTION

φ w, u dimensionless Relative humidity, upside

φ w, ustr dimensionless Upstream relative humidity
Φd → u kg/s Mass flow rate, positive direction
Φu → d kg/s Mass flow rate, negative direction
ϕ ( Ω', Ω ) dimensionless Scattering phase function
ϕs rad Azimuth angle of the Sun
ϕd → u kg/(m2·s) Mass flux, positive direction
ϕu → d kg/(m2·s) Mass flux, negative direction
Ψ J/kg Force potential
Ω dimensionless Unit vector of a direction in space
Ω - Geometry domain
ω dimensionless Specific humidity
ω rad/s Angular frequency
ωb 1/s Blood perfusion rate
ωi W/(m2·K) Discrete incident radiation vector, i-th component
ξ kg/m3 Moisture storage capacity
ξ dimensionless Martensite state volume fraction

SYMBOLS | 59
60 | CHAPTER 2: NOTATIONS
 3

Modeling with the Heat Transfer Module

A variety of modeling techniques are discussed in the following sections:

• Heat Transfer Variables

• Moisture Transport Variables
• Using the Boundary Conditions for the Heat Transfer Interfaces
• Handling Frames in Heat Transfer
• Heat Transfer Consistent and Inconsistent Stabilization Methods
• Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow Coupling
• Boundary Wall Temperature
• Solver Settings
• Plotting and Evaluating Results in Layered Materials
• Evaluating the Bulk Temperature
• Ambient Properties
• Modeling Heat Transfer by Radiation
• Specifying the Temperature at a Flow Inlet
• Heat Part Library

61
 Heat Transfer Variables
In this section:

• Predefined Variables
• Global Variables for Heat and Energy Balance
• Domain Fluxes
• Out-of-Plane Domain Fluxes
• Boundary Fluxes (Heat Transfer Interface)
• Internal Boundary Heat Fluxes
• Domain Heat Sources
• Boundary Heat Sources
• Line and Point Heat Sources
• Moist Air Variables

Predefined Variables
This section lists some predefined variables that are available to evaluate heat fluxes,
sources, and integral quantities used in heat and energy balance. All the variable names
begin with the physics interface name (the prefix). By default the Heat Transfer
interface prefix is ht, and the Heat Transfer in Shells interface prefix is htlsh. As an
example, you can access the variable named tflux using ht.tflux (as long as the
physics interface is named ht).
TABLE 3-1: PREDEFINED HEAT BALANCE VARIABLES

VARIABLE NAME GEOMETRIC ENTITY LEVEL

Global variables
dEiInt Total Accumulated Heat Rate Global
ntfluxInt Total Net Heat Rate Global
WstrInt Total Stress Power Global
heatBalance Heat Balance Global
Domain variables
tflux Total Heat Flux (Heat Transfer Domains
Interface)

62 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

TABLE 3-1: PREDEFINED HEAT BALANCE VARIABLES

VARIABLE NAME GEOMETRIC ENTITY LEVEL

dflux Conductive Heat Flux (Heat Domains

Transfer Interface)
cflux Convective Heat Flux (Heat Domains
Transfer Interface)
turbflux Turbulent Heat Flux (Heat Transfer Domains
Interface)
tflux_u Total Out-of-Plane Heat Flux (Heat Out-of-plane domains (1D
tflux_d Transfer Interface) and 2D), boundaries
tflux_z
rflux_u Radiative Out-of-Plane Heat Flux Out-of-plane domains (1D
rflux_d (Heat Transfer Interface) and 2D), boundaries
rflux_z
q0_u Out-of-Plane Heat Flux (Heat Out-of-plane domains (1D
q0_d Transfer Interface) and 2D)
q0_z
Boundary variables
ntflux Normal Total Heat Flux (Heat Boundaries
Transfer Interface)
ndflux Normal Conductive Heat Flux Boundaries
(Heat Transfer Interface)
ncflux Normal Convective Heat Flux (Heat Boundaries
Transfer Interface)
rflux Radiative Heat Flux (Heat Transfer Boundaries
Interface)
q0 Inward Heat Flux (Heat Transfer Boundaries
Interface)
ntflux_u Internal normal total heat flux, upside Interior boundaries
ntflux_d and downside (Internal Boundary
Heat Fluxes)
ndflux_u Internal normal conductive heat flux, Interior boundaries
ndflux_d upside and downside (Internal
Boundary Heat Fluxes)
ncflux_u Internal normal convective heat flux, Interior boundaries
ncflux_d upside and downside (Internal
Boundary Heat Fluxes)

HEAT TRANSFER VARIABLES | 63

 TABLE 3-2: PREDEFINED ENERGY BALANCE VARIABLES

VARIABLE NAME GEOMETRIC ENTITY LEVEL

Global variables
dEi0Int Total Accumulated Energy Rate Global
ntefluxInt Total Net Energy Rate Global
WInt Total Work Source Global
energyBalan Energy Balance Global
ce
Domain variables
teflux Total Energy Flux (Heat Transfer Domains
Interface)
dflux Conductive Heat Flux (Heat Domains
Transfer Interface)
thflux Total Enthalpy Flux (Heat Transfer Domains
Interface)
Boundary variables
nteflux Normal Total Energy Flux (Heat Boundaries
Transfer Interface)
ndflux Normal Conductive Heat Flux Boundaries
(Heat Transfer Interface)
nthflux Normal Total Enthalpy Flux (Heat Boundaries
Transfer Interface)
q0 Inward Heat Flux (Heat Transfer Boundaries
Interface)
nteflux_u Internal normal total energy flux, Interior boundaries
nteflux_d upside and downside (Internal
Boundary Energy Fluxes)
ndflux_u Internal normal conductive heat flux, Interior boundaries
ndflux_d upside and downside (Internal
Boundary Heat Fluxes)
nthflux_u Internal normal enthalpy flux, upside Interior boundaries
nthflux_d and downside (Internal Boundary
Energy Fluxes)
TABLE 3-3: PREDEFINED HEAT SOURCE VARIABLES

VARIABLE NAME GEOMETRIC ENTITY LEVEL

Global variables
QInt Total Heat Source Global
Domain variables

64 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

TABLE 3-3: PREDEFINED HEAT SOURCE VARIABLES

VARIABLE NAME GEOMETRIC ENTITY LEVEL

Qtot Total heat source (Domain Heat Domains

Sources)
Boundary variables
Qbtot Total boundary heat source Boundaries
(Boundary Heat Sources)
Qltot Total line heat source (Line and Point Edges, Points (2D, 2D axial
Heat Sources) symmetry)
Qptot Point heat source (Line and Point Points
Heat Sources)

TABLE 3-4: OTHER PREDEFINED HEAT TRANSFER VARIABLES

VARIABLE NAME GEOMETRIC ENTITY LEVEL

Global variables
Tref Reference temperature Global
Domain variables
alpha Damage indicator (see Theory for Domains
Bioheat Transfer)
alphanecr Instant tissue necrosis indicator (see Domains
Theory for Bioheat Transfer)
theta_d Fraction of damage (see Theory for Domains
Bioheat Transfer)
theta_d_sm Fraction of total damage (see Theory Domains
for Bioheat Transfer)
T_dp Dew Point Temperature Domains
T_eq Equivalent Temperature Domains
psat Saturation Pressure Domains
phi Relative Humidity Domains
Lv Latent Heat of Evaporation Domains
Boundary variables
h Heat transfer coefficient (see Exterior boundaries
Convective Heat Transfer
Correlations)

HEAT TRANSFER VARIABLES | 65

 Some of these variables are only available with the Heat Transfer Module
(rflux_u, rflux_d, rflux_z, q0_u, q0_d, and q0_z), or when either the
CFD Module or the Heat Transfer Module is added (rflux and
turbflux).

Global Variables for Heat and Energy Balance

This section describes variables defined by integrals. A concise notation denotes the
different domains of integration: Ω is the geometry domain, ∂Ωext stands for the
exterior boundaries, and ∂Ωint for the interior boundaries.

TOTAL ACCUMULATED HEAT RATE

The total accumulated heat rate variable, dEiInt, is the variation of internal energy per
unit time in the domain:

d
dEiInt =
dt Ω ρEi dω
TOTAL NET HEAT RATE
The total net heat rate, ntfluxInt, is the integral of Total Heat Flux (Heat Transfer
Interface) over all external boundaries. In the case of a fluid domain, it reads:

ntfluxInt = ∂Ω ext

( ρuE i – k∇T + q r ) ⋅ n dσ

This indicates the sum of incoming and outgoing total heat flux through the system.

TOTAL HEAT SOURCE

The total heat source, QInt, accounts for all domain sources, interior boundary, edge
and point sources, and radiative sources at interior boundaries:

QInt = Ω Q dω + ∂Ω int

Q b dω + ∂ Ω int
Q r dω

TOTAL STRESS POWER

The total stress power, WstrInt, corresponds to the work lost by a fluid by
degradation of energy. These works are transmitted to the system through pressure
work and viscous dissipation:

66 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

 WstrInt = Ω pA ∇ ⋅ u dω + Ω ( –τ : ∇u ) dω
TOTAL ACCUMULATED ENERGY RATE
The total accumulated energy rate, dEi0Int, is the variation of total internal energy
per unit time in the domain:

d
dEi0Int =
dt Ω ρEi0 dω
where the total internal energy, Ei0, is defined as

u⋅u
E i0 = E i + ------------
2

TOTAL NET ENERGY RATE

The total net energy rate, ntefluxInt, is the integral of Total Energy Flux (Heat
Transfer Interface) over all external boundaries. In the case of a fluid domain, it reads:

ntefluxInt = ∂Ω ext

( ρuH 0 – k∇T – τ u + q r ) ⋅ n dσ

This indicates the sum of incoming and outgoing total energy flux through the system.

TOTAL WORK SOURCE

The total work source, WInt, accounts for volume forces and boundary stresses as
follows:

WInt = Ω ( ρg + F ) ⋅ u dω + ∂Ω ext

K ⋅ u dσ + ∂Ω int
K⋅u ∂Ω int
dσ

where K is the viscous force vector defined as

T 2
K = μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I ⋅ n
3

and K ⋅ u ∂Ω int
is the jump of viscous stress at interior boundaries.

HEAT BALANCE
According to Equation 4-200, the following equality between COMSOL Multiphysics
variables holds:

dEiInt + ntfluxInt = QInt - WstrInt

HEAT TRANSFER VARIABLES | 67

 and the heat balance variable, heatBalance, is defined as

heatBalance = dEiInt + ntfluxInt + WstrInt - QInt

This is the most general form that can be used for time-dependent models. At
steady-state the formula is simplified. The accumulated heat rate equals zero, so the
total net heat rate (the sum of incoming and outgoing heat rates) should correspond
to the heat and work sources:

ntfluxInt = QInt - WstrInt

The sign convention used in COMSOL Multiphysics for QInt is positive when energy
is produced (as for a heater) and negative when energy is consumed (as for a cooler).
For WstrInt, the losses that heat up the system are negative and the gains that cool
down the system are positive.

For stationary models with convection by an incompressible flow, the heat balance
becomes:

ntfluxInt = QInt

which corresponds to the conservation of convective and conductive flux as in:

∂Ω ext
ρuE i ⋅ n dσ – ∂Ω ext
k∇T ⋅ n dσ = Q Int

Depending on the radiation discretization method, the contribution to

the heat balance is handled differently. For the definition of ntfluxInt,
the Optically Thick Participating Medium subnode uses the Rosseland
approximation and defines qr, the radiative flux, as an extra contribution
to the conductive heat flux. The P1 approximation and Discrete ordinates
method, however, include the radiative source ∇ ⋅ qr to Q on the domain,
in the variable QInt.

The heat balance can be evaluated assuming constant material properties

using the following variables: heatBalance_cst, dEiInt_cst,
ntfluxInt_cst, WstrInt_cst, QInt_cst. The evaluation of these
variables is faster and accurate for constant material properties or small
temperature gradient.

68 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

ENERGY BALANCE
According to Equation 4-201, the following equality between COMSOL Multiphysics
predefined variables holds:

dEi0Int + ntefluxInt = QInt + WInt

and the energy balance variable, energyBalance, is defined as

energyBalance = dEi0Int + ntefluxInt - WInt - QInt

In stationary models, dEi0Int is zero so the energy balance simplifies into:

ntefluxInt = QInt + WInt

At steady state, and without any additional heat source (QInt equal to zero), the
integral of the net energy flux on all boundaries of the flow domain, ntefluxInt,
vanishes. On the other hand, the corresponding integral of the net heat flux does not,
in general, vanish. It corresponds instead to the losses from mass and momentum
equations, such as WstrInt for pressure work and viscous dissipation in fluids. Hence,
energy is the conserved quantity, not heat.

The heat and energy balance variables such as ht.ntfluxInt or

ht.ntefluxInt do not take into account the flux contributions on thin
structures. For example, if a Thin Layer node is applied on a boundary, the
heat flux on this boundary is not included in ht.ntfluxInt. It is added
instead to the variable ht.sls1.ntfluxInt, defined locally on the thin
structure. Here, sls1 is the tag of the Thin Layer node.

The energy balance can be evaluated assuming constant material

properties using the following variables: energyBalance_cst,
dEi0Int_cst, ntefluxInt_cst, WInt_cst, QInt_cst. The evaluation
of these variables is faster and accurate for constant material properties or
small temperature gradient.

Domain Fluxes
On domains the fluxes are vector quantities. The definition can vary depending on the
active physics nodes and selected properties.

HEAT TRANSFER VARIABLES | 69

 TOTAL HEAT FLUX (HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACE)
In domains, the total heat flux, tflux, is the sum of the conductive and convective
heat fluxes. For accuracy reasons the radiative heat flux is not included.

See Radiative Heat Flux (Heat Transfer Interface) to evaluate the radiative
heat flux.

For solid domains — for example, the solid and biological tissue domains — the total
heat flux is defined as:

tflux = dflux

For fluid domains (for example, Fluid), the total heat flux is defined as:

tflux = cflux + dflux

CONDUCTIVE HEAT FLUX (HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACE)

The conductive heat flux variable, dflux, is evaluated using the temperature gradient
and the effective thermal conductivity:

dflux = – k eff ∇T

In the general case keff is the thermal conductivity, k.

For heat transfer in fluids with turbulent flow, keff = k + kT, where kT is the turbulent
thermal conductivity.

For heat transfer in porous media, keff is the effective conductivity computed from the
solid and fluid conductivities.

For heat transfer in building materials, a latent heat source due to evaporation is
included in the conductive heat flux variable:

dflux = – ( k eff ∇T + L v δ p ∇( φ w p sat ) )

When considering thermoelectric effect, the thermoelectric heat flux is also included
in the diffusive flux, see Equation 4-150.

TURBULENT HEAT FLUX (HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACE)

The turbulent heat flux variable, turbflux, enables access to the part of the
conductive heat flux that is due to turbulence.

70 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

 turbflux = – k T ∇T

CONVECTIVE HEAT FLUX (HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACE)

The convective heat flux variable, cflux, is defined using the internal energy, Ei:

cflux = ρuE i

The internal energy, Ei, is defined as:

• Ei = H for solid domains

• Ei = H − p/ρ for fluid domains

where H is the enthalpy defined in Equation 4-5.

The convective heat flux may be oriented in the opposite direction of the velocity
field’s direction, when the internal energy, Ei, has a negative value. This happens when
the sensible enthalpy (variation from reference enthalpy Href) is negative. Href is set to
0 J/kg at pref (1 atm), cref (0 mol/m3), and Tref (293.15 K) in COMSOL
Multiphysics. See Thermodynamic Description of Heat Transfer for details.

RADIATIVE HEAT FLUX (HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACE)

In participating media, the radiative heat flux, qr, is not available for analysis on
domains because it is more accurate to evaluate the radiative heat source Q r = ∇ ⋅ q r .

TOTAL ENTHALPY FLUX (HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACE)

The total enthalpy flux variable, thflux, is defined as:

thflux = ρuH 0

where the total enthalpy, H0, is defined as

u⋅u
H 0 = H + ------------
2

TOTAL ENERGY FLUX (HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACE)

The total energy flux, teflux, is defined when viscous dissipation is enabled:

teflux = thflux + dflux + τu

HEAT TRANSFER VARIABLES | 71

 Out-of-Plane Domain Fluxes

RADIATIVE OUT-OF-PLANE HEAT FLUX (HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACE)

The radiative out-of-plane heat flux, rflux, is generated by the Out-of-Plane
Radiation feature.

• In 2D:
4 4
upside: rflux_u = ε u σ ( T amb, u – T )

4 4
downside: rflux_d = ε d σ ( T amb, d – T )

• In 1D:

4 4
rflux_z = ε z σ ( T amb, z – T )

OUT-OF-PLANE HEAT FLUX (HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACE)

The convective out-of-plane heat flux, q0, is generated by the Out-of-Plane Heat Flux
feature.

• In 2D:
upside: q0_u = h u ( T ext, u – T )

downside: q0_d = h d ( T ext, d – T )

• In 1D:

q0_z = h z ( T ext, z – T )

TOTAL OUT-OF-PLANE HEAT FLUX (HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACE)

The total out-of-plane heat flux, tflux, is the sum of the radiative and convective heat
fluxes:

• In 2D:
upside: tflux_u = q0_u + rflux_u

downside: tflux_d = q0_d + rflux_d

• In 1D:

tflux_z = q0_z + rflux_z

72 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

Boundary Fluxes (Heat Transfer Interface)
All the domain fluxes (vector quantity) computed by the Heat Transfer interface are
also available as boundary fluxes. The boundary fluxes are then equal to the mean value
of the fluxes on adjacent domains. In addition, normal boundary heat fluxes (scalar
quantity) are available on boundaries.

NORMAL TOTAL HEAT FLUX (HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACE)

The variable ntflux is defined as:

ntflux = ndflux + ncflux

NORMAL CONDUCTIVE HEAT FLUX (HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACE)

The variable ndflux is defined on exterior boundaries as:

• ndflux = −dflux_spatial(T) if the adjacent domain is on the downside,

• ndflux = −uflux_spatial(T) if the adjacent domain is on the upside,

and, on interior boundaries, as:

ndflux = (uflux_spatial(T) − dflux_spatial(T))/2

Frames for the Heat Transfer Equations for a description of spatial and
material frames.

NORMAL CONVECTIVE HEAT FLUX (HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACE)

The variable ncflux is defined as:

ncflux = mean ( cflux ) ⋅ n

NORMAL TOTAL ENERGY FLUX (HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACE)

The variable nteflux is defined as:

nteflux = mean ( teflux ) ⋅ n – mean ( dflux ) ⋅ n + ndflux

NORMAL TOTAL ENTHALPY FLUX (HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACE)

The variable nthflux is defined as:

nthflux = mean ( thflux ) ⋅ n

HEAT TRANSFER VARIABLES | 73

 INWARD HEAT FLUX (HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACE)
On external boundaries, the inward heat flux, q0, is a scalar quantity defined either in
a general way or as a convective heat flux as follows:

q0 = h ( T ext – T )

where Text is the external temperature defined in the Heat Flux feature.

RADIATIVE HEAT FLUX (HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACE)

On boundaries, the radiative heat flux, rflux, is a scalar quantity defined as:

rflux = ε ( G – e b ( T ) ) + q r, net

where the terms account for surface-to-ambient radiative flux, surface-to-surface

radiative flux, and radiation in participating net radiative flux, respectively.

Internal Boundary Heat Fluxes

The internal normal boundary heat fluxes (scalar quantity) are available on interior
boundaries. They are calculated using the upside and the downside value of heat fluxes
from the adjacent domains.

INTERNAL NORMAL CONDUCTIVE HEAT FLUX, UPSIDE (HEAT TRANSFER

INTERFACE)
The variable ndflux_u is defined as:

ndflux_u = uflux_spatial ( T )

INTERNAL NORMAL CONDUCTIVE HEAT FLUX, DOWNSIDE (HEAT

TRANSFER INTERFACE)
The variable ndflux_d is defined as:

ndflux_d = dflux_spatial ( T )

Frames for the Heat Transfer Equations for a description of spatial and
material frames.

INTERNAL NORMAL CONVECTIVE HEAT FLUX, UPSIDE (HEAT TRANSFER

INTERFACE)
The variable ncflux_u is defined as:

74 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

 ncflux_u = up ( cflux ) ⋅ un

INTERNAL NORMAL CONVECTIVE HEAT FLUX, DOWNSIDE (HEAT

TRANSFER INTERFACE)
The variable ncflux_d is defined as:

ncflux_d = down ( cflux ) ⋅ dn

INTERNAL NORMAL TOTAL HEAT FLUX, UPSIDE (HEAT TRANSFER

INTERFACE)
The variable ntflux_u is defined as:

ntflux_u = ndflux_u + ncflux_u

INTERNAL NORMAL TOTAL HEAT FLUX, DOWNSIDE (HEAT TRANSFER

INTERFACE)
The variable ntflux_d is defined as:

ntflux_d = ndflux_d + ncflux_d

Internal Boundary Energy Fluxes

INTERNAL NORMAL TOTAL ENERGY FLUX, UPSIDE (HEAT TRANSFER

INTERFACE)
The variable nteflux_u is defined as:

nteflux_u = up ( teflux ) ⋅ un – up ( dflux ) ⋅ un + ndflux_u

INTERNAL NORMAL TOTAL ENERGY FLUX, DOWNSIDE (HEAT TRANSFER

INTERFACE)
The variable nteflux_d is defined as:

nteflux_d = down ( teflux ) ⋅ dn – down ( dflux ) ⋅ dn + ndflux_d

INTERNAL NORMAL ENTHALPY FLUX, UPSIDE (HEAT TRANSFER

INTERFACE)
The variable nthflux_u is defined as:

nthflux_u = up ( thflux ) ⋅ un

HEAT TRANSFER VARIABLES | 75

 INTERNAL NORMAL ENTHALPY FLUX, DOWNSIDE (HEAT TRANSFER
INTERFACE)
The variable nthflux_d is defined as:

nthflux_d = down ( thflux ) ⋅ dn

Domain Heat Sources

The sum of the domain heat sources added by different physics features is available in
the variable Qtot, which is the sum of:

• Q’s, which are the heat sources added by the Heat Source (described for the Heat
Transfer interface) and Electromagnetic Heating (described for the Joule Heating
interface in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual) features.
• Qmet, which is the metabolic heat source added by the Bioheat feature.
• Qdmg, which is the cooling source added by the Irreversible Transformation feature.
• Qr, which is the radiative heat source added by the Heat Transfer with Radiation in
Participating Media, Heat Transfer with Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media,
and Heat Transfer with Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media multiphysics features.
• Qgeo, which is the geothermal heat source added by the Geothermal Heating
feature.
• Qevap, which is the latent heat source added by the Heat and Moisture coupling
node.

Boundary Heat Sources

The sum of the boundary heat sources added by different boundary conditions is
available in the variable, Qb,tot (SI unit: W/m2). This variable Qbtot is the sum of:

• Qb, which is the boundary heat source added by the Boundary Heat Source
boundary condition.
• Qsh, which is the boundary heat source added by the Electromagnetic Heating
condition (described for the Joule Heating interface in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual).
• Qs, which is the boundary heat source added by a Layer Heat Source subfeature of
a thin layer, see Heat Source (Thin Layer, Thin Film, Fracture).

76 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

Line and Point Heat Sources
The sum of the line heat sources is available in a variable called Qltot (SI unit: W/m).

The sum of the point heat sources is available in a variable called Qptot (SI unit: W).

Moist Air Variables

The temperature variable solved by the Heat Transfer interfaces corresponds to the dry
bulb temperature. This is the temperature measured by a thermometer with a dry
sensor and screening to prevent from deviation due to external radiation like solar
radiation.

When the presence of water vapor is accounted for in the model, other temperatures
may be considered, depending on vapor pressure.

DEW POINT TEMPERATURE

The dew point temperature of a sample of air with water vapor pressure pv is the
temperature to which it must be cooled to become fully saturated.

The variable T_dp is defined in Ref. 1 by:

p sat ( T_dp ) = p v = phi ⋅ psat

where phi is the Relative Humidity variable. See Saturation State for the definition of
saturation pressure psat as a function of temperature. See also Saturation Pressure for
the definition of the variable psat.

EQUIVALENT TEMPERATURE
The equivalent temperature is obtained by adiabatically condensing all the water vapor
of a sample of air with initial vapor pressure pv. In this process, the latent heat decrease
due to total removal of the vapor is balanced by a increase of the sensible heat and
temperature.

The variable T_eq is approximated in Ref. 1 by:

phi ⋅ psat
T_eq = T + -----------------------------
γ Teq

where phi is the Relative Humidity, and γTeq (SI unit: Pa/K) is the psychrometer
constant, defined in Ref. 1 by:

HEAT TRANSFER VARIABLES | 77

 M a pC p, a
γ Teq = ------------------------
Mv Lv

where p is the total pressure, Cp, a is the heat capacity at constant pressure of dry air at
temperature T, Lv is the latent heat of evaporation at temperature T (see Latent Heat
of Evaporation), and Ma and Mv are the molar mass of dry air and water vapor,
respectively.

See also Saturation Pressure for the definition of the variable psat.

These definitions are illustrated on Figure 3-1.

Figure 3-1: Relation between dry bulb, dew point, equivalent, and wet bulb temperatures.

The wet bulb temperature is also represented on Figure 3-1. It is obtained by

adiabatically reaching saturation state for a sample of air with initial water vapor
pressure pv. In this process, the latent heat increase due to evaporation is balanced by
a decrease of the sensible heat and temperature. It is not available as a predefined
variable, but it can be approximated by solving the following equation:

p sat ( T wb ) phi ⋅ psat

T wb + --------------------------- = T + -----------------------------
γ γ

The psychrometer constant is again evaluated at temperature T.

SATURATION PRESSURE
The variable psat is defined by:

psat = fpsat ( T )

where T is the temperature. See Functions for the definition of the function fpsat.

RELATIVE HUMIDITY
The variable phi is defined by:

78 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

 pv
phi = --------------------
p sat ( T )

LATENT HEAT OF EVAPORATION

The variable Lv is defined by:

Lv = lv ( T )

where T is the temperature. See Functions for the definition of the function Lv.

HEAT TRANSFER VARIABLES | 79

 Moisture Transport Variables
Predefined Variables
This section lists the predefined variables that are available with the Moisture Transport
interface. All variable names begin with the physics interface name (the prefix). By
default, the Moisture Transport interface prefix is mt. As an example, you can access
the variable named phi using mt.phi (as long as the physics interface is named mt).
TABLE 3-5: MOISTURE TRANSPORT PREDEFINED VARIABLES

VARIABLE NAME GEOMETRIC ENTITY LEVEL

dwcInt Total accumulated moisture rate Global

ntfluxInt Total net moisture rate Global
GInt Total moisture source Global
massBalance Mass balance Global
phi Relative humidity Domains
cv Vapor concentration Domains
cl Liquid water concentration Domains
cw Total moisture concentration Domains
ca Dry air concentration Domains
csat Saturation concentration Domains
psat Saturation pressure of water vapor Domains
pv Partial pressure of water vapor Domains
wc_l Liquid water content Domains
wc_v Vapor content Domains
wcVar Moisture content Domains
omega_v Vapor mass fraction Domains
omega_moist Moisture mass fraction Domains
xvap Humidity ratio Domains
Lv Latent heat of evaporation Domains
Xa Molar fraction of dry air Domains
Xv Molar fraction of water vapor Domains
rhoa Density of dry air Domains
rhov Density of water vapor Domains

80 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

TABLE 3-5: MOISTURE TRANSPORT PREDEFINED VARIABLES

VARIABLE NAME GEOMETRIC ENTITY LEVEL

rho_moist Density of moist air Domains

mua Viscosity of dry air Domains
muv Viscosity of water vapor Domains
mu_moist Viscosity of moist air Domains
cflux Convective moisture flux Domains
dflux Diffusive moisture flux Domains
tflux Total moisture flux Domains
tfluxMag Total moisture flux magnitude Domains
Gtot Total moisture source Domains
dwc Total accumulated moisture rate Domains
density
h_m Moisture transfer coefficient Boundaries
ncflux Normal convective moisture flux Boundaries
ndflux Normal diffusive moisture flux Boundaries
ntflux Normal total moisture flux Boundaries
g_evap Evaporation flux Boundaries
q_evap Latent heat source Boundaries
q_evaptot Total latent heat source on surfaces Boundaries
gtot Total moisture flux Boundaries
uStefan_u Stefan velocity, upside Boundaries
uStefan_d Stefan velocity, downside Boundaries
ncflux_u Normal convective moisture flux, Interior boundaries
upside
ncflux_d Normal convective moisture flux, Interior boundaries
downside
ndflux_u Normal diffusive moisture flux, upside Interior boundaries
ndflux_d Normal diffusive moisture flux, Interior boundaries
downside
ntflux_u Normal total moisture flux, upside Interior boundaries
ntflux_d Normal total moisture flux, downside Interior boundaries

MOISTURE TRANSPORT VARIABLES | 81

 Moist Air Properties

PARTIAL AND SATURATION PRESSURES OF WATER VAPOR

The partial pressure of vapor pv is the product of the saturation pressure psat and the
relative humidity phi:

pv = phi ⋅ psat

SATURATION CONCENTRATION OF WATER VAPOR

The saturation concentration csat is obtained from the saturation pressure psat and
temperature T by:

psat
csat = ------------
RT

where R is the universal gas constant.

HUMIDITY RATIO
The humidity ratio xvap is obtained from the vapor and air concentrations cv and ca,
the absolute pressure pA and temperature T by:

cv Mv
x vap = ----- ⋅ --------
ca Ma

where R is the universal gas constant, Mv is the water vapor molar mass, and Ma is the
dry air molar mass.

The vapor and dry air concentrations satisfy:

pA
c a = -------- – c v
RT

VAPOR MASS FRACTION

The vapor mass fraction omega_v is obtained by:

cv Mv
ω v = ----------------------------------
ca Ma + cv Mv

LIQUID, VAPOR, AND MOISTURE CONCENTRATIONS

The total moisture concentration cw is the sum of the liquid water and vapor
concentrations cl and cv:

82 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

 cw = cv + cl

Note that cl=0 in moist air domains.

CONCENTRATIONS AND CONTENTS

The liquid water and vapor contents wc_l and wc_v are obtained by multiplying the
concentrations cl and cv by the molar mass of water M_v:

wc _ l = M _ v ⋅ cl

wc _ v = M _ v ⋅ cv

MOISTURE CONTENT
The moisture content wcVar is expressed in different ways depending on the domain
type:

• In moist air:
w ( φw ) = ρg ωv

• In hygroscopic porous media:

w ( φw ) = εp ( ρl sl + ρg ωv ( 1 – sl ) )

• In building materials, it is given by the moisture storage function, which may be

given as a material property.

LATENT HEAT OF EVAPORATION

The variable Lv is defined by:

Lv = lv ( T )

where T is the temperature. See Functions for the definition of the function Lv.

Domain Moisture Fluxes

CONVECTIVE MOISTURE FLUX

The definition of the variable cflux depends on the domain model and on the species
formulation:

• In moist air domains, with the diluted species formulation:

cflux = M v u g c v

MOISTURE TRANSPORT VARIABLES | 83

 • In moist air domains, with the concentrated species formulation:
cflux = ρ g u g ω v

• In hygroscopic porous media domains:

cflux = ρ g u g ω v + ρ l u l

• In building materials domains:

cflux = – δ p φ w ∇ ( p sat ( T ) )

In building materials domains, the definition of cflux does not correspond to

convection in the physical sense, but rather to vapor diffusion. However, this term is
numerically handled like a convection flux, and is therefore included in the variable
cflux.

DIFFUSIVE MOISTURE FLUX

The definition of the variable dflux depends on the domain model and on the species
formulation:

• In moist air domains, with the diluted species formulation:

dflux = – M v D∇c v

• In moist air domains, with the concentrated species formulation:

dflux = – ρ g D∇ω v

• In hygroscopic porous media domains:

dflux = g lc – ρ g D eff ∇ω v

• In building materials domains:

dflux = – ξ D w ∇φ w – δ p p sat ( T )∇φ w

In hygroscopic porous media and building materials domains, the first term of the
definition of dflux corresponds to liquid capillary flux. This term is numerically
handled like a diffusion flux, and is therefore included in the variable dflux.

TOTAL MOISTURE FLUX

The variable tflux is defined as:

tflux = cflux+dflux

84 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

TOTAL MOISTURE FLUX MAGNITUDE
The variable tfluxMag is defined as:

tfluxMag = norm ( tflux )

Boundary Moisture Fluxes

NORMAL CONVECTIVE MOISTURE FLUX

The variable ncflux is defined on all boundaries as:

ncflux = mean ( cflux ) ⋅ n

INTERNAL NORMAL CONVECTIVE MOISTURE FLUX, UPSIDE

The variable ncflux_u is defined on interior boundaries as:

ncflux_u = up ( cflux ) ⋅ un

INTERNAL NORMAL CONVECTIVE MOISTURE FLUX, DOWNSIDE

The variable ncflux_d is defined on interior boundaries as:

ncflux_d = down ( cflux ) ⋅ dn

NORMAL DIFFUSIVE MOISTURE FLUX

The variable ndflux is defined on all boundaries as:

ndflux = mean ( dflux ) ⋅ n

INTERNAL NORMAL DIFFUSIVE MOISTURE FLUX, UPSIDE

The variable ndflux_u is defined on interior boundaries as:

ndflux_u = up ( dflux ) ⋅ un

INTERNAL NORMAL DIFFUSIVE MOISTURE FLUX, DOWNSIDE

The variable ndflux_d is defined on interior boundaries as:

ndflux_d = down ( dflux ) ⋅ dn

NORMAL TOTAL MOISTURE FLUX

The variable ntflux is defined on all boundaries as:

ntflux = mean ( tflux ) ⋅ n

MOISTURE TRANSPORT VARIABLES | 85

 INTERNAL NORMAL TOTAL MOISTURE FLUX, UPSIDE
The variable ntflux_u is defined on interior boundaries as:

ntflux_u = up ( tflux ) ⋅ un

INTERNAL NORMAL TOTAL MOISTURE FLUX, DOWNSIDE

The variable ntflux_d is defined on interior boundaries as:

ntflux_d = down ( tflux ) ⋅ dn

TOTAL MOISTURE FLUX

The sum of the boundary moisture fluxes added by Moisture Flux features is available
as the variable gtot.

Domain Moisture Source

The sum of the domain moisture sources added by Moisture Source features is
available as the variable Gtot.

Mass Balance
The mass balance variable, massBalance, is defined as

massBalance = dwcInt + ntfluxInt - GInt

where:

• the variation of total moisture content per unit time in the domain, dwcInt, is:
d
dwcInt =
dt  Ω w ( φ w ) dω
• the total net moisture rate, ntfluxInt, is the integral of the total moisture flux over
all external boundaries:

ntfluxInt =
∂Ω ext
tflux ⋅ n dσ

• the total moisture source, GInt, is the integral of the moisture sources over the
domains:

GInt =
Ω Gtot dω

86 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

Using the Boundary Conditions for
the Heat Transfer Interfaces
In this section:

• Temperature and Heat Flux Boundary Conditions

• Overriding Mechanism for Heat Transfer Boundary Conditions

Temperature and Heat Flux Boundary Conditions

The heat equation accepts two basic types of boundary conditions: specified
temperature and specified heat flux. The specified condition is of constraint type and
prescribes the temperature on a boundary:

T = T0 on ∂Ω

while the latter specifies the inward heat flux

–n ⋅ q = q0 on ∂Ω

where

• q is the conductive heat flux vector (SI unit: W/m2), q = −k∇T.

• n is the normal vector on the boundary.
• q0 is the inward heat flux (SI unit: W/m2), normal to the boundary.

The inward heat flux, q0, is often a sum of contributions from different heat transfer
processes (for example, radiation and convection). The special case q0 = 0 is called
thermal insulation.

A common type of heat flux boundary conditions is one for which q0 = h·(Text − T),
where Text is the temperature far away from the modeled domain and the heat transfer
coefficient, h, represents all the physics occurring between the boundary and “far
away.” It can include almost anything, but the most common situation is that h

USING THE BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACES | 87

 represents the effect of an exterior fluid cooling or heating the surface of a solid, a
phenomenon often referred to as convective cooling or heating.

The CFD Module and the Heat Transfer Module contain a set of
correlations for convective heat flux and heating. See Heat Transfer and
Fluid Flow Coupling.

Overriding Mechanism for Heat Transfer Boundary Conditions

Many boundary conditions are available in heat transfer. Some of these can coexist (for
example, Heat Flux and Thin Layer (Heat Transfer Interface) and Solid (Heat Transfer
in Shells Interface)); others cannot (for example, Heat Flux and Thermal Insulation).

Several categories of boundary condition exist in heat transfer. Table 3-6 gives the
overriding rules for these groups.

1 Temperature, Open Boundary, Inflow, Outflow, Phase Change Interface

2 Thermal Insulation, Symmetry (Heat Transfer Interface), Periodic Condition (Heat
Transfer Interface)
3 Heat Flux
4 Boundary Heat Source, Line Heat Source on Axis, Deposited Beam Power
5 Thin Layer (Heat Transfer Interface) and Solid (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface),
Thermal Contact, Thin Film (Heat Transfer Interface) and Fluid (Heat Transfer in
Shells Interface), and Fracture (Heat Transfer Interface) and Porous Medium (Heat
Transfer in Shells Interface)
6 Isothermal Domain Interface

TABLE 3-6: OVERRIDING RULES FOR HEAT TRANSFER BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

A\B 1 2 3 4 5 6

1-Temperature X X X
2-Thermal Insulation X X
3-Heat Flux X X
4-Boundary heat source
5-Thin Layer X X
6-Isothermal Domain Interface X

88 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

When there is a boundary condition A above a boundary condition B in the model
tree and both conditions apply to the same boundary, use Table 3-6 to determine if A
is overridden by B or not:

• Locate the line that corresponds to the A group (see above the definition of the
groups). In the table above only the first member of the group is displayed.
• Locate the column that corresponds to the group of B.
• If the corresponding cell is empty, A and B contribute. If it contains an X, B
overrides A.

Group 3 and group 4 boundary conditions are always contributing. That

means that they never override any other boundary condition. But they
might be overridden.

Example
Consider a boundary where Heat Flux is applied. Then a Symmetry boundary condition
is applied on the same boundary afterward.

• Heat Flux belongs to group 3.

• Symmetry belongs to group 2.
• The cell on the line of group 3 and the column of group 2 contains an X so Heat
Flux is overridden by Symmetry.
This mechanism can be checked on the COMSOL Desktop, in the Override and
Contribution section of each feature, as shown in the following table:

TABLE 3-7: Override and Contribution SECTIONS.

HEAT FLUX SYMMETRY

USING THE BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACES | 89

 In the example above, if Symmetry followed by Heat Flux is added, the
boundary conditions contribute.

90 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

Handling Frames in Heat Transfer
In this section:

• Heat Transfer Analysis with Moving Frames

• Material Density in Features Defined in the Material Frame

Heat Transfer Analysis with Moving Frames

This section discusses heat transfer analysis with moving frames, when spatial and
material frames do not coincide. In this case, the heat transfer interfaces account for
deformation effects on heat transfer properties.

• Material and Spatial Frames

• About Frames in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

In the heat transfer interfaces, the entire physics (equations and variables) are defined
in the spatial frame. When a moving mesh is detected, the user inputs for certain
features are defined in the material frame and are converted so that all the
corresponding variables contain the value in the spatial frame.

Conversion Between Material and Spatial Frames

This subsection contains the list of all heat transfer nodes and the corresponding
definition frame:

• Physics Feature Nodes and Definition Frame

• Definition Frame of Domain Nodes
• Definition Frame of Boundary Nodes
• Definition Frame of Edge and Point Nodes

PHYSICS FEATURE NODES AND DEFINITION FRAME

The following explains the different values listed in the definition frame column in
Table 3-8, Table 3-9, and Table 3-10:

HANDLING FRAMES IN HEAT TRANSFER | 91

 Material: The inputs are entered by the user and defined in the material frame.
Because the heat transfer variables and equations are defined in the spatial frame, the
inputs are internally converted to the spatial frame.

Spatial: The inputs are entered by the user and defined in the spatial frame. No
conversion is done.

Material/(Spatial): For these physics nodes, select from the Material type list to decide
if the inputs are defined in the material or spatial frame. The default definition frame
is the material frame, which corresponds to Solid in the Material type list.

(Material)/Spatial: For these physics nodes, select from the Material type list to decide
if the inputs are defined in the material or spatial frame. The default definition frame
is the spatial frame, which corresponds to Nonsolid in the Material type list.

N/A: There is no definition frame for this physics node.

92 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

DEFINITION FRAME OF DOMAIN NODES

TABLE 3-8: DOMAIN PHYSICS NODES FOR FRAMES

NODE NAME DEFINITION FRAME

Absorbing Medium Spatial

Absorbing-Scattering Medium Spatial
Bioheat Material
Biological Tissue Material
Building Material Material
Cross Section Spatial
Thickness Spatial
Fluid Spatial
Geothermal Heating Material
Heat Source Material/(Spatial)
Immobile Fluids Spatial
Infinite Elements Spatial
Initial Values Spatial
Irreversible Transformation Spatial
Isothermal Domain Spatial
Moist Air Spatial
Moist Porous Medium Material (Solid part)
Spatial (Fluid part)
Opacity N/A
Optically Thick Participating Spatial
Medium
Out-of-Plane Heat Flux Spatial
Out-of-Plane Radiation Spatial
Participating Medium Spatial
Phase Change Material Spatial
Porous Medium Material (Solid part)
Spatial (Fluid part)
Pressure Work Spatial
Radiative Source Material/(Spatial)
Shape Memory Alloy Material
Solid Material

HANDLING FRAMES IN HEAT TRANSFER | 93

 TABLE 3-8: DOMAIN PHYSICS NODES FOR FRAMES

NODE NAME DEFINITION FRAME

Thermal Dispersion Spatial

Thermoelastic Damping Spatial
Translational Motion Material
Viscous Dissipation Spatial

94 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

DEFINITION FRAME OF BOUNDARY NODES

TABLE 3-9: BOUNDARY PHYSICS NODES FOR FRAMES

NODE NAME DEFINITION FRAME

Boundary Heat Source Material/(Spatial)

Continuity Spatial
Continuity on Interior Boundary Spatial
Deposited Beam Power Spatial
Diffuse Mirror Spatial
Diffuse Surface Spatial
External Temperature Spatial
Fracture Material (Solid part)
Spatial (Fluid part)
Heat Flux (Material)/Spatial
Heat Source Material/(Spatial)
Incident Intensity Spatial
Inflow Spatial
Irreversible Transformation Material
Isothermal Domain Interface Spatial
Lumped System Connector Spatial
Opaque Surface Spatial
Open Boundary Spatial
Outflow N/A
Periodic Condition Spatial
Prescribed Radiosity Spatial
Radiation Group N/A
Semitransparent Surface Spatial
Surface-to-Ambient Radiation Spatial
Symmetry N/A
Temperature Spatial
Thermal Contact Material
Thermal Damage Material
Thermal Insulation N/A

HANDLING FRAMES IN HEAT TRANSFER | 95

 TABLE 3-9: BOUNDARY PHYSICS NODES FOR FRAMES

NODE NAME DEFINITION FRAME

Thin Film Spatial

Thin Layer Material
The definition frames of the corresponding pair features are identical to the ones of the
standard features.

DEFINITION FRAME OF EDGE AND POINT NODES

TABLE 3-10: EDGE AND POINT NODES FOR FRAMES

NODE NAME DEFINITION FRAME

Heat Flux Spatial/(Material)

Heat Source Material/(Spatial)
Line Heat Source Material/(Spatial)
Point Heat Source Material/(Spatial)
Shell Continuity Spatial
Surface-to-Ambient Radiation Spatial
Temperature Spatial
Thin Rod Material

Material Density in Features Defined in the Material Frame

In a model the features defined in the material frame with an input field for the density
expect the density in the material frame, defined for the reference geometry. Hence this
density is constant in most cases. A non constant density in the material frame means
that there is addition or removal of matter.

As a consequence, when the material is defined from a material library and is

temperature dependent, a constant reference temperature, the volume reference
temperature, is used for the definition of the density in the Material Contents table.

The volume reference temperature defines the density in the reference geometry that
should match with the geometry in the material frame. It is a model input of all the
features defined in the material frame with an input field for the density. Following
Table 3-8, Table 3-9, and Table 3-10, this concerns the following features: Solid,
Porous Medium, Biological Tissue, Building Material, Shape Memory Alloy, Thin
Layer (Heat Transfer Interface) and Solid (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface), Fracture
(Heat Transfer Interface) and Porous Medium (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface), and
Thin Rod.

96 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

Heat Transfer Consistent and
Inconsistent Stabilization Methods
The different versions of the Heat Transfer interface include the advanced option to
set stabilization method parameters. This section has information about these options.
To display the stabilization sections, click the Show More Options button ( ) and
select Stabilization in the Show More Options dialog box.

In this section:

• Consistent Stabilization
• Inconsistent Stabilization

Consistent Stabilization
This section contains two consistent stabilization methods: streamline diffusion and
crosswind diffusion. These are consistent stabilization methods, which means that they
do not perturb the original transport equation.

The consistent stabilization methods are active by default. A stabilization method is

active when the corresponding check box is selected.

STREAMLINE DIFFUSION
Streamline diffusion is active by default and should remain active for optimal
performance for heat transfer in fluids or other applications that include a convective
or translational term.

CROSSWIND DIFFUSION
Streamline diffusion introduces artificial diffusion in the streamline direction. This is
often enough to obtain a smooth numerical solution provided that the exact solution
of the heat equation does not contain any discontinuities. At sharp gradients, however,
undershoots and overshoots can occur in the numerical solution. Crosswind diffusion
addresses these spurious oscillations by adding diffusion orthogonal to the streamline
direction — that is, in the crosswind direction.

HEAT TRANSFER CONSISTENT AND INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION METHODS | 97

 Inconsistent Stabilization
This section contains a single stabilization method: isotropic diffusion. Adding
isotropic diffusion is equivalent to adding a term to the physical diffusion coefficient.
This means that the original problem is not solved, which is why isotropic diffusion is
an inconsistent stabilization method. Although the added diffusion definitely
attenuates spurious oscillations, try to minimize the use of isotropic diffusion.

By default there is no isotropic diffusion. To add isotropic diffusion, select the Isotropic
diffusion check box. The field for the tuning parameter δid then becomes available. The
default value is 0.25; increase or decrease the value of δid to increase or decrease the
amount of isotropic diffusion.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Stabilization Techniques
• Selection Information

98 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow
Coupling
COMSOL Multiphysics offers physics interfaces for heat transfer and fluid flow
computations. These interfaces have model inputs that make it possible to couple the
physics. In addition, the Nonisothermal Flow multiphysics coupling node facilitates the
coupling between heat transfer and fluid flow interfaces.

All these options make it possible to build a coupling in different ways. Even if the use
of the predefined multiphysics coupling interfaces — Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate
Heat Transfer — is the preferred choice, other alternatives can be of interest in
particular cases. This section describes the possibility for coupling heat transfer and
fluid flow interface and lists the advantages and limitations of each approach.

In this section:

• Coupling Based on Model Inputs

• Adding Nonisothermal Flow Coupling in an Existing Model
• Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer Multiphysics Interfaces
See The Laminar Flow Interface, The Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus Interface, The
Turbulent Flow, L-VEL Interface, The Turbulent Flow, k-ε Interface, and The
Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε Interface in the CFD Module User’s Guide for a
description of the laminar and turbulent single-phase flow interfaces.

See Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow in the CFD
Module User’s Guide for a description of the nodes associated to these interfaces.

Coupling Based on Model Inputs

This option does not use any multiphysics feature. Instead you define the model inputs
in each physics interface. You define the temperature model input in the flow interface
and the velocity and pressure model inputs in the heat transfer interface. This approach
is valid for laminar flow only. Also, the consistent stabilization does not account for the
multiphysics coupling, which can lead to convergence issues when the multiphysics
coupling is strong. Pressure work and viscous dissipation are not handled. In addition
the physics interface settings may not be optimal for the numerical treatment of the
coupling.

HEAT TRANSFER AND FLUID FLOW COUPLING | 99

 One interesting aspect of this method it that the temperature, velocity, or pressure field
does not have to be a dependent variable. You can use an analytical expression instead.

Adding Nonisothermal Flow Coupling in an Existing Model

The Nonisothermal Flow multiphysics feature can be added to a model containing a
single-phase flow and a heat transfer interface, to realize the bidirectional coupling
between the two interfaces.

It is common to start a model with a single physics (for example, fluid flow), then
implement the second one (for example, heat transfer). Then adding the Nonisothermal
Flow multiphysics feature realizes the bidirectional coupling. It also redefines the
consistent stabilization so that the multiphysics coupling effects are accounted for in
the numerical stabilization.

With the Heat Transfer Module or the CFD Module, it accounts for the turbulence in
the coupling. In particular, it modifies the effective thermal conductivity and
implements thermal wall functions if the fluid flow model requires them. Those
modifications affect the implementation of several heat transfer features. It allows to
include work done by pressure changes and viscous dissipation, and Boussinesq
approximation is supported. Finally some physics features are updated when the
Nonisothermal Flow multiphysics feature is active. In particular, the Interior Fan and
Screen fluid-flow features are updated to account for the multiphysics coupling.

Note that the physics interface settings may not be optimal for the numerical treatment
of the coupling when the multiphysics feature is added afterward.

Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer Multiphysics

Interfaces
These Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer Multiphysics Interfaces
multiphysics interfaces are identical except that they do not have the same default
features. Both contain a single-phase flow interface and a heat transfer interface
coupled with the Nonisothermal Flow multiphysics feature. So all the benefits of this
multiphysics feature (see above) are present when these multiphysics interfaces are
used.

In addition, the heat transfer and fluid flow interfaces are set up with optimal interface
settings: the discretization order of the heat transfer interface is the same as the one
used for the fluid flow interface, and the pseudo time stepping is activated in both
interfaces.

100 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

For these reasons, the use of these multiphysics interfaces is preferred.

Note that you can do a gradual implementation of the model: It is possible to start
from these multiphysics interfaces and to disable the multiphysics feature or one of the
physics in a first step and then reactivate them when the first step is validated.

HEAT TRANSFER AND FLUID FLOW COUPLING | 101

 Boundary Wall Temperature
Depending on the model configuration, a single temperature field per boundary may
not be sufficient to model accurately the temperature. In some cases, different
dependent variables are used to compute the temperature in the wall, at the wall sides,
or in the turbulent boundary layer. This section describes when additional degrees of
freedom are needed and how they are handled.

The boundary temperature variable called ht.Tvar describes the wall temperature.
When the wall has a nonconstant temperature across its thickness, this variable contains
the average value between the temperatures of the two sides of the wall. The actual
definition of ht.Tvar depends on the model configuration.

Some features define a local temperature: ht.feat1.Tvar. For example, when a

boundary heat source is applied on a particular side of the layer, this local variable
ht.bhs1.Tvar contains either the temperature upside or downside the boundary.

The following list includes existing boundary temperature variables that are available
depending on the model configuration:

• T: general temperature variable that coincides with the wall temperature in most
cases
• TWall_u: upside wall temperature defined by a Wall or an Interior Wall feature with
turbulence only if a Fluid feature is defined on the upside of the wall.
• TWall_d: downside wall temperature defined by a Wall or an Interior Wall feature
with turbulence only if a Fluid feature is defined on the downside of the wall.
• Tu: temperature on the upside of the boundary.
• Td: temperature on the downside of the boundary.
• TExtFace: external temperature of an external boundary defined by a thermally
thick boundary condition.
• TuWF: temperature of the fluid in the turbulent boundary layer near the wall only if
the Fluid feature is defined on the upside of the Wall feature.
• TdWF: temperature of the fluid in the turbulent boundary layer near the wall only if
the Fluid feature is defined on the downside of the Wall feature.

102 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

The values of these variables depend on the selections where they are defined. Here are
some illustrated cases:

• Intersection Between a Wall Boundary Feature Selection and Interface Exterior

Boundaries
• Interface Between a Fluid Domain Feature and a Solid Domain Feature Where a
Wall Boundary Feature Is Active
• Interface Between two Fluid Domain Features Where an Interior Wall Boundary
Feature Is Active

Depending on the turbulence model selected for the flow, wall functions are used or
not:

• No turbulence model: no wall functions, and TuWF = Tu, TdWF = Td.

• Turbulence models: wall functions detected by the Single Phase Flow physics
interface. TuWF and TdWF have different definitions and a flux qwf is applied on the
wall boundaries. See Temperature Condition for Automatic Wall Treatment and
Wall functions in the CFD Module User’s Manual for details.

The following sections summarize the definitions of the temperature variables for the
abovementioned configurations.

INTERSECTION BETWEEN A WALL BOUNDARY FEATURE SELECTION AND

INTERFACE EXTERIOR BOUNDARIES
The following figure shows a configuration with a fluid domain, a thermally thick
boundary condition on the left boundary, and a Wall feature on the right boundary.
This example uses wall functions.

Fluid

Tu=TExtFace Td=TWall_d Tu=Td=TWall_d

TdWF=T TdWF=T
Thermally thick layer boundary

BOUNDARY WALL TEMPERATURE | 103

 INTERFACE BETWEEN A FLUID DOMAIN FEATURE AND A SOLID DOMAIN
FEATURE WHERE A WALL BOUNDARY FEATURE IS ACTIVE

Solid in the Domain Downside the Wall

The following figures show configurations with a solid as downside domain and a fluid
as upside domain with either a thermally thick or thermally thin boundary condition
in between. This example uses wall functions.

Solid Fluid

Downside domain Upside domain

of the boundary of the boundary

Td=down(T) Tu=TWall_u Tu=Td=TWall_d

TuWF=up(T) TdWF=T
Thermally thick layer boundary

Solid Fluid

Downside domain Upside domain

of the boundary of the boundary

Tu=Td=down(T) Tu=Td=TWall_d

Thermally thin layer boundary

104 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

Solid in the Domain Upside the Wall
The following figures show configurations with a fluid as downside domain and a solid
as upside domain with either a thermally thick or thermally thin boundary condition
in between. This example uses wall functions.

Fluid Solid

Downside domain Upside domain

of the boundary of the boundary

Tu=Td=Twall_d
Td=TWall_d Tu=up(T)
TdWF=down(T)
Thermally thick layer boundary

Fluid Solid

Downside domain Upside domain

of the boundary of the boundary

Tu=Td=Twall_d Tu=Td=up(T)

Thermally thin layer boundary

BOUNDARY WALL TEMPERATURE | 105

 INTERFACE BETWEEN TWO FLUID DOMAIN FEATURES WHERE AN
INTERIOR WALL BOUNDARY FEATURE IS ACTIVE
The following figure shows a configuration with two fluid domains with a thermally
thick boundary condition and an Interior Wall feature in between. This example uses
wall functions.
Fluid Fluid

Downside domain Upside domain

of the boundary of the boundary

Tu=Td=TWall_d Tu=Td=TWall_d

Td=TWall_d Tu=TWall_u
TdWF=down(T) TuWF=up(T)

Thermally thick layer and Interior

Wall boundary

106 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

S o lv e r S e t t i ng s
The information about default solvers given below is specific to the Heat Transfer and
Moisture Transport interfaces when the Stationary and Time-Dependent studies are
used. A comprehensive description of solver settings and corresponding theory is
available in the Study and Study Step Types section of the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

See also Studies and Solvers in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual

In this section:

• Linearity Property of the Temperature Equation

• Linear Solver
• Nonlinear Solver
• Time-Dependent Study Step
• Guidelines for Solving Surface-to-Surface Radiation Problems
• Guidelines for Solving Multiphysics Problems

Linearity Property of the Temperature Equation

The Heat Transfer interfaces define an elliptic partial differential equation for the
temperature, T, of the form:

∂T
ρC p +∇⋅q = Q
∂t

q = – k ∇T

with Dirichlet and Neumann boundary conditions at some boundaries:

T = T0

–n ⋅ q = q0

In its basic form, the density, ρ, heat capacity, Cp, thermal conductivity, k, heat sources,
Q, constraint temperatures, T0, and heat fluxes, q0, are all constant, which leads to a

SOLVER SETTINGS | 107

 linear system. Here, linear solvers described in the next paragraphs are completely
suited for the resolution.

However, nonlinearities can appear in the equation in the following cases:

• The material properties, ρ, Cp, and k, have a temperature dependency.

• The heat sources are not linear in temperature.
• The Neumann boundary condition is not linear in temperature, hence
- A convective cooling condition of type −n ⋅ q = h(Text − T) keeps the linearity of
the problem when the heat transfer coefficient, h, is constant.
- A radiative condition of type −n ⋅ q = εσ(Tamb4 − T4) is strongly nonlinear.

Different nonlinear solvers are also provided for these kinds of problems.

Linear Solver

DEFAULT LINEAR SETTINGS FOR HEAT TRANSFER AND MOISTURE

TRANSPORT INTERFACES
The default linear solver is determined based on the number of degrees of freedom and
physics interface settings.

For small number of degrees of freedom, the direct PARDISO solver is used. It is
known to be robust and fast for small-sized problems.

For larger models, the linear iterative GMRES solver with multigrid preconditioner is
used. In most cases, SOR is the presmoother and postsmoother. This solver is memory
effective and fast for large models.

When the model contains settings that lead to a system matrix with 0 on the diagonal
(for example, Lagrange multipliers for weak constraints), SOR cannot be used and is
replaced by Vanka, which is usually slower and uses more memory.

TUNING LINEAR SOLVER

Tuning the linear solver may be considered in case of nonconvergence or low
performance. When convergence fails you should first verify that this is not due to an
ill-posed model, or inappropriate settings in the Time-Dependent study or nonlinear
solver.

Several options are available to tune the linear solver settings. This paragraph focuses
only on the most commonly used ones.

108 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

Switch to PARDISO
When the GMRES solver with multigrid preconditioner is set by default, using
PARDISO instead can be considered provided that enough RAM is available. Indeed,
PARDISO usually converges easily but uses much more memory than the default
iterative solver. If PARDISO does not converge, it may indicate that there is an issue
in the model definition or with other solver settings.

Optimize GMRES/Multigrid for Memory

In order to optimize further the memory needed by the iterative solver, the number of
mesh elements on the coarser multigrid level can be reduced by, for instance,
increasing the Mesh coarsening factor or the Number of multigrid levels. The latter
strategy may also increase the resolution time.

Optimize GMRES/Multigrid for Convergence

When the linear solver has difficulties to converge, the following settings can be tuned:

• When the convergence graph of GMRES shows a slow down every 50 iterations, the
Number of iteration before restart parameter (default value of 50) should be
increased — doubled for example. This may also increase the memory consumption.
• Increasing the Number of iteration in the Multigrid settings, and in the presmoother
and postsmoother nodes improves the quality of the preconditioner and
convergence of GMRES.
• Since an excessive difference between two multigrid levels can affect the
convergence, lowering the Mesh coarsening factor in the Multigrid settings can help
convergence.
• Consider creating the multigrid level meshes manually if the automatic coarsening
method fails or leads to poor quality meshes.

Choosing the Right Linear System Solver in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual

Nonlinear Solver

DEFAULT NONLINEAR SETTINGS FOR HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACES

Nonlinear solver settings depend on the heat transfer model and on the study type.

SOLVER SETTINGS | 109

 Fully Coupled Solver Attribute
Heat transfer models use a fully coupled nonlinear solver attribute by default. The
Jacobian update is set to On every iteration for Stationary studies, and to On first iteration
for Time-Dependent studies. A Newton nonlinear method is set by default with

• Automatic damping factor computation for stationary studies

• Constant damping factor for time-dependent studies, with a default damping factor
set to 0.9.

Segregated Solver Attribute

The segregated solver attribute is set by default in the following cases:

• Another physics interface is solved together with heat transfer. The dependent
variables of the Heat Transfer interface are placed in a separate segregated group.
• Radiation in participating media using the Discrete ordinates method defines a large
number of dependent variables (up to 168 for a single wavelength), which are placed
in segregated groups. The number of dependent variables per segregated group and
the nonlinear method settings depend on the Performance index parameter available
in the heat transfer interface settings in the Participating Media Settings section.
When multiple wavelength are considered, the variables relative to distinct
wavelengths are not mixed together in the segregated groups.
• The Thermal Damage subfeature (added under Biological Tissue feature) defines an
additional variable alpha that is placed in a dedicated segregated group.

DEFAULT NONLINEAR SETTINGS FOR MOISTURE TRANSPORT

INTERFACES
Nonlinear solver settings depend on the study type.

Fully Coupled Solver Attribute

A fully coupled solver attribute is set by default. A Newton nonlinear method with a
constant damping factor is set by default, with the following settings:

• The Damping factor is set to 0.7.

• The Jacobian update is set to On first iteration for Time-Dependent studies, and to On
every iteration for Stationary studies or when the liquid concentration on surfaces,
cl_evap, is solved.

• The Maximum number of iterations is set to 5 for Time-Dependent studies, and to 50

for Stationary studies.
• The Tolerance factor is set to 0.01 for Time-Dependent studies, and to 0.1 for
Stationary studies.

110 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

Segregated Solver Attribute
The segregated solver attribute is set by default when another physics interface is
solved together with moisture transport. The dependent variables of the Moisture
Transport interface are placed in a separate segregated group.

A Newton nonlinear method with a constant damping factor is set by default, with the
following settings:

• The Damping factor is set to 0.7.

• The Jacobian update is set to On first iteration for Time-Dependent studies, and to On
every iteration for Stationary studies or when the liquid concentration on surfaces,
cl_evap, is solved.
• The termination technique is Iterations, with Number of iterations set to 2.

DEFAULT NONLINEAR SETTINGS FOR THE LUMPED THERMAL SYSTEM

INTERFACE
A fully coupled solver attribute is set by default. A Newton nonlinear method with a
constant damping factor is set by default, with the following settings:

• The Damping factor is set to 1.

• The Jacobian update is set to On every iteration.
• The Maximum number of iterations is set to 5 for Time-Dependent studies, and to 50
for Stationary studies.

TUNING THE NONLINEAR SOLVER

Default solver settings are defined to handle efficiently classical configurations. For
particular applications, the default settings may need modifications to improve the
robustness and performance of the solver.

Optimize Nonlinear Solver for Robustness

When the nonlinear solver fails or converges erratically, different options can be
considered:

• Using the Automatic highly nonlinear (Newton) option forces to start the
computation with a very low damping factor and increases it carefully. Alternatively
a low constant damping factor can be used. The damping factor ranges between 0
and 1. A constant damping factor equal to 0.1 is a very low value and should be
robust but slow to converge. For low values of the damping factor, it is thus usually
needed to increase the number of nonlinear iterations. If the nonlinear solver is
unstable with such a damping factor then the automatic option should be used

SOLVER SETTINGS | 111

 because it makes it possible to start with a lower damping factor and gradually
increases it.
• A good initial value, as close as possible from the expected solution and consistent
with the boundary conditions, helps to guide the nonlinear solver to a stable
physical solution. To do that:
- Try to ramp the temperature on the boundary from the initial to the desired value
by using a auxiliary sweep — for stationary problems — or a time-dependent step
function — for time-dependent problems.
- Use results from a simplified problem, for instance with no temperature
dependency, or using a one-way multiphysics coupling, as initial value.
Note that it is sometimes easier to update the boundary conditions than the initial
condition to get consistent initial settings (see the Heat Conduction in a Finite
Slab model).
• When it is not possible to provide a good initial value, the segregated solver
associated with low damping factors in each segregated step helps to achieve
convergence.
• Forcing the Jacobian update at every iteration ensures that the nonlinear solver
iterates using optimal information from the equation system. This is needed when
nonlinearities are due to the temperature itself — for example, in case of strong
temperature dependency of material properties — or to another variable solved in
the same segregated group as the temperature — for example, in natural convection
models.

Optimize Convergence Speed

Low convergence can be improved by following ways:

• Using a constant damping factor equal to 1 for linear problems. The linearity is
determined at the beginning of the resolution and indicated in the Log section of the
solver window.
• Providing a good initial value is an asset for computational speed.
• In the convergence area, the fully coupled solver has a better convergence rate than
the segregated solver.
• Using minimal Jacobian update option avoid to spend time in Jacobian
computation. This is suited for linear models and models with mild nonlinearities.

112 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

Time-Dependent Study Step

DEFAULT TIME SETTINGS FOR HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACES

The default time-stepping method for the Heat Transfer interfaces is BDF at second
order. It excludes algebraic variable from the error estimate.

When a Thermal Damage subfeature is present under Biological Tissue feature, particular
settings for the time-dependent solver are used to efficiently compute the damage
indicators:

• The Absolute Tolerance of the scaled damage indicator variable is set to 1, meaning
that these variable are neglected in the error estimate.
• The damaged tissue indicator, α, is solved with an iterative Jacobi method.
• If the Adaptive mesh refinement option is selected in the study settings, the error
indicator is set to ∇θ d, sm ⋅ ∇θ d, sm , where θd, sm is the smoothed indicator of
necrotic tissue (the fraction of necrotic tissue, θd, is discontinuous in general).
• If the Temperature threshold option is used in the Biological Tissue feature, the instant
necrosis indicator, alphanecr, is placed in the Previous Solution step. This setting
avoids wrong detection of irreversible damage due to nonlinear iterations that may
go through a state where the damage criteria is met and then converge to a solution
where the damage criteria is no longer met. It uses a direct linear solver. The default
nonlinear method is the Newton method with constant damping factor.

When the Irreversible Transformation feature is active, similar settings are used:

• The Absolute Tolerance of the scaled irreversible transformation indicator dependent

variable is set to 1.
• The irreversible transformation indicator α is solved with an iterative Jacobi method.

DEFAULT TIME SETTINGS FOR MOISTURE TRANSPORT INTERFACES

The default time-stepping method for the Moisture Transport interfaces is BDF at
second order. It includes algebraic variable from the error estimate.

TUNING THE TIME-DEPENDENT SOLVER

The quality of the time-stepping influences the nonlinear solver convergence. Tiny
time steps usually lead to mildly nonlinear problems at each time step whereas large
time steps can result in (fewer) highly nonlinear problems.

The default solver settings for transient heat transfer and moisture transport define the
maximal number of nonlinear iterations to 5. If this is not sufficient, it is recommended

SOLVER SETTINGS | 113

 to use smaller time steps and to verify if the model definition does not contain
discontinuities in time. If so, consider using smooth step functions to model sharp
variations in time.

There are several ways to control the time step size:

• An implicit way is to define a lower relative tolerance in the study settings. When the
relative tolerance is lowered, the absolute tolerance should be reduced in the same
proportion. The default Relative tolerance is set to 0.01 for Time-Dependent studies,
and to 0.1 for Stationary studies.
• The most explicit way is to define a maximum time step. This is an appropriate
option when the same maximum time step is relevant for the entire simulation.
Otherwise, it is possible to include times of interest in the Times field of the
time-dependent study and to use the Intermediate option in the Time Stepping
settings.
• Lastly you can control the time step by triggering an event when a particular
condition is meet (see the documentation about The Events Interface in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual). This advanced method can be
efficient when the other simpler methods are not applicable.

It is also recommended to inspect the solver log and check the default scaling of
dependent variables in case of convergence failure. In case of incorrect automatic
scaling, consider using Manual settings in the Dependent Variable attribute node.

Time-Dependent Solver in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual

Guidelines for Solving Surface-to-Surface Radiation Problems

The following guidelines are helpful when selecting solver settings for models that
involve surface-to-surface radiation:

• Surface-to-surface radiation makes the Jacobian matrix of the discrete model partly
filled as opposed to the usual sparse matrix. The additional nonzero elements in the
matrix appear in the rows and columns corresponding to the radiosity degrees of
freedom. It is therefore common practice to keep the element order of the radiosity
variable, J, low. By default, linear Lagrange elements are used irrespective of the
shape-function order specified for the temperature. When you need to increase the

114 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

 resolution of your temperature field, it might be worth considering raising the order
of the temperature elements instead of refining the mesh.
• The Assembly block size parameter (found in the Advanced solver feature) can have a
major influence on memory usage during the assembly of problems where
surface-to-surface radiation is enabled. When surface-to-surface is detected, the
solver sets the assembly block size at 100. Using a smaller block size also leads to
more frequent updates of the progress bar.

Introduction to Solvers and Studies and Advanced in the COMSOL

Multiphysics Reference Manual

Guidelines for Solving Multiphysics Problems

MULTIPHYSICS MODELS
Unless the model contains a multiphysics node that defines a coupling between a Heat
Transfer interface and another interface (see Multiphysics Couplings below), each
physics interface defines default solver settings that are merged.

The Heat Transfer interfaces always define a dedicated segregated group that uses a
linear solver optimized for the heat transfer equations. For strongly coupled models, it
may be efficient to merge two (or more) segregated steps. In this case, a unique linear
solver must be chosen for the fully coupled solver or the new segregated group.

Time-dependent settings from different physics interfaces may compete. When the
different settings are merged the strictest one is kept.

MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS
When a Heat Transfer interface is coupled with another physics interface through a
multiphysics coupling feature, additional predefined default settings are loaded. The
next two paragraphs describes the subtleties of the Nonisothermal Flow,
Electromagnetic Heating, Heat and Moisture Transport, and Moisture Flow
interfaces.

Nonisothermal Flow
The Nonisothermal Flow multiphysics coupling controls the solver settings for the
flow and the temperature dependent variables.

When it assumes a weak coupling between the flow and the heat interfaces (typically
no gravity force accounted for in the flow interface), the default solver contains

SOLVER SETTINGS | 115

 dedicated segregated groups for heat and flow dependent variables. Each uses the
default linear solver of the corresponding interface, except that the presmoother and
postsmoother in the GMRES iterative solver switches from SOR to SCGS.

When a strong coupling is assumed (gravity force accounted for in the flow interface),
the default solver merges the temperature, pressure, and velocity groups. In this case,
the solver corresponds to the default solver of the heat transfer interface. This is meant
to suits well for nonisothermal flows in which natural convection dominates. See
Default Linear Settings for Heat Transfer and Moisture Transport interfaces, Default
Nonlinear Settings for Heat Transfer Interfaces, and Default Time Settings for Heat
Transfer Interfaces for details.

Electromagnetic Heating
The Electromagnetic Heating multiphysics interfaces (Joule heating, Laser Heating,
Induction Heating, and Microwave Heating) define default settings that solve the
temperature and the electromagnetic fields using a coupled step. It can be the fully
coupled nonlinear solver if there is no additional variable to solve for, otherwise it is a
segregated step containing the temperature and the electromagnetic variables.
However when radiation in participating media or damage variable are solved they are
placed in a separate group as described above.

Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation

The Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation multiphysics coupling assumes a
weak coupling between temperature and radiosity variables solved by a Heat Transfer
interface and a Surface-to-Surface Radiation interface, respectively. The default solver
contains dedicated segregated groups for temperature and radiosity variables.

Heat and Moisture Transport

The Heat and Moisture Transport multiphysics coupling controls the solver settings
for the temperature and relative humidity variables.

The default solver merges the temperature and relative humidity groups. The solver
corresponds to the default solver of the moisture transport interface. See Default
Linear Settings for Heat Transfer and Moisture Transport interfaces, Default
Nonlinear Settings for Moisture Transport Interfaces, and Default Time Settings for
Moisture Transport Interfaces for details.

Moisture Flow
The Moisture Flow multiphysics coupling controls the solver settings for the flow
(velocity and pressure) and the relative humidity variables.

116 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

When it assumes a weak coupling between the flow and the moisture interfaces
(typically no gravity force accounted for in the flow interface), the default solver
contains dedicated segregated groups for moisture and flow dependent variables. Each
uses the default linear solver of the corresponding interface, except that the
presmoother and postsmoother in the GMRES iterative solver switches from SOR to
SCGS.

When a strong coupling is assumed (gravity force accounted for in the flow interface),
the default solver merges the relative humidity, pressure, and velocity groups. In this
case, the solver corresponds to the default solver of the moisture transport interface.
See Default Linear Settings for Heat Transfer and Moisture Transport interfaces,
Default Nonlinear Settings for Moisture Transport Interfaces, and Default Time
Settings for Moisture Transport Interfaces for details.

SOLVER SETTINGS | 117

 P lo t t i ng a nd E v al u at i n g R esu l t s i n
Layered Materials
When modeling heat transfer in thin layers, the thin layer’s thickness is not explicitly
represented in the geometry. However, a 1D extra dimension is attached to the
boundary, via the selection of a layered material, and degrees of freedom are added
through the thickness of the layered material. This concerns the Thin Layer, Thin Film,
and Fracture nodes of the Heat Transfer interface, and all the features of the Heat
Transfer in Shells interface.

Therefore, dedicated tools are available to plot and evaluate the results in the 1D extra
dimension.

Plotting Along and Through the Layered Material

There are predefined plots to display the variables in the 1D extra dimension:

• The Layered Material Slice plot displays the variables along the layered material, for
specified through-thickness locations in the 1D extra dimension.
• The Through Thickness plot displays the variables in the thickness direction, at
specified points on the boundary

See Layered Material, Layered Material Slice, and Through Thickness in

the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for details about the
Layered Material dataset, and slice and through-thickness plots in layered
materials.

Using Extra Dimensions in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual.

118 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

Built-in Operators for Evaluation in the Layered Material

EVALUATION ALONG THE LAYERED MATERIAL

The extra dimension temperature T can be evaluated along the layered material by
using the atxd1 operator on the extra dimension, with the expression
xdimTag.atxd1(xd, expr), where:

• xdimTag is the extra dimension tag. For example, it may be slmat1_xdim, when a
single layer material (slmat1) is selected in the Layered material list of the Thin Layer
node. This tag can be deduced from the Selection column of the Equation View
subnode of the node applied on the thin layer, by clicking the Show More Options
button ( ) on the Model Builder tool bar and selecting Equation View.
• xd is the coordinate in the extra dimension. It varies from 0 to slmat1.th, which
is the total thickness of the layered material. By convention, xd=0 corresponds to
the downside of the boundary where the thin layer is defined, whereas
xd=slmat1.th corresponds to its upside. Upside and downside settings can be
visualized by plotting the global normal vector (nx, ny, nz), that always points from
downside to upside. See Tangent and Normal Variables in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual. Note that the normal vector (ht.nx, ht.ny,
ht.nz) may be oriented differently.
• expr is the quantity to be evaluated at the point xd. For example, it can be set to T
to evaluate the temperature. There are others postprocessing variables defined on
the extra dimension that can be found in the Equation View subnode of the node
applied on the thin layer.

Extra
dimension

Computational
domain Along
the layer
xd

Thin Layer boundary

Figure 3-2: Schematic representation of a 2D geometry with a thin layer composed of three
layers, with an evaluation of the results along the layer at the coordinate xd.

PLOTTING AND EVALUATING RESULTS IN LAYERED MATERIALS | 119

 This operator can be used to define manually a slice plot in the layered material. In 2D
and 2D axisymmetric geometries, the slice is represented in a line graph under a 1D
plot group, whereas it is a surface plot for 3D geometries.

EVALUATION THROUGH THE LAYERED MATERIAL

The extra dimension temperature T can be evaluated through the layered material, at
a specific point (x0, y0) or (x0, y0,z0), by using the operators atxd1 in 2D and 2D
axisymmetric geometries, and atxd2 in 3D geometries. Note that this time the
operators are used on the component and not on the extra dimension.

In 2D and 2D axisymmetric geometries, use compTag.atxd1(x0, y0, expr), where:

• compTag is the component tag. In most cases, this tag is comp1. It is possible to
check it in the Properties window of the component node (display it by
right-clicking on the node and selecting Properties).
• x0 and y0 are the coordinates of the point in the base geometry that belongs to the
boundary linked with the extra dimension. Note that these are 2D coordinates from
the global coordinate system and not curvilinear coordinates.
• expr is the quantity to be evaluated at the point (x0, y0). For example, it can be set
to T to evaluate the temperature.

In 3D geometries, use compTag.atxd2(x0, y0, z0, expr), where:

• compTag is the component tag. For example, it can be comp1.

• x0, y0, and z0 are the coordinates of the point in the base geometry that belongs
to the boundary linked with the extra dimension.
• expr is the quantity to be evaluated at the point (x0, y0, z0). For example, it can
be set to T to plot the temperature. Note that here too, these are 3D coordinates
from the global coordinate system and not curvilinear coordinates.

120 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

 Extra
dimension
Computational
domain

( x0, y0)

Thin Layer boundary

Along the extra dimension

Figure 3-3: Schematic representation of a 2D geometry with a thin layer composed of three
layers, with an evaluation of the results through the layer at the point (x0,y0).

This operator can be used to define manually a through thickness plot in the layered
material. For all dimensions, the section is represented in a line graph under a 1D plot
group. In order to use this, the Dataset selected in the Data section of the 1D plot
group has to select the extra dimension as component. One method is to duplicate the
default Solution node under the Datasets node, set the Component of the new node to
the extra dimension, and use this new dataset into the 1D plot group, with the domains
of the extra dimension selected.

INTEGRATION IN THE LAYERED MATERIAL

The integral of a variable in the layered material defined on a thin layer boundary can
be evaluated by using the xdintopall operator, with the following expression:
featTag.xdintopall(expr), where:

• featTag is the tag of the physics node defining the operator xdintopall. For
example, for a Thin Layer node in the Heat Transfer interface, it may be ht.sls1.
• expr is the quantity to be integrated. For example, it can be set to T to evaluate the
temperature.

LOCALIZATION OF THE EVALUATION IN THE THIN LAYER

For a layerwise computation, the atonly operator should be used to multiply the
expression to be evaluated. This operator, applied to the extra dimension with the
following expression, xdimTag.atonly(dom==i), returns 1 on the i th layer of the
layered material, 0 on the other layers.

PLOTTING AND EVALUATING RESULTS IN LAYERED MATERIALS | 121

 Here, xdimTag is the tag of the extra dimension. For example, it may be llmat1_xdim
when a layered material link (llmat1) is selected in the Layered material list of the Thin
Layer node. This tag can be deduced from the Selection column of the Equation View
subnode of the node applied on the thin layer, by clicking the Show More Options
button ( ) on the Model Builder tool bar and selecting Equation View.

Therefore, by using featTag.xdintopall(xdimTag.atonly(dom==i)*expr), you

evaluate the integral of expr on the i th layer of the layered material.

See atxd, atonly, and noxd in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual for details about the operators.

122 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

Evaluating the Bulk Temperature
In a nonisothermal flow, the bulk temperature is an average temperature, taking into
account the velocity field in the cross section of the flow. It can be evaluated in post
processing, to estimate the heat transfer coefficient over a wall along the flow main
direction.

This chapter describes how to evaluate the bulk temperature in 3D and 2D models,
using the built-in geometry variables and operators. The nonisothermal flow is
supposed to take place along a tube, with any orientation and curvature, even though
the bulk temperature may be defined in other geometries. It contains the following
sections:

• Bulk Temperature Definition

• Evaluation of the Bulk Temperature in 3D Models
• Evaluation of the Bulk Temperature in 2D Models

Bulk Temperature Definition

The bulk temperature Tb is defined as

 ( u ⋅ τ )T ds
S
--------------------------------
⊥
Tb =
 u ⋅ τ ds
S⊥

where S ⊥ is a cross-sectional surface of the tube where the flow takes place, u is the
flow velocity field, τ is the tangential direction of the flow, and T is the temperature
field.

The bulk temperature can be used to evaluate the heat transfer coefficient h at tube
walls:

qw
h = --------------------
Tw – Tb

where qw is the wall heat flux, and Tw is the wall temperature.

EVALUATING THE BULK TEMPERATURE | 123

 Evaluation of the Bulk Temperature in 3D Models
In 3D models, the bulk temperature may be evaluated along an edge of the tube in the
direction of the flow, by using the built-in diskint(R,expr,tol) operator. When
applied to an edge in 3D models, this operator integrates an expression expr over a
disk of radius R, perpendicular to the selected edge. A numerical tolerance parameter
tol is also available to adjust the numerical precision.

See ball, circle, disk, and sphere in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual for details about the operators.

In the evaluation of the bulk temperature, the radius R should be chosen large enough
to encompass the tube cross section, but not too large regarding numerical precision.

If the evaluation disk overlaps other domains, the evaluation may be restricted to the
domain of interest by adding a test on the dom variable.

The evaluation of the tangential velocity over the cross section requires to access the
vector tangent to the edge, in the computational domain. However, the tangent
vectors t1 and t2 are defined on boundaries only. By applying the general extrusion
operator genext1 on the edge, with a mapping to the domain, the tangential vector
genext1(t1) is defined all over the cross section, and can be used in the diskint
operator expression.

See General Extrusion in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

for details about the operators.

Finally, the bulk temperature can be expressed as

Tb =
diskint(R,if(dom==i,ut*T,0),tol)/diskint(R,if(dom==i,ut,0),tol)

where ut = u*genext1(t1x)+v*(genext1(t1y)+w*genext1(t1z), i is the domain

entity number, and the tolerance tol should be specified.

Evaluation of the Bulk Temperature in 2D Models

In 2D models, the evaluation disk of the diskint operator is oriented in-plane, so this
operator is not suitable for an integration over the cross section, and the
integrate(expr,var,lower,upper,tol) operator should be used instead. This

124 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

operator computes the integral of expr for the integration variable var over an interval
specified by expressions lower and upper. A relative tolerance tol may be specified as
well.

See integrate in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for details

about the operators.

In order to integrate over the cross section of the flow, the cross section line is
parametrized as follows:

S ⊥ = { ( x + sn x, y + sn y ), s ∈ [ 0, 1 ] }

where (nx,ny) is the normal vector to the boundary, and hence the vector tangent to
the cross section.

The at2 operator, which is the spatial evaluation operator in 2D, should be used to
evaluate the expression expr on this parametrization of the cross section.

See at in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for details about

the operators.

In practice, the integral is performed over a larger interval [-R,R], where R should be
chosen large enough to encompass the cross section of the tube, but not too large
regarding numerical precision. The isnan operator can be used to ensure that the
solution is defined at the prescribed coordinates, and as in 3D models, the dom variable
may be used to identify the domain of interest.

See isinf and isnan in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for
details about the operators.

As in 3D models, the evaluation of the tangential velocity over the cross section
requires to access the vector tangent to the boundary, in the computational domain.
However, the tangent vector t is defined on boundaries only. By applying the general
extrusion operator genext1 on the boundary, with a mapping to the domain, the

EVALUATING THE BULK TEMPERATURE | 125

 tangential vector genext1(t) is defined all over the cross section, and can be used in
the integrate operator expression.

See General Extrusion in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

for details about the operators.

Finally, the bulk temperature can be expressed as:

Tb = A/B

where

A = integrate(if(isnan(at2(x+s*nx,y+s*ny,ut*T)),0,at2(x+s*nx,y+s*
ny,ut*T)),s,-R,R,tol)
B = integrate(if(isnan(at2(x+s*nx,y+s*ny,ut*T)),0,at2(x+s*nx,y+s*
ny,ut)),s,-R,R,tol)

and ut = u*genext1(tx)+v*(genext1(ty), i is the domain entity number, and the

tolerance tol should be specified.

126 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

Ambient Properties
The ambient data available under the Definitions branch come from the processing of
measured data from ASHRAE Weather Data Viewer 5.0 (©2013 ASHRAE,
www.ashrae.org. Used with permission.) and ASHRAE Weather Data Viewer 6.0
(©2017 ASHRAE, www.ashrae.org. Used with permission.), given as frequencies of
observations, monthly and hourly averaged for several past years of observation. They
provide time-dependent weather conditions for more than 8000 stations worldwide in
terms of the dry bulb temperature, the dew point temperature, the relative humidity,
the wind speed, the absolute pressure, the precipitation rate, and the solar direct and
diffuse irradiance.

In this section:

• Settings for the Ambient Properties

• Processing of ASHRAE Data
• Ambient Data Interpolation
• Ambient Variables and Conditions
• Use of Ambient Data From the Features

When no special mention is added, the term temperature stands for the
dry bulb temperature. See Moist Air Variables for the definition of the dry
bulb temperature, dew point temperature, and relative humidity.

Settings for the Ambient Properties

To add an Ambient Properties node to any Component, on the Physics toolbar click
Ambient Properties or right-click the Definitions node under the Component and
choose Ambient Properties.

In the Ambient Properties node ( ), you can define ambient variables to be available
as inputs from several features: the temperature Tamb, the absolute pressure pamb, the

AMBIENT PROPERTIES | 127

 relative humidity φamb, the wind velocity vamb, and the direct and diffuse solar
irradiances Isn,amb and Ish,amb.

See Heat Flux, Diffuse Surface (Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface),

Temperature, Initial Values, or External Radiation Source for examples of
features of the Heat Transfer interface that have ambient variables
available as inputs.

See Initial Values, Moisture Content, or Moisture Flux for examples of

features of the Moisture Transport interface that have ambient variables
available as inputs.

Three options are available for the definition of the Ambient data:

• When User defined (the default) is selected, the Temperature Tamb, the Absolute
pressure pamb, the Relative humidity φamb, the Wind velocity vamb, the Precipitation
rate P0,amb, the Clear sky noon beam normal irradiance Isn,amb, and the Clear sky
noon diffuse horizontal irradiance Ish,amb should be specified directly.
• When either Meteorological data (ASHRAE 2013) or Meteorological data (ASHRAE 2017)
is selected, the ambient variables are computed from monthly and hourly averaged
measurements, made over several years at weather stations worldwide. See
Processing of ASHRAE Data for more information. Further settings for the choice
of the location, time, and ambient conditions are needed; and additional input fields
are displayed underneath.

Location
In this section you can set the location by choosing among more than 8000 weather
stations worldwide. Two options are available for the selection of the Weather station:

• When From list is selected, click on the Set Weather Station button to open the
Weather Station browser that allows you to select a Region, a Country, and a Station.

128 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

 The station details (World Meteorological Organization reference, location, and
geographical coordinates) are displayed underneath.
• It is also possible to select a station From reference by entering the corresponding
World Meteorological Organization reference, which is a 6-digit number.

A single country may be available for more than one region selection if it
has stations spread over different regions. For example, United States of
America is available in the Country list when either North America,
Eurasia, or Oceania is selected in the Region list.

When a station is selected From list, its World Meteorological

Organization (WMO) reference is displayed in the user interface. The
WMO references can also be retrieved from maps offered by third parties
like the one available as of this product release on
http://ashrae-meteo.info/v2.0/.

Time
The Date and Local time should be set by entering values or expressions in the Day,
Month, Hour, Minute, and Second fields of the two tables.

If On is selected in the Specify year list, a value or expression for the Year should also be
set. As the data are given as averages over several past years, this input is only used for
the detection of leap years, in order to interpolate the data over the months.

For temporal studies, these inputs define the start time of the simulation. By default,
the Update time from solver check box is selected, and the time is then automatically
updated with the time from the solver to evaluate the variables by interpolation of the
measured data. Clear this check box to manually set the time update.

See Ambient Data Interpolation for more information about the

interpolation of data over months and hours.

See Processing of ASHRAE Data for more information about the data.

AMBIENT PROPERTIES | 129

 A time unit suitable for simulations over a day or a year may be set in the
Study Settings section of the Time Dependent node, by using for example
h for hour, d for day, or a for a year. See Using Units in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual for more details.

Ambient Conditions
Based on the measured data, several conditions are available for the Temperature, the
Dew point temperature, the Wind speed, and the Precipitation rate. The formula for each
condition is recalled in Table 3-11, Table 3-12, and Table 3-13. The Average
conditions correspond to weighted means of the measured data, whereas the other
conditions are obtained by applying standard or modified deviations (Low, High, and
User defined coefficient for deviation conditions), user defined corrections, or wind
correlations to the average conditions; or by taking the minimum or maximum of the
measured data (Lowest and Highest conditions). More information about these
definitions can be found in Ambient Variables and Conditions.
TABLE 3-11: TEMPERATURE CONDITIONS

CONDITION DEFINITION

Average T amb =  T station

Low T amb =  T station – σ T, station
High T amb =  T station + σ T, station
Lowest T amb = min ( T station )
Highest T amb = max ( T station )
User defined coefficient for deviation T amb =  T station + c σ ⋅ σ T, station
User defined correction T amb =  T station + ΔT
Heating wind correlation(1) T amb =  T station + ΔT wind
(1)
Cooling wind correlation T amb =  T station – ΔT wind
(1)
These correlations are not related to the wind speed conditions described in
Table 3-13.

TABLE 3-12: DEW POINT TEMPERATURE CONDITIONS

CONDITION DEFINITION

Average DPT amb =  DPT station

Low DPT amb =  DPT station – σ DPT, station
High DPT amb =  DPT station + σ DPT, station
Lowest DPT amb = min ( DPT station )
Highest DPT amb = max ( DPT station )

130 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

TABLE 3-13: WIND SPEED CONDITIONS

CONDITION DEFINITION

Average v amb =  v station

Low v amb =  v station – σ v, station
High v amb =  v station + σ v, station
Lowest v amb = min ( v station )
Highest v amb = max ( v station )

TABLE 3-14: PRESSURE CONDITIONS

CONDITION DEFINITION

Average P 0, amb =  P 0, station

Low P 0, amb =  P 0, station – σ P
0, station
High P 0, amb =  P 0, station + σ P
0, station
Lowest P 0, amb = min ( P 0, station )
Highest P 0, amb = max ( P 0, station )

The conditions set for Temperature and Dew point temperature should be
consistent in order to keep the temperature larger than the dew point
temperature. However, all settings combinations are available, and the
relative humidity is majored by 1 when necessary.

The sum of the Clear sky noon beam normal irradiance and the Clear sky
noon diffuse horizontal irradiance is available through the postprocessing
variable ht.Is_amb, defined as the Ambient solar irradiance.

Processing of ASHRAE Data

From frequencies of measured values, a weighted mean of the data and a standard
deviation from the weighted mean are computed for each month. For the temperature,
more data are available and the weighted mean and standard deviation are also
computed at each hour. Figure 3-4 shows an example of weighted mean computation

AMBIENT PROPERTIES | 131

 for the diurnal temperature fluctuations from the initial data given as frequencies of
observations.

Figure 3-4: Computation of weighted mean from frequencies of observations for the
diurnal fluctuations of temperature.

These values are used for the definition of different conditions, as detailed in Ambient
Variables and Conditions.

All the monthly averaged observations except the solar irradiance are supposed to be
made at the middle of each month. This time depends on the number of days in the
month:

• Months with 31 days (January, March, May, July, August, October, December):
data at the 16th at noon
• Months with 30 days (April, June, September, November): data at the 16th at
midnight
• Months with 29 days (February, leap years): data at the 15th at noon
• Months with 28 days (February, other years): data at the 15th at midnight

In addition, the temperature observations are supposed to be made at the beginning

of each hour (00:00 a.m. to 11:00 p.m.).

Finally, the solar irradiance observations are made at the 21st of each month at noon.
Depending on the number of days in the month, this date corresponds to 68% (for
months with 31 days), 70% (for months with 30 days), or 75% (for February) of the
month. The leap years are not considered and the 21st of February always corresponds
to 75% of this month.

Ambient Data Interpolation

The temperature is the only variable for which hourly data are available in addition to
monthly averages. So for the temperature a double interpolation is performed to get a

132 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

temperature profile for every time in a year depending on the date and the hour. For
other data the interpolation is based on date only. This interpolation provides:

• The annual fluctuation of the dew point temperature, the relative humidity, the
wind speed, and the direct and diffuse solar irradiances.
• The annual and diurnal fluctuation of the temperature.
In all cases, the interpolation is of second order, with continuous first-order derivative.

Ambient Variables and Conditions

The observed values are processed by computing weighted means, standard deviations,
maximum, and minimum, to define different conditions for the temperature, dew
point temperature, and wind speed.

CONDITIONS OF TEMPERATURE
• Average:
T amb =  T station

• Low:
T amb =  T station – σ T, station

• High:
T amb =  T station + σ T, station

• Lowest:
T amb = min ( T station )

• Highest:

T amb = max ( T station )

• User defined coefficient for deviation:

T amb =  T station + c σ ⋅ σ T, station

• User defined correction:

T amb =  T station + ΔT

AMBIENT PROPERTIES | 133

 where:

• <Tstation> (SI unit: K) is the weighted mean of the observed values of temperature
at the station.
• σT,station (SI unit: K) is the standard deviation of the observed values of
temperature at the station.
• Tstation (SI unit: K) is the set of the observed values of temperature at the station.
• cσ (dimensionless) is a user-defined multiplicative coefficient applied to σT,station.
• ΔT (SI unit: K) is a user-defined additive correction applied to <Tstation>.

All these conditions are illustrated on Figure 3-5 for the variation of temperature over
1 day at New York/John F. Ke, on the 1st of June.

Figure 3-5: Comparison of ambient conditions for the temperature at New York/John F.
Ke, on the 1st of June, with ASHRAE Weather Data Viewer 5.0 (©2013 ASHRAE,
www.ashrae.org. Used with permission.)

Additional conditions are defined from observed couples of temperature and wind
speed and direction values:

• Heating wind correlation:

T amb =  T station + ΔT wind

• Cooling wind correlation:

134 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

 T amb =  T station – ΔT wind

where ΔTwind (SI unit: K) is an additive correction applied to <Tstation>, defined as

1
ΔT wind = --- max ( ΔT ws, station, ΔT wd, station )
2

where ΔTws,station (SI unit: K) and ΔTwd,station (SI unit: K) are respectively the
maximal variations of observed values of temperature correlated with a set of wind
speed and direction observed values.

The heating and cooling wind correlations are illustrated on Figure 3-6 for the
variation of temperature over 1 day, at New York/John F. Ke, on the 1st of June.

Figure 3-6: Comparison of heating and cooling wind correlations for the temperature at
New York/John F. Ke, on the 1st of June, with ASHRAE Weather Data Viewer 5.0
(©2013 ASHRAE, www.ashrae.org. Used with permission.)

CONDITIONS OF DEW POINT TEMPERATURE

• Average:
DPT amb =  DPT station

• Low:
DPT amb =  DPT station – σ DPT, station

• High:

AMBIENT PROPERTIES | 135

 DPT amb =  DPT station + σ DPT, station

• Lowest:
DPT amb = min ( DPT station )

• Highest:

DPT amb = max ( DPT station )

where:

• <DPTstation> (SI unit: K) is the weighted mean of the observed values of dew point
temperature at the station.
• σDPT,station (SI unit: K) is the standard deviation of the observed values of dew
point temperature at the station.
• DPTstation (SI unit: K) is the set of the observed values of dew point temperature
at the station.

All these conditions are illustrated on Figure 3-7 for the variation of the dew point
temperature over 1 year at New York/John F. Ke.

Figure 3-7: Comparison of the ambient conditions for the dew point temperature at New
York/John F. Ke, with ASHRAE Weather Data Viewer 5.0 (©2013 ASHRAE,
www.ashrae.org. Used with permission.)

136 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

CONDITIONS OF WIND SPEED
• Average:
v amb =  v station

• Low:
v amb =  v station – σ v, station

• High:
v amb =  v station + σ v, station

• Lowest:
v amb = min ( v station )

• Highest:

v amb = max ( v station )

where:

• <vstation> (SI unit: m/s) is the weighted mean of the observed values of wind
velocity at the station.
• σv,station (SI unit: m/s) is the standard deviation of the observed values of wind
velocity at the station.
• vstation (SI unit: m/s) is the set of the observed values of wind velocity at the
station.

AMBIENT PROPERTIES | 137

 All these conditions are illustrated on Figure 3-8 for the variation of the wind speed
over 1 year at New York/John F. Ke.

Figure 3-8: Comparison of the ambient conditions for the wind speed at New York/John
F. Ke, with ASHRAE Weather Data Viewer 5.0 (©2013 ASHRAE, www.ashrae.org.
Used with permission.)

CONDITIONS OF PRECIPITATION RATE

• Average:
P 0, amb =  P 0, station

• Low:
P 0, amb =  P 0, station – σ P
0, station

• High:
P 0, amb =  P 0, station + σ P
0, station

• Lowest:
P 0, amb = min ( P 0, station )

• Highest:

P 0, amb = max ( P 0, station )

138 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

where:

• <P0,station> (SI unit: m/s) is the weighted mean of the observed values of
precipitation rate at the station.
• σP0,station (SI unit: m/s) is the standard deviation of the observed values of
precipitation rate at the station.
• P0,station (SI unit: m/s) is the set of the observed values of precipitation rate at the
station.

PRESSURE
p amb = p station

where pstation (SI unit: Pa) is the observed value of absolute pressure at the station.
Only a single value is available, so this data does not vary with time.

RELATIVE HUMIDITY
The relative humidity φ amb (dimensionless) is computed from the temperature Tamb
and the dew point temperature DPTamb with the following relation:

p sat ( DPT amb )

φ amb = ---------------------------------------
p sat ( T amb )

where psat(Tamb) is the saturation pressure of vapor at Tamb.

See Relative Humidity for more details.

AMBIENT PROPERTIES | 139

 As the diurnal variation of temperature is available, the diurnal fluctuations of relative
humidity can be computed, as illustrated on Figure 3-9 for New York/John F. Ke, on
the 1st of June, for different ambient conditions.

Figure 3-9: Diurnal fluctuations of relative humidity for different ambient conditions at
New York/John F. Ke, on the 1st of June, with ASHRAE Weather Data Viewer 5.0
(©2013 ASHRAE, www.ashrae.org. Used with permission.)

Several conditions of relative humidity can be obtained from the selection of

conditions for the temperature and dew point temperature. For consistency, the
relative humidity is majored by 1, as shown on the red curve of Figure 3-9.

MOISTURE CONTENT
The moisture content xvap,amb (dimensionless) is computed from the temperature
Tamb, the absolute pressure pamb, and the relative humidity φ amb with the following
relation:

φ amb ⋅ p sat ( T amb ) Mv

x vap, amb = -------------------------------------------------------------------- ⋅ --------
p amb – φ amb ⋅ p sat ( T amb ) M a

where psat(Tamb) is the saturation pressure of vapor at Tamb, and Mv and Ma are the
molar masses of water vapor and dry air.

See Moisture Content for more details.

140 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

DIRECT AND DIFFUSE SOLAR IRRADIANCES
With clear sky conditions, the noon solar irradiance is essentially provided by the beam
normal irradiance, coming directly from the sun. However, the diffuse horizontal
irradiance may be also considered. The sum of direct and diffuse solar irradiances is the
ambient solar irradiance Is, amb (SI unit: W/m3), defined by:

I s, amb = I sn, station + I sh, station

where Isn,station (SI unit: W/m3) and Ish,station (SI unit: W/m3) are respectively the
observed values of the clear sky noon beam normal and horizontal diffuse solar
irradiances.

Figure 3-10 illustrates the evolution of ambient solar irradiance for New York/John F.
Ke, over the year.

Figure 3-10: Decomposition of solar irradiance into normal and horizontal irradiance at
New York/John F. Ke, with ASHRAE Weather Data Viewer 5.0 (©2013 ASHRAE,
www.ashrae.org. Used with permission.)

Use of Ambient Data From the Features

The ambient variables defined in the Ambient Properties node are available as inputs for
several boundary and initial conditions. For example, when defining the heat transfer
coefficient for a Heat Flux boundary condition by using a correlation for external forced

AMBIENT PROPERTIES | 141

 convection, the wind velocity vamb, the ambient absolute pressure pamb, and the
ambient temperature Tamb can be selected as inputs:

Figure 3-11: Use of ambient data from Heat Flux feature

For an example of the use of user-defined ambient data, see:

Temperature Field in a Cooling Flange: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Processing/cooling_flange

For an example of the use of meteorological ambient data, see:

Condensation Detection in an Electronic Device with Transport and

Diffusion: Application Library path
Heat_Transfer_Module/Power_Electronics_and_Electronic_Cooling/condensati
on_electronic_device_transport_diffusion

Condensation Detection in an Electronic Device: Application Library

path
Heat_Transfer_Module/Power_Electronics_and_Electronic_Cooling/condensati
on_electronic_device

142 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

Modeling Heat Transfer by Radiation
This section summarizes the functionalities available within the Heat Transfer Module
for the modeling of heat transfer by radiation.

Radiation is a heat transfer mode that should be considered in addition to conduction

and convection in the following cases:

• In a transparent or semitransparent medium.

• For a surface with a large emissivity (close to 1). Whereas most polished metals have
an emissivity below 0.1, other materials such as concrete, black painting, glass,
plastic, skin, paper, and ceramic have an emissivity over 0.8 for infrared radiation.
• When the temperature difference between a surface and the surrounding surfaces or
the ambient is large.
• When conduction and convection are small, as radiation becomes the predominant
transfer mode.
• At small time scales, for which conduction and convection effects are too slow and
have a less significant effect.

As an example, consider a plate of concrete with a cold bottom wall at temperature T0,
placed in a hot environment with an air flux at temperature Tamb:

MODELING HEAT TRANSFER BY RADIATION | 143

 The figures below illustrate the relative importance of heat transfer by radiation and by
convection (due to the air flux), when the emissivity ε is 0.1 (left) and 0.9 (right).

Figure 3-12: Integral of convective and radiative heat fluxes (W/m) along the top
boundary, for two values of emissivity, as a function of the temperature difference.

Whereas the boundary radiative and convective heat fluxes are of the same order for
temperature difference up to 500K when the emissivity is low (ε=0.1), radiation
becomes the dominant mode of heat transfer even for a small temperature difference
when the emissivity is high (ε=0.9). Note that the convective heat flux decrease
observed for high temperature gradients is related to the fact that the velocity, not the
mass flow rate, is prescribed at the air inlet.

See Heat Transfer Variables for the definition of the variables q0 and
rflux giving access to the convective and radiative heat fluxes on
boundaries.

Two configurations are considered regarding the functionalities available for the
modeling of radiative heat transfer:

• Radiation in transparent media

• Radiation in participating media

144 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

Interfaces and Features for Radiation in Transparent Media
The following table recalls the functionalities available for the modeling of radiative
heat transfer in transparent media.
TABLE 3-15: MODELING OF HEAT TRANSFER BY RADIATION IN TRANSPARENT MEDIA

SURFACE-TO-AMBIENT SURFACE-TO-SURFACE

Description

Physical and modeling assumptions

Refractive index of n=1 Any, uniform
domain
Diffuse reflection Yes Yes
Specular reflection No With Ray shooting
Transmission No With Ray shooting
Shadowing effects in No With Hemicube or Ray shooting
view factor
computation
Wavelength Yes (Solar and ambient / Yes (Solar and ambient / Multiple
dependence of surface Multiple spectral bands) spectral bands)
properties No (Constant) No (Constant)
Directional No With Ray shooting
dependence of surface
properties
Dimension of the 3D, 2D axi, 2D, 1D axi, 3D, 2D axi, 2D, 1D axi, 1D
domain 1D
Example in Application Continuous Casting Chip Cooling
Library
License, interfaces and features
License requirement COMSOL Multiphysics / Heat Transfer Module
Heat Transfer Module
Interfaces Heat Transfer (ht) Surface-to-Surface Radiation
Heat Transfer in Shells (rad)
(htlsh)
Domain features Out-of-Plane Radiation Opacity
(1)(2)

MODELING HEAT TRANSFER BY RADIATION | 145

 TABLE 3-15: MODELING OF HEAT TRANSFER BY RADIATION IN TRANSPARENT MEDIA

SURFACE-TO-AMBIENT SURFACE-TO-SURFACE

Boundary features Surface-to-Ambient Diffuse Mirror

Radiation Diffuse Surface
Opaque Surface
Semitransparent Surface
Initial Values
Prescribed Radiosity
Radiation Group
Edges/Point features Surface-to-Ambient N/A
Radiation(1)
Global features N/A External Radiation Source (3)
Symmetry for Surface-to-Surface
Radiation (4)
Multiphysics features N/A Heat Transfer with
Surface-to-Surface Radiation
Numerical aspects
Numerical cost Low Medium to high
Radiation variables None Surface radiosity J (if constant
wavelength), J1,J2 (if solar and
ambient wavelengths),
J1,...,Jn (if multiple wavelengths)
(1)
Only with the Heat Transfer Module
(2)
Only in 2D and 1D components
(3) Only in 3D and 2D components
(4)
Only in 3D, 2D axi, and 2D components
(5)
Only with Rosseland approximation and P1 method

146 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

Interfaces and Features for Radiation in Participating Media
The following table recalls the functionalities available for the modeling of radiative
heat transfer in participating media.
TABLE 3-16: MODELING OF HEAT TRANSFER BY RADIATION

ABSORBING MEDIA ABSORBING-SCATTERING PARTICIPATING MEDIA

MEDIA

Description

Physical and modeling assumptions

Refractive Any, uniform Any, uniform Any, uniform
index of
domain
Scattering in N/A Isotropic (P1 method, Isotropic (Rosseland
domain DOM) approximation,P1
Linear anisotropic (P1 method, DOM)
method, DOM) Linear anisotropic (P1
Anisotropic (DOM) method, DOM)
Henyey-Greenstein Anisotropic (DOM)
(DOM) Henyey-Greenstein
(DOM)
Wavelength No Yes (Solar and ambient Yes (Solar and ambient
dependency / Multiple spectral / Multiple spectral
of emissivity bands) bands)
No (Constant)
(5) (5)
Dimension of 3D, 2D axi , 3D, 2D axi , 2D 3D, 2D axi(5), 2D
the domain 2D
Example N/A N/A Glass Plate
model
License, interfaces and features
License Heat Transfer Heat Transfer Module Heat Transfer Module
requirement Module

MODELING HEAT TRANSFER BY RADIATION | 147

 TABLE 3-16: MODELING OF HEAT TRANSFER BY RADIATION

ABSORBING MEDIA ABSORBING-SCATTERING PARTICIPATING MEDIA

MEDIA

Interfaces Radiative Beam Radiation in Radiation in

in Absorbing Absorbing-Scattering Participating Media
Media (rbam) Media (rasm) (rpm)
Heat Transfer (ht):
Rosseland
approximation
Domain Absorbing Absorbing-Scattering Participating Medium,
features Medium, Initial Medium, Initial Values, Initial Values, Radiative
Values Radiative Source Source
Optically Thick
Participating Medium
Boundary Opaque Surface Opaque Surface Opaque Surface
features Incident Incident Intensity Semitransparent
Intensity Continuity of Interior Surface
Transparent Boundary (DOM) Incident Intensity
Surface Periodic Condition Continuity of Interior
Symmetry (P1 Boundary (DOM)
method) Periodic Condition
Symmetry (P1
method)
Multiphysics Heat Transfer Heat Transfer with Heat Transfer with
features with Radiative Radiation in Radiation in
Beam in Absorbing-Scattering Participating Media
Absorbing Media (htrasm) (htrpm)
Media (htrbam)
Numerical aspects
Numerical Medium Medium (P1 method) Low (Rosseland
cost High (DOM) approximation)
Medium (P1 method)
High (DOM)

148 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

TABLE 3-16: MODELING OF HEAT TRANSFER BY RADIATION

ABSORBING MEDIA ABSORBING-SCATTERING PARTICIPATING MEDIA

MEDIA

Radiation Incident Incident radiation G None (Rosseland

variables intensities Ii (P1 method) approximation)
Radiative intensity Incident radiation G
I=I1,..., In, with n up (P1 method)
to 512 (DOM) Radiative intensity
I=I1,..., In, with n up
to 512 (DOM)
(1)
Only with the Heat Transfer Module
(2) Only in 2D and 1D components
(3)
Only in 3D and 2D components
(4)
Only in 3D, 2D axi, and 2D components
(5) Only with Rosseland approximation and P1 method

MODELING HEAT TRANSFER BY RADIATION | 149

 Specifying the Temperature at a Flow
Inlet
When modeling a nonisothermal flow, a Temperature condition can be used at a flow
inlet where the temperature of the fluid is a known quantity. However, there are some
other situations where this is not the case, and an Inflow boundary condition can
improve the model accuracy and reduce the computational cost of the simulation.

In this section:

• Using the Temperature Condition

• Using the Inflow Condition
• Temperature Contribution to the Inflow Boundary Condition
• Pressure Contribution to the Inflow Boundary Condition
• Choosing Between the Temperature and the Inflow Conditions

Using the Temperature Condition

The Temperature condition is available at exterior and interior boundaries of any type
of domain and is equivalent to set the temperature to a known value on the selected
boundary.

Using the Inflow Condition

The Inflow condition is available at boundaries that are exterior to a fluid domain and
is equivalent to having a virtual channel “upstream”. It is used to define a heat flux at
the inlet boundary that brings the same energy to the fluid domain as if you had
modeled the virtual channel as a real CFD domain. The virtual channel can be seen as

150 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

a long insulated channel with given thermal properties at the inlet, and with the same
velocity profile as defined in the settings for the Inflow boundary condition.

Figure 3-13: Representation of the virtual domain corresponding to an Inflow boundary

condition.

This is of particular interest when the geometry contains inlets that are fed by channels
that are not represented in the geometry.

From a mathematical point of view, the boundary condition is formulated as a flux

condition:

– n ⋅ q = ρΔHu ⋅ n

where the enthalpy variation ΔH depends on temperature and pressure difference:

T p
1
ΔH = Tustr Cp dT + pustr --ρ- ( 1 – αp T ) dp = ΔHT + ΔHp (3-1)

where:
T
ΔH T = Tustr Cp dT (3-2)

and
p
1
ΔH p = pustr --ρ- ( 1 – αp T ) dp (3-3)

Equation 3-1 expresses the fact that the normal conductive heat flux at the inflow
boundary is proportional to the flow rate and enthalpy variation between the upstream
conditions and inlet conditions.

SPECIFYING THE TEMPERATURE AT A FLOW INLET | 151

 Temperature Contribution to the Inflow Boundary Condition
As shown in Equation 3-1, the enthalpy variation depends in general both on the
difference in temperature and in pressure. However, the pressure contribution to the
enthalpy, ΔHp, can be neglected when the work due to pressure changes is not
included in the energy equation. This is controlled by the Nonisothermal Flow
multiphysics coupling depending on compressibility assumption.

There is another classical case where this term cancels out: when the fluid is modeled
as an ideal gas. Indeed, in this case,

1
α p = ----
T

When the pressure contribution to the enthalpy is neglected, the boundary condition
reads:

 T 
k∇T ⋅ n = ρ 
 Tustr Cp dT u ⋅ n (3-4)

When advective heat transfer dominates at the inlet (large flow rates), the temperature
gradient, and hence the heat transfer by conduction, in the normal direction to the
inlet boundary is very small. So in this case, Equation 3-4 imposes that the enthalpy
variation is close to zero. As Cp is positive, the Inflow boundary condition requires
T=Tustr to be fulfilled. So, when advective heat transfer dominates at the inlet, the
Inflow boundary condition is almost equivalent to a Dirichlet boundary condition that
prescribes the upstream temperature at the inlet.

Conversely, when the flow rate is low or in the presence of large heat sources or sinks
next to the inlet, the conductive heat flux cannot be neglected. In addition, the inlet
temperature has to be adjusted to balance the energy brought by the flow at the inlet
and the energy transferred by conduction from the interior, as described by
Equation 3-4. This makes it possible to observe a realistic upstream feedback due to
thermal conduction from the inlet surroundings.

Pressure Contribution to the Inflow Boundary Condition

In the general case, the enthalpy variation depends both on the difference in
temperature and in pressure.

152 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

Considering that the Inflow boundary condition models a virtual channel feeding the
inlet, pressure losses are expected between the virtual channel inlet and the boundary
where the condition is defined. This explains why the upstream pressure is different
from the inlet pressure. While the fluid flows through the channel, it is subject to
pressure work that results in a temperature change between the virtual channel inlet
and the boundary where the Inflow boundary condition is defined. This is what is
described by the pressure-dependent term in Equation 3-1. Note that the viscous
dissipation in the virtual channel is not accounted for.

Choosing Between the Temperature and the Inflow Conditions

While in many configurations, the Temperature and Inflow features describe similar
conditions and lead to similar simulation results, there are a number of configurations
(especially for slow flow and small dimensions) where the conductive effects are not
dominated by the advective effects and where the Inflow boundary condition usually
leads to a temperature profile that is closer to the reality than a Temperature boundary
condition. In these cases, a Temperature boundary condition may enforce an erroneous
temperature value that induces large heat fluxes that are not realistic.

SPECIFYING THE TEMPERATURE AT A FLOW INLET | 153

 Heat Part Library
The Part Libraries can be used to store and access a set of standard geometric entities.
It is possible to create custom user-defined geometry libraries or to use built-in
collections of geometric entities that are available with many add-on modules for
COMSOL Multiphysics.

Part Libraries in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

In this section:

• Heat Part Library Contents

• Heat Sink — Parameterized Fin Types Part
• Heat Sink — Dissimilar Border Pins Part
• Heat Sink — Pin Fins Part
• Heat Sink — Straight Fins Part

Heat Part Library Contents

The part library included with the Heat Transfer Module contains typical heat sink
geometries. When accessing the library, the parts are sorted as in the figure below:

The heat sinks are composed of a rectangular base and an array of pin or straight fins,
as shown on Figure 3-14.

154 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

 fins

border offset

base

Figure 3-14: Heat sinks components

All entities are fully parameterized, making them easy to use as parts in industrial
models where heat sinks are used for cooling. For example, you can control the
number, the shape, the dimensions, and the placement of the fins on the base. In
addition, fillet, chamfer, and notch transformations can be applied to the fins, and
parameter checks are applied to ensure that the values set in the Input Parameters
section are valid. Finally, the fins can be defined as solids or as boundaries for
computational efficiency.

HEAT PART LIBRARY | 155

 The library includes four parts. The Heat Sink — Parameterized Fin Types part is the
most general part. It supports multiple parameterization, while a reduced number of
parameters is available in the three other parts, as shown in Table 3-17.
TABLE 3-17: OVERVIEW OF HEAT SINK PARTS

Heat Sink — Parameterized Fin Types

fin_type =1,2,3 (editable)

Heat Sink — Pin Fins Heat Sink — Dissimilar Heat Sink — Straight Fins
Border Pins

fin_type = 1 (not editable) fin_type = 2 (not editable) fin_type = 3 (not editable)

In the Heat Sink — Pin Fins part, all the fins are pins with the same dimension, whereas
the outer and inner fins (in the y direction) can have distinct dimensions in the Heat
Sink — Dissimilar Border Pins part. You may use the Heat Sink — Straight Fins part to
define a heat sink made of only straight fins.

By default, the base of the heat sink is positioned at the origin of the xy-plane. You can
apply a Displacement and a Rotation to this configuration in the Position and Orientation
of Output section.

156 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

Finally, each fin is a separate domain and can be easily deleted, and selections can be
defined, for example for the base bottom face (Boundary Selections section) or the array
of fins (Domain Selections section).

Heat Sink — Parameterized Fin Types Part

The dimensions of the base and the fins can be parameterized, as shown on
Figure 3-15. In addition, an offset from the base border can be added.

n_fins_x=3
n_fins_y=4 Y_fins_top_2
Y_fins_top
X_fins_top

Z_fins

Z_base o_y
o_x
Y_fins_bottom_2

Y_fins_bottom X_fins_bottom

Y_base X_base

Figure 3-15: Fins and base parameters in Heat Sink — Parameterized part

3D AND SHELL FINS

When the thickness of the fins is small in the x direction, the fins can be defined as
boundaries instead of solids in order to reduce the size of the model. Indeed, small
elements are required to mesh the fins across their thickness in this case. It is done by
setting the shell parameter to 1. The default meshes obtained with shell = 0 (left)

HEAT PART LIBRARY | 157

 and shell=1 (right) are shown in Table 3-18 for an example configuration. Setting
shell to 1 significantly reduces the number of mesh elements, as shown below.

TABLE 3-18: DEFAULT TETRAHEDRAL MESH WITH 3D FINS AND SHELL FINS

SHELL=0 SHELL=1

Mesh statistics: Mesh statistics:

8003 tetrahedra 906 tetrahedra
5900 triangles 1058 triangles
1220 edge elements 312 edge elements
104 vertex elements 56 vertex elements

Note that when shell=1, the X_fins_bottom, Y_fins_bottom, X_fins_top, and

Y_fins_top parameters are not used.

STEP
A step can be defined in the x direction at the center on the base. The parameter
step_width specifies the number of filled gaps from middle to border by the step, as
shown on Figure 3-16. This option is not available for shell fins (shell=1).

158 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

 step=1

step_height step_height
step_width=1 step_width=1

(odd number of fins in x direction) (even number of fins in x direction)

Figure 3-16: Step parameters in Heat Sink — Parameterized part

FILLET
Finally, a fillet transformation can be applied at the top and bottom of the fins, as
shown on Figure 3-17. The fillet transformation at the bottom of the fins is not
available for shell fins (shell=1).

fillet_top=1

fillet_bottom=1

Figure 3-17: Fillet parameters in Heat Sink — Parameterized part

HEAT PART LIBRARY | 159

 Heat Sink — Dissimilar Border Pins Part
This part inherits all the functionalities of the Heat Sink — Parameterized Fin Types part,
but different dimensions are set by default for the inner and outer fins in the
y direction:

• Y_fins_bottom = 3 mm (outer fins) and Y_fins_bottom_2 = 6 mm (inner fins)

• Y_fins_top = 3 mm (outer fins) and Y_fins_top_2 = 6 mm (inner fins)

Heat Sink — Pin Fins Part

This part inherits all the functionalities of the Heat Sink — Parameterized Fin Types part,
but identical dimensions are enforced for the inner and outer fins in the y direction:

• Y_fins_bottom = 3 mm (all fins)

• Y_fins_top = 3 mm (all fins)

Heat Sink — Straight Fins Part

This part inherits all the functionalities of the Heat Sink — Parameterized Fin Types part,
but the y direction parameters are enforced to define straight fins.

In addition, notch and chamfer transformations can be applied to the fins, as shown
on Figure 3-18.

notch=1 chamfer=1

notch_height chamfer_height
notch_width chamfer_width

Figure 3-18: Notch and chamfer parameters in Heat Sink — Straight Fins part

160 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

R e f e r e nc e s
1. J.L. Monteith and M.H. Unsworth, Principles of Environmental Physics, Edward
Arnold, London, 290 pp., 1990.

REFERENCES | 161
162 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE
 4

Theory for the Heat Transfer Module

This chapter details the theory of the physics interfaces, multiphysics couplings,
and features found under the Heat Transfer branch ( ).

In this chapter:

• Foundations of the General Heat Transfer Equation

• Theory for Heat Transfer in Solids
• Theory for Heat Transfer in Fluids
• Theory for Heat Transfer in Moist Air
• Theory for Bioheat Transfer
• Theory for Heat Transfer in Porous Media
• Theory for Heat Transfer with Phase Change
• Theory for Heat Transfer in Building Materials
• Theory for Harmonic Heat Transfer
• Theory for Lumped Isothermal Domain
• Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures
• Theory for the Lumped Thermal System Interface
• Theory for Surface-to-Surface Radiation

163
 • Theory for Radiation in Participating Media
• Theory for Moisture Transport
• Theory for the Heat Transfer Multiphysics Couplings
• Theory for Thermal Contact
• Out-of-Plane Heat Transfer
• Convective Heat Transfer Correlations
• Nucleate Pool Boiling Correlation
• Equivalent Thermal Conductivity Correlations
• Temperature Dependence of Surface Tension
• Heat Flux and Heat Balance
• Frames for the Heat Transfer Equations
• References

164 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

Foundations of the General Heat
T r a ns f e r E qua ti on
This section presents basic results leading to the heat transfer equations solved in
COMSOL Multiphysics. Starting by a presentation of heat as another mode of energy
transfer different from work, the energy conservation laws that apply lead to the
establishment of The Heat Balance Equation. The latter is further derived to give the
different versions of the heat transfer equations in various media.

In this section:

• Thermodynamic Description of Heat Transfer

• The Physical Mechanisms Underlying Heat Transfer
• The Heat Balance Equation
• Consistency with Mass and Momentum Conservation Laws

Thermodynamic Description of Heat Transfer

In continuum mechanics, a domain Ω is submitted to variations of its kinetic energy
due to some external forces according to an equation of motion. The study of such
phenomena is covered by solid mechanics and fluid mechanics and the theories behind
can be found in the Structural Mechanics Module User’s Guide and CFD Module
User’s Guide. From an energy point of view, the aforementioned description is
incomplete because it does not include heat as another form of energy transfer due to
microscopic vibration and interactions of particles. The laws of thermodynamics
introduce several concepts to define heat transfer consistently with mechanical energy.
In the next paragraphs, a concise presentation of the theory adapted to the use of
COMSOL Multiphysics is given. More materials and details are provided in the
references listed in the References section.

EXTENSIVE PARAMETERS CHARACTERIZING A SYSTEM

A homogeneous fluid taking place in a domain Ω is characterized by the knowledge of
three extensive parameters:

• The entropy, SΩ (SI unit: J),

FOUNDATIONS OF THE GENERAL HEAT TRANSFER EQUATION | 165

 • The volume, VΩ (SI unit: m3),
• The mass, MΩ (SI unit: kg).

The internal energy, EΩ (SI unit: J), is an extensive state function of these three
variables. It measures the amount of energy in the system excluding kinetic energy and
potential energy from external applied forces and is the subject of conservation laws
more detailed in The Heat Balance Equation section. To fit with the finite element
method solved by COMSOL Multiphysics, specific quantities per unit mass are
preferred:

SΩ VΩ
S = --------- ν = ---------
MΩ MΩ

The specific internal energy, E (SI unit: J/kg), is then a function of specific entropy,
S, and specific volume, ν, related to EΩ by:

1
E ( S, ν ) = --------- E Ω ( S Ω, V Ω, M Ω )
MΩ

For a solid, the specific internal energy, E(S, F), is a function of entropy and
deformation gradient, F.

Internal energy is related to the enthalpy, H, via the following for a fluid:

p
H = E + ---
ρ

or the following for a solid (7.33 in Ref. 1):

1
H = E – --------------------- P:F
det(F)ρ

Compared to the internal energy, the enthalpy also includes the pressure-volume
potential energy, p ⁄ ρ, necessary for instance in volume expansion after an isobaric
transformation.

FIRST-ORDER PARAMETERS
The variations of internal energy correspond to variations of entropy and volume
according to:

∂E ∂E
dE =   dS +   dν
∂S ν ∂ν S

166 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

First-order parameters are partial derivatives of the specific internal energy. They
correspond to the thermodynamic definitions of temperature and pressure:

∂E ∂E
T =   p = –  (4-1)
 ∂ S ν ∂ν  S

These lead to the fundamental thermodynamic relation:

dE = T dS – p dν

Temperature is the measurable quantity that gives a phenomenological

description of heat transfer. When expressed in kelvin (K), the Second
Law of Thermodynamics ensures that T can only take positive values.

Similar relations as those of Equation 4-1 hold for solids:

∂E ∂E
T =   P = det(F)ρ   (4-2)
∂S F ∂F S

1
dE = T dS + --------------------- P: dF
det(F)ρ

Here, the counterpart of the fluid pressure is the first Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor, P.

SECOND-ORDER PARAMETERS
Second-order parameters correspond to second partial derivatives of the specific
internal energy and provide a various number of thermodynamic coefficients. These
are usually given as material properties of the domain material. Among them, the heat
capacity at constant pressure and the coefficient of thermal expansion are most often
provided. For a fluid, these are

T 1
C p = --------------- α p = ------------------- (4-3)
 ∂T ∂T
ν  
 ∂ S ν ∂ν S

and for a solid, the definitions become:

–1
– 1 ∂T
α = F  
T
C p = ---------------- (4-4)
∂T ∂F S
 
 ∂ S F

FOUNDATIONS OF THE GENERAL HEAT TRANSFER EQUATION | 167

 Specific heat capacity at constant pressure is the amount of energy required to raise one
unit of mass of a substance by one degree while maintained at constant pressure. This
quantity is also commonly referred to as specific heat or specific heat capacity.

The heat capacity at constant pressure and coefficient of thermal expansion are related
to the enthalpy, seen as a function of T and p (or P), according to:

 ∂H = C  ∂H = ν ( 1 – α T )
∂T p p ∂p  T p

 ∂H = C  ∂H = --------------------

1 -
F ( – I + αT )
 ∂T P p  ∂ P T det(F)ρ

SENSIBLE ENTHALPY
The enthalpy can then be retrieved from Cp and αp (or α) by:

r1
H = H ref + r ∇r H ( r ) ⋅ dr
0
(4-5)

where r is the integration vector variable, containing temperature and pressure or

stress tensor components:

P
 11
P 
 22
P 
 33
r =  
p
or r = P 
 T  12
P 
 23
P 
 13
 T 

The starting point, r0, is the value of r at reference conditions, that is, pref (1 atm) and
Tref (293.15 K) for a fluid. The ending point, r1, is the solution returned after
simulation. In theory any value can be assigned to the enthalpy at reference conditions,
Href (Ref. 2), and COMSOL Multiphysics sets it to 0 J/kg by default. The integral in

168 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

Equation 4-5 is sometimes referred to as the sensible enthalpy (Ref. 2) and is evaluated
by numerical integration.

For the evaluation of H to work, it is important that the dependencies of

Cp, ρ, and γ on the temperature are prescribed either via Model Inputs or
as functions of the temperature variable. If Cp, ρ, or γ depends on the
pressure, that dependency must be prescribed either via a model input or
by using the variable pA, which is the variable for the absolute pressure in
COMSOL Multiphysics.

Sensible Enthalpy in Ideal Gas

In an ideal gas,

1
α p = ----
T

therefore

 ∂H = 0
∂p  T

and Equation 4-5 reduces to

T
H = H ref + Tref Cp ⋅ dT (4-6)

Sensible Enthalpy in Moist Air

The ideal gas assumption also holds for moist air, so

 ∂H = 0
∂p  T

In addition, by using a mixture formula, we have

 ∂H = ( C ∂ω v
p, v – C p, a ) ---------
-
∂T p ∂c v

and Equation 4-6 should be modified to include an integral over the vapor
concentration:
cv
T ∂ω v ∂H
H = H ref + Tref ( C p, v – C p, a ) ---------- ⋅ dT +
∂c v cref ∂ cv ⋅ dcv (4-7)

FOUNDATIONS OF THE GENERAL HEAT TRANSFER EQUATION | 169

 The Physical Mechanisms Underlying Heat Transfer
The amount of heat transferred per unit time (heat transfer rate) depends on the
underlying physical mechanisms that define the mode of transfer. These are:

• Conduction — Heat conduction (or diffusion) occurs as a consequence of different

mechanisms in different media. Theoretically, it takes place in a gas through
collisions of molecules; in a fluid through oscillations of each molecule in a “cage”
formed by its nearest neighbors; in metals mainly by electrons carrying heat and in
other solids by molecular motion, which in crystals take the form of lattice vibrations
known as phonons.
In a continuous medium, Fourier’s law of heat conduction states that the
conductive heat flux, q, is proportional to the temperature gradient:
q = – k∇T (4-8)

The coefficient of proportionality, k, is the thermal conductivity (SI unit: W/(m·K))

and takes a positive value meaning that heat flows from regions of high temperature
to low temperature. More generally, the thermal conductivity can take the form of
a symmetric positive-definite second-order tensor (matrix) in anisotropic media
such as composite materials:

k xx k xy k xz
k = k xy k yy k yz
k xz k yz k zz

Thermal conductivity tensors that do not respect the symmetric

positive-definite property lead to unphysical results (Ref. 3).

• Convection — Heat convection (sometimes called heat advection) takes place

through the net displacement of a fluid that transports the heat content with its
velocity. The term convection (especially convective cooling and convective heating)
also refers to the heat dissipation from a solid surface to a fluid, typically described
by a heat transfer coefficient.
• Radiation — Heat transfer by radiation takes place through the transport of
photons. Participating (or semitransparent) media absorb, emit, and scatter
photons. Opaque surfaces absorb or reflect them.

170 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

The Heat Balance Equation
The equations of heat transfer in continua are derived from the first law of
thermodynamics, commonly referred to as the principle of conservation of energy. The
present part establishes the heat balance equation in its integral and localized forms
that stand as a root for deriving the different heat transfer equations solved in
COMSOL Multiphysics.

INTEGRAL FORM
The first law of thermodynamics states that the variations of macroscopic kinetic
energy, KΩ, and internal energy, EΩ, of a domain Ω are caused either by the mechanical
power of forces applied to the system, Pext, or by exchanged heat rate, Qexch (2.3.53
in Ref. 4):

dE Ω dK Ω
----------- + ----------- = P ext + Q exch (4-9)
dt dt

Mass and momentum balance are needed to complete the description of the system.
The mechanical laws, either for solids or fluids, generate the following balance
equation between variation of kinetic energy, KΩ, stress power, Pstr, and power of
applied forces, Pext (2.3.64 in Ref. 4):

dK Ω
----------- + P str = P ext (4-10)
dt

This equation involves quantities of the macroscopic level where the variation of the
kinetic energy due to some forces applied to it reflects a sensible displacement. In
COMSOL Multiphysics, the Solid Mechanics or Single-Phase Flow interfaces are
examples of physics interfaces that simulate the macroscopic level described by
Equation 4-10.

Combining Equation 4-9 and Equation 4-10 yields the so-called heat balance
equation (2.3.65 in Ref. 4):

dE Ω
----------- = P str + Q exch (4-11)
dt

This time, the equation involves quantities of the microscopic level (exchanged heat
rate, Qexch, and internal energy, EΩ) more concerned with the atomic vibrations and
similar microscopic phenomena that are felt as heat. The presence of the stress power,
Pstr, in both Equation 4-10 and Equation 4-11 stands for the fact that such power is

FOUNDATIONS OF THE GENERAL HEAT TRANSFER EQUATION | 171

 converted into heat by dissipation. The Heat Transfer interfaces, described in the next
sections, simulate the heat exchanges described by Equation 4-11.

LOCALIZED FORM
In this paragraph, the different terms of Equation 4-11 are more detailed to obtain the
localized form of the heat balance equation.

Variation of Internal Energy

The equations given in the previous paragraph holds for a given macroscopic
continuous domain Ω where the internal energy is defined using the specific internal
energy (per unit mass), E, as:

EΩ = Ω E dm
Note that by conservation of mass, the variation of internal energy in time is:

dE Ω dE dE
----------- =
dt Ω d t dm = Ω ρ d t dv
In these last relations, ρ is the density, and dv denotes an elementary volume of Ω.
Contrary to the constant elementary mass, dm, the elementary volume changes by
expansion or contraction of the domain. Recall that the derivation operator d ⁄ dt
under the integrals is in the material frame (see Time Derivative in the Frames for the
Heat Transfer Equations section).

Stress Power
The stress power, derived from the Continuum Mechanics theory, is defined by
(2.3.59 in Ref. 4):

P str = Ω ( σ:D ) dv
where σ is the Cauchy stress tensor and D is the strain rate tensor. The operation “:”
is a contraction and can in this case be written on the following form:

a:b =   anm bnm

n m

Note that in fluid mechanics, the Cauchy stress tensor is divided into a static part for
the pressure, p, and a symmetric deviatoric part, τ, as in:

172 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

 σ = – pI + τ (4-12)

so that Pstr becomes the following sum of pressure-volume work and viscous
dissipation:

P str = Ω p ( ∇ ⋅ u ) dv – Ω ( τ: ∇u ) dv
Equivalently, the stress power can also be expressed as:

-----------------  P:  dv
1 dF
P str = Ω det (F)  d t 

Exchanged Heat
Finally, the exchanged heat rates, Qexch, account for thermal conduction (see Fourier’s
Law at Equation 4-8), radiation and potentially additional heat sources. Joule heating
and exothermic chemical reactions are such examples of domain heat source. The
different kinds of exchanged heat are summarized by the equality below:

Q exch = – ∂Ω ( q ⋅ n ) ds – ∂Ω ( qr ⋅ n ) ds + Ω Q dv

Recall the following notations used above: q for the heat flux by conduction, qr for
the heat flux by radiation, Q for additional heat sources, and n for the external normal
vector to the boundary ∂Ω.

Localized Heat Balance Equation

With all these elements, the heat balance equation (Equation 4-11) becomes:

dE
Ω ρ d t dv + ∂Ω ( q ⋅ n ) ds + ∂Ω ( qr ⋅ n ) ds = Ω ( σ:D ) dv + Ω Q dv (4-13)

which leads to the following localized form in the material frame:

dE
ρ + ∇ ⋅ ( q + q r ) = σ:D + Q (4-14)
dt

or equivalently in the spatial frame:

∂E
ρ + ρu ⋅ ∇E + ∇ ⋅ ( q + q r ) = σ:D + Q (4-15)
∂t

This verbally means that variations of internal energy in time are balanced by
convection of internal energy, thermal conduction, radiation, dissipation of mechanical

FOUNDATIONS OF THE GENERAL HEAT TRANSFER EQUATION | 173

 stress and additional volumetric heat sources. In the next sections, Equation 4-15 will
be derived to obtain the heat transfer equations in different media.

See Frames for the Heat Transfer Equations for more details about the use
of material and spatial frames in the Heat Transfer interfaces.

Consistency with Mass and Momentum Conservation Laws

Although the heat transfer interfaces only solve for the energy equation, the context
leading to Equation 4-15 does account for the three additional conservation laws that
complete the Continuum Mechanics theory:

• Conservation of mass
• Conservation of linear momentum
• Conservation of angular momentum

The equations corresponding to each of them are recalled below in Table 4-1. For
more details about the theory of Solid and Fluid Mechanics, see the Structural
Mechanics Module User’s Guide and CFD Module User’s Guide.
TABLE 4-1: CONSERVATION OF MASS AND MOMENTUM

CONSERVATION LAW MATHEMATICAL MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION IN SPATIAL

EXPRESSION IN FRAME
MATERIAL FRAME

Conservation of ρ 0 = ρdet(F) ∂ρ
Mass + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = 0
∂t
Conservation of du ∂u
Linear Momentum ρ = ∇ ⋅ σ + Fv ρ + ρ ( u ⋅ ∇ )u = ∇ ⋅ σ + F v
dt ∂t
Conservation of T T
σ = σ σ = σ
Angular Momentum

When modeling a heat transfer problem with one of the Heat Transfer interfaces, the
aforementioned laws needs to be respected. For example, the velocity field, u,
provided in the energy equation and responsible for convection in a fluid, should
satisfy the continuity equation here below in order to avoid unphysical results.

∂ρ
+ ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = 0
∂t

174 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

This is especially true when the velocity field is not computed from an additional
physics interface — such as Single-Phase Flow that solves for the continuity equation
— but instead defined by a custom expression in a Heat Transfer interface.

FOUNDATIONS OF THE GENERAL HEAT TRANSFER EQUATION | 175

 Theory for Heat Transfer in Solids
The Heat Transfer in Solids Interface solves for the following equation derived from
Equation 4-15:

∂T
ρC p  ------- + u trans ⋅ ∇ T + ∇ ⋅ ( q + q r ) = – αT: + Q
dS
(4-16)
 ∂t  dt

The different quantities involved here are recalled below:

• ρ is the density (SI unit: kg/m3)

• Cp is the specific heat capacity at constant stress (SI unit: J/(kg·K))
• T is the absolute temperature (SI unit: K)
• utrans is the velocity vector of translational motion (SI unit: m/s)
• q is the heat flux by conduction (SI unit: W/m2)
• qr is the heat flux by radiation (SI unit: W/m2)
• α is the coefficient of thermal expansion (SI unit: 1/K)
• S is the second Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor (SI unit: Pa)
• Q contains additional heat sources (SI unit: W/m3)

For a steady-state problem the temperature does not change with time and the terms
with time derivatives disappear.

The first term on the right-hand side of Equation 4-16 is the thermoelastic damping
and accounts for thermoelastic effects in solids:

dS
Q ted = – αT: (4-17)
dt

It should be noted that the d ⁄ dt operator is the material derivative, as described in the
Time Derivative subsection of Material and Spatial Frames.

176 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

Theory for Heat Transfer in Fluids
The Heat Transfer in Fluids Interface solves for the following equation (11.2-5 in
Ref. 5):

∂T ∂p
ρC p  ------- + u ⋅ ∇ T + ∇ ⋅ ( q + q r ) = α p T  + u ⋅ ∇p + τ: ∇u + Q (4-18)
 ∂t  ∂t 

which is derived from Equation 4-15, considering that:

• the Cauchy stress tensor, σ, is split into static and deviatoric parts as in:
σ = – pI + τ

• the dependent variables are the temperature, T, and pressure, p.

The different quantities involved here are recalled below:

• ρ is the density (SI unit: kg/m3)

• Cp is the specific heat capacity at constant pressure (SI unit: J/(kg·K))
• T is the absolute temperature (SI unit: K)
• u is the velocity vector (SI unit: m/s)
• q is the heat flux by conduction (SI unit: W/m2)
• qr is the heat flux by radiation (SI unit: W/m2)
• αp is the coefficient of thermal expansion (SI unit: 1/K):

1 ∂ρ
α p = – ---
ρ∂T

for ideal gases, the thermal expansion coefficient takes the simpler form αp = 1 ⁄ T
• p is the pressure (SI unit: Pa)
• τ is the viscous stress tensor (SI unit: Pa)
• Q contains heat sources other than viscous dissipation (SI unit: W/m3)

For a steady-state problem the temperature does not change with time and the terms
with time derivatives disappear.

The first term of the right-hand side of Equation 4-18 is the work done by pressure
changes and is the result of heating under adiabatic compression as well as some
thermoacoustic effects. It is generally small for low Mach number flows.

THEORY FOR HEAT TRANSFER IN FLUIDS | 177

 ∂p
Q p = α p T  + u ⋅ ∇p (4-19)
∂t

The second term represents viscous dissipation in the fluid:

Q vd = τ: ∇u (4-20)

Theory for the Inflow Boundary Condition

At the inlet boundary of a fluid domain, the Inflow boundary condition defines a heat
flux that accounts for the energy that would normally be brought by the fluid flow if
the channel upstream to the inlet was modeled.

DANCKWERTS CONDITION
The application of the Danckwerts condition on the enthalpy allows to express the
normal conductive heat flux at the inlet boundary as proportional to the flow rate ρu
and the enthalpy variation ΔH between the upstream conditions and inlet conditions:

k ∇T ⋅ n = ρΔHu ⋅ n (4-21)

The enthalpy variation between the upstream conditions and inlet conditions, ΔH,
depends in general both on the difference in temperature and in pressure, and is
defined as:

T pA
1
ΔH = Tupstream Cp dT + pupstream --ρ- ( 1 – αp T ) dp (4-22)

where Tupstream is the upstream temperature, T is the inlet temperature, pustream is

the upstream absolute pressure, pA is the inlet absolute pressure, Cp is the fluid heat
capacity at constant pressure, ρ is the fluid density, and αp is its coefficient of thermal
expansion. See Equation 4-5 for details about the definition of the enthalpy.

In the unexpected case of a velocity field corresponding to an outgoing flow across the
inlet boundary, a zero conductive flux condition is applied to avoid a unphysical
conductive flux condition:

k ∇T ⋅ n = 0, n⋅u≥0

TEMPERATURE CONTRIBUTION TO THE INFLOW BOUNDARY CONDITION

The nature of the temperature contribution depends on the order of magnitude of
advective and conductive heat transfer at the inlet.

178 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

For large flow rates, advective heat transfer dominates over conductive heat transfer at
the inlet. In this case, the left-hand side of Equation 4-21 is small compared to its
right-hand side. As the heat capacity Cp is positive, in the absence of pressure
contribution to the enthalpy, this induces the following constraint on temperature

T – T upstream = 0

which corresponds to a Dirichlet boundary condition that prescribes the upstream

temperature at the inlet.

For low flow rates or in the presence of large heat sources or sinks next to the inlet, the
conductive heat flux cannot be neglected. The first integral in Equation 4-22 has for
effect to adjust the inlet temperature to balance the energy brought by the flow at the
inlet and the energy transferred by conduction from the interior.

PRESSURE CONTRIBUTION TO THE INFLOW BOUNDARY CONDITION

Pressure losses in the virtual channel upstream to the inlet boundary are handled
through the pressure contribution to the enthalpy (the second integral in
Equation 4-22).

In addition to the cases where the upstream and inlet absolute pressures are equal, this
term may be neglected when the work due to pressure changes is not included in the
energy equation, or when the fluid is modeled as an ideal gas (in this case the
coefficient of thermal expansion is the inverse of the temperature).

THEORY FOR HEAT TRANSFER IN FLUIDS | 179

 Theory for Heat Transfer in Moist Air
By making the ideal gas assumption in Equation 4-18, The Heat Transfer in Moist Air
Interface solves the following equation:

∂T ∂p
ρC p  ------- + u ⋅ ∇ T + ∇ ⋅ ( q + q r ) =  + u ⋅ ∇p + τ: ∇u + Q H + Q (4-23)
 ∂t  ∂t 

involving the same variables as in Theory for Heat Transfer in Fluids, and the
additional QH term, accounting for the diffusive flux of thermal enthalpy due to the
rate of change of air and vapor in moist air. It is defined as (Ref. 5):

Q H = – ( C p, v – C p, a )g w ⋅ ∇T

where:

• Cp,v is the specific heat capacity at constant pressure of vapor (SI unit: J/(kg·K))
• Cp,a is the specific heat capacity at constant pressure of air (SI unit: J/(kg·K))
• gw is the vapor flux by diffusion (SI unit: kg/(m2·s))

Humidity
This part defines the different definitions of humidity in the moist air theory.

MOISTURE CONTENT
The moisture content (also called mixing ratio or humidity ratio) is defined as the
ratio of water vapor mass, mv, to dry air mass, ma:

mv pv Mv
x vap = -------- = --------------- (4-24)
ma pa Ma

where pv is the water vapor partial pressure, pa is the dry air partial pressure, and Ma
and Mv are the molar mass of dry air and water vapor, respectively. The moisture
content represents a ratio of mass, and it is thus a dimensionless number.

RELATIVE HUMIDITY
The relative humidity of an air mixture is expressed as follows:

180 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

 pv
φ w = ---------- (4-25)
p sat

where pv is the water vapor partial pressure and psat is the saturation pressure of water
vapor.

According to Dalton’s law, the total pressure of a mixture of gases is the sum of all the
partial pressures of each individual gas; that is, p = pv + pa where pa is the dry air
partial pressure.

The relative humidity formulation is often used to quantify humidity. However, for the
same quantity of moisture content, the relative humidity changes with temperature
and pressure, so in order to compare different values of φ w it has to be at the same
temperature and pressure conditions. Then the thermodynamical properties of moist
air can be deduced through the mixture formula described below.

The relative humidity is useful to study the condensation as it defines the boundary
between the liquid phase and the vapor phase. In fact, when the relative humidity φ w
reaches unity, it means that the vapor is saturated and that water vapor may condense.

SPECIFIC HUMIDITY
The specific humidity is defined as the ratio of water vapor, mv, to the total mass,
mtot = mv + ma:

mv
ω = ------------ (4-26)
m tot

When the water vapor only accounts for a few percent in the total mass,
the moisture content and the specific humidity are very close: xvap ≈ ω
(only for low values). For larger values of ω, the two quantities are more
precisely related by:

ω
x vap = -------------
1–ω

CONCENTRATION
The concentration is defined by:

nv
c v = ------ (4-27)
V

THEORY FOR HEAT TRANSFER IN MOIST AIR | 181

 where nv is the amount of water vapor (SI unit: mol) and V is the total volume (SI unit:
m3). According to the ideal gas hypothesis, the saturation concentration is defined as
follows:

p sat ( T )
c sat = -------------------- (4-28)
RT

Saturation State
The saturation state is reached when the relative humidity reaches one. It means that
the partial pressure of the water vapor is equal to the saturation pressure (which also
depends on the temperature).

From Ref. 36, the saturation pressure can be defined using the following expression:

T – 273.15 [ K ]
7.5 --------------------------------------
T – 35.85 [ K ]
p sat ( T ) = 610.7 [ Pa ] ⋅ 10 (4-29)

Temperature and saturation pressure are deduced from this formulation.

Moist Air Properties

The thermodynamical properties of moist air can be found with some mixture laws.
These are defined in this paragraph.

PRELIMINARY DEFINITIONS

Molar Fraction
The molar fraction of dry air, Xa, and the molar fraction of water vapor, Xv, are defined
such as:

na pa p – φ w p sat
X a = ---------- = ------ = --------------------------- (4-30)
n tot p p

nv pv φ w p sat
X v = ---------- = ------ = ------------------ (4-31)
n tot p p

where:

• na is amount of dry air

• nv is amount of water vapor

182 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

• ntot is the total amount of moist air in mol
• pa is the partial pressure of dry air
• pv is the partial pressure of water vapor
• p is the pressure
• φ w is the relative humidity, and
• psat is the saturation pressure.

From Equation 4-30 and Equation 4-31, the following relation holds:

Xa + Xv = 1

Relative Humidity, Vapor Concentration, and Moisture Content

Moisture content and relative humidity can be related with the following expression:

c v RT x vap p
φ w = -------------------- = ---------------------------------------------------- (4-32)
p sat ( T ) Mv
p sat ( T )  -------- + x vap
Ma

MIXTURE PROPERTIES
The thermodynamical properties are built through a mixture formula. The expressions
depend on dry air properties and pure steam properties and are balanced by the mass
fraction.

Density
According to the ideal gas law, the mixture density ρm expression is defined as follows:

p
ρ m = -------- ( M a X a + M v X v ) (4-33)
RT

where Ma and Mv are the molar mass of dry air and water vapor, respectively, and Xa
and Xv are the molar fraction of dry air and water vapor, respectively.

The ideal gas assumption sets the compressibility factor and the
enhancement factor to unity. In fact, the accuracy lost by this assumption
is small as the pure steam represents a small fraction.

Heat Capacity at Constant Pressure

According to Ref. 37, the heat capacity at constant pressure of a mixture is:

THEORY FOR HEAT TRANSFER IN MOIST AIR | 183

 Ma Mv
C p, m = ---------- X a C p, a + ---------- X v C p, v (4-34)
Mm Mm

where Mm represents the mixture molar fraction and is defined by

Mm = Xa Ma + Xv Mv

and where Cp, a and Cp, v are the heat capacity at constant pressure of dry air and
steam, respectively.

Dynamic Viscosity
According to Ref. 37 and Ref. 38, the dynamic viscosity is defined as:

Xi μi
μm =  ---------------------------- (4-35)
i = a, v  X j ϕ ij
j a v
where ϕ ij is given by

1 1 2
--- ---
μi 2 Mj 4
1 +  -----  -------
μj Mi
ϕ ij = -----------------------------------------------
1
-
---
Mi 2
8  1 + -------
 M j

Here, μa and μv are the dynamic viscosity of dry air and steam, respectively.

Thermal Conductivity
According to Ref. 38 and Ref. 37, the thermal conductivity of the mixture is defined
similarly:

Xi ki
km =  ---------------------------- (4-36)
i = a, v  X j ϕ ij
j a v
where ka and kv are the thermal conductivity of dry air and steam, respectively.

PURE COMPONENT PROPERTIES

The dry air and steam properties used to define the mixture properties are
temperature-dependent high-order polynomials. The dry air properties are taken from
the Built-in materials database, and the polynomials have been computed according

184 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

Ref. 39 for pure steam properties. The steam properties are based on the Industrial
Formulation IAPWS-IF97.

The valid temperature range is 200 K < T < 1200 K for dry air properties and
273.15 K < T < 873.15 K for steam properties.

RESULTS AND ANALYSIS VARIABLES

These variables are provided to display the related quantities:

• Moisture content xvap.

• Vapor mass fraction omega_moist.
• Concentration of water vapor c.
• Relative humidity phi. This variable corresponds to the calculated φ with the system
temperature and pressure.
• Saturation indicator satInd; this indicator is set to 1 if saturation has been detected
( φ w = 1 ), and 0 if not.

FUNCTIONS
The following functions are defined and can be used as feature parameters as well as in
postprocessing. Here, feature stands for fluid or porous, depending on whether the
function is defined in the Fluid or in the Porous Medium feature:

• ht.feature .fc(RH,T, pA), where RH is the relative humidity 0 ≤ φ w ≤ 1 , T is the

temperature (SI unit: K), and pA is the pressure (SI unit: Pa). It returns the
corresponding water vapor concentration (SI unit: mol/m3) by deriving the
following relation from Equation 4-25, Equation 4-28, and Equation 4-32:

x vap p
c v = -----------------------------------------
x Mv
+ -------- RT
 vap M a

The concentration computation assumes that the ideal gas assumption is

valid.

• ht.feature .fxvap(RH, T, pA), where RH is the relative humidity 0 ≤ φ w ≤ 1 , T is

the temperature (SI unit: K) and pA is the pressure (SI unit Pa). It returns the
moisture content (SI unit: 1) by using the following relation:

THEORY FOR HEAT TRANSFER IN MOIST AIR | 185

 φ w p sat Mv
x vap = --------------------------- ⋅ --------
p – φ w p sat M a

• ht.feature.fpsat(T), where T is the temperature (SI unit: K). It returns the

saturation pressure (SI unit: Pa) by using Equation 4-29.
• ht.feature.Lv(T), where T is the temperature (SI unit: K). It returns the latent
heat of evaporation (SI unit: J/kg) as a linear interpolation of the data from Ref. 39,
which provides steam properties based on the Industrial Formulation IAPWS-IF97.
The temperature-dependency is as shown on Figure 4-1.

Figure 4-1: Latent heat of evaporation as a function of temperature.

186 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

Theory for Bioheat Transfer
The Bioheat Equation
The Bioheat Transfer Interface solves for the bioheat equation using Pennes’
approximation (Ref. 6). This is used to model heat transfer within biological tissue. It
accounts for heat sources from blood perfusion and metabolism in the classical heat
transfer equation:

∂T
ρCp + ∇ ⋅ q = ρ b C p, b ω b ( T b – T ) + Q met (4-37)
∂t

The different quantities involved here are recalled below:

• ρ is the density of the tissue (SI unit: kg/m3)

• Cp is the specific heat capacity at constant pressure of the tissue (SI unit: J/(kg·K))
• T is the absolute temperature of the tissue (SI unit: K)
• q is the heat flux by conduction in the tissue (SI unit: W/m2)
• ρb is the blood density (SI unit: kg/m3)
• Cp, b is the blood specific heat capacity at constant pressure (SI unit: J/(kg·K))
• ωb is the blood perfusion rate (SI unit: 1/s)
• Tb is the arterial blood temperature (SI unit: K)
• Qmet is the metabolic heat source (SI unit: W/m3)

For a steady-state problem the temperature does not change with time and the terms
with time derivatives disappear.

There are specific predefined materials available in the Bioheat material

database. See Materials Overview and Bioheat Materials Library in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Damaged Tissue
Add a Thermal Damage subnode under the Biological Tissue node to calculate tissue
damage.

THEORY FOR BIOHEAT TRANSFER | 187

 In hyperthermia and cryogenic processes, tissue necrosis (permanent damage or death
of living tissue) occurs when one of the two following phenomenas happens:

• an excessive thermal energy is absorbed (hyperthermia process) or released

(cryogenic process),
• a critical high (hyperthermia process) or low (cryogenic process) temperature is
exceeded.

Correspondingly, COMSOL Multiphysics has two ways to model energy absorption

— computing the period of time the tissue remained in the necrotic temperature
interval and direct time integration of the energy.

Temperature Threshold
In the first form of damage integral, tissue necrosis occurs in four cases:

• When the temperature exceeds the hyperthermia damage temperature Td, h for
more than a certain time period td, h,
• When the temperature falls below the cryogenic damage temperature Td, c for more
than a certain time period td, c,
• Instantly after the temperature exceeds the hyperthermia necrosis temperature
Tn, h,
• Instantly after the temperature falls below the cryogenic necrosis temperature Tn, c.

For the first two cases, the damaged tissue indicator, α, defined either by

t
1
α = ----------
t d, h  0 ϕ d, h dt
for hyperthermia analysis, or by

t
1
α = ---------
t d, c 0 ϕd, c dt
for cryogenic analysis, with

1 if T > T d, h 1 if T < T d, c
ϕ d, h ( t ) =  ϕ d, c ( t ) = 
0 otherwise 0 otherwise

is the ratio of the period of time when T > Td, h to the time limit td, h, or the ratio of
the period of time when T < Td, c to the time limit td, c. It gives an indication of

188 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

damage state of the tissue. When it reaches 1, the tissue is necrotic. The fraction of
necrotic tissue corresponds to the quantity min(α, 1).

For the last two cases, the necrosis time indicator, αnecr, defined either by

t
α necr = 0 ϕn, h dt
for hyperthermia analysis, or by

t
α necr =  0 ϕ n, c d t
for cryogenic analysis, with

1 if T > T n, h 1 if T < T n, c
ϕ n, h ( t ) =  ϕ n, c ( t ) = 
0 otherwise 0 otherwise

evaluates the period of time when T > Tn, h or the period of time when T < Tn, c. If
αnecr > 0, the tissue is necrotic because it already reached the necrosis temperatures
Tn, h or Tn, c at some time step of the simulation. Hence, the fraction of necrotic tissue
due to immediate necrosis is equal to 1 if αnecr > 0 and 0 otherwise.

Combining all cases, the overall fraction of necrotic tissue, θd, is equal to:

 1 if α necr > 0
θd =  (4-38)
 min (α, 1) otherwise

Arrhenius Kinetics
The second form of damage integral is applicable only for hyperthermia processes and
provides the degree of tissue injury, α, based on the polynomial Arrhenius equation:

– ΔE
∂α -----------
------- = ( 1 – α ) n Ae RT
∂t

Here, A is the frequency factor (SI unit: 1/s), and ΔE is the activation energy for the
irreversible damage reaction (SI unit: J/mol). The parameters A and ΔE are dependent
on the type of tissue and have been characterized for liver tissues by Jacques et others
(Ref. 7) to be A = 7.39 ⋅ 1039 s–1 and ΔE = 2.577 ⋅ 105 J/mol. See Ref. 8, Ref. 9, and
Ref. 10 for the characterization of these parameters for prostate, skin, and fat. See also
Ref. 11 and Ref. 12 for more references on biological tissues material properties.

THEORY FOR BIOHEAT TRANSFER | 189

 The fraction of necrotic tissue is then expressed by:

θ d = min(max ( α, 0 ), 1) (4-39)

Thermal Properties
The material properties of the damaged tissue are redefined to take into account the
influence of tissue injury. If ρd, Cp, d, and kd denote the density, heat capacity at
constant pressure, and thermal conductivity of the necrotic tissue, respectively, then
two effective quantities are defined:

• The effective thermal conductivity, keff = θdkd + (1 − θd)k

• The effective heat capacity at constant pressure, (ρCp)eff = θdρdCp, d + (1 − θd)ρCp

In these equalities, θd takes one of the two definitions given above in Equation 4-38
or Equation 4-39 according to the integral form chosen.

Heat Source
A cooling or heating source is associated with the reaction leading to damage of tissue.
Depending on the damage integral model, this source is expressed as follows:

• Temperature threshold for hyperthermia analysis:

∂θ d
Q = – ρL d, h --------- ( T > T d, h )
∂t

• Temperature threshold for cryogenic analysis:

∂θ d
Q = ρL d, c --------- ( T < T d, c )
∂t

• Energy absorption:
∂θ d
Q = – ρL ----------
∂t

190 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

Theory for Heat Transfer in Porous
Media
When considering heat transfer in a porous medium at the microscopic scale, two heat
transfer equations can be established, for the solid and fluid phases. For undeformed
immobile solids, Equation 4-16 simplifies into:

∂T s
ρ s C p, s --------- + ∇ ⋅ q s = Q s
∂t

and for a fluid domain where pressure work and viscous dissipation are neglected,
Equation 4-18 becomes:

∂T f
ρ f C p, f --------- + ρ f C p, f u f ⋅ ∇T f + ∇ ⋅ q f = Q f
∂t

At the macroscopic scale, different modeling approaches are available, depending on

the local thermal equilibrium hypothesis, and on the accuracy required on the thermal
effects in the solid phase.

The local thermal equilibrium hypothesis assumes equality of temperature in both fluid
and solid phases:

Tf = Ts = T (4-40)

When this hypothesis can be assumed, the heat transfer equation for porous media is
derived from the mixture rule on energies appearing in solid and fluid heat transfer
equations (see Ref. 13). This rule applies by multiplying the equation of the solid
domain by the solid volume fraction, θs, multiplying the fluid equation by the porosity,
εp, and summing resulting equations.

The theory for this hypothesis is detailed in the Local Thermal Equilibrium section
below. Otherwise, the Local Thermal Nonequilibrium section describes the theory for
modeling heat transfer in porous media using two temperatures.

In the particular case of a packed bed of pellets, and under some assumptions about
thermal conductivities ratio, the local thermal nonequilibrium model can be tuned to
capture more precisely some thermal effects within the pellets. This is done by
replacing the macroscale heat equation for the solid phase by an ordinary differential

THEORY FOR HEAT TRANSFER IN POROUS MEDIA | 191

 equation for the microscale variation of temperature in the pellets along the radial
coordinate. See the Packed Bed of Pellets section for more details.

When Should Local Thermal Equilibrium and Nonequilibrium Be

Considered?
The classical local equilibrium hypothesis in modeling heat transfer in porous media
considers pointwise equality of solid and fluid temperatures as said in Equation 4-40.
The Local Thermal Equilibrium section below details the derivation of the energy
equation considering such assumption that remains accurately sufficient for several
applications. Ref. 32 shows for instance that solid and fluid temperatures are equal in
steady conduction problems where only prescribed temperature conditions are
applied. Most slow motion problems can also assume equality of phase temperatures if
volumetric internal heating do not differ in both materials.

In the case of conduction in porous plates, Ref. 33 provides criteria based on the
dimensionless Sparrow number, Sp, to indicate if temperature equilibrium is still valid
or if a nonequilibrium point of view should be preferred. In Ref. 34, the influence of
the Darcy number, Da, and the ratio of phase conductivities is examined for transient
heat transfer in packed beds. The Sparrow and Darcy numbers are defined by:

2
h sf L κ
Sp = --------------- Da = -----2-
k eff r h d

where:

• hsf is the interstitial heat transfer coefficient between solid and fluid phases (SI unit:
W/(m2·K))
• L is the plate layer thickness (SI unit: m)
• keff is the equivalent thermal conductivity of the porous medium (SI unit:
W/(m·K))
• rh is the hydraulic radius (SI unit: m)
• κ is the permeability (SI unit: m2)
• d is the average particle diameter (SI unit: m)

In the situations described in Ref. 33 and Ref. 34, small values of Sp (less than 100 or
500) and large values of Da (from order of magnitude 10-7) indicate discrepancies of
temperature in each phase. However, in general, assessing the validity of local thermal
equilibrium assumption remains not straightforward in specific situations. The Local

192 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

Thermal Nonequilibrium approach, described below, makes use of two energy
equations, one for each phase of the porous medium, that solve for two temperature
fields. It numerically doubles the number of freedom to solve but provides a general
framework for heat transfer in porous media where evaluating the validity of the
equilibrium hypothesis is not required anymore.

Local Thermal Equilibrium

By making the local thermal equilibrium hypothesis for solid and fluid phases
(Equation 4-40), The Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface solves for the
following version of the heat equation (Ref. 17), reformulated using a common
temperature, T:

∂T
( ρC p ) eff ------- + ρ f C p, f u ⋅ ∇T + ∇ ⋅ q = Q (4-41)
∂t

q = – k eff ∇T (4-42)

The different quantities appearing here are:

• ρf is the fluid density.

• Cp,f is the fluid heat capacity at constant pressure.
• (ρCp)eff is the effective volumetric heat capacity at constant pressure, defined by
( ρC p ) eff = θ s ρ s C p, s + ε p ρ f C p, f

• εp is the porosity.
• θs is the solid matrix volume fraction.
• ρs is the solid matrix density.
• Cp,s is the solid matrix heat capacity at constant pressure.
• keff is the effective thermal conductivity (a scalar or a tensor if the thermal
conductivity is anisotropic).
• q is the conductive heat flux.
• u is the velocity field, either an analytic expression or computed from a Fluid Flow
interface. It should be interpreted as the Darcy velocity, that is, the volume flow rate
per unit cross sectional area. The average linear velocity (the velocity within the

THEORY FOR HEAT TRANSFER IN POROUS MEDIA | 193

 pores) can be calculated as uf = u/εp, where εp is the fluid’s volume fraction, or
equivalently the porosity.
• Q is the heat source (or sink). Add one or several heat sources as separate physics
features.

For a steady-state problem the temperature does not change with time, and the terms
with time derivatives of Equation 4-41 disappear.

The effective thermal conductivity of the solid-fluid system, keff, is related to the
conductivity of the solid, ks, and to the conductivity of the fluid, kf, and depends in a
complex way on the geometry of the medium. In Ref. 13, Ref. 14, and Ref. 18, the
following models are proposed:

• If the heat conduction occurs in parallel in the solid and the fluid, then the effective
thermal conductivity is the weighted arithmetic mean of the conductivities kf and
ks:
k eff = θ s k s + ε p k f

This volume average model provides an upper bound for the effective thermal
conductivity.
• If the heat conduction takes place in series, with all of the heat flux passing through
both solid and fluid, then the effective thermal conductivity is the weighted
harmonic mean of the conductivities kf and ks:

1- θs εp
-------- = ----- + -----
k eff ks kf

This reciprocal average model provides a lower bound for the effective thermal
conductivity.
• A good estimate is given by the weighted geometric mean of kf and ks, as long as kf
and ks are not too different from each other
θs εp
k eff = k s ⋅ k f

• When the porous medium is composed of solid spherical inclusions in a fluid phase,
the effective thermal conductivity can be expressed as:
2k f + k s – 2 ( k f – k s )θ s
k eff = k f ----------------------------------------------------------
2k f + k s + ( k f – k s )θ s

194 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

• On the opposite, when the porous medium is composed of fluid spherical inclusions
in a solid phase, the effective thermal conductivity can be expressed as:
2k s + k f – 2 ( k s – k f )ε p
k eff = k s ----------------------------------------------------------
2k s + k f + ( k s – k f )ε p

• In the case of a wrapped screen, the effective thermal conductivity of the solid-fluid
system can be defined as:
k f + k s – ( k f – k s )θ s
k eff = k f ---------------------------------------------------
k f + k s + ( k f – k s )θ s

• Finally, when the porous medium is made of sintered metal fibers, the effective
thermal conductivity of the solid-fluid system is defined as:

2 4ε p θ s k f k s
k eff = ε p k f + θ 2s k s + --------------------------
kf + ks

Note that when kf and ks are equal, all these models give the same effective thermal
conductivity. In addition, the effective conductivity is equal to kf when the porosity is
1, and to ks when the porosity is 0.

Local Thermal Nonequilibrium

The Local Thermal Nonequilibrium Interface implements heat transfer in porous
media for which the temperatures into the porous matrix and the fluid are not in
equilibrium.

EQUATIONS FOR LOCAL NONEQUILIBRIUM HEAT TRANSFER

Nonequilibrium heat transfer in porous media for binary systems of rigid porous
matrix and fluid phase are governed by a set of two equations. These are the usual heat
equations for solids and fluids, multiplied by the volume fractions θs and εp=1 − θs
respectively, and with an additional source term quantifying exchanged heat between
both phases (2.12 and 2.13 in Ref. 13):

∂T s
θ s ρ s C p, s --------- + ∇ ⋅ q s = q sf ( T f – T s ) + θ s Q s (4-43)
∂t

q s = – θ s k s ∇T s

∂T f
ε p ρ f C p, f -------- + ρ f C p, f u ⋅ ∇T f + ∇ ⋅ q f = q sf ( T s – T f ) + ε p Q f (4-44)
∂t

THEORY FOR HEAT TRANSFER IN POROUS MEDIA | 195

 q f = – ε p k f ∇T f

In these expressions:

• θs is the solid volume fraction (dimensionless)

• εp is the porosity (dimensionless)
• ρs and ρf are the solid and fluid densities (SI unit: kg/m3)
• Cp, s and Cp, f are the solid and fluid heat capacities at constant pressure (SI unit:
J/(kg·K))
• qs and qf are the solid and fluid conductive heat fluxes (SI unit: W/m2)
• ks and kf are the solid and fluid thermal conductivities (SI unit: W/(m·K))
• qsf is the interstitial convective heat transfer coefficient (SI unit: W/(m3·K))
• Qs and Qf are the solid and fluid heat sources (SI unit: W/m3)
• u is the fluid velocity vector (SI unit: m/s). It should be interpreted as the Darcy
velocity, that is, the volume flow rate per unit cross sectional area. The average linear
velocity (the velocity within the pores) can be calculated as uf = u/εp, where εp is the
fluid’s volume fraction, or equivalently the porosity.
The Porous Medium feature with Porous medium type set to Local thermal equilibrium
adds the exchanged opposite heat sources qsf(Tf − Ts) and qsf(Ts − Tf) that one phase
receives from or releases to the other when respective temperatures differ. The porous
temperature, T, has the following definition (Ref. 35):

θ s ρ s C p, s T s + ε p ρ f C p, f T f
T = -----------------------------------------------------------------
θ s ρ s C p, s + ε p ρ f C p, f

CORRELATION FOR THE INTERSTITIAL CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER

COEFFICIENT
The Porous Medium feature with Porous medium type set to Local thermal equilibrium
provides a built-in correlation for qsf for a packed bed of spherical pellets (2.14, 2.15,
and 2.16 in Ref. 13):

q sf = S b h sf

The specific surface area, Sb (SI unit: 1/m), for a bed packed with spherical particles
of average diameter dpe is:

6θ s
S b = ---------
d pe

196 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

The interstitial heat transfer coefficient, hsf (SI unit: W/(m2·K)), satisfies the relation:

1 d pe d pe
------- = -------------- + ---------
h sf k f Nu βk s

where β = 10 for spherical particles, and Nu is the fluid-to-solid Nusselt number

derived from following correlation (Ref. 15):

1⁄3 0.6
Nu = 2.0 + 1.1Pr Re p

The Prandtl number, Pr, and particle Reynolds number, Rep, are defined by:

μC p, f d pe ρ f u
Pr = -------------- Re p = ------------------------
kf μ

VOLUMETRIC AND SURFACE THERMAL CONDITIONS

Because each energy equation is multiplied by its volume fraction, θs and εp for solid
and fluid phases respectively, a heat source or heat flux defined in one of the phases is
also accounted with that ratio. As shown in Equation 4-43 and Equation 4-44, the
volumetric heat sources θsQs and εpQf are applied to the energy equations when Heat
Source is added as a subnodes of the Porous Matrix or Fluid nodes to specify Qs or Qf.

Packed Bed of Pellets

For the modeling of packed beds of pellets, the The Heat Transfer in Packed Beds
Interface interface implements an hybrid multiscale model of local thermal
nonequilibrium.

As in the standard local thermal nonequilibrium model, two temperatures, one for the
fluid phase and one for the pellets, are solved for. By assuming that the thermal
conductivity of the pellets is much smaller than the one of the fluid phase, heat
conduction among different pellets is neglected, and a 1D microscale equation for
temperature conduction along the radial coordinate in the pellets is defined to replace
the macroscale heat transfer equation. It is coupled to the macroscale heat transfer
equation in the fluid phase, either by assuming temperature continuity, or a convective
heat flux, at the outer surface of the pellets.

This model provides higher accuracy than the standard local thermal nonequilibrium
model for highly nonlinear problems, in particular when combustion occurs within the
pellets.

THEORY FOR HEAT TRANSFER IN POROUS MEDIA | 197

 Spheres, cylinders, flakes, or any shape of pellets may be considered, as long as the
specific surface area for heat exchange between the pellets and fluid phase can be
determined. Porosity within the pellets themselves may be considered as well, in
addition to the bed porosity.

EQUATIONS FOR HEAT TRANSFER IN A PACKED BED OF PELLETS

Macroscopic Heat Transfer in the Fluid

For the fluid phase, the heat equation is similar to the one solved in the standard local
thermal nonequilibrium model:

∂T f
ε p ρ f C p, f -------- + ρ f C p, f u ⋅ ∇T f + ∇ ⋅ q f = Q pe, f + ε p Q f (4-45)
∂t

q f = – ε p k f ∇T f

In these expressions:

• εp is the packed bed porosity (dimensionless)

• ρf is the fluid density (SI unit: kg/m3)
• Cp, f is the fluid heat capacity at constant pressure (SI unit: J/(kg·K))
• qf is the fluid conductive heat flux (SI unit: W/m2)
• kf is the fluid thermal conductivity (SI unit: W/(m·K))
• Qpe,f is the pellet-fluid heat exchange term (SI unit: W/(m3·K))
• Qf is any fluid heat source (SI unit: W/m3)
• u is the fluid velocity vector (SI unit: m/s). It should be interpreted as the Darcy
velocity, that is, the volume flow rate per unit cross sectional area. The average linear
velocity (the velocity within the pores) can be calculated as uf = u/εp, where εp is the
fluid’s volume fraction, or equivalently the porosity.

Microscopic Heat Transfer in the Pellets

In the pellets, the heat balance equation at normalized radius r is

∂T pe ∂ ∂T pe
( ρC p ) pe, eff ------------ + ------------------2 -----  – r k pe, eff ------------- = Q pe
1 2
(4-46)
∂t ∂ r  ∂r 
( rr pe )

where

• (ρCp)pe,eff is the effective volumetric heat capacity at constant pressure inside the
pellet filled with fluid (SI unit: J/(kg·K)), defined by

198 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

 ( ρC p ) pe, eff = ( 1 – ε pe )ρ pe C p, pe + ε pe ρ f C p, f

• ρpe is the density of the porous matrix within the pellet (SI unit: kg/m3)
• Cp,pe is the volumetric heat capacity at constant pressure of the porous matrix within
the pellet (SI unit: J/(kg·K))
• εpe is the porosity within the pellet (dimensionless)
• Tpe is the temperature along the radial coordinate of the pellet (SI unit: K)
• rpe is outer radius of the pellet (SI unit: m)
• kpe,eff is the effective thermal conductivity of the pellet filled with fluid (SI unit:
W/(m·K)), defined by
k pe, eff = ( 1 – ε pe )k pe + ε pe k f

• kpe is the thermal conductivity of the porous matrix within the pellet (SI unit:
W/(m·K))
• Qpe is any heat source applied to the pellet (SI unit: W/m3)

Coupling Condition at Pellet-Fluid Interface

As in the local thermal nonequilibrium model, the interstitial heat exchange between
the fluid and the outer surface of the pellets is accounted for.

The heat flux at the outer surface of the pellet, applied in the microscale pellet
equation, is

q pe r=1 = h pe, f ( T f – T pe r=1

)

with hpe,f the interstitial heat transfer coefficient (SI unit: W/(m2·K)), defined as in
the standard local thermal nonequilibrium model.

The corresponding heat exchange term applied in the macroscale heat transfer
equation of the fluid is:

Q pe, f = – S b q pe r=1

with Sb the specific surface area of the pellets. For a packed bed of spherical pellets, it
is defined as

6 ( 1 – εp )
S b = -----------------------
d pe

with dpe the diameter of the pellet (SI unit: m).

THEORY FOR HEAT TRANSFER IN POROUS MEDIA | 199

 When the pellets are not spherical, a correction factor is applied to the radius, to extend
this formula.

When continuity of temperatures at the fluid-pellet interface can be assumed, i.e. when

T pe r=1 = Tf

then the interstitial heat flux can be rewritten as

∂T pe
= – --------  k pe, eff -------------
1
q pe r=1 r pe  ∂r  r = 1

Average Temperature in the Packed Bed

The porous temperature, T, has the following definition (Ref. 35):

Vpe ( ρCp )pe, eff Tpe dV

( 1 – ε p ) ------------------------------------------------------------ + ε p ρ f C p, f T f
V pe
T = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Vpe ( ρC p ) pe, eff dV
( 1 – ε p ) -------------------------------------------------- + ε p ρ f C p, f
V pe

Theory for Heat Transfer in Moist Porous Media

A moist porous medium is filled with moist air and liquid water. By making the local
thermal equilibrium hypothesis for all phases (solid matrix, moist air and liquid water),
The Heat Transfer in Moist Porous Media Interface solves for the following heat
equation, obtained from Equation 4-41 by accounting for the liquid water phase in the
definition of the effective material properties and in the convective heat flux:

∂T
( ρC p ) eff ------- + ( ρ g C p, g u g + ρ l C p, l u l ) ⋅ ∇T + ∇ ⋅ q = Q + Q evap (4-47)
∂t

q = – k eff ∇T (4-48)

The different quantities appearing here are:

• ρg and ρl (SI unit: kg/m3) the moist air and liquid water densities.
• Cp,g and Cp,l (SI unit: J/(kg·K)) the moist air and liquid water heat capacities at
constant pressure.

200 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

• (ρCp)eff (SI unit: J/(m3·K)) the effective volumetric heat capacity at constant
pressure defined by an averaging model to account for the solid matrix, the moist
air, and the liquid water properties:
( ρC p ) eff = θ s ρ s C p, s + ε p [ ( 1 – s l )ρ g C p, g + s l ρ l C p, l ]

• where sl is the liquid water saturation.

• q the conductive heat flux (SI unit: W/m2).
• ug (SI unit: m/s) the moist air velocity field, that should be interpreted as the Darcy
velocity, that is, the volume flow rate per unit cross sectional area.
• ul (SI unit: m/s) the liquid water velocity field, that should be interpreted as the
Darcy velocity, that is, the volume flow rate per unit cross sectional area.
• keff (SI unit: W/(m·K)) the effective thermal conductivity (a scalar or a tensor if the
thermal conductivity is anisotropic), defined by an averaging model to account for
solid matrix, the moist air, and the liquid water properties. See Moist Porous
Medium for details about the available averaging models.
• Q (SI unit: W/m3), defined as the sum of the diffusive flux of enthalpy and of the
liquid capillary flux:
Q = – [ ( C p, v – C p, a )g w + C p, l g lc ]

See Theory for Moisture Transport in Porous Media for the definition of gw and glc.
• Qevap (SI unit: W/m3) the heat source (or sink) due to water phase change, defined
as:

Q evap = L v G evap

See Theory for Moisture Transport in Porous Media for the definition of Gevap.

THEORY FOR HEAT TRANSFER IN POROUS MEDIA | 201

 Theory for Heat Transfer with Phase
Change
Heat Transfer with Phase Change
Heat transfer and phase change are inter-related processes:

• Matter exists in a certain phase, liquid, solid or gas, at equilibrium under a given
condition of pressure and temperature. The phase transition occurs when the
temperature and pressure of the system come across a critical condition at which the
material changes phase. The critical value of temperature at which the transition
occurs for a given reference pressure can be computed through statistical physics or
tabulated from experiments. In the following, we assume that the phase change is
driven by the temperature, neglecting all other factors that may affect phase change,
as equilibrium time, or purity of the material.
• At the macroscopic and mesoscopic level, phase change costs or releases a certain
amount of energy which is called latent heat of phase transition, which is an input
of the model. Because there is a balance between sensible and latent heat, phase
change induces temperature variations.

The dedicated features for phase change simulation that are available in the Heat
Transfer module handle models were it is assumed that the different phases are non
miscible so that each phase is located in a distinct domain. The simulation predicts the
position of the phase change interface and the associated thermal effects. The
following sections present the two numerical methods available to do the modeling:

• Arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian Method

• Apparent Heat Capacity Method

Arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian Method

When the phase change interface is tracked using the arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian
(ALE) method, the phase change interface velocity is defined explicitly by the Stefan
condition, which expresses the energy balance at the interface.

It applies to the case of phase change between a solid (or immobile fluid) and a fluid
phase, with a sharp transition between the phases, and no topology changes.

202 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

The Phase Change Interface boundary condition is applicable on the boundaries
located at the interface between a solid and a fluid domain, two solid domains, two
fluid domains or two porous medium domains.

The Phase Change Interface, Exterior boundary condition is applicable on the exterior
boundaries adjacent to a solid, fluid, or porous medium domain.

The latent heat of phase change is taken into account through the definition of the
phase change velocity.

The Stefan condition defines the phase change interface velocity vn as follows:

q ⋅ n mesh
v n = -------------------------
ρs Ls → f

with L s → f the latent heat of phase change from solid to fluid (SI unit: J/kg), ρs the
solid density (SI unit: kg/m3), and q the conductive heat flux jump across the interface
(SI unit: W/m2), defined as

q = – k s ∇T s + k f ∇T f

with ks the solid thermal conductivity (SI unit: W/(m·K)), kf the fluid thermal
conductivity (SI unit: W/(m·K)), and Ts, Tf the temperatures on each side of the
interface.

When the density changes during the phase change, the volume change is
compensated by a velocity at the interface in the fluid phase. The normal fluid velocity
is expressed as:

ρf – ρs
v f = ---------------- v n
ρf

The phase change velocity vn appearing in Stefan condition is relative to the solid
position. In case of translation of the solid (using Translational Motion subfeature
under Solid feature for instance), as in a continuous casting process, the solid
translation velocity us contributes to vn to describe the interface velocity relative to the
spatial frame dx/dt:

dx-
------ ⋅ n = vn + us ⋅ n
dt

Similarly, the same term is added to the normal fluid velocity definition relative to the
spatial frame:

THEORY FOR HEAT TRANSFER WITH PHASE CHANGE | 203

 ρf – ρs
v f = ---------------- v n + u s ⋅ n
ρf

Apparent Heat Capacity Method

The apparent heat capacity formulation provides an implicit capturing of the phase
change interface, by solving for both phases a single heat transfer equation with
effective material properties. The latent heat of phase change is taken into account by
modifying the heat capacity.

It applies well to materials showing a mushy zone around the phase change interface.
And it allows topology changes of the phase change interface.

The Phase Change Material domain condition should be used on both phases
domains, to solve the heat equation after specifying the properties of the phase change
material according to the apparent heat capacity formulation.

Instead of adding a latent heat L in the energy balance equation exactly when the
material reaches its phase change temperature Tpc, it is assumed that the
transformation occurs in a temperature interval between Tpc − ΔT ⁄ 2 and Tpc + ΔT ⁄ 2.
In this interval, the material phase is modeled by a smoothed function, θ, representing
the fraction of phase before transition, which is equal to 1 before Tpc − ΔT ⁄ 2 and to
0 after Tpc + ΔT ⁄ 2. The density, ρ, and the specific enthalpy, H, are expressed by:

ρ = θρ 1 + ( 1 – θ )ρ 2

1
H = --- ( θρ 1 H 1 + ( 1 – θ )ρ 2 H 2 )
ρ

where the indices 1 and 2 indicate a material in phase 1 or in phase 2, respectively.

Differentiating with respect to temperature, this equality provides the following
formula for the specific heat capacity:

∂H
Cp =
∂T

which becomes, after some formal transformations:

1 dα m
C p = --- ( θ 1 ρ 1 C p, 1 + θ 2 ρ 2 C p, 2 ) + ( H 2 – H 1 ) -----------
ρ dT

204 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

Here, θ1 and θ2 are equal to θ and 1−θ, respectively. See Figure 4-2 for details.

Figure 4-2: Phase indicators, phase change temperature, and transition interval.

The mass fraction, αm, is defined from ρ1, ρ2 and θ according to:

1 θ2 ρ2 – θ1 ρ1
α m = --- ------------------------------
2 ρ

It is equal to −1 ⁄ 2 before transformation and 1 ⁄ 2 after transformation. The specific

heat capacity is the sum of an equivalent heat capacity Ceq:

1
C eq = --- ( θ 1 ρ 1 C p, 1 + θ 2 ρ 2 C p, 2 )
ρ

and the distribution of latent heat CL:

dα m
C L ( T ) = ( H 2 – H 1 ) -----------
dT

In the ideal case, when 1 − θ is the Heaviside function (equal to 0 before

Tpc and to 1 after Tpc), dαm ⁄ dT is the Dirac pulse.

Therefore, CL is the enthalpy jump, L, at temperature Tpc that is added

when you have a pure substance.

The latent heat distribution CL is approximated by

dα m
C L ( T ) = L -----------
dT

THEORY FOR HEAT TRANSFER WITH PHASE CHANGE | 205

 so that the total heat per unit volume released during the phase transformation
coincides with the latent heat:

ΔT ΔT
T pc + -------- T pc + -------- dα
 
2 2 m
C ( T ) dT = L ----------- dT = L
ΔT L ΔT
T pc – -------- T pc – -------- dT
2 2

The latent heat, L, can depend on the absolute pressure but should not
depend on the temperature.

Finally, the apparent heat capacity, Cp, used in the heat equation, is given by:

1
C p = --- ( θ 1 ρ 1 C p, 1 + θ 2 ρ 2 C p, 2 ) + C L
ρ

and the ratio of specific heats, γ, is:

Cp θ 1 ρ 1 C p, 1 + θ 2 ρ 2 C p, 2
γ = ------- = --------------------------------------------------------
Cv C p, 1 C p, 2
θ 1 ρ 1 ------------ + θ 2 ρ 2 ------------
γ1 γ2

The effective thermal conductivity reduces to:

k = θ1 k1 + θ2 k2

and the effective density is:

ρ = θ1 ρ1 + θ2 ρ2

To satisfy energy and mass conservation in phase change models, particular attention
should be paid to the density in time simulations. When the fluid density is not
constant over time, for example, dependent on the temperature, the transport velocity
field and the density must be defined so that mass is conserved locally.

The Moving Mesh Interface (described in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual) can be used to account for model deformation.

206 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

PHASE CHANGE IN SOLID MATERIALS
When phase change is considered in solid materials, the density is defined on the
material frame. Therefore a single density should be defined for the different phases to
ensure mass conservation on the material frame:

ρ = ρ1 = ρ2

The expression of the specific enthalpy, H, simplifies to:

H = θH 1 + ( 1 – θ )H 2

The apparent heat capacity, Cp, used in the heat equation, is given by:

dα m
C p = ( θ 1 C p, 1 + θ 2 C p, 2 ) + L -----------
dT

where the mass fraction is:

θ2 – θ1
α m = -----------------
2

THEORY FOR HEAT TRANSFER WITH PHASE CHANGE | 207

 Theory for Heat Transfer in Building
Materials
The Heat Transfer in Building Materials Interface solves for the following equations
derived from Ref. 16:

∂T
( ρC p ) eff ------- + ∇ ⋅ q = Q (4-49)
∂t

q = – ( k eff ∇T + L v δ p ∇( φ w p sat ) ) (4-50)

which is derived from Equation 4-15, considering the building material as a porous
medium in local thermal equilibrium in which the following mixing rules apply:

• (ρCp)eff (SI unit: J/(m3·K)) is the effective volumetric heat capacity at constant
pressure, defined to account for both solid matrix and moisture properties:
( ρC p ) eff = ρ s C p, s + w ( φ w )C p, w

where ρs (SI unit: kg/m3) is the dry solid density, Cp,s (SI unit: J/(kg·K)) is the dry
solid specific heat capacity, w ( φ w ) (SI unit: kg/m3) is the water content given by a
moisture storage function, and Cp,w (SI unit: J/(kg·K)) is the water heat capacity at
constant pressure.
• keff (SI unit: W/(m·K)) is the effective thermal conductivity, defined as a function
of the solid matrix and moisture properties:

bw ( φ w )
k eff = k s  1 + --------------------
 ρs 

where ks (SI unit: W/(m·K)) is the dry solid thermal conductivity and b
(dimensionless) is the thermal conductivity supplement.
This definition neglects the contribution due to the volume fraction change of the
moist air.

The heat source due to moisture content variation is expressed as the vapor diffusion
flow multiplied by latent heat of evaporation:

L v δ p ∇( φ w p sat )

208 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

where Lv (SI unit: J/kg) is the latent heat of evaporation, δp (SI unit: s) is the vapor
permeability, φ w (dimensionless) is the relative humidity, and psat (SI unit: Pa) is the
vapor saturation pressure.

THEORY FOR HEAT TRANSFER IN BUILDING MATERIALS | 209

 Theory for Harmonic Heat Transfer
When submitted to periodic sinusoidal heat loads at a given frequency, the temperature
response of a body can, in some cases, be assumed periodic, sinusoidal, and of same
frequency around an equilibrium temperature. If the temperature changes are small
enough or if the thermal properties are constant, this time-dependent periodic
problem may be replaced by an equivalent linear steady-state problem in the frequency
domain, which is far less computationally expensive. The Heat Transfer interfaces
support such frequency domain studies via the Thermal Perturbation, Frequency Domain
study sequence.

In complex notations, the aforementioned temperature decomposition is expressed as:

jωt
T ( t ) = T 0 + T'e (4-51)

where T0 is the equilibrium temperature that verifies the steady-state heat transfer
equation and may come from the solution of a previous study, T′ is the complex
amplitude of the harmonic perturbation around T0, and ω is the angular frequency,
related to the ordinary frequency, f, according to

ω = 2πf

Note: The amplitude, T′, is complex-valued since it includes the phase term ejϕ.

From the temperature decomposition in Equation 4-51, and according to the heat
transfer equation in Equation 4-16, heat transfer by conduction in solids is then
governed by:

jωt jωt jωt

jωρC p T'e + ∇ ⋅ ( – k∇T 0 ) + ∇ ⋅ ( – k∇T' )e = Q + Q'e

where Q′ejωt is the harmonic perturbation in domain around an average heat source,
Q. Removing the terms of the steady-state heat transfer equation satisfied by T0, and
simplifying by ejωt, this reduces to:

jωρC p T' + ∇ ⋅ ( – k∇T' ) = Q'

210 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

which is the governing equation for T′. For constant material properties, the linearized
form reads:

jωρ 0 C p, 0 T' + ∇ ⋅ ( – k 0 ∇T' ) = Q' (4-52)

and for nonlinear material properties:

∂k 
jωρ 0 C p, 0 T' + ∇ ⋅  – k 0 ∇T' – T'  ∇T  = Q' (4-53)
∂ T T 0 0

Here, ρ0, Cp, 0, and k0 denote the density, heat capacity at constant pressure, and
thermal conductivity, evaluated at T0, that is: ρ(T0), Cp(T0), and k(T0), respectively.

When the linearized heat transfer equation, such as Equation 4-52 or Equation 4-53,
can still describe the model accurately, the problem becomes steady-state in the
frequency domain, therefore computationally less expensive than a time-dependent
simulation. An automatic linearization process is performed by COMSOL
Multiphysics so that no additional action is needed from the user to get these
equations, even in the presence of temperature-dependent coefficients, in domains and
boundaries. Only the expressions of the material properties and other parameters, as
functions of the temperature, are required as for usual nonlinear modeling.

Harmonic loads can be prescribed through temperature harmonic constraints on

boundaries or heat sources on domains and boundaries.

THEORY FOR HARMONIC HEAT TRANSFER | 211

 Theory for Lumped Isothermal
Domain
The Isothermal Domain feature considers the temperature to be homogeneous in
space but not necessarily in time. This is an approximation adapted to situations where
a domain is nearly at the average temperature and with small fluctuations, for instance,
solid objects made of conductive material immersed in water, or global temperature of
a heated and well insulated room adjacent to a cold environment.

Recalling Equation 4-18 given previously in the Theory for Heat Transfer in Fluids
section, without pressure-volume work and viscous dissipation, the equation to be
solved reduces to:

dT
ρC p +∇⋅q = Q
dt

Integrating this equation over the domain leads to:

dT
mC p
dt
+ S ( n ⋅ q ) ds = V Q dv (4-54)

where the domain mass and the heat capacity at constant pressure are

1
m = V ρ dv C p = -----
m V ρCp dv

212 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

The exterior boundaries of each Isothermal Domain need the heat exchange to be
specified.

Isothermal domain 3

Isothermal domain 2

Isothermal domain 1

Isothermal domain interfaces

Figure 4-3: Interfaces at exterior boundaries of each Isothermal Domain.

COMSOL Multiphysics provides several types of interfaces: thermal insulation,

continuity, ventilation, convective heat flux, and thermal contact.

THERMAL INSULATION
The Thermal insulation condition prevents any heat transfer between both adjacent
domains.

CONTINUITY
The Continuity condition ensures equal temperature at both sides of the interface.

VENTILATION
The Ventilation condition is used for cases when an isothermal domain is considered
fluid and has an adjacent domain containing the same fluid. An opening lets the fluid
going from one domain to another with a determined mass flux, denoted by ϕ d → u
or ϕ u → d , respectively, along or opposite to the geometrical normal vector. The
Ventilation condition is written

THEORY FOR LUMPED ISOTHERMAL DOMAIN | 213

 –nd ⋅ qd = ϕd → u Hd – ϕu → d Hu (4-55)

CONVECTIVE HEAT FLUX

The Convective heat flux condition is adapted to cases when an isothermal domain is
considered solid and is adjacent to a fluid. Convection occurs at the interface with a
specified heat transfer coefficient, h. The interface condition reads

–nd ⋅ qd = –h ( Tu – Td ) (4-56)

THERMAL CONTACT
When an isothermal domain is considered solid and is adjacent to another solid,
thermal contact occurs and is characterized by a given thermal resistance, Rt. At the
interface, the condition Thermal contact reads

Tu – Td
– n d ⋅ q d = – -------------------- (4-57)
R t, s

214 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin
Structures
In COMSOL Multiphysics, thin domains of solid, fluid or porous layered materials
have dedicated tools to model them with boundaries instead of full domains. This way,
simulations directly benefit from a reduced number of mesh elements. This section
presents the hypotheses needed for such approximations and the resulting heat transfer
equations that hold.

In this section:

• Modeling Layered Materials

• Theoretical Background of the Different Formulations
• Thin Layer
• Thin Film
• Fracture
• Thin Rod

Modeling Layered Materials

The Heat Transfer interfaces contain several lumped conditions for modeling heat
transfer in layered materials: Thin Layer, Thin Film, Fracture, and Thin Rod.

In addition, standalone physics interfaces are available for the modeling of heat transfer
by conduction, convection and radiation in thin structures:

• The Heat Transfer in Shells Interface

• The Heat Transfer in Films Interface
• The Heat Transfer in Fractures Interface

Either the Solid, Fluid, or Porous Medium feature is available by default in each of these
interfaces.

THEORY FOR HEAT TRANSFER IN THIN STRUCTURES | 215

 The features mentioned above are the counterparts of domain features for the
modeling of heat transfer in solid, fluid, and porous thin structures that can be
represented as boundaries or edges, as described in Table 4-2.
TABLE 4-2: EQUIVALENT DOMAIN AND THIN STRUCTURES FEATURES

TYPE OF MEDIUM DOMAIN FEATURE BOUNDARY FEATURE EDGE FEATURE

Solid Solid Thin Layer (ht) Thin Rod (ht)

Solid (htlsh)
Fluid Fluid Thin Film (ht) —
Fluid (htlsh)
Porous Porous Medium Fracture (ht) —
Porous Medium
(htlsh)

All these functionalities have in common the fact that the thin domains they model are
lumped into boundaries (for Thin Layer, Thin Film and Fracture) or 3D edges (for
Thin Rod).

REDUCED MESH ELEMENT NUMBER

A significant benefit is that a thin structure can be represented as a boundary instead
of a domain and a rod can be represented as a 3D edge. This simplifies the geometry
and reduces the required number of mesh elements. Figure 4-4 shows an example
where a thin structure significantly reduces the mesh density.

Copper wire modeled

with a mesh

Copper wire represented

as a thin structure

Figure 4-4: Modeling a copper wire as a domain (top) requires a denser mesh compared to
modeling it as a boundary with a conductive layer (bottom).

216 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

THIN STRUCTURE AS AN EXTRA DIMENSION
To model heat transfer through the thickness of a thin structure, or multiple
sandwiched layers with different material properties and thicknesses, COMSOL
Multiphysics gives the possibility to create a product space between the dimensions of
the boundary and an additional dimension. This is realized by the Extra Dimension
tool through either the General option of the Thin Layer (Heat Transfer Interface) and
Solid (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface), Thin Film (Heat Transfer Interface) and
Fluid (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface), or Fracture (Heat Transfer Interface) and
Porous Medium (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface) features.

Adding Extra Dimensions to a Model and Using Extra Dimensions in the

COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Plotting and Evaluating Results in Layered Materials

An additional 1D segmented line represents the thickness of the thin structure. The
number of mesh points for each interval of the extra dimension is set to 2 by default.

TANGENTIAL AND NORMAL GRADIENTS

In thin structures, the tangential gradient and the normal gradient can be more
appropriate to express the governing equations.

The normal gradient is the projection of the gradient operator onto the normal
vector, n, of the boundary representing the thin structure. This is mathematically
expressed for any scalar field T as:

∇ n T = ( ∇T ⋅ n )n

The tangential gradient removes the normal component from the gradient
operation, so that only tangential components remain. This is mathematically
expressed for any scalar field T as:

∇ t T = ∇T – ( ∇T ⋅ n )n

The gradient operator is then split into a tangential part and a normal part:

∇T = ∇ t T + ∇ n T (4-58)

This relation simplifies to:

∇T = ∇ t T or ∇T = ∇ n T

THEORY FOR HEAT TRANSFER IN THIN STRUCTURES | 217

 when tangential heat transfer is dominant or negligible. These results will be useful in
the next sections describing heat transfer in the different thin structures.

Equation 4-58 is valid for flat layered shells. For the curved ones, the gradient
expression should account for the surface area and the scaling of each layer. The
gradient in the product geometry of a curved layered shell with variable thickness can
be written as:

∂X –1 T
∇T =  --------- ⋅ ( ∇t T + ∇n T )
 ∂X r

with

∂X-
= I +  z + --- ( – 1 + z off ) ∇tn
d
--------
∂X r  2 

where

• Xr are the reference surface coordinates

• z is the extra-dimension thickness coordinate (varying between 0 and d)
• zoff is the relative midplane offset
• d is the layered material thickness

It should be noted that when an extra dimension is used, the equations

are written from the point of view of the extra dimension. In particular,
the dtang() operator would correspond to ∇n since it performs the
derivation along the extra line. In the thin structure boundary, dtang()
would correspond to ∇t.

In some applications, it is required to model variable thickness layers. This is achieved

by scaling the constant thickness of the layer, d, using a thickness factor, lsc, which can
be a function of the surface coordinates. The deformation gradient in a scaled product
geometry of a curved layered shell can be written as

∂X – 1 T ∇n T
∇T =  --------- ⋅  ∇ t T + ------------
∂X r lsc

∂X-
= I +  z + --- ( – 1 + z off ) ∇t( lscn )
d
--------
∂X r  2 

218 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

AREA SCALE FACTOR
For a curved layered shell, the change in surface area of each layer should be accounted
for while integrating the governing equations. The area scale factor for each layer of
the layered material can be defined as

∂X
ASF = --------
-
∂X r

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY TENSOR IN LOCAL BOUNDARY SYSTEMS

The thermal conductivity k describes the relationship between the heat flux vector q
and the temperature gradient ∇T as in

q = – k ∇T

which is Fourier’s law of heat conduction (see also The Physical Mechanisms
Underlying Heat Transfer).

The tensor components can be specified in the local coordinate system of the
boundary, which is defined from the geometric tangent and normal vectors. The local
x direction, ex, loc, is the surface tangent vector t1, and the local z direction, ez, loc, is
the normal vector n. Their cross product defines the third orthogonal direction such
that:

x, loc
e = t1
y, loc
e = n × t1
z, loc
e = n

From this, a transformation matrix between the local coordinate system and the global
coordinate system can be constructed in the following way:

x, loc y, loc z, loc

ex ex ex
A = e x, loc e y, loc e z, loc
y y y
x, loc y, loc z, loc
ez ez ez

The thermal conductivity tensor in the local coordinate system, kbnd, is then expressed
as

k bnd = AkA T

THEORY FOR HEAT TRANSFER IN THIN STRUCTURES | 219

 Theoretical Background of the Different Formulations
Three formulations are available for the modeling of heat transfer in thin structures
defined as boundaries:

• The general formulation, using the Extra Dimension tool to solve the equations
into the boundaries and through the thin structure’s thickness
• The thermally thin approximation, a lumped formulation assuming that heat
transfer mainly follows the tangential direction of the thin structure
• The thermally thick approximation, a lumped formulation assuming that heat
transfer is dominant in the direction normal to the thin structure

They all derive from the energy equation established in Equation 4-15, and recalled
here below:

∂E
ρ + ρu ⋅ ∇E + ∇ ⋅ ( q + q r ) = – ( σ:D ) + Q
∂t

where E is the variable for the internal energy.

GENERAL FORMULATION
The general formulation uses the Extra Dimension tool to solve the equations through
the thin structure’s thickness. The thin structure has its domain represented by the
product space between the lumped boundary and the additional dimension for the
thickness. Applying the split of the gradient operator given earlier at Equation 4-58,
the energy equation becomes

∂E s
ρ + ρu ⋅ ( ∇ t E s + ∇ n E s ) + ∇ ⋅ ( q + q r ) = – ( σ:D ) + Q (4-59)
∂t

The ∇t operator is the tangential derivative in the thin structure boundary, and the ∇n
operator is the derivation operator along the extra dimension which is normal to the
thin structure (see Tangential and Normal Gradients). The subscript s appended on E
(and T in the following) is here to recall that this variable lives in the product space of
the thin structure.

Equation 4-59 comes along with Fourier’s law of conduction:

q = –k ( ∇t Ts + ∇n Ts ) (4-60)

and constraints on the temperature at the extremities of the extra dimension:

220 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

 Td = ( Ts )L = 0 Tu = ( Ts )L = d (4-61)
s

Here, ds is the length of the extra dimension, or equivalently the thickness of the thin
structure, and Tu and Td are the temperature at the upside and the downside of the
thin structure.

THERMALLY THIN APPROXIMATION

This formulation applies to a thin structure where heat transfer mainly follows the
tangential direction. The gradient operator is then simplified to

∇T = ∇ t T

This assumption is often valid for thin structures that are good thermal conductors
compared to the adjacent domains, and/or with fast convection along the tangential
direction.

With these assumptions, Equation 4-15 becomes:

∂E
ds ρ + d s ρu ⋅ ∇ t E + ∇ t ⋅ ( q s + q r ) = – d s ( σ:D ) + d s Q + q 0 (4-62)
∂t

q s = – d s k∇ t T (4-63)

where ds is the layer thickness (SI unit: m). The heat source Q is a density distributed
in the layer while q0 is the received out-of-plane heat flux.

In 2D, Equation 4-62 and Equation 4-63 have an additional factor, dz,
to account for the out-of-plane thickness.

When Equation 4-62 is solved in a boundary adjacent to a domain modeling heat

transfer, the two entities exchange a certain amount of heat flux according to:

q0 = n ⋅ q

In this coupling relation, the outgoing heat flux n ⋅ q leaves the domain and is received
in the source term q0 by the adjacent thin layer modeled as a boundary. From the point
of view of the domain, and neglecting thermoelastic effects, the following heat source
is received from the thin structure:

∂E
–n ⋅ q = ds Qs – ds ρ – ( d s ρu ⋅ ∇ t E ) – ∇ t ⋅ ( q s + q r ) (4-64)
∂t

THEORY FOR HEAT TRANSFER IN THIN STRUCTURES | 221

 Equations for all supported types of medium are presented in the next sections, Thin
Layer, Thin Film, Fracture, and Thin Rod.

THERMALLY THICK APPROXIMATION

This formulation applies to a thin structure where heat transfer mainly follows the
normal direction. The gradient operator is then simplified to

∇T = ∇ n T

This assumption is often valid for thin structures that are thermally resistive compared
to the adjacent domains.

With these assumptions, Equation 4-15 becomes:

∂E
ds ρ + d s ρu ⋅ ∇ n E + ∇ n ⋅ ( q s + q r ) = – d s ( σ:D ) + d s Q + q 0 (4-65)
∂t

q s = – d s k∇ n T (4-66)

where ds is the layer thickness (SI unit: m). The heat source Q is a density distributed
in the layer while q0 is the received out-of-plane heat flux.

In 2D, Equation 4-65 and Equation 4-66 have an additional factor, dz,
to account for the out-of-plane thickness.

When Equation 4-65 is solved in a boundary adjacent to a domain modeling heat

transfer, the two entities exchange a certain amount of heat flux according to:

q0 = n ⋅ q

In this coupling relation, the outgoing heat flux n ⋅ q leaves the domain and is received
in the source term q0 by the adjacent thin layer modeled as a boundary. From the point
of view of the domain, and neglecting thermoelastic effects, the following heat source
is received from the thin structure:

∂E
–n ⋅ q = ds Qs – ds ρ – ( d s ρu ⋅ ∇ n E ) – ∇ n ⋅ ( q s + q r ) (4-67)
∂t

To evaluate the normal gradient operation, ∇n, temperatures Tu and Td are

introduced for the upside and downside of the thin structure boundary. They are
defined from the heat flux across the thin resistive structure. At the middle of the

222 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

thickness, the temperature, T1 ⁄ 2, is approximated by (1 ⁄ 2)(Tu + Td). The term
∇n ⋅ (−dsk∇nT) is then given by:

T d – 2T 1 ⁄ 2 + T u
∇ n ⋅ ( – d s k∇ n T ) ≈ – k s ------------------------------------------
ds

which can be seen as the sum of two contributive sources on the upside and on the
downside of the boundary that compensate:

Tu – Td Td – Tu
– k s -------------------- – k s --------------------
ds ds

Similarly, the time-dependent term can be expressed using Tu and Td by:

∂T ∂T 1 ⁄ 2 1 ∂T u 1 ∂T d
ρC p ------- ≈ ρC p --------------- = --- ρC p ---------- + --- ρC p ----------
∂t ∂t 2 ∂t 2 ∂t

leading to:

ds Q d s ∂T d Tu – Td
– n d ⋅ q d = ----------- – ρC p  ------ ---------- + u d ⋅ n d T d –  – k s -------------------- – ( q r, d ⋅ n d ) (4-68)
2 2 ∂t ds

ds Q d s ∂T u Td – Tu
– n u ⋅ q u = ----------- – ρC p  ------ ---------- + u u ⋅ n u T u –  – k s -------------------- – ( q r, u ⋅ n u ) (4-69)
2  2 ∂t   ds 

Equations for all supported types of medium are presented in the next sections, Thin
Layer, Thin Film, Fracture, and Thin Rod.

UPSIDE, DOWNSIDE, AND EXTERIOR TEMPERATURES

This formulation is provided by the Thermally thick approximation option of the Thin
Layer (Heat Transfer Interface) and Solid (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface) feature.

THEORY FOR HEAT TRANSFER IN THIN STRUCTURES | 223

 Figure 4-5 shows how Thin Layer (Heat Transfer Interface) and Solid (Heat Transfer
in Shells Interface) splits the temperature into Tu and Td on interior boundaries:

Downside domain Upside domain

of the boundary of the boundary

Td Tu
Thin Layer boundary

Figure 4-5: Upside and downside temperatures at a thin layer applied on an interior
boundary. The thin layer is represented by the gray domain.

On exterior boundaries, it introduces a new degree of freedom represented by the

variable TextFace. Depending on whether the heat domain is on the upside or the
downside of the boundary, TextFace, is equal to Tu or Td and the same thing goes for
the dependent variable T. An example is illustrated in the figure below:

Downside domain
of the boundary

T = Td
Tu = TextFace

Thin Layer boundary

Figure 4-6: Upside and downside temperatures at a thin layer applied on an exterior
boundary.

224 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

FORMULATIONS AVAILABLE WITHIN THE FEATURES
Table 4-3 summarizes the formulations available within the thin structure features of
the Heat Transfer (ht) and Heat Transfer in Shells (htlsh) interfaces.
TABLE 4-3: FORMULATIONS AVAILABLE WITH THE THIN STRUCTURES FEATURES

FEATURE GENERAL THERMALLY THIN THERMALLY THICK

APPROXIMATION APPROXIMATION

Thin layer (ht) Yes Yes Yes

Solid (htlsh) Yes Yes No
Thin film (ht) Yes Yes No
Fluid (htlsh) Yes Yes No
Fracture (ht) Yes Yes No
Porous Medium (htlsh) Yes Yes No

Thin Layer
Thin layers of solid materials can be considered as boundaries when their thickness is
significantly smaller than the typical lengths of the adjacent domains.

GENERAL FORMULATION
With this formulation, multiple sandwiched layers with different material properties
and thicknesses can be modeled. An additional 1D segmented line represents the
multiple layers in the thin structure. In this extra dimension, the governing equation
is derived from Equation 4-59 to give:

∂T s
ρ si C p, si --------- + ∇ t ⋅ q si = Q si (4-70)
∂t

q si = – k si ( ∇tT s + ∇nT s ) (4-71)

Td = ( Ts )L = 0

Tu = ( Ts )L = d
s

where Ts is an auxiliary dependent variable defined on the product space. The

remaining quantities are recalled below:

• ρsi is the density of layer i (SI unit: kg/m3)

• Cp, si is the heat capacity of layer i (SI unit: J/(kg·K))
• ksi is the thermal conductivity of layer i (SI unit: W/(m·K))

THEORY FOR HEAT TRANSFER IN THIN STRUCTURES | 225

 • Qsi is the heat source applied to layer i (SI unit: W/m3)
• ds is the shell thickness (SI unit: m)

The constraint T = Ts is specified on each side of the extra dimension to connect T to

Ts.

See Thin Layer (Heat Transfer Interface) and Solid (Heat Transfer in
Shells Interface) with Layer type set as General or more information about
the boundary feature solving Equation 4-70 and Equation 4-71.

THERMALLY THIN APPROXIMATION

The Heat Transfer Module supports heat transfer in thermally thin structures in 3D,
2D, and 2D axisymmetry. The material in the thin structure might be a good thermal
conductor for this approximation to be valid. For example, in a printed circuit with
copper traces, where the traces are often good thermal conductors compared to the
board’s substrate material.

The thermally thin approximation is derived from Equation 4-62 to Equation 4-64.
Inside the thin layer, the heat equation becomes:

∂T
d s ρC p, s + ∇t ⋅ qs = ds Q s + q0 (4-72)
∂t

q s = – d s k ∇t T (4-73)

where ds is the layer thickness (SI unit: m).

The heat source Qs is a density distributed in the layer while q0 is the received
out-of-plane heat flux.

In 2D, Equation 4-72 and Equation 4-73 have an additional factor, dz,
to account for the out-of-plane thickness.

From the point of view of the domain, the following heat source, derived from
Equation 4-64, is received from the layer:

∂T
– n ⋅ q = d s Q s – d s ρC p, s ------- – ∇ t ⋅ q s (4-74)
∂t

226 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

This formulation may be used to model efficiently a shell with multiple sandwiched
layers with different material properties and thicknesses, by approximating the
homogenized material properties as weighted averages of constant properties within
each layer:

• The homogenized density is defined as

 ρ i d s, i
i
ρ = ----------------------
-

d s, i
i
• The homogenized heat capacity is defined as

 C p , i d s, i
i
C p = ----------------------------
-

d s, i
i
• The homogenized thermal conductivity is defined as

 ( roti ⋅ A )
T
⋅ k i ⋅ ( rot i ⋅ A )d s, i
i
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
k =
 d s, i
i
with roti the rotation tensor of layer i:

cos ( θ ) sin ( θ ) 0
rot i = – sin ( θ ) – cos ( θ ) 0
0 0 1

and A the transformation matrix between the local and global coordinates systems:

THEORY FOR HEAT TRANSFER IN THIN STRUCTURES | 227

 t 1, x t 2, x n x
A = t 1, y t 2, y n y
t 1, z t 2, z n z

See Thin Layer (Heat Transfer Interface) and Solid (Heat Transfer in
Shells Interface) with Layer type set as Thermally thin approximation for
more information about the boundary feature solving Equation 4-74. See
The Heat Transfer in Shells Interface for more information about the
physics interface solving Equation 4-72.

• Heat Transfer in a Surface-Mount Package for a Silicon Chip:

Application Library path
Heat_Transfer_Module/Power_Electronics_and_Electronic_Cooling/surface
_mount_package
• Silica Glass Block Coated with a Copper Layer: Application Library
path Heat_Transfer_Module/Tutorials,_Thin_Structure/copper_layer

THERMALLY THICK APPROXIMATION

When a thin layer is formed of one or more thermally resistive materials, it can be
defined through its thermal resistance:

ds
R s = ------
ks

The heat flux across the thermally thick structure is derived from Equation 4-67 and
gives

1 ∂T d Tu – Td 1
– n d ⋅ q d = – --- d s ρ s C p, s ---------- – k s -------------------- + --- d s Q s (4-75)
2 ∂t ds 2

1 ∂T u Td – Tu 1
– n u ⋅ q u = – --- d s ρ s C p, s ---------- – k s -------------------- + --- d s Q s (4-76)
2 ∂t ds 2

where the u and d subscripts refer to the upside and downside of the layer, respectively.

228 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

When the material has a multilayer structure, ks and ds in the expressions above are
replaced by dtot and ktot, which are defined according to Equation 4-77 and
Equation 4-78:

 dsj
d tot = (4-77)

j=1

d tot
k tot = -----------------
n
- (4-78)
d sj
 -------
k sj
j 1
where n is the number of layers.

See Thin Layer (Heat Transfer Interface) and Solid (Heat Transfer in
Shells Interface) with Layer type set as Thermally thick approximation for
more information about the boundary feature solving Equation 4-75 and
Equation 4-76.

Thin Film
Thin films of fluid can be considered as boundaries of thickness significantly smaller
than the typical lengths of the overall model.

GENERAL FORMULATION
With this formulation, heat transfer is modeled in the whole film, including its
thickness. An additional 1D segmented line represents the thickness in the thin film.
In this extra dimension, the governing equation is derived from Equation 4-59 to give:

∂T s
ρC p --------- + ρC p u ⋅ ( ∇tT s + ∇nT s ) + ∇ t ⋅ q f = Q f (4-79)
∂t

q f = – k ( ∇t T s + ∇n T s ) (4-80)

Td = ( Ts )L = 0

Tu = ( Ts )L = d
f

THEORY FOR HEAT TRANSFER IN THIN STRUCTURES | 229

 where Ts is an auxiliary dependent variable defined on the product space. The
remaining quantities are recalled below:

• ρ is the density (SI unit: kg/m3)

• Cp is the heat capacity (SI unit: J/(kg·K))
• k is the thermal conductivity (SI unit: W/(m·K))
• Qf is the heat source applied to the film (SI unit: W/m3)
• df is the film thickness (SI unit: m)

The constraint T = Ts is specified on each side of the extra dimension to connect T to

Ts.

See Thin Film (Heat Transfer Interface) and Fluid (Heat Transfer in
Shells Interface) with Thin film model set as General for more information
about the boundary feature solving Equation 4-79 and Equation 4-80.

THERMALLY THIN APPROXIMATION

The thermally thin approximation is derived from Equation 4-62 to Equation 4-64.
Inside the thin layer, the heat equation becomes:

∂T
d f ρC p  ------- + u ⋅ ∇ t T + ∇ t ⋅ q f = d f Q f + q 0 (4-81)
∂t

q f = – d f k∇ t T (4-82)

where df is the film thickness (SI unit: m). The heat source Qf is a density distributed
in the layer while q0 is the received out-of-plane heat flux.

In 2D, Equation 4-72 and Equation 4-73 have an additional factor, dz,
to account for the out-of-plane thickness.

From the point of view of the domain, the following heat source, derived from
Equation 4-64, is received from the layer:

230 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

 ∂T
– n ⋅ q = d f Q f – d f ρC p ------- – d f ρC p u ⋅ ∇ t T – ∇ t ⋅ q f (4-83)
∂t

See Thin Film (Heat Transfer Interface) and Fluid (Heat Transfer in
Shells Interface) with Thin film model set as Thermally thin approximation
for more information about the boundary feature solving Equation 4-81.
See The Heat Transfer in Films Interface for more information about the
physics interface solving Equation 4-83.

Fracture
When fractures occur in porous media, fluid flow tends to move faster than in the bulk
medium. The transport of heat occurs faster in the fractures that in the surrounding
medium, so in this sense, heat transfer in fractures filled with fluids is more similar to
a highly conductive layer than to a thin thermally resistive layer.

The mass transport in fractures can be modeled as Darcy’s law in a thin sheet of porous
medium:

κ
u = --- ∇ t p
μ

where u is the tangential Darcy’s velocity (SI unit: m/s), κ is the fracture permeability
(SI unit: m2), μ the fluid’s dynamic viscosity (SI unit: Pa⋅s), and ∇tp the tangential
gradient of the fluid’s pressure.

Typically, Darcy’s Law with tangential derivatives is solved to compute mass transport,
so in addition to the fluid properties, the fracture should define its own permeability
(or hydraulic conductivity in case the fluid is water), porosity, and fracture thickness.

For heat transfer in fractures, the fracture also needs to define the density of the porous
sheet, heat capacity, and thermal conductivity. The effective thermal conductivity of
the fracture must be adjusted to the fracture porosity and thermal conductivity of the
fluid. In rocks and geological formations, the fracture might also contain highly
conductive material, different than the bulk porous matrix.

The equation to solve for computing heat transfer in fractures is derived from
Equation 4-62 to Equation 4-64 and using the procedure detailed in Theory for Heat
Transfer in Porous Media to apply the mixture rule on solid and fluid internal energies.
The resulting equations are:

THEORY FOR HEAT TRANSFER IN THIN STRUCTURES | 231

 ∂T
d fr ( ρC p ) eff + d fr ρC p u ⋅ ∇ t T + ∇ t ⋅ q fr = d fr Q + q 0 (4-84)
∂t

q fr = – d fr k eff ∇ t T (4-85)

Here (ρCp)eff is the effective heat capacity at constant pressure of the fracture-fluid
volume, ρ is the fluid’s density, Cp is the fluid’s heat capacity at constant pressure, qfr
is the conductive heat flux in the fracture-fluid volume, keff is the effective thermal
conductivity of the fluid-fracture mixture, and Q is a possible heat source.

From the point of view of the domain, the following heat source, derived from
Equation 4-64, is received from the fracture:

∂T
– n ⋅ q = d fr Q 0 – d fr ( ρC p ) eff – d fr ρC p u ⋅ ∇ t T – ∇ t ⋅ q fr (4-86)
∂t

See Fracture (Heat Transfer Interface) and Porous Medium (Heat

Transfer in Shells Interface) for more information about the boundary
feature solving Equation 4-86. See The Heat Transfer in Fractures
Interface for more information about the physics interface solving
Equation 4-84.

Thin Rod
The Thin Rod feature is similar to Thin Layer (Heat Transfer Interface) and Solid
(Heat Transfer in Shells Interface) with Layer type set as Thermally thin approximation.
It provides a lumped heat transfer model to model thermally thin rods as edges.

The edge condition reads:

∂T
S ( R ) Q ds = Al Ql – Al ρl Cp, l + ∂ t – ∇t ⋅ ql (4-87)

ql = – Al kl ∇ t T (4-88)

with

2
A l = πr l

232 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

See Thin Rod for node information.

THEORY FOR HEAT TRANSFER IN THIN STRUCTURES | 233

 Theory for the Lumped Thermal
System Interface
The Lumped Thermal System Interface uses a discrete network representation of
thermal systems to model heat transfer by analogy with electrical circuits. The domain
and boundary conditions for heat transfer are idealized by components joined by a
network of perfectly thermally conductive wires.

The analogy with electrical circuits is made by considering the temperature difference
across the network components as the effort variable, and the heat rate through the
network component as the flow variable.

By solving for heat balance within the circuit, the temperatures at the nodes in the
circuit can be determined.

This section presents the underlying theory of the Lumped Thermal System interface,
and the resulting heat transfer equations that hold.

In this section:

• Temperature Differences and Heat Rates in the Lumped Thermal System

• Theory for the Conductive Thermal Resistor Component
• Theory for the Radiative Thermal Resistor Component
• Theory for the Thermal Capacitor and Thermal Mass Components
• Theory for the Heat Pipe Component
• Theory for the Thermoelectric Module Component

Temperature Differences and Heat Rates in the Lumped Thermal

System
The Lumped Thermal System interface uses components to idealize heat transfer in
domains and on boundaries.

For each two-port component, the temperature difference across the component, ΔT,
is expressed as:

ΔT = T p2 – T p1

234 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

Note that the temperature difference is attached to a component, and has therefore the
same value at its two ports p1 and p2. It is available for postprocessing, for example
with the lts.R1_DT variable, when considering a Conductive Thermal Resistor
component with name R1.

The heat rate through a two-port component, P, is expressed in different ways

depending on the represented device. Then, the heat rates at ports p1 and p2, Pp1 and
Pp2, are defined from P. The different cases are summarized in Table 4-4.
TABLE 4-4: EXPRESSIONS OF THE TWO-PORT COMPONENTS HEAT RATES IN THE LUMPED THERMAL SYSTEM
INTERFACE

HEAT RATE THROUGH HEAT RATE AT HEAT RATE AT

THE COMPONENT PORT P1 PORT P2

Name P Pp1 Pp2

Expression in thermal resistors and heat pipe
Conductive Thermal ΔT -P P
Resistor – --------
R
Convective Thermal ΔT -P P
Resistor – ---------------
R conv

Radiative Thermal ΔT -P P
Resistor – ------------
R rad

Heat Pipe ΔT -P P
– --------
R
Expression in the other two-port components
Thermal Capacitor ∂ΔT -P P
– C -----------
∂t
Heat Rate Source Psrc 0 P
Thermoelectric P1,src+P2,src P1,src P2,src
Module

Note that for thermal resistors components, the heat rate at port p1 has the same sign
as the temperature difference ΔT across the component. In practice, when the
temperature at port p2 is higher than the temperature at port p1 (ΔT>0), applying
conductive heat transfer between these two ports is equivalent to apply a heat source
(positive heat rate Pp1) at port p1.

For the heat pipe component, the port p1 should correspond to the evaporator side
(hot side), and the port p2 should correspond to the condenser side (cold side).
Therefore, the temperature difference ΔT across the component should be negative in

THEORY FOR THE LUMPED THERMAL SYSTEM INTERFACE | 235

 normal operating conditions. With this setting, Pp1 is always negative as well, meaning
that cooling is applied on the hot side.

For the heat rate source component, the heat rate is fully applied on port p2.

For the thermoelectric module component, the heat rates P1,src and P2,src can be
expressed in different ways. See Theory for the Thermoelectric Module Component
for more details.

Theory for the Conductive Thermal Resistor Component

This section presents the underlying theory of the Conductive Thermal Resistor
two-port component.

THERMAL RESISTANCE ANALOGY FOR STEADY CONDUCTION

By analogy with Ohm’s law for electric current, the heat rate P (SI unit: W) in a
material due to the temperature difference ΔT (SI unit: K) is

ΔT
P = – -------- (4-89)
R

where R (SI unit: K/W) is the thermal resistance.

The expression of the thermal resistance used in Equation 4-89 depends on the
geometric configuration.

Plane Shell
When considering steady conduction through a plane shell of surface area A (SI unit:
m²), thickness L (SI unit: m), and constant thermal conductivity k (SI unit: W/(m·K)),
the thermal resistance R is:

L
R = -------
kA

Cylindrical Shell
When considering steady conduction through a cylindrical shell of inner radius ri and
outer radius ro (SI unit: m), height H (SI unit: m), and constant thermal conductivity
k (SI unit: W/(m·K)), the thermal resistance R is:

ro
R = ---------------- ln  -----
1
2πkH  r i 

236 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

Spherical Shell
When considering steady conduction through a spherical shell of inner radius ri and
outer radius ro (SI unit: m), and constant thermal conductivity k (SI unit: W/(m·K)),
the thermal resistance R is:

R = ----------  ---- – -----

1 1 1
4πk  r i r o

STEADY CONDUCTION THROUGH A COMPOSITE WALL

When considering several materials, Equation 4-89 can be updated to get a
relationship between the heat transfer rate P and the overall temperature difference
ΔToverall (SI unit: K):

ΔT overall
P = – -------------------------
R tot

where Rtot (SI unit: K/W) is the total thermal resistance.

Thermal Resistances in Series

When considering steady conduction through a composite wall made of n layers of
thermal resistances R1,...,Rn, see Figure 4-7, the total resistance is defined by:
n

R tot =  Ri
i=1

with

THEORY FOR THE LUMPED THERMAL SYSTEM INTERFACE | 237

 Li
R i = ---------
ki A

Figure 4-7: Steady conduction through a composite wall made of n layers

This corresponds to the following serial thermal circuit representation:

where ΔToverall = Tn+1 − T1. Note that by analogy with electrical circuits, the elements
placed in series in the circuit share the heat rate (flow variable).

Thermal Resistances in Parallel

When considering steady conduction through a composite wall made of n slabs of
thermal resistances R1,…,Rn, see Figure 4-8, the total resistance is defined by:
–1
 n 
= 
1- 
R tot
  ---
R i
i = 1 

with

238 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

 L
R i = -----------
ki Ai

Figure 4-8: Steady conduction through a composite wall made of n slabs.

This corresponds to the following parallel thermal circuit representation:

where ΔToverall = T2 − T1. Note that by analogy with electrical circuits, the elements
placed in parallel in the circuit share the temperature difference (effort variable).

CONVECTIVELY ENHANCED CONDUCTIVITY

See Equivalent Thermal Conductivity Correlations for details about the correlations
used to modify the thermal conductivity to account for convective heat flux.

RADIATION IN OPTICALLY THICK PARTICIPATING MEDIUM

See Rosseland Approximation Theory for details about how to modify the thermal
conductivity to account for radiative heat flux when the optical thickness of the
medium is large.

THEORY FOR THE LUMPED THERMAL SYSTEM INTERFACE | 239

 Theory for the Radiative Thermal Resistor Component
Let’s consider a set of opaque diffuse gray surfaces. The net radiative heat rate from
the surface of index i is expressed in function of its radiosity and irradiation:

E bi – J i
P i = --------------------
Ri

where the surface radiative resistance Ri is defined as:

1 – εi
R i = -------------
Ai εi

with Ai the surface area (SI unit: m²) and εi the surface emissivity (dimensionless). See
Theory for Surface-to-Surface Radiation for more details.

This allows a network representation of the radiative heat rate with Ebi and Ji as nodes.
The surface resistance tends toward 0 for a large surface or a surface with large
emissivity, for which the blackbody approximation holds.

When considering the surface of index i as part of an enclosure, the net radiative heat
rate is expressed as:
n n
E bi ( J i – J j )
Pi =  A i F ij ( J i – J j ) =  ------------------------------
R ij
-
j=1 j=1

where the space resistance is

1
R ij = -------------
A i F ij

where Fij is the view factor for surfaces i and j.

TWO-SURFACE ENCLOSURE
In the network representation of the radiative heat transfer in a two-surface enclosure,
the surface resistance and the space resistance are connected in a serial way. Therefore
the total radiative resistance is expressed as follows:

1 – ε1 1 1 – ε2
R 12 = -------------- + ---------------- + --------------
A 1 ε 1 A 1 F 12 A 2 ε 2

And the net radiation exchange is expressed as:

240 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

 4 4
σ ( T1 – T2 )
P 12 = ----------------------------
R 12

For specific configurations, the surface areas can be evaluated from the geometric
dimensions and the view factors are equal to 1. Therefore the expression above
simplifies (see Ref. 21 for details).

Concentric Spheres
The surface areas A1 and A2 verify

A1 r 2
------- =  ----1-
A2  r 2

And the net radiation exchange is

4 4
A1 σ ( T1 – T2 )
P 12 = ----------------------------------------2-
1- 1 – ε2 r1
---- + --------------  -----
ε1 ε2 r2

Large (infinite) Parallel Planes

The surface areas A1 and A2 verify

A1 = A2

And the net radiation exchange is

4 4
A1 σ ( T1 – T2 )
P 12 = ------------------------------------
1- ----
---- 1
+ -–1
ε1 ε2

Long (infinite) Concentric Cylinders

The surface areas A1 and A2 verify

A1 r
------- = ----1-
A2 r2

And the net radiation exchange is

4 4
A1 σ ( T1 – T2 )
P 12 = --------------------------------------
1- 1 – ε2 r1
---- + --------------  -----
ε1 ε2 r2

THEORY FOR THE LUMPED THERMAL SYSTEM INTERFACE | 241

 These expressions are predefined options in the Radiative Thermal Resistor feature.
Further simplifications can be made on the net radiation exchange when the blackbody
assumption holds (ε1=ε2=1).

Theory for the Thermal Capacitor and Thermal Mass Components

This section presents the underlying theory of the Thermal Capacitor two-port
component and the Thermal Mass one-port component.

THERMAL CAPACITANCE
The thermal capacitance C (SI unit: J/K) is a measure of how much heat a body can
store. It is defined as:

C = VρC p = mC p

with V the volume (SI unit: m3), ρ the density (SI unit: kg/m3), Cp the heat capacity
at constant volume (SI unit: J/(kg·K)), and m the mass (SI unit: kg).

LUMPED THERMAL CAPACITANCE MODEL

Under certain conditions, the temperature T of a solid body subjected to convective
heat transfer on its boundaries may be considered as homogeneous, depending only
on time, using the thermal capacitance:

hA
T – T∞ – -------- t
- = e C
-------------------
T0 – T∞

where:

• T0 is the initial body temperature

• T ∞ is the surrounding fluid temperature
• h is the convective heat transfer coefficient (SI unit: W/(m²·K))
• A is the surface of convective heat transfer (SI unit: m²)

This approximation, referred as the lumped thermal capacitance model (see Ref. 41),
holds when h, C, and A are constant and the gradients of temperature within the body
are expected to be smaller than the gradients of temperature between the body and the
surrounding. It happens for example when the thermal contact between the solid and
the fluid is poor, or when the solid is a good thermal conductor.

This is characterized by the Biot number Bi (dimensionless):

242 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

 hL
Bi = --------
k

where L is a relevant length scale of the body, and k is its thermal conductivity.

The lumped thermal capacitance model is usually assumed to be valid when Bi<0.1.

Regarding the network representation of thermal systems, the Biot number may be
used to determine how many nodes should be included, assuming an homogeneous
temperature distribution in the corresponding domains.

Theory for the Heat Pipe Component

Heat pipes are devices which use the latent heat of evaporation and condensation of a
fluid to transfer heat from a source to a sink with high efficiency.

DEVICE DESCRIPTION
Although various geometric configurations are available, a heat pipe includes a vapor
channel delimited by a solid wall, with a porous wick in between, see Figure 4-9 below.

Figure 4-9: Heat pipe components.

The working fluid flows from the hot side to the cold side of the heat pipe under vapor
state in the core channel, and under liquid state on the way back through the porous
wick by capillary action. It evaporates when leaving the wick to the core channel on
the hot side, named evaporator side, and condensates when entering the wick on the
cold side, named condenser side.

The heat is transferred by conduction through the wall, and by conduction and
convection in the wick and in the vapor channel. The latent heat absorbed and released
by the evaporation and condensation of the working fluid makes heat pipes very
effective heat transfer devices, with large effective thermal conductivities.

THEORY FOR THE LUMPED THERMAL SYSTEM INTERFACE | 243

 NETWORK REPRESENTATION
Whereas the full modeling of heat transfer in a heat pipe necessitates the modeling of
several processes (vapor transport in the channel, liquid transport in the porous wick,
and phase change at the interface between the wick and the vapor channel), a network
representation allows to estimate the temperature drop between the evaporator and
the condenser sides by considering a set of relevant thermal resistances.

By making the analogy with electrical circuits, the total thermal resistance R (SI unit:
W/K) is expressed as:

R = R wall, e + R wick, e + R lv, e + R a + R lv, c + R wick, c + R wall, c

where

1
R a = ------------------------------------------------------------------
1 1 1
------------ + -------------------- + -------------------
R v, a R wick, a R wall, a

with

• Rwall,e the thermal resistance of the wall on evaporator side

• Rwick,e the thermal resistance of the wick on evaporator side
• Rlv,e the thermal resistance of the liquid-vapor interface on evaporator side
• Rlv,c the thermal resistance of the liquid-vapor interface on condenser side
• Rwick,c the thermal resistance of the wick on condenser side
• Rwall,c the thermal resistance of the wall on condenser side
• Rv,a the thermal resistance of the vapor channel in adiabatic section
• Rwick,a the thermal resistance of the wick in adiabatic section
• Rwall,a the thermal resistance of the wall in adiabatic section

By making assumptions on the relative magnitude of the thermal resistances, the

expression of R reduces to:

R = R wall, e + R wick, e + R wick, c + R wall, c

And the temperature drop ΔT = Tcondenser − Tevaporator is then expressed as

P
ΔT = – ----
R

where P (SI unit: W) is the operating power of the heat pipe.

244 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

This corresponds to the following network representation:

Figure 4-10: Thermal network representation of a heat pipe.

See Ref. 18 for details about the network representation of heat pipes and the
expressions of effective thermal conductivity of the wick used to express its thermal
resistance.

Theory for the Thermoelectric Module Component

Thermoelectric modules are devices which use thermoelectricity (Peltier effect) to
transfer heat from a source to a sink.

DEVICE DESCRIPTION
They are composed of thermocouples, each consisting of p-type and n-type
semiconductors, connected electrically in series and thermally in parallel and
sandwiched between two high thermally conductive but low electrically conductive
ceramic plates, as described on Figure 4-11 below.

Figure 4-11: Thermoelectric module schematic description.

See Theory for the Thermoelectric Effect Interface for details about the Peltier effect.

THEORY FOR THE LUMPED THERMAL SYSTEM INTERFACE | 245

 HEAT RATE
In heating and cooling operating modes of the thermoelectric module (that is, no heat
generation), the heat rates at the cold and hot junctions of each thermocouple are due
to Peltier effect, Joule heating, thermal conduction, and heat storage:

• Hot junction:
2
Re I ΔT ∂T hot
P hot = – SIT hot + ------------ + -------- – C hot --------------- (4-90)
2 R ∂t

• Cold junction:

2
Re I ΔT ∂T cold
P cold = SIT cold + ------------ – -------- – C cold ----------------- (4-91)
2 R ∂t

where

• S (SI unit: V/K) is the Seebeck coefficient of the thermocouple

• I (SI unit: A) is the electric current operating in the module
• Re (SI unit: Ω) is the electrical resistance of the thermocouple
• ΔT (SI unit: K) is the temperature difference between the two sides of the module
• R (SI unit: K/W) is the thermal resistance of the thermocouple
• Chot and Ccold (SI unit: J/K) are the thermal capacitances on each side of the
module

For a steady-state problem the temperature does not change with time and the heat
storage terms disappear.

The Peltier effect is a cooling effect at the hot junction, and a heating effect at the cold
junction.

In Equation 4-90 and Equation 4-91 the assumption of a symmetric distribution of

Joule heating at the hot and cold junctions has been made.

THERMOCOUPLE ELECTRICAL AND THERMAL RESISTANCES

As the p-type and n-type semiconductors are connected electrically in series, the
electrical resistance Re of each thermocouple is expressed as:

R e = R e, p + R e, n

where Re,p and Re,n (SI unit: Ω) are the electrical resistances of the p-type and n-type
semiconductors.

246 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

And as they are connected thermally in parallel, the thermal resistance R of each
thermocouple is expressed as:

1- 1 1
--- = ---- + ----
R Rp Rn

where Rp and Rn (SI unit: K/W) are the thermal resistances of the p-type and n-type
semiconductors.

THERMOCOUPLE SEEBECK COEFFICIENT

Finally, the Seebeck coefficient S of each thermocouple is expressed as:

S = Sp – Sn

TOTAL HEAT RATE

The total heat rate through the module is obtained by summing the heat rates in each
thermocouples.

NETWORK REPRESENTATION
The following network representation corresponds to Equation 4-90 and
Equation 4-91:

Figure 4-12: Thermal network representation of a thermoelectric module.

See Ref. 18 and Ref. 19 for details about the network representation of thermoelectric
modules.

PERFORMANCE GRAPHS FOR THERMOELECTRIC COOLERS

It is usual to characterize thermoelectric coolers through graphs showing the heat
removed from the cold side of the module, Q, in function of the difference of
temperature ΔT between the hot and cold sides, the input intensity I, and the ambient
temperature.

THEORY FOR THE LUMPED THERMAL SYSTEM INTERFACE | 247

 Linearized Model at Given Intensity and Ambient Temperature
This model establishes a linear relation between the removed heat and the temperature
difference, as shown on the figure below:

Removed
Heat, Q

Qmax

Temperature Difference, ΔT

ΔTmax

Qmax is the maximum amount of heat that the thermoelectric cooler can remove,
when there is no temperature difference between the two sides of the module.

The linear curves from (ΔT=0, Q=Qmax) to (ΔT=ΔTmax, Q=0) define the removed
heat Q as:

ΔT
Q = Q max –  Q max ⋅ ------------------
ΔT max

Note that this relation is valid when the temperature difference satisfies:

0 ≤ ΔT ≤ ΔT max

Then the powers applied at the cold and hot sides are respectively:

• P=-Q (removed heat)

• P=Q + ReI2 (waste heat, including Joule heating)

For cases where the current through the device varies, the performance parameters
should be made a function of the current.

General Model
The removed heat may be defined as a more general function of the temperature
difference and other parameters such as the temperature at the hot side.

248 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

Theory for Surface-to-Surface
Radiation
In addition to conduction and convection, the third mechanism for heat transfer is
radiation. Consider an environment with fully transparent or fully opaque objects.
Thermal radiation denotes the stream of electromagnetic waves emitted from a body
at a certain temperature.

The Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface theory is described in this section:

• Deriving the Radiative Heat Flux for Opaque Surfaces

• Deriving the Radiative Heat Flux for Semitransparent Surfaces
• Wavelength Dependence of Surface Properties
• Directional Dependence of Surface Properties
• The Radiosity Method for Diffuse-Gray Surfaces
• The Radiosity Method for Diffuse-Spectral Surfaces
• View Factor Evaluation

Deriving the Radiative Heat Flux for Opaque Surfaces

In Figure 4-13, consider a point P located on a surface that has an emissivity ε, diffuse
reflectivity ρd, specular reflectivity ρs, absorptivity α, refractive index n, and
temperature T. The body is assumed opaque, which means that no radiation is
transmitted through the body. This is true for most solid bodies.

G ρsG J = ρdG + εn2σT4

εn2σT4

ρdG

P P

Figure 4-13: Incoming irradiation (left), outgoing radiosity (right).

The total incoming radiative flux at P is called irradiation and denoted G. The total
diffuse outgoing radiative flux at P is called radiosity and denoted J. This radiosity is
the sum of diffusively reflected and emitted radiation:

THEORY FOR SURFACE-TO-SURFACE RADIATION | 249

 J = ρ d G + εe b ( T ) (4-92)

According to the Stefan-Boltzmann law, eb(T) is the power radiated across all
wavelengths and depends on the forth power of the temperature:

e b ( T ) = n 2 σT 4

The net inward radiative heat flux, q, is then given by the difference between the
irradiation and the outgoing radiation (radiosity and specular reflected radiation):

q = G – ( J + ρs G )

which can be also written as

q = ( 1 – ρ s )G – J (4-93)

Using Equation 4-92 and Equation 4-93, J can be eliminated and a general expression
is obtained for the net inward heat flux into the opaque body based on G and T.

q = ( 1 – ( ρ d + ρ s ) )G – εe b ( T ) (4-94)

Most opaque bodies also behave as ideal gray bodies, meaning that the absorptivity and
emissivity are equal, and the reflectivity ρd+ρs is therefore obtained from the following
relation:

α = ε = 1 – ( ρd + ρs ) (4-95)

Thus, for ideal gray bodies, q is given by:

q = ε ( G – eb ( T ) ) (4-96)

This is the expression used for the radiative boundary condition.

Deriving the Radiative Heat Flux for Semitransparent Surfaces

In Figure 4-13, consider a point P located on a semitransparent surface that has an
emissivity εu, diffuse reflectivity ρd,u, specular reflectivity ρs,u, refractive index nu, and
temperature Tu on the upside, and an emissivity εd, diffuse reflectivity ρd,d, specular

250 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

reflectivity ρs,d, refractive index nd, and temperature Td on the downside. As the
surface is assumed semitransparent, some radiation is transmitted through the body.

Ju = ρd,uGu + εunu2σT4
εunu2σT4
Gu ρs,uGu
ρd,uGu

τdGd

P P
Gd

Figure 4-14: Upside and downside incoming irradiation (left), upside outgoing radiosity
(right). The downside outgoing radiosity is defined in a similar way.

The total incoming radiative flux at P is called irradiation, and is denoted Gu on the
upside and Gd on the downside. The total diffuse outgoing radiative flux at P is called
radiosity and denoted Ju on the upside and Jd on the downside. This radiosity is the
sum of diffusively reflected radiation, emitted radiation and transmitted radiation
coming from the other side of the semitransparent layer:

J u = ρ d, u G u + ε u e b, u ( T u ) (4-97)

J d = ρ d, d G d + ε d e b, d ( T d ) (4-98)

The net inward radiative heat fluxes on the upside and downside, qu and qd, are then
given by the difference between the irradiation and the radiosity:

q u = ( 1 – ρ s, u – τ u )G u – J u (4-99)

q d = ( 1 – ρ s, d – τ d )G d – J d (4-100)

Bodies are considered to behave as ideal gray bodies, meaning that the absorptivity and
emissivity are equal, and the reflectivity ρs is therefore obtained from the following
relation:

ε u + ρ d , u = 1 – ρ s, u – τ u (4-101)

ε d + ρ d, d = 1 – ρ s, d – τ d (4-102)

THEORY FOR SURFACE-TO-SURFACE RADIATION | 251

 Using Equation 4-97 to Equation 4-102, Ju and Jd can be eliminated and a general
expression is obtained for the net inward heat fluxes into the semitransparent body
based on Gu, Gd, Tu and Td:

q u = ε u ( G u – e b, u ( T u ) ) (4-103)

q d = ε d ( G d – e b, d ( T d ) ) (4-104)

Thus, for ideal gray bodies, q is given by:

q = ε u ( G u – e b, u ( T u ) ) + ε d ( G d – e b, d ( T d ) ) (4-105)

This is the expression used for the radiative boundary condition.

Incident rays which angle of incidence (measured between the ray and the normal to
the surface) is higher than the critical angle are not transmitted, regardless the
transmittance of the surface. They contribute to total reflection instead. Hence the
directional transmissivity coefficient can be defined as


 τ if θ ≤ θ c
τ(θ) = 
 0 if θ > θ c


where θ c is the critical angle. Using the following relation

ρs ( θ ) + τ ( θ ) = 1 – ( ε + ρd )

we can establish


 ρ s if θ ≤ θ c
ρs ( θ ) = 
 ρ s + τ if θ > θ c


Wavelength Dependence of Surface Properties

The surface properties for radiation, the emissivity, specular reflectivity and specular
transmissivity can be dependent on the incident angle, the surface temperature, or the
radiation wavelength. The emissivity, specular reflectivity and specular transmissivity
are defined in Ref. 20.

252 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

The Surface-to-Surface Radiation interface in the Heat Transfer module implements
the radiosity method that enables arbitrary temperature and wavelength dependent
surface properties. The dependence of the surface properties on the incident angle can
be considered by using the ray shooting method (Directional Dependence of Surface
Properties).

PLANCK SPECTRAL DISTRIBUTION

The Planck’s distribution of emissive power for a blackbody in vacuum is given as a
function of surface temperature and wavelength.

The blackbody hemispherical emissive power (SI unit: W/(m3·sr)), is denoted

eb, λ(λ, T), and defined as (1-37 in Ref. 20):

2πn 2 C 1
e b, λ ( λ, T ) = ------------------------------ (4-106)
C2
 ------- 
λ e – 1
5  λT
 
 

where:

• the two constants C1 (SI unit: W·m2/sr) and C2 (SI unit: m·K) are given by

2 hc 0
C 1 = hc 0 C 2 = ---------
kB

• h is the Planck constant (SI unit: J·s)

• kB is the Boltzmann constant (SI unit: J/K)
• c0 is the speed of the light in vacuum (SI unit: m/s)
• λ is the wavelength in vacuum (SI unit: m)
• n is the refractive index of the media (SI unit: 1), equal to 1 in vacuum

THEORY FOR SURFACE-TO-SURFACE RADIATION | 253

 Figure 4-15 and Figure 4-16 show the hemispherical spectral emissive power for a
blackbody at 5780 K (the Sun’s blackbody temperature) and for a blackbody at 300 K.
The dotted vertical lines delimit the visible spectrum (from 0.4 µm to 0.7 µm).

Figure 4-15: Planck distribution of a blackbody at 5780 K.

Figure 4-16: Planck distribution of a blackbody at 300 K.

The integral of eb, λ(λ, T) over a spectral band represents the power radiated on the
spectral band and is defined by

λ2 ∞
λ eb, λ ( λ, T ) dλ
1
= F λ1 T → λ2 T 0 eb, λ ( λ, T ) dλ
where F λ1 T → λ 2 T is the fractional blackbody emissive power,

254 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

 λ2
λ eb, λ ( λ, T ) dλ
F λ 1 T → λ2 T = ----------------------------------------
∞
1
-

0 eb, λ ( λ, T ) dλ
Recall the Stefan-Boltzmann law that computes the power radiated across all
wavelengths:

∞
0 eb, λ ( λ, T ) dλ = e b ( T ) = n 2 σT 4

where n is the refractive index, and σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant equal to

5.67 ⋅ 10-8 W/(m2·K4). The power radiated in the spectral band [λ1, λ2] becomes:

λ2
 λ e b , λ ( λ , T ) dλ = F λ T → λ T e b ( T )
1
1 2

The function eb(T) is available as a predefined function via rad.feb(T)

in the Surface-to-Surface Radiation interface.

Notice that:

F λ 1 T → λ2 T = F 0 → λ2 T – F 0 → λ 1 T and F 0 → ∞ = 1

The figure below shows the value of F 0 → λT for different values of λT.

THEORY FOR SURFACE-TO-SURFACE RADIATION | 255

 GRAY SURFACES
Gray surfaces correspond to the hypothesis that surface properties are independent of
the radiation wavelength. This corresponds to Constant wavelength dependence in the
Surface-to-Surface Radiation interface.

The assumption that the surface emissivity is independent of the radiation wavelength
is often valid when most of the radiative power is concentrated on a relatively narrow
spectral band. This is likely the case when the radiation is emitted by a surface at
temperatures in limited range.

This setting is rarely applicable if there is solar radiation.

SOLAR AND AMBIENT SPECTRAL BANDS

When solar radiation is part of the model, it is possible to enhance a diffuse-gray
surface model by considering two spectral bands: one for short wavelengths and one
for large wavelengths. This corresponds to Solar and Ambient wavelength dependence
in the Surface-to-Surface Radiation interface.

It is interesting to notice that about 97% of the radiated power from a blackbody at
5800 K is at wavelengths of 2.5 µm or shorter, and 97% of the radiated power from a
blackbody at 700 K is at wavelengths of 2.5 µm or longer (see Figure 4-17).

Figure 4-17: Normalized Planck distribution of blackbodies at 700 K and 5800 K.

Many problems have a solar load, but the peak temperatures are below 700 K.

256 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

In such cases, it is appropriate to use a two-band approach with

• A solar band for wavelengths shorter than 2.5 µm

• An ambient band for wavelengths above 2.5 µm

For each surface, properties are then described in terms of a solar absorptivity and an
emissivity.

Solar irradiation,
λ < 2.5 µm

Reradiation to
surroundings,

λ > 2.5 µm

Figure 4-18: Absorption of solar radiation and emission to the surroundings.

By splitting the bands at the default of 2.5 μm, the fraction of absorbed solar radiation
on each surface is defined primarily by the solar absorptivity.

THEORY FOR SURFACE-TO-SURFACE RADIATION | 257

 The reradiation at longer wavelengths (objects below ~700 K) and the reabsorption of
this radiation is defined primarily via the emissivity.

Emissivity

Wavelength

Figure 4-19: Solar and ambient spectral band approximation of the surface emissivity by
a constant per band emissivity.

GENERAL SPECTRAL SURFACES

Spectral surfaces correspond to the hypothesis that surface properties are wavelength
dependent. This corresponds to Multiple spectral bands wavelength dependence in the
Surface-to-Surface Radiation interface.

The Heat Transfer Module supports constant surface properties per spectral bands and
to adjust spectral intervals endpoints.

Emissivity

λ1 λ2 λ3 Wavelength

The multiple spectral bands approach is used in cases when the surface properties vary
significantly over the bands of interest.

Directional Dependence of Surface Properties

The Surface-to-Surface Radiation interface in the Heat Transfer module implements
the ray shooting method, that enables to set the dependence of the emissivity, of the
specular reflectivity and of the specular transmissivity on the incident angle.

258 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

The polar and azimuthal angles, θ∈[0,π/2] and ϕ∈[−π,π], are defined below:

e3

θ
e2
ϕ
e1

Figure 4-20: Definition of polar and azimuthal angles

The implementation supports directional surface properties that can be decomposed

as the sum of two expressions. The first is defined as a function of θ and ϕ only, and
the other as independent of θ and ϕ. The latter may depend on any other model
quantity like the temperature, or the spatial coordinates.

• Emissivity
ε tot ( θ, ϕ, T, x ) = f ε ( θ, ϕ ) + ε ( T, x )

• Transmissivity
τ tot ( θ, ϕ, T, x ) = f τ ( θ, ϕ ) + τ ( T, x )

• Specular reflectivity
ρ s, tot ( θ, ϕ, T, x ) = 1 – ρ d – ε tot ( θ, ϕ, T, x ) – τ tot ( θ, ϕ, T, x )

Note that no dependence is defined for the diffuse reflectivity, ρd.

The Radiosity Method for Diffuse-Gray Surfaces

The heat transfer by radiation is combined with convective and conductive heat
transfer through a source term added to the heat equation along with the other
contributions from the heat flux and boundary heat source boundary conditions.
Recalling Equation 4-93, this source account for the difference between incident
radiation, or irradiation, G, and radiation leaving the surface, or radiosity, J:

q = ( 1 – ρ s )G – J

THEORY FOR SURFACE-TO-SURFACE RADIATION | 259

 The radiosity, J, is given in Equation 4-92. It is the sum of diffusely reflected and
emitted radiation. For diffuse-gray surfaces, J is defined by:

J = ρ d G + εe b ( T )

Here

• G is the incoming radiative heat flux, or irradiation (SI unit: W/m2)

• ε is the surface emissivity (SI unit: 1), a dimensionless number in the range 0 ≤ ε ≤ 1.
The diffuse-gray surface hypothesis corresponds to surfaces where ε is independent
of the radiation wavelength.
• eb(T) is the blackbody hemispherical total emissive power (SI unit: W/m2).
• T is the surface temperature (SI unit: K).

The irradiation, G, at a given point is split into three contributions according to:

G = G m + G ext + G amb (4-107)

where:

• Gm is the mutual irradiation, coming from other boundaries in the model

(SI unit: W/m2).
• Gext is the irradiation from external radiation sources (SI unit: W/m2). It is the sum
of the products, for each external source, of the external heat sources view factor
Fext by the corresponding source radiosity:

G ext =  Fext Ps +  Fext q0, s

The first term of the sum gathers radiation sources located on a point. The second
term stands for directional radiative sources.
• Gamb is the ambient irradiation (SI unit: W/m2), defined as:
G amb = ε amb F amb e b ( T amb )

• εamb is the ambient emissivity; (SI unit: 1), a dimensionless number in the range
0 ≤ εamb ≤ 1. εamb < 1 means that part of the energy coming from radiative bodies
is not absorbed by the ambient air.

260 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

• Famb is an ambient view factor; its value is equal to the fraction of the field of view
that is not covered by other boundaries. Therefore, by definition, 0 ≤ Famb ≤ 1 at
all points.
• Tamb is the assumed far-away temperature (SI unit: K) in the directions included in
Famb.

The Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface includes the following radiation types:

• Diffuse Surface (Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface) is the default radiation

type. It requires accurate evaluation of the mutual irradiation, Gm. The incident
radiation at one point on the boundary is a function of the radiosity, J, at every
other point in view. The radiosity, in turn, is a function of Gm, which leads to an
implicit radiation balance:
J = ρ d ( G m ( J ) + G ext + G amb ) + εe b ( T ) (4-108)

• Diffuse Mirror (Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface) is a variant of the Diffuse

Surface radiation type with ε = 0. Reradiation surfaces are common as an
approximation of a surface that is well insulated on one side and for which
convection effects can be neglected on the opposite (radiating) side (see Ref. 21).
It resembles a mirror that absorbs all irradiation and then radiates it back in all
directions.
• Prescribed Radiosity (Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface) makes it possible to
specify graybody radiation. The radiosity expression is then εeb(T). A user-defined
surface radiosity expression can also be defined.

• Opaque Surface (Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface) is available when the

surface-to-surface radiation method is Ray shooting. It accounts for specular
reflection. The conservation equation reads

ε + ρd + ρs = 1 ,

and the radiosity reads as in Equation 4-108.

• Semitransparent Surface (Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface) is available when

the surface-to-surface radiation method is Ray shooting. It accounts for reflection,
transmission and the conservation equation reads

ε + ρd + ρs + τ = 1 ,

and the radiosities read

THEORY FOR SURFACE-TO-SURFACE RADIATION | 261

 J u = ( ρ d,u ( G m,u ( J u ) + G ext,u + G amb,u ) + ε u e b ( T ) )
(4-109)
+ τ d ( G m,d ( J d ) + G ext,d + G amb,d )

J d = ( ρ d,d ( G m,d ( J d ) + G ext,d + G amb,d ) + ε d e b ( T ) )

(4-110)
+ τ d ( G m,u ( J u ) + G ext,u + G amb,u )

The Surface-to-Surface Radiation interface handles the radiosity J as a shape function

unless J is prescribed.

Whereas diffuse and specular reflectivities are handled by the different

features of the Surface-to-Surface Radiation interface, only diffuse
emissivity is considered.

The Radiosity Method for Diffuse-Spectral Surfaces

For a general diffuse-spectral surface:

J =  ( ρd ( λ, T )G ( λ ) + ε ( λ, T )eb, λ ( λ, T ) ) dλ
0

where

• ε(λ, T) and ρd(λ, T) are is the hemispherical spectral surface emissivity and diffuse
reflectivity, dimensionless quantities in the range [0,1]. Diffuse-spectral surface
corresponds to a surface properties are dependent on the radiation wavelength and
surface temperature.
• T is the surface temperature (SI unit: K).
• eb, λ(λ, T) is the blackbody hemispherical emissive power (SI unit: W/(m3·sr))
defined in Equation 4-106.

The Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface assumes that the surface emissivity and
opacity properties are constant per spectral band. It defines N spectral bands (N = 2
when solar and ambient radiation model is used),

262 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

  B i = [λ i – 1,λ i] for 1 ≤ i ≤ N

 λ0 = 0

 λN = ∞

so that the radiosity has a custom definition in each interval:

N

J =  Ji
i=1
J i = ρ d, i G i + ε i e b ( T )

The surface properties can then be defined per spectral band:

• Surface emissivity on Bi: εi(T) = ε(λ, T) for λ in the interval Bi

• Surface diffuse reflectivity on Bi: ρd,i(T) = ρd(λ, T) for λ in the interval Bi
• Ambient irradiation on Bi, assuming that the ambient fractional emissive power
corresponds to the one of a blackbody at temperature Tamb:
λi
G amb, i = λ = λ i–1
G amb ( λ ) dλ = F λi – 1 T → λi T F amb, i ε amb, i e b ( T amb )

• External radiation sources on Bi with q0, s, i and Ps, i the external radiation source
heat flux and heat rate, respectively, over Bi:
λi
G ext, i = λ = λ i–1
G ext ( λ ) dλ = F ext, i ( i s )q 0, s, i

or
λi
G ext, i = λ = λ i–1
G ext ( λ ) dλ = F ext, i ( i s )P s, i

When the external source fractional emissive power corresponds to the one of a
blackbody at Text, external radiation sources on Bi can be defined from the external
radiation source heat flux, q0, s, and heat rate, Ps, over all wavelengths:
G ext, i = F ext, i F λi – 1 T → λi T ( i s )q 0, s

or
G ext, i = F ext, i F λi – 1 T → λi T ( i s )P s

THEORY FOR SURFACE-TO-SURFACE RADIATION | 263

 The Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface includes the following radiation types:

• Diffuse Surface (Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface) is the default radiation

type. The incident radiation over the Bi spectral band at one point of the boundary
is a function of the radiosity, Ji (SI unit: W/m2), at every other point in view. The
radiosity, in turn, is a function of Gm, i, which leads to an implicit radiation balance:
J i = ρ d, i ( G m, i ( J i ) + G ext, i + G amb, i ) + ε i e b ( T ) (4-111)

• Diffuse Mirror (Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface) is a variant of the Diffuse

Surface radiation type with εi = 0. Reradiation surfaces are common as an
approximation of a surface that is well insulated on one side and for which
convection effects can be neglected on the opposite (radiating) side (see Ref. 21).
It resembles a mirror that absorbs all irradiation and then radiates it back in all
directions.
• Prescribed Radiosity (Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface) makes it possible to
specify the surface radiation for each spectral band. Using the graybody radiation
definition, the radiosity is then F λ1 T → λ2 T e b ( T ) . A user-defined surface radiosity
expression can also be defined.

• Opaque Surface (Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface) is available with Ray

shooting as Surface-to-surface radiation method. It accounts for specular reflection.
The conservation equation reads

ε i + ρ d , i + ρ s, i = 1

and the radiosity reads as in Equation 4-111.

• Semitransparent Surface (Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface) is available with

Ray shooting as Surface-to-surface radiation method. It accounts for reflection,
transmission and the conservation equation reads

ε i + ρ d , i + ρ s, i + τ i = 1

and the radiosities read

J u, i = ρ d, u, i ( G mu, i ( J u, i ) + G ext, u, i + G amb, u, i ) + ε u, i e b ( T )

(4-112)
+ τ d, i ( G md, i ( J d, i ) + G ext, d, i + G amb, d, i )

J d, i = ρ d, u, i ( G md, i ( J d, i ) + G ext, d, i + G amb, d, i ) + ε d, i e b ( T )

(4-113)
+ τ u, i ( G mu, i ( J u, i ) + G ext, u, i + G amb, u, i )

264 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

The Surface-to-Surface Radiation interface handles the radiosity Ji as a shape function
unless Ji is prescribed.

Whereas diffuse and specular reflectivities are handled by the different

features of the Surface-to-Surface Radiation interface, only diffuse
emissivity is considered.

View Factor Evaluation

The strategy for evaluating view factors is central to any radiation simulation. Loosely
speaking, a view factor is a measure of how much influence the radiosity at a given part
of the boundary has on the irradiation at some other part.

The quantities Gm and Famb in Equation 4-108 are not strictly view factors in the
traditional sense. Instead, Famb is the view factor of the ambient portion of the field
of view, which is considered to be a single boundary with constant radiosity

J amb = e b ( T amb )

On the other hand, Gm is the integral over all visible points of a differential view factor,
multiplied by the radiosity of the corresponding source point. In the discrete model,
think of it as the product of a view factor matrix and a radiosity vector. This is, however,
not necessarily the way the calculation is performed.

Consider a point P on a surface as in Figure 4-21. It can be seen by points on other

surfaces such as S′ in the figure, as well as the ambient surrounding, Samb. Assume

THEORY FOR SURFACE-TO-SURFACE RADIATION | 265

 that the points on S′ have a local radiosity, J′, while the ambient surrounding has a
constant temperature, Tamb.

Samb

S′

J′
P′

r
n′ n

Jamb
Samb

Figure 4-21: Example geometry for surface-to-surface radiation.

The mutual irradiation at point P is given by the following surface integral:

( – n′ ⋅ r ) ( n ⋅ r )
Gm = S′ -------------------------------------
πr
4
- J′ ds

The heat flux that arrives from P′ depends on the local radiosity J′ projected onto P.
The projection is computed using the normal vectors n and n′ along with the vector
r, which points from P to P′.

The ambient view factor, Famb, is determined from the integral of the surrounding
surfaces S′, here denoted as F′:

( – n′ ⋅ r ) ( n ⋅ r )
F amb = 1 – F ′ = 1 – S′ -------------------------------------
πr
4
- ds

The two last equations plug into Equation 4-107 to yield the final equation for
irradiative flux.

The equations used so far apply to the general 3D case. 2D geometries result in simpler
integrals. For the 2D case, the resulting equations for the mutual irradiation and
ambient view factor are

266 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

 ( – n′ ⋅ r ⊥ ) ( n ⋅ r ⊥ )
Gm = S ′ --------------------------------------------
2r
3
- J′ ds (4-114)
⊥
⊥

( – n′ ⋅ r ⊥ ) ( n ⋅ r ⊥ )
F amb = 1 – S ' --------------------------------------------
2r
3
- ds
⊥
⊥

where the integral over S⊥′ denotes the line integral along the boundaries of the 2D
geometry.

In axisymmetric geometries or when a symmetry plane is defined, the irradiation and

ambient view factor cannot be computed directly from a closed-form expression.
Instead, a virtual geometry must be constructed, and the view factors evaluated
according to Equation 4-114. For cases with specularly reflective surfaces, specular
view factors depends also on specular reflectivities of surrounding surfaces, see Ref. 23.

A separate evaluation is performed for each unique point where Gm or Famb is

requested, typically for each quadrature point during solution. Differential view factors
are normally computed only once, the first time they are needed, and then stored in
memory until next time the model definition or the mesh is changed.

The Heat Transfer Module supports the following surface-to-surface radiation

methods, which are selected in the Radiation Settings section in a Heat Transfer
interface:

• Hemicube
• Direct area integration
• Ray shooting

View factors are always calculated directly from the mesh, which is a
polygonal representation of the geometry. To improve the accuracy of the
radiative heat transfer simulation, the mesh must be refined rather than
raising the element order.

VIEW FACTOR FOR EXTERNAL RADIATION SOURCES

In 3D, the view factor for a point at finite distance is given by

cos θ
------------
2
4πr

THEORY FOR SURFACE-TO-SURFACE RADIATION | 267

 where θ is the angle between the normal to the irradiated surface and the direction of
the source, and r is the distance from the source. For a source at infinity, the view factor
is given by cos θ.

In 2D the view factor for a point at finite distance is given by

cos θ-
-----------
2πr

and the view factor for a source at infinity is cos θ.

SOLAR POSITION
The Sun is the most common example of an external radiation source. The position of
the Sun is necessary to determine the direction of the corresponding external radiation
source. The direction of sunlight (zenith angle and the solar elevation) is automatically
computed from the latitude, longitude, time zone, date, and time using similar a
method as described in Ref. 20. The estimated solar position is accurate for a date
between year 2000 and 2199, due to an approximation used in the Julian Day calendar
calculation.

The zenith angle, θs, and azimuth angle, ϕ s , of the Sun are converted into a direction
vector is = (isx, isy, isz) in Cartesian coordinates assuming that the north, the west, and
the up directions correspond to the x, y, and z directions, respectively, in the model.
The relation between θs, ϕ s , and is is given by:

i sx = – cos ( ϕ s ) sin ( θ s )
i sy = sin ( ϕ s ) sin ( θ s )
i sz = – cos ( θ s )

RADIATION IN AXISYMMETRIC GEOMETRIES

For an axisymmetric geometry, Gm and Famb must be evaluated in a corresponding
3D geometry obtained by revolving the 2D boundaries around the axis. COMSOL
Multiphysics creates this virtual 3D geometry by revolving the 2D boundary mesh into
a 3D mesh. The resolution can be controlled in the azimuthal direction by setting the
number of azimuthal sectors, which is the same as the number of elements to a full
revolution. Try to balance this number against the mesh resolution in the rz-plane.
This number, the azimuthal sectors, is accessible from the Radiation Settings section
in physics interfaces for heat transfer.

Select between the hemicube and the direct area integration methods also in axial
symmetry. Their settings work the same way as in 3D.

268 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

While Gm and Famb are in fact evaluated in a full 3D, the number of
points where they are requested is limited to the quadrature points on the
boundary of a 2D geometry. The savings compared to a full 3D
simulation are therefore substantial despite the full 3D view factor code
being used.

THEORY FOR SURFACE-TO-SURFACE RADIATION | 269

 Theory for Radiation in Participating
Media
In this section:

• Radiation and Participating Media Interactions

• Radiative Transfer Equation
• Boundary Condition for the Radiative Transfer Equation
• Heat Transfer Equation in Participating Media
• Discrete Ordinates Method (DOM)
• Discrete Ordinates Method Implementation in 2D
• P1 Approximation Theory
• Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media Theory
• Polychromatic Radiation
• Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media Theory
• Rosseland Approximation Theory

Radiation and Participating Media Interactions

Figure 4-22: Example of interactions between participating media and radiation.

270 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

In some applications the medium is not completely transparent and the radiation rays
interact with the medium.

Let I(Ω) denote the radiative intensity traveling in a given direction, Ω. Different kinds
of interactions are observed:

• Absorption: The medium absorbs a fraction of the incident radiation. The amount
of absorbed radiation is κI(Ω), where κ is the absorption coefficient.
• Emission: The medium emits radiation in all directions. The amount of emitted
radiative intensity is equal to κIb, where Ib is the blackbody radiation intensity.
• Scattering: Part of the radiation coming from a given direction is scattered in other
directions. The scattering properties of the medium are described by the scattering
phase function φ ( Ω′, Ω ) , which gives the probability that a ray coming from one
direction Ω′ is scattered into the direction Ω. The phase function φ ( Ω′, Ω ) satisfies:
1
------
4π 4π φ ( Ω′, Ω ) dΩ′ = 1

Radiative intensity in a given direction is attenuated and augmented by scattering:

- It is attenuated because a part of the incident radiation in this direction is
scattered into other directions. The amount of radiation attenuated by scattering
is σsI(Ω).
- It is augmented because a part of the radiative intensity coming from other
directions is scattered in all direction, including the direction we are looking at.
The amount of radiation augmented by scattering is obtained by integrating
scattering coming from all directions Ω′:
σ
------s
4π 4π I ( Ω′ )φ ( Ω′, Ω ) dΩ′

Radiative Transfer Equation

The balance of the radiative intensity including all contributions (propagation,
emission, absorption, and scattering) can now be formulated. The general radiative
transfer equation can be written as (see Ref. 23):

σs
Ω ⋅ ∇I ( Ω ) = κI b ( T ) – βI ( Ω ) + ------
4π 4π I ( Ω′ )φ ( Ω′, Ω ) dΩ′ (4-115)

THEORY FOR RADIATION IN PARTICIPATING MEDIA | 271

 where

• I(Ω) is the radiative intensity at a given position following the Ω direction (SI unit:
W/(m2·sr))
• Ib(T) is the blackbody radiative intensity (SI unit: W/(m2·sr)), defined as
2 4
n r σT
I b ( T ) = ----------------- (4-116)
π

The quantity Ib(T) is available as a predefined function, ht.fIb(T), in

heat transfer interfaces.

• nr is the refractive index (SI unit: 1)

• σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (SI unit: W/(m2·K4))
• κ, β, σs are absorption, extinction, and scattering coefficients, respectively (SI unit:
1/m) and are related by:
β = κ + σs

• φ ( Ω′, Ω ) is the scattering phase function (SI unit: 1)

• T is the temperature (SI unit: K)

SCATTERING PHASE FUNCTION

The phase function, φ ( Ω′, Ω ) , gives the probability that a ray from the Ω′ direction is
scattered into the Ω direction. The phase function’s definition is material dependent
and its definition can be complicated. It is common to use approximate scattering
phase functions that are defined using the cosine of the scattering angle, μ0. The
current implementation handles:

• Isotropic phase functions:

φ ( Ω′, Ω ) = φ ( μ 0 ) = 1

• Linear anisotropic phase functions:

φ ( μ0 ) = 1 + a1 μ0

• Polynomial anisotropic up to the 12th order:

272 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

 12

φ ( μ0 ) = 1 +  an Pn ( μ0 )
n=1

where Pn are the nth order Legendre polynomials.

Legendre polynomials can be defined by the Rodriguez formula:

1 dk 2 k
P k ( x ) = -----------
k
((x – 1) )
k
2 k! d x

• Henyey–Greenstein phase function:

2
1 1–η
φ ( μ 0 ) = ---- ⋅ ------------------------------------------------
3⁄2
-
K 2
( 1 + η – 2ημ 0 )

where – 1 < η < 1 is the anisotropy parameter and K is defined as follows to produce
a normalized phase function:
2
1 1–η
K = ------ ⋅
4π  ------------------------------------------------
( 1 + η
2
– 2ημ )
3⁄2
- dΩ
4π 0

INCIDENT RADIATION
A quantity of interest is the incident radiation, denoted G (SI unit: W/m2), and
defined by

G = 4π I ( Ω ) dΩ

Boundary Condition for the Radiative Transfer Equation

For gray walls, corresponding to opaque surfaces reflecting diffusively and emitting,
the radiative intensity I(Ω) entering participating media along the Ω direction is

1–ε
I ( Ω ) = εI b ( T ) + ----------- q r, out for all Ω such that n ⋅ Ω < 0
π

where

2 4
n r σT
I b ( T ) = -------------------- (4-117)
π

THEORY FOR RADIATION IN PARTICIPATING MEDIA | 273

 • Equation 4-117 is the blackbody radiation intensity and nr is the refractive index
• ε is the surface emissivity, which is in the range [0, 1]
• 1 − ε is the diffusive reflectivity
• n is the outward normal vector
• qr,out is the heat flux coming from the domain and striking the wall:

q r, out =  n ⋅ Ω > 0 I ( Ω ) ( n ⋅ Ω ) dΩ
For black walls ε = 1. Thus I(Ω) = Ib(T).

The net heat flux corresponding to the balance between the energy received by the
surface and emitted by the surface is defined by

q r, net = q r, in – q r, out

This net heat flux accounts for the radiation coming from the domain where the RTE
is solved for, the radiation coming from the exterior is not modeled and hence not
accounted for.

If the surface is semitransparent, the radiative intensity transmitted diffusively or

specularly. For an external boundary the external intensity, Iext, is transmitted in the
domain. The radiative intensity entering participating media along the Ω direction is

ρd τd
I ( Ω ) = εI b ( T ) + ------ q r, out + ----- q r, in, ext + τ s I ext
π π

for all Ω such that n ⋅ Ω < 0 ,

where

• ρd is the surface diffuse reflectivity,

• τd is the surface diffuse transmissivity,
• τs is the surface specular transmissivity,
• Iext is the external radiation intensity,
• qr,in is the heat flux striking the wall from exterior:

q r, in, ext = n ⋅ Ω ≤ 0 Iext ( Ω ) ( n ⋅ Ω ) dΩ

The emissivity, diffuse reflectivity, diffuse transmissivity, and specular transmissivity
satisfy the following relation:

274 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

 ε + ρd + τd + τs = 1

The net heat flux corresponding to the balance between the energy received by the
surface and emitted by the surface is defined by

q r, net = q r, in – q r, out + ε ext q r, in, net – ε ext πεI b ( T )

For semitransparent surfaces, the net heat flux accounts for the radiation coming from
the domain and from the exterior.

The definition of the radiative intensity on internal boundaries is similar to the

definition for external boundaries except that the external radiation is replaced by the
radiation exiting the adjacent domain.

Heat Transfer Equation in Participating Media

Heat flux in gray media is defined by

qr = 4π I ( Ω )Ω dΩ
Heat flux divergence can be defined as a function of G and T (see Ref. 23):

Q r = ∇ ⋅ q r = κ ( G – 4πI b ( T ) )

In order to couple radiation in participating media, radiative heat flux is taken into
account in addition to conductive heat flux. Recalling Equation 4-18, the heat transfer
equation reads:

∂T ∂p
ρC p  ------- + u ⋅ ∇ T + ∇ ⋅ ( q + q r ) = α p T  + u ⋅ ∇p + τ: ∇u + Q
 ∂t  ∂t 

and is implemented using following form:

∂T ∂p
ρC p  ------- + u ⋅ ∇ T + ∇ ⋅ q = κ ( G – 4nσT 4 ) + α p T  + u ⋅ ∇p + τ: ∇u + Q
 ∂t  ∂t 

THEORY FOR RADIATION IN PARTICIPATING MEDIA | 275

 Discrete Ordinates Method (DOM)

The discrete ordinates method is implemented for 3D and 2D

geometries.

Radiative intensity is defined for any direction Ω, because the angular space is
continuous. In order to handle the radiative intensity equation numerically, the angular
space is discretized.

The discrete ordinates method provides a discretization of angular space. The

quadrature sets Level Symmetric Even, Level Symmetric Hybrid and Equal Weight
Odd are designed using moment-matching conditions (see Ref. 24) and yield SN
approximations with N(N + 2) directions in 3D or N(N + 2)/2 in 2D (see Ref. 23).
The quasi-uniform quadrature set yields TN approximations with 8N2 directions in 3D
or 4N2 in 2D (Ref. 46, Ref. 47). These approximations are not designed using
moment-matching conditions but allow for higher-order discretization compared with
SN approximations.

Thanks to angular space discretization, integrals over directions are replaced by

numerical quadratures of discrete directions:

4π I ( Ω ) dΩ ≈  wj Ij
j=1

Depending on the value of N, a set of n dependent variables has to be defined and

solved for I1, I2, …, In.

RADIATION IN PARTICIPATING MEDIA

Each dependent variable satisfies the equation

n
σs
S i ⋅ ∇I i = κI b ( T ) – βI i + ------
4π  w j I j φ ( S j, S i )
j=1

subject to appropriate boundary conditions, where Si is the ith discrete direction.

276 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

OPAQUE SURFACE
The node Opaque Surface (Radiation in Participating Media and Radiation in
Absorbing-Scattering Media Interfaces) defines the default boundary condition for
radiative intensities I1, I2, …, In:

1–ε
I i, bnd = εI b ( T ) + ----------- q r, out for all S i such that n ⋅ S i < 0 (4-118)
π

with

q r, out =  wj Ij ( n ⋅ Sj )
n ⋅ Sj > 0

In Equation 4-118, the first term in the right hand side is the emitted radiative
intensity, while the second term represents the reflected radiative intensity.

SEMITRANSPARENT SURFACE
The node Semitransparent Surface (Radiation in Participating Media and Radiation in
Absorbing-Scattering Media Interfaces) defines the following boundary condition for
radiative intensities I1, I2, …, In:

ρd τd
I i, bnd = εI b ( T ) + ------ q r, out + ----- q r, out, ext + τ s I i, ext (4-119)
π π

for all Si such that n ⋅ S i < 0 , with

q r, out =  wj Ij ( n ⋅ Sj )
n ⋅ Sj > 0

and

q r, out, ext = –  w j I j, ext ( n ⋅ S j )

n ⋅ Sj ≤ 0

In Equation 4-119, the right hand side is composed of the emitted radiative intensity,
the reflected radiative intensity, and the radiative intensity transmitted in a diffuse and
specular way.

THEORY FOR RADIATION IN PARTICIPATING MEDIA | 277

 INCIDENT INTENSITY
The Incident Intensity (Radiation in Participating Media and Radiation in
Absorbing-Scattering Media Interfaces) node defines a boundary that receives incident
radiative intensity Iext and that is transparent for outgoing intensity:

I i, bnd = I ext for all S i such that n ⋅ S i < 0

RADIATIVE SOURCE
The node Radiative Source accounts for a directional power density Ii in the radiative
transfer equation:

n
σs
S i ⋅ ∇I i = κI b ( T ) – βI i + ------
4π  w j I j φ ( S j, S i ) + q i .
j=1

Discrete Ordinates Method Implementation in 2D

For a given index i, define two indices, i+ and i−, so that

• Ω, Si+, and Si- have the same components in the xy–plane

• and Si+ and Si- have opposite components in the z direction.

Assuming that a model is invariant in the z direction, the radiative transfer equation in
two directions, Si+ and Si-, for the discrete ordinates method (DOM) reads:

n
σs
S i + ⋅ ∇I i + = κI b ( T ) – βI i+ + ------
4π  w j I j φ ( S j, S i )
+

j=1

n
σs
S i- ⋅ ∇I i- = κI b ( T ) – βI i- + ------
4π  wj Ij φ ( Sj, Si ) -

j=1

Halving the sum of the two equations above and using I i+ = I i- = I˜i ( I i- = I i+ in
2D) yields
n
σs
S˜ i ⋅ ∇I˜i = κI b ( T ) – βI˜i + ------  wj Ij ( φ ( Sj, Si ) + φ ( Sj, Si ) )
+ -
8π
j=1

which may recast

278 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

 n⁄2
σs
S˜ i ⋅ ∇I˜i = κI b ( T ) – βI˜i + ------  wj Ij ( φ ( Sj , Si ) + φ ( Sj , Si ) )
+ + + + + -
8π
j=1
n⁄2
σs
+ ------
8π  wj Ij ( φ ( Sj , Si ) + φ ( Sj , Si ) )
- - - + - -

j=1

or

n⁄2
σs
S˜ i ⋅ ∇I˜i = κI b ( T ) – βI˜i + ------  wj Ij φ ( Sj , Si ) + wj Ij φ ( Sj , Si )
+ + + + - - - -
8π
j=1
n⁄2
σs
+ ------
8π  wj Ij φ ( Sj , Si ) + wj Ij φ ( Sj , Si )
+ + + - - - - +

j=1

In addition if φ ( S i, S j ) can be rewritten as a function of Si ⋅ Sj, as it is in the

COMSOL Multiphysics implementation, then

φ ( S j+, S i + ) = φ ( S j-, S i - ) and φ ( S j-, S i+ ) = φ ( S j+, S i- )

In addition

I j- φ ( S j-, S i+ ) + I j+ φ ( S j+, S i- ) = 2I˜j φ ( S j+, S i- ) = 2I˜j φ ( S j -, S i+ )

so the above equation can be simplified:

n⁄2
σs
S˜ i ⋅ ∇I˜i = κI b ( T ) – βI˜i + ------ ˜ ˜
 wj Ij φ ( Sj, Si )
˜ ˜ (4-120)
4π
j=1

with

S i, 1
S˜ i = S
i, 2
0

since the third component of ∇I˜i is zero in 2D.

Also notice that

THEORY FOR RADIATION IN PARTICIPATING MEDIA | 279

 n n⁄2 n⁄2
˜ ˜
4π I ( Ω ) dΩ ≈  wj Ij  wj Ij + wj Ij  wi Ii
= - + = (4-121)
- +

j=1 j=1 j=1

with w˜ i = 2w i .

Using results from Equation 4-120 and Equation 4-121 the DOM is formulated in
2D using only radiative intensities, I˜i , on half of the 3D DOM directions, S˜ i , except
for the scattering term. In other expressions than the scattering term, the z component
of the radiative intensities Ii and of the discrete directions Ωi can be ignored (or set to
zero) and the weight wi, multiplied by 2.

P1 Approximation Theory
The P1 approximation is available as a radiation discretization method in The Radiation
in Participating Media Interface.

The P1 approximation is the simplest approximation provided by the method of

spherical harmonics method (PN-method). This approximation provides additional
accuracy compared to a Rosseland approximation even if it remains a very simple
method. The P1 method relies on the following hypotheses:

• The media is optically thick media: τ >>1, where τ is the optical thickness defined by
the integral of absorption coefficient, κ, along a typical optical path:
s
τ =  0 κ ds
• The scattering is linear isotropic.

From a computational point of view this approximation has a limited impact because
it introduces only one additional degree of freedom for the incident radiation G (SI
unit: W/m2), which is a scalar quantity and adds a heat source or sink to the
temperature equation to account for radiative heat transfer contributions. This
method, however, fails to accurately represent cases where the radiative intensity
propagation dominates over its diffusivity or where the scattering effects cannot be
described by a linear isotropic phase function.

The P1 approximation accounts for the radiation transfer equation

σs
Ω ⋅ ∇I ( Ω ) = κI b ( T ) – βI ( Ω ) + ------
4π 4π I ( Ω′ )φ ( Ω′, Ω ) dΩ′

280 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

by solving following equation for G =
4π I ( Ω ) dΩ (Ref. 23):
∇ ⋅ ( – D P1 ∇G ) = – Q r (4-122)

where

• DP1 is the P1 diffusion coefficient, defined as

1
D P1 = ----------------------------------------
3κ + σ s ( 3 – a 1 )

• a1 is the linear Legendre coefficient of the scattering phase function

• Qr is the radiative heat source:

Q r = κ ( G – 4πI b ) (4-123)

When scattering is modeled as isotropic, a1=0 and the P1 diffusion coefficient reduces
to

1
D P1 = ----------------------
3κ + 3σ s

The following boundary condition applies (Ref. 23):

n ⋅ ( – D P1 ∇G ) = – q r, net

where qr, net is the net radiative heat flux at the boundary.

RADIATION IN PARTICIPATING MEDIA

For the Participating Medium (Radiation in Participating Media Interface) feature
node, the equation Equation 4-122 is implemented.

In addition Qr, defined by Equation 4-123, is added as an heat source in the heat
transfer equation:

∂T ∂p
ρC p  ------- + u ⋅ ∇ T + ∇ ⋅ q = Q r + α p T  + u ⋅ ∇p + τ: ∇u + Q
 ∂t  ∂t

OPAQUE SURFACE
The Opaque Surface (Radiation in Participating Media and Radiation in
Absorbing-Scattering Media Interfaces) boundary condition defines a boundary
opaque to radiation and defines the incident intensity on a boundary:

THEORY FOR RADIATION IN PARTICIPATING MEDIA | 281

 n ⋅ ( – D P1 ∇G ) = q r, net

The Opaque Surface feature accounts for the net radiative heat flux, qr, net, in the heat
balance.

Two cases are considered, depending on surface emissivity value:

• Gray wall: ε is a number between 0 and 1

• Black wall: ε = 1

Gray Wall
The radiative heat flux at the boundary depends on the surface emissivity, ε:

ε
q r, net = -------------------- ( 4πI b, w – G )
2(2 – ε)

with

n2 σT4
I b, w = I b = -----------------
π

Black Wall
The radiative heat flux at the boundary expression simplifies to

1
n ⋅ ( – D P1 ∇G ) = – --- ( 4πI b, w – G ) ,
2

with

n 2 σT 4
I b, w = I b = -----------------
π

SEMITRANSPARENT SURFACE
The Semitransparent Surface (Radiation in Participating Media and Radiation in
Absorbing-Scattering Media Interfaces) boundary condition defines a boundary that
emits radiation, and reflects one part of the incident intensity while the remaining is
transmitted diffusively.

The net radiative heat flux, qr, net, accounted for in the heat balance, is defined as

2 1 – ρd
q r, net = --------------- ( πεI b, w + τ d G ) – ------------------------ G
1 + ρd 2 ( 1 + ρd )

where ρd is the surface diffuse reflectivity, and τd is the surface diffuse transmissivity.

282 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

INCIDENT INTENSITY
The Incident Intensity (Radiation in Participating Media and Radiation in
Absorbing-Scattering Media Interfaces) node defines a boundary that receives incident
radiative intensity Iext and that is transparent for outgoing intensity. On these
boundaries, the relation between G (incident radiation), qr, net (net radiative heat flux)
and Iext (incident radiative intensity) is

G + 2q r, net = 4 Ω ⋅ n < 0 Iext ( Ω )Ω ⋅ n dΩ

by defining

I ext = Ω ⋅ n < 0 Iext ( Ω )Ω ⋅ n dΩ

there is

1
q r, net = --- ( 4πI ext – G )
2

which defines the heat radiative heat flux and also contributes to G boundary
condition:

n ⋅ ( – D P1 ∇G ) = – q r, net

RADIATIVE SOURCE
The node Radiative Source accounts for a power density Q in the P1 approximation:

∇ ⋅ ( – D P1 ∇G ) = – Q r + Q .

Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media Theory

The Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media Interface is available in 2D, 2D
axisymmetric, and 3D components to model the propagation, attenuation, and
scattering of an incident light within a semitransparent material considered to be
non-emitting.

The radiative intensity I(Ω) at a given position following the Ω direction is the solution
of the radiative transfer equation with no emission term (see Ref. 23):

σs
Ω ⋅ ∇I ( Ω ) = – βI ( Ω ) + ------
4π 4π I ( Ω′ )φ ( Ω′, Ω ) dΩ′ (4-124)

THEORY FOR RADIATION IN PARTICIPATING MEDIA | 283

 where

• κ, β, σs are absorption, extinction, and scattering coefficients, respectively (SI unit:

1/m) and are related by:
β = κ + σs

• φ ( Ω′, Ω ) is the scattering phase function (SI unit: 1)

See Radiative Transfer Equation for details about the phase function, φ ( Ω′, Ω ) .

The incident radiation, denoted G (SI unit: W/m2), is defined by

G = 4π I ( Ω ) dΩ
If the Discrete Ordinates Method (DOM) is used for the approximation of
Equation 4-124, G is computed as

G=  ωi Ii
i=1

and

N
σs
S i ⋅ ∇I i = – βI i + ------
4π  ω j I j φ ( S j, S i )
j=1

where

• Si is the ith discrete ordinate.

• Ii is the ith component of the radiative intensity.
• ωj is the ith quadrature weight.
If the P1 Approximation Theory is used instead, G is the solution of the following
equation,

∇ ⋅ ( – D P1 ∇G ) = – κ G , (4-125)

with the following boundary condition for an opaque surface,

ε
n ⋅ ( – D P1 ∇G ) = -------------------- G ,
2(2 – ε)

where DP1 is the P1 diffusion coefficient and ε the surface emissivity.

284 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

Polychromatic Radiation
As in the Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface, polychromatic radiation is modeled
using the stepwise-gray model (Ref. 23) to account for wavelength dependence of
emission, absorption and scattering through material properties, see the section
Wavelength Dependence of Surface Properties.

In the Discrete Ordinates Method (DOM), the Radiative Transfer Equation is solved
for each spectral band:

N
σ s, k
S i ⋅ ∇I i, k = κ k I b ( T )FEP k ( T ) – β k I i, k + ----------
4π  ω j I j, k φ k ( S j, S i ) ,
j=1

where FEP is the fractional emissive power, also presented in the section Wavelength
Dependence of Surface Properties.

If the P1 Approximation Theory is used instead, the incident radiation Gk for the
spectral band k is solution of the following equation,

∇ ⋅ ( – D P1, k ∇G k ) = – Q r, k , (4-126)

where

• DP1,k is the P1 diffusion coefficient, defined as

1
D P1, k = ----------------------------------------------------
3κ k + σ s, k ( 3 – a 1, k )

• a1,k is the linear Legendre coefficient of the scattering phase function

• Qr,k is the radiative heat source:

Q r, k = κ k ( G k – 4πI b FEP k ( T ) ) . (4-127)

Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media Theory

The Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media Interface is available in 2D, 2D axisymmetric,
and 3D components to model the propagation and the attenuation of an incident light
within a semitransparent material. The radiative intensity of the beam is described by

THEORY FOR RADIATION IN PARTICIPATING MEDIA | 285

 the Beer-Lambert Law, which corresponds to the radiative transport equation (RTE)
under the following hypothesis:

• The radiative beam in the absorbing medium is collimated and each beam
propagates always in the same direction.
• The light experiences no refraction, reflection, or scattering within the material
itself.
• There is no significant emission of the material in the wavelength range of the
incident light. This applies well to laser beams, whose wavelength is in general much
shorter than the one of the radiation emitted by the medium.
In these conditions, the radiative intensity Ii (SI unit: W/m2) of the ith beam through
the material decreases as the beam propagates and is absorbed by the medium. This is
described by the Beer-Lambert Law equation:

ei
--------- ⋅ ∇I i = – κI i
ei

where ei is the orientation of the ith beam, and κ is the absorption coefficient (SI unit:
m–1) of the medium.

The radiative heat source Qr (SI unit: W/m3), corresponding to the energy deposited
by the radiative beam, is defined by:

 κIi
Qr =
.
i

Rosseland Approximation Theory

The Rosseland approximation is available as a radiation discretization method as part
of the Optically Thick Participating Medium subnode.

Rosseland approximation relies on the hypotheses that the participating medium is

optically thick — that is, τ >>1 — where τ is the optical thickness defined by the integral
of absorption coefficient, κ, along a typical optical path:

s
τ =  0 κ ds
From a computational cost point of view this approximation has a limited impact
because it does not introduce any extra degree of freedom to the heat equation.

286 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

Instead it adds nonlinear contribution to the thermal conductivity. This is why this
method is popular for some applications where the optical thickness is large.
Nevertheless, because it gives a simple approximation of heat transfer by radiation in a
participating media, it should be carefully validated.

In this case, the radiative heat flux can be evaluated by (Ref. 23):

4π
q r, λ = – ------ ∇i b, λ
βλ

For a gray media it leads to

4σ
q r = – ---------- ∇ ( n 2 T 4 )
3β R

Assuming a constant refractive index, this can be rewritten as qr = − kR ∇T with

16n 2 σT 3
k R = ------------------------
3β R

and

16n 2 σT 3
q r = – ------------------------ ∇T
3β R

Rosseland mean extinction coefficient, βR, can be defined from the absorption and
scattering coefficients of the media from βR=κ+σs.

THEORY FOR RADIATION IN PARTICIPATING MEDIA | 287

 Theory for Moisture Transport
Theory for Moisture Transport in Air
In moist air, the transport of moisture is done by convection and binary diffusion of
vapor in air.

Two formulations are available, depending on the magnitude of moist air density
variations with moisture content.

In both formulations, the moisture is supposed to be constituted only of vapor when

considering moist air. In other terms the liquid concentration is null, except on
boundaries where condensation may take place.

DILUTED SPECIES FORMULATION

With this formulation, it is supposed that the spatial and temporal variations of the
vapor concentration are small enough not to induce significant variations of the moist
air density.

The Moisture Transport in Air Interface solves for the following equation, in which
the moisture content variation is expressed through the transport of vapor
concentration, cv, by convection and binary diffusion in air:

∂c v
M v -------- + M v u ⋅ ∇c v + ∇ ⋅ g w = G (4-128)
∂t

g w = – M v D ∇c v

c v = φ w c sat

with the following material properties, fields, and source:

• Μv (SI unit: kg/mol) is the molar mass of water vapor.

• φ w (dimensionless) is the relative humidity.
• csat (SI unit: mol/m3) is the vapor saturation concentration.
• D (SI unit: m2/s) is the vapor diffusion coefficient in air.
• u (SI unit: m/s) is the air velocity field.
• gw (SI unit: kg/(m2⋅s)) is the vapor diffusive flux.
• G (SI unit: kg/(m3⋅s)) is the moisture source (or sink).

288 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

CONCENTRATED SPECIES FORMULATION
When the spatial and temporal variations of the vapor concentration induce significant
variations of the moist air density, the moisture content variation is expressed through
the transport of vapor mass fraction, ωv, defined as:

Mv cv
ω v = --------------
ρg

where ρg is the moist air density (SI unit: kg/m3).

The Heat Transfer in Moist Air Interface solves for the following equation:

∂ω v
ρ g ---------- + ρ g u ⋅ ∇ω v + ∇ ⋅ g w = G (4-129)
∂t

g w = – ρ g D ∇ω v

This is equivalent to solve the following equations on the vapor concentration:

∂ ( cv ⁄ ρg )
M v ρ g ----------------------- + M v ρ g u ⋅ ∇( c v ⁄ ρ g ) + ∇ ⋅ g w = G
∂t

g w = – M v ρ g D ∇( c v ⁄ ρ g )

By neglecting the spatial and temporal variations of ρg in the equations above, the
equation of the diluted species formulation, Equation 4-128, is obtained.

Theory for Moisture Transport in Porous Media

In a porous material, moisture may be present under vapor and liquid state, and
moisture transport occurs through convection and diffusion, liquid water being fixed
on the pores walls mainly in two ways:

• Adsorption: the vapor is fixed under molecular films on the pores walls. Equilibrium
vapor pressure is reached in the pores under thermodynamic conditions that are
significantly different than those necessary in a free medium. Thus saturation
conditions are changed, and the relative humidity is significantly changed as well,
becoming a relevant variable for the characterization of moisture content.
• Capillarity: when the porous matrix is wetted by liquid water, there is a pressure
difference between the liquid and gas (moist air) phases, due to the curvature of the
wetting interfaces in each pore. The pressure difference, called capillary pressure,

THEORY FOR MOISTURE TRANSPORT | 289

 becomes the driving potential for a further filling of the pores by the water. Note
that in some applications, the capillary pressure is replaced by the suction.

The predominance of adsorption or capillarity depends both on the amount of liquid

water present in the porous medium, and on the size and shape of the pores, and
should be defined in function of the material and process under study. Two moisture
regions can be distinguished:

• Hygroscopic region: adsorption is the predominant phenomenon, and the

equilibrium moisture content is better characterized from the relative humidity,
through the specification of a sorption curve. For relative humidity values below
0.95, the slope of the sorption curve is relatively small, and the moisture content
increases in a nearly linear way with relative humidity. Building materials are most of
the time in this moisture region. Above 0.95, a very small variation of relative
humidity induces a large variation of the moisture content, and the capillary pressure
is best suited to characterize the moisture content.
• Capillary water region: capillarity is the predominant phenomenon, and the
equilibrium moisture content is better characterized from the capillary pressure,
through the specification of a retention curve (the van Genuchten and Brooks &
Corey retention models for example).

The relative humidity and capillary pressure are called state variables: they describe the
thermodynamic state of water in the pore space under two phases in equilibrium. They
are related through Kelvin’s law, which is a relation of thermodynamical origin. As long
as equilibrium is satisfied, the state variables are continuous between two media (at the
interface between two porous media with different porosities, or between a porous and
a free medium), and Kelvin’s law is valid on both sides of the interface. In opposition,
the liquid saturation or the moisture content depend on the porous matrix.

Note that capillary transport of liquid water should be considered in both regions.

The Moisture Transport in Porous Media Interface is dedicated to the modeling of

porous media in the hygroscopic moisture region. The total moisture content is thus
defined by a sorption curve as

εp sl ρl + εp ρ ωv ( 1 – sl ) = w ( φw )
g

where the liquid saturation, sl, describes the amount of liquid water within the pores,
and εp (dimensionless) is the porosity.

290 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

By summing the mass conservation equations for liquid water and vapor, a single
equation for the transport of the total moisture can be written, in which the
evaporation and condensation source terms of each equation cancel out:

∂w ( φ w )
-------------------
- + ρ g u g ⋅ ∇ω v + ∇ ⋅ g w + u l ⋅ ∇ρ l + ∇ ⋅ g lc = G (4-130)
∂t

with the following material properties, fields, and source:

• w ( φ w ) (SI unit: kg/m3) is the total moisture content.

• φ w (dimensionless) is the relative humidity.
• ρg (SI unit: kg/m3) is the moist air density, defined from the dry air and vapor
densities, in function of the amount of vapor.
• ug (SI unit: m/s) is the moist air velocity field, that should be interpreted as the
Darcy velocity, that is, the volume flow rate per unit cross sectional area.
• ωv (dimensionless) is the vapor mass fraction in moist air, defined as

M v φ w c sat ( T )
ω v = -----------------------------------
ρg

• Μv (SI unit: kg/mol) is the molar mass of water vapor.

• csat (SI unit: mol/m3) is the vapor saturation concentration.
• T (SI unit: K) is the temperature.
• gw is the moisture diffusive flux is defined as:
g w = – ρ g D eff ∇ω v

• Deff (SI unit: m2/s) is the effective vapor diffusion coefficient in the porous
medium, computed from the diffusion coefficient in a free medium, and accounting
for the porosity and tortuosity of the porous medium.
• ul (SI unit: m/s) is the liquid water velocity field, defined from the absolute
pressure gradient by the Darcy’s law as:
κ rl κ
u l = – ----------- ∇p A
μl

• κrl (dimensionless) is the relative liquid water permeability, that may be defined as
a function of the liquid saturation.
• κ (SI unit: m2) is the porous medium permeability.

THEORY FOR MOISTURE TRANSPORT | 291

 • pA (SI unit: Pa) is the absolute pressure.
• ρl (SI unit: kg/m3) is the liquid water density, defined as a function of the
temperature.
• glc is the liquid water capillary flux, defined either from the capillary pressure
gradient by a Darcy’s law:
κ rl κ
g lc = ρ l ----------- ∇p c
μl

or by a diffusion equation using the relative humidity:

∂w ( φ w )
g lc = – D w -------------------- ∇φ w
∂φ w

• Dw (SI unit: m2/s) is the moisture diffusivity.

• pc is the capillary pressure, that can be related to the relative humidity using Kelvin’s
law:
RTρ l
p c = – -------------- ln ( φ w )
Mv

• G (SI unit: kg/(m3⋅s)) is a moisture source (or sink). See the Moisture Source node.

The moisture source due to evaporation may be obtained from the transport equation
for vapor:

∂ [ εp ρg ωv ( 1 – sl ) ]
G evap = ---------------------------------------------- + ρ g u g ⋅ ∇ω v + ∇ ⋅ g w
∂t

The corresponding latent heat source is defined as:

Q evap = L v G evap

where Lv is the latent heat of evaporation.

For a steady-state problem, the relative humidity does not change with time and the
first term in the moisture transport equation disappears.

Theory for Moisture Transport in Building Materials

By considering that building materials are in general surrounded by an environment of
constant atmospheric pressure and under a certain range of temperature and moisture

292 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

conditions, specific equations are proposed in Ref. 16 for moisture transport in this
kind of materials.

Starting from the equation for the transport of moisture in porous media (using the
diffusion model for capillary flux):

∂w ( φ w ) ∂w ( φ w )
- + ρ g u g ⋅ ∇ω v + ∇ ⋅ g w + u l ⋅ ∇ρ l + ∇ ⋅  – D w -------------------
------------------- - ∇φ w = G
∂t  ∂φ w 

let’s make the assumption that there is no variation of the ambient total pressure
(pA=1 atm). In this case, by defining the gas and liquid velocities ug and ul as Darcy
velocities, the convective fluxes for vapor and liquid water vanish:

∂w ( φ w ) ∂wφ w
- + ∇ ⋅  g w – D --------------
------------------- - ∇φ w = G
∂t  w ∂φ w 

By introducing the moisture storage capacity, ξ, defined as

∂w ( φ w )
ξ = --------------------
∂φ w

the equation reads

∂φ w
ξ ---------- + ∇ ⋅ ( g w – D w ξ ∇φ w ) = G
∂t

Finally, the diffusive flux for vapor can be written as:

Ma Mv pv
g w = – ρ g D eff ∇ω v = – ρ g D eff ∇ ------------------------------------------2- ------
( xa Ma + xv Mv ) A p

By making the approximation that xaMa+xvMv is constant, and that moist air is an
ideal gas, we have:

M v D eff Ma
g w = – ------------------- ------------------------------------------2- ∇p v
RH2 O ( x M + x M )
a a v v

The vapor permeability coefficient is then defined as

M v D eff Ma
δ p = ------------------- ------------------------------------------2-
RH2 O ( x M + x M )
a a v v

THEORY FOR MOISTURE TRANSPORT | 293

 The Moisture Transport in Building Materials Interface solves for the following
equation derived from Ref. 16:

∂φ w
ξ ---------- + ∇ ⋅ ( – ξ D w ∇φ w – δ p ∇ ( φ w p sat ( T ) ) ) = G (4-131)
∂t

This equation models the moisture transfer as the sum of the capillary moisture flux:

∂w
– D w ∇ ( w ( φ w ) ) = – D w ---------- ∇φ w = – ξD w ∇φ w
∂φ w

and the vapor diffusion flux:

δ p ∇p v ( T ) = δ p ∇ ( φ w p sat ( T ) )

with the following material properties, fields, and source:

• ξ (SI unit: kg/m3) is the moisture storage capacity.

• δp (SI unit: s) is the vapor permeability.
• φ w (dimensionless) is the relative humidity.
• psat (SI unit: Pa) is the vapor saturation pressure.
• T (SI unit: K) is the temperature.
• Dw (SI unit: m2/s) is the moisture diffusivity.
• G (SI unit: kg/m3·s) is the moisture source.

294 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

Theory for the Heat Transfer
Multiphysics Couplings
In this section:

• Theory for the Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer Interfaces
• Theory for the Moisture Flow Interface
• Theory for the Thermoelectric Effect Interface
• Theory for the Building Materials Version of the Heat and Moisture Transport
Interface
• Theory for the Moist Air Version of the Heat and Moisture Transport Interface
• Theory for the Moist Porous Media Version of the Heat and Moisture Transport
Interface
• Theory for the Heat and Moisture Flow Interfaces
• Theory for the Electromagnetic Heating Interfaces
• Theory for the Thermal Stress Interface

Theory for the Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer

Interfaces
The following points of the theory of Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat
Transfer are discussed in this part:

• The Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer Equations

• Turbulent Nonisothermal Flow Theory
• Theory for the Nonisothermal Screen Boundary Condition
• Theory for the Interior Fan Boundary Condition

See Theory for the Single-Phase Flow Interfaces and Theory for the Turbulent Flow
Interfaces in the CFD Module User’s Guide for a description of the theory related to
laminar and turbulent single-phase flow interfaces.

THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS | 295

 THE NONISOTHERMAL FLOW AND CONJUGATE HEAT TRANSFER
EQUATIONS
In industrial applications it is common that the density of a process fluid varies. These
variations can have a number of different sources but the most common one is the
presence of an inhomogeneous temperature field. This module includes the
Nonisothermal Flow predefined multiphysics coupling to simulate systems in which
the density varies with temperature.

Other situations where the density might vary includes chemical reactions, for instance
where reactants associate or dissociate.

The Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer interfaces contain the fully
compressible formulation of the continuity and momentum equations:

∂ρ
------ + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = 0
∂t
(4-132)
∂u
ρ ------- + ρu ⋅ ∇u = – ∇p + ∇ ⋅ τ + F
∂t

where

• ρ is the density (SI unit: kg/m3)

• u is the velocity vector (SI unit: m/s)
• p is the pressure (SI unit: Pa)
• τ is the viscous stress tensor (SI unit: Pa), equal for a compressible fluid to:
2
τ = μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I
3

• μ is the dynamic viscosity (SI unit: Pa·s)

• F is the body force vector (SI unit: N/m3)

It also solves the heat equation, which for a fluid is given in Equation 4-18 by

∂T ∂p
ρC p  ------- + u ⋅ ∇ T + ∇ ⋅ ( q + q r ) = α p T  + u ⋅ ∇p + τ: ∇u + Q
 ∂t  ∂t

where in addition to the quantities above

• Cp is the specific heat capacity at constant pressure (SI unit: J/(kg·K))

• T is the absolute temperature (SI unit: K)
• q is the heat flux by conduction (SI unit: W/m2)

296 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

• qr is the heat flux by radiation (SI unit: W/m2)
• αp is the coefficient of thermal expansion (SI unit: 1/K):

1 ∂ρ
α p = – ---
ρ∂T

• Q contains heat sources other than viscous heating (SI unit: W/m3)

The work done by pressure changes term

∂p
Q p = α p T  ------ + u ⋅ ∇ p
 ∂t 

and the viscous heating term

Q vd = τ: ∇u

are not included by default because they are usually negligible. These terms can,
however, be added by selecting corresponding check boxes in the Nonisothermal Flow
feature.

The physics interface also supports heat transfer in solids (Equation 4-16):

∂T
ρC p  ------- + u trans ⋅ ∇ T + ∇ ⋅ ( q + q r ) = Q ted + Q
∂t

where Qted is the thermoelastic damping heat source (SI unit: W/(m3)). This term is
not included by default but must be added by selecting the corresponding check box.

• The Heat Balance Equation

• Turbulent Nonisothermal Flow Theory

TURBULENT NONISOTHERMAL FLOW THEORY

Turbulent energy transport is conceptually more complicated than energy transport in
laminar flows because the turbulence is also a form of energy.

Equations for compressible turbulence are derived using the Favre average. The Favre
˜
average of a variable T is denoted T and is defined by

˜ ρT
T = -------
ρ
where the bar denotes the usual Reynolds average. The full field is then decomposed as

THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS | 297

 ˜
T = T + T″

With this notation the energy balance equation becomes

˜ ˜ ˜ u˜ 
∂  ρE
˜ u i u i ρu i ″u i ″ ∂  ρu˜  ˜ + u i i ˜ ρu i ″u i ″
  + ----------- + -------------------- +  j  H ----------- + u j -------------------- = (4-133)
∂t  2  2  ∂ xj  2  2 

∂  – q – ρu ″H″ τ u ″ ρu j ″u i ″u i ″ ∂ ( u˜ ( – ρu ″u ″ ) )
+ ij i – ----------------------------- + τ
∂ xj j j 2 ∂ x j i ij i j

where H is the enthalpy. The vector

∂T
q j = – λ ------- (4-134)
∂x j

is the laminar conductive heat flux and

∂u i ∂u j 2 ∂u k
τ ij = μ  -------- + -------- – --- μ --------- δ ij
 ∂x j ∂x i  3 ∂x k

is the laminar, viscous stress tensor. Notice that the thermal conductivity is denoted λ.

The modeling assumptions are in large part analogous to those for incompressible
turbulence modeling. The stress tensor

– ρu i''u'' j

is modeled using the Boussinesq approximation:

˜
T  ∂u˜i ∂u˜ j 2 ∂u k 2
– ρu i ″u j ″ = ρτ ij = μ T  -------- + -------- – --- μ --------- δ ij – --- ρkδ ij (4-135)
 ∂x j ∂x i  3 ∂x k 3

where k is the turbulent kinetic energy, which in turn is defined by

1
ρk = --- ρu i ″u i ″ (4-136)
2

The correlation between uj″ and H″ in Equation 4-133 is the turbulent transport of
heat. It is modeled analogously to the laminar conductive heat flux

˜ μ T C p ∂T ˜
T ∂T
ρu j ″H″ = q j = – λ T ------- = – -------------- ------- (4-137)
∂x j Pr T ∂x j

298 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

The molecular diffusion term,

τ ij u i ″

and turbulent transport term,

ρu j ″u i ″u i ″
----------------------------
-
2

are modeled by a generalization of the molecular diffusion and turbulent transport

terms found in the incompressible k equation

ρu j ″u i ″u i ″ μ T ∂k
τ ij u i ″ – ----------------------------- =  μ + ------ ------- (4-138)
2  σ k ∂x j

Inserting Equation 4-134, Equation 4-135, Equation 4-136, Equation 4-137 and
Equation 4-138 into Equation 4-133 gives

˜ ˜ ˜ u˜
∂ ρE ˜ ui ui  ∂  ρu˜  ˜ + u i i 
  + ----------- + k  +  j  H ----------- + k  = (4-139)
∂ t  2   ∂ xj  2 
∂  q μ T ∂k ∂ u˜
– j – q j +  μ + ------ ------- +
T T
( ( τ + ρτ ij ) )
∂ xj   σ k ∂x j ∂ x j i ij

The Favre average can also be applied to the momentum equation, which, using
Equation 4-135, can be written

∂ ρu˜ ∂ ρu˜ ˜ ∂p ∂ τ T
( i) + ( j u i ) = – ------- + ( + ρτ ij ) (4-140)
∂t ∂ xj ∂x j ∂ x j ij

Taking the inner product between u˜ i and Equation 4-140 results in an equation for
the resolved kinetic energy, which can be subtracted from Equation 4-139 with the
following result:

∂ (ρ(E ˜ ˜
+ k ) ) + ∂ ( ρu˜ j ( E + k ) ) = (4-141)
∂t ∂ xj
∂ũ j ∂  μ T ∂k
– q j – q j +  μ + ------ ------- + ∂ ( u˜i ( τ ij + ρτ ij ) )
T T
–p + 
∂ xj ∂ xj  σ k ∂x j ∂ xj

where the relation

THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS | 299

 ˜ ˜ p
H = E + ---
ρ
has been used.

According to Wilcox (Ref. 27), it is usually a good approximation to neglect the

contributions of k for flows with Mach numbers up to the supersonic range. This gives
the following approximation of Equation 4-141:

˜
∂ ( ρE ˜ ∂ũ j ∂
) + ∂ ( ρu˜ j E ) = – p
T ∂ u˜ T
+ ( – qj – qj ) + ( ( τ + ρτ ij ) ) (4-142)
∂t ∂ xj ∂ xj ∂ xj ∂ x j i ij

Larsson (Ref. 28) suggests to make the split

τ ij = τ˜ij + τ ij ″

Since

τ˜ij » τ ij ″

for all applications of engineering interest, it follows that

τ ij ≈ τ˜ij

and consequently

˜
˜
∂ ( ρE ˜ ∂ũ j ∂  ∂T 
) + ∂ ( ρu˜ j E ) = – p ∂ ( u˜ tot )
+  ( λ + λ T ) ------- + τ̃ (4-143)
∂t ∂ xj ∂ xj ∂ xj  ∂x j ∂ x j i ij

where

˜
tot  ∂u˜ i ∂u˜ j 2 ∂u k 
τ̃ ij = ( μ + μ T )  -------- + -------- – --- --------- δ ij
 ∂x j ∂x i 3 ∂x k 

Equation 4-143 is completely analogous to the laminar energy equation of

Equation 4-15 and can be expanded using the same theory to get the temperature
equation similar to Equation 4-18 (see for example Ref. 28):

˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
∂T ∂T ∂  λ λ ------
∂T  1  ∂ρ  ˜ ∂p ˜ ∂p ˜ ∂u i
ρC p ------- + ρC p u˜ j ------- +  – ( + T ) - = – ---  ------˜- T  ------ + u j ------- + τ ij --------
∂t ∂x j ∂ x j  ∂x j ρ  ∂T ∂t ∂x j ∂x j
p

300 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

which is the temperature equation solved in the turbulent Nonisothermal Flow and
Conjugate Heat Transfer interfaces.

Turbulent Conductivity

Kays-Crawford This is a relatively exact model for PrT, while still quite simple. In
Ref. 29, it is compared to other models for PrT and found to be a good approximation
for most kinds of turbulent wall bounded flows except for turbulent flow of liquid
metals. The model is given by

 1 0.3C p μ T 0.3C p μ T 2 λ  –1
Pr T =  ----------------- + ----------------------- –  -----------------------  1 – exp  – ------------------------------------------   (4-144)
 2Pr T∞ λ Pr T∞  λ    0.3C μ Pr   
p T T∞

where the Prandtl number at infinity is PrT∞ = 0.85 and λ is the conductivity.

Extended Kays-Crawford Weigand and others (Ref. 30) suggested an extension of

Equation 4-144 to liquid metals by introducing

100λ
Pr T∞ = 0.85 + -------------------------------
-
C p μRe ∞0.888

where Re∞, the Reynolds number at infinity must be provided either as a constant or
as a function of the flow field. This is entered in the Model Inputs section of the Fluid
feature.

Temperature Wall Functions

Analogous to the single-phase flow wall functions (see Wall Functions described for the
Wall boundary condition), there is a theoretical gap between the solid wall and the
computational domain for the fluid and temperature fields. This gap is often ignored
when the computational geometry is drawn.

The heat flux between the fluid with temperature Tf and a wall with temperature Tw, is:

ρC p u τ ( T w – T f )
q wf = -----------------------------------------
+
-
T

where ρ is the fluid density, Cp is the fluid heat capacity, and uτ is the friction velocity.
T+ is the dimensionless temperature and is given by (Ref. 31):

THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS | 301

  + + +
 Prδ w for δ w < δ w1

 2 / 3 – 500 + + +
---------- for δ w1 ≤ δ w < δ w2
T =  15Pr
+
δw +2

 Pr T
 ---------- ln δ +w + β +
for δ w2 ≤ δ w
+
 κ

where in turn

+ δ w ρ C μ1 / 2 k + 10
δ w = ------------------------------- δ w1 = --------------
μ Pr 1 / 3
+ κ Cp μ
δ w2 = 10 10 ---------- Pr = -----------
Pr T λ
Pr T κ
β = 15Pr 2 / 3 – ----------  1 + ln  1000 ---------- 
2κ   Pr T 

λ is the thermal conductivity, and κ is the von Karman constant equal to 0.41.

The distance between the computational fluid domain and the wall, δw, is always hw/2
for automatic wall treatment where hw is the height of the mesh cell adjacent to the
wall. hw/2 is almost always very small compared to any geometrical quantity of interest,
at least if a boundary layer mesh is used. For wall function, δw is at least hw/2 and can
be bigger if necessary to keep δw+ higher than 11.06. The computational results should
be checked so that the distance between the computational fluid domain and the wall,
δw, is everywhere small compared to any geometrical quantity of interest. The distance
δw is available for evaluation on boundaries.

THEORY FOR THE NONISOTHERMAL SCREEN BOUNDARY CONDITION

When the Nonisothermal Flow multiphysics coupling feature is active, the conditions
that apply across a screen in isothermal flow are complemented by:

+
[ H0 ]- = 0 (4-145)

where H0 is the total enthalpy.

• See Screen for the feature node details.

• Also see Screen boundary condition described for the single-phase flow
interfaces.

302 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

THEORY FOR THE INTERIOR FAN BOUNDARY CONDITION
When the Nonisothermal Flow multiphysics coupling feature is active, the conditions
that apply across an interior fan are complemented by:

• If direction is Along normal vector, the outlet temperature Tavg is defined by:

 

 down ( u ⋅ nρC p ) dS T avg =
   down ( u ⋅ nρCp T ) dS
Γ Γ

• If the direction is opposite to normal vector, the outlet temperature Tavg is defined
by:

 

 up ( u ⋅ nρC p ) dS T avg =
   up ( u ⋅ nρCp T ) dS
Γ Γ

Theory for the Moisture Flow Interface

The following points of the theory of Moisture Flow are discussed in this part:

• The Moisture Flow Equations

• Stefan Flow at Walls
• Turbulent Moisture Flow Theory
• Theory for the Screen Boundary Condition in Moisture Flow
• Theory for the Interior Fan Boundary Condition in Moisture Flow

See Theory for the Single-Phase Flow Interfaces and Theory for the Turbulent Flow
Interfaces in the CFD Module User’s Guide for a description of the theory related to
laminar and turbulent single-phase flow interfaces.

THE MOISTURE FLOW EQUATIONS

This module includes the Moisture Flow predefined multiphysics coupling to simulate
systems in which the airflow depends on moisture content through its density and
viscosity. It can be used in free and hygroscopic porous media containing moist air.

The density and viscosity of air might also vary due to temperature variations. See
Theory for the Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer Interfaces for details
on this other kind of dependency.

The Moisture Flow interface contains the fully compressible formulation of the
continuity and momentum equations. For laminar flow they read:

THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS | 303

 ∂ρ
--------g- + ∇ ⋅ ( ρ g u ) = 0
∂t
(4-146)
∂u
ρ g ------- + ρ g u ⋅ ∇u = – ∇p + ∇ ⋅ τ + F
∂t

where

• ρg is the moist air density (SI unit: kg/m3)

• u is the velocity vector (SI unit: m/s)
• p is the pressure (SI unit: Pa)
• τ is the viscous stress tensor (SI unit: Pa), equal for a compressible fluid to:
2
τ = μ g ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I
3

• μg is the moist air dynamic viscosity (SI unit: Pa·s)

• F is the body force vector (SI unit: N/m3)

It also solves the equation for moisture transport in air, given in Equation 4-128 by

∂c v
M v --------- + M v u ⋅ ∇c v + ∇ ⋅ g w = G
∂t

where

• Mv is the molar mass of water vapor (SI unit: kg/mol)

• cv is the vapor concentration (SI unit: mol/m3)
• gw is the moisture flux by diffusion (SI unit: kg/(m2·s)):
g w = – M v D ∇c v

• D (SI unit: m2/s) is the vapor diffusion coefficient in air.

• G contains moisture sources (SI unit: kg/(m3·s))

When the spatial and temporal variations of the vapor concentration induce significant
variations of the moist air density, the moisture content variation is expressed through
the transport of vapor mass fraction, ωv, defined as:

Mv cv
ω v = --------------
ρg

The equation for moisture transport in air is then expressed as follows:

304 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

 ∂ω v
ρ g ---------- + ρ g u ⋅ ∇ω v + ∇ ⋅ g w = G
∂t

with

g w = – ρ g D ∇ω v

STEFAN FLOW AT WALLS

Surface reactions like evaporation and condensation result in a net moisture flux gw
between the boundary and the domain. The resulting effective velocity at the
boundary is the Stefan velocity uStefan, defined as

ρ g u Stefan = n ⋅ g w

The Moisture Flow interface allows to use the Stefan velocity as a leakage velocity at
walls in the fluid flow equations.

TURBULENT MOISTURE FLOW THEORY

The Favre average c˜v of the vapor concentration cv is defined by

ρg cv
c˜v = -----------
ρg

where the bar denotes the usual Reynolds average. The full field can be decomposed
as the sum of the Favre average and the Favre fluctuation:

c v = c˜v + c v ″

By applying this decomposition and averaging the moisture transport equations,

unclosed terms are introduced in the equations. Among them, the turbulent moisture
transport flux contains the velocity and vapor concentration fluctuations:

∂c v ″
u j ″ -----------
∂x j

This flux is modeled using a gradient based assumption, where the additional transport
is related to the turbulent viscosity νT through the turbulent Schmidt number ScT.
The turbulent diffusivity DT is defined by

νT
D T = ----------
Sc T

THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS | 305

 The following moisture transport equation is solved:

∂c˜v ∂c˜v ∂  ∂c˜v

M v -------- + M v u˜ j -------- + M v  – ( D + D T ) -------- = G (4-147)
∂t ∂x j ∂ xj  ∂x j 

Kays-Crawford Model for Turbulent Diffusivity

By analogy with turbulent heat transfer, the turbulent Schmidt number ScT is given by
(Ref. 29)

 1 0.3μ T Sc μ T Sc 2 μ  –1
Sc T =  ----------------- + ----------------------- –  0.3 -------------  1 – exp  – -----------------------------------------   (4-148)
 2Sc T∞ μ Sc T∞  μ    0.3μ Sc Sc   
T T∞

where the Schmidt number at infinity is ScT∞ = 0.85 and the Schmidt number is
defined as

ν
Sc = ----
D

where ν is the kinematic viscosity.

Moisture Transport Wall Functions

Analogous to the single-phase flow wall functions (see Wall Functions described for the
Wall boundary condition), there is a theoretical gap between the solid wall and the
computational domain for the fluid and relative humidity fields. This gap is often
ignored when the computational geometry is drawn.

Assuming that the turbulent heat and moisture transfer in the near-wall region are
analogous, the same type of wall functions used for the temperature (Ref. 31) is also
applicable for the moisture transport. The moisture transfer wall function is formulated
as a function of the turbulent Schmidt number, instead of the corresponding Prandtl
number.

The moisture flux at the lift-off position between the air with vapor mass fraction ωv,a
and a wall with vapor mass fraction ωv,w, is:

ρ g u τ ( ω v, w – ω v, a )
g wf = -----------------------------------------------
-
ωw +

where uτ is the friction velocity, and ω w

+ is the dimensionless mass fraction given by

(Ref. 31):

306 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

  + + +
 Scδ w for δ w < δ w1

 2 / 3 – 500 + + +
---------- for δ w1 ≤ δ w < δ w2
φw
+ =  15Sc δw +2

 Sc T
 ---------- ln δ +w + β +
for δ w2 ≤ δ w
+
 κ

where in turn

+ δ w ρ C μ1 / 2 k + 10 -
δ w = ------------------------------- δ w1 = -------------
μ Sc 1 / 3
+ κ μ
δ w2 = 10 10 ---------- Sc = --------
Sc T ρD
Sc T κ
β = 15Sc 2 / 3 – ----------  1 + ln  1000 ---------- 
2κ   Sc T 

where κ is the von Karman constant equal to 0.41, Cμ is a turbulence modeling

constant, and k is the turbulent kinetic energy.

The distance between the computational fluid domain and the wall, δw, is always hw/2
for automatic wall treatment where hw is the height of the mesh cell adjacent to the
wall. hw/2 is almost always very small compared to any geometrical quantity of interest,
at least if a boundary layer mesh is used. For wall function, δw is at least hw/2 and can
be bigger if necessary to keep δw+ higher than 11.06. The computational results should
be checked so that the distance between the computational fluid domain and the wall,
δw, is everywhere small compared to any geometrical quantity of interest. The distance
δw is available for evaluation on boundaries.

THEORY FOR THE SCREEN BOUNDARY CONDITION IN MOISTURE FLOW

When the Moisture Flow multiphysics coupling feature is active, the conditions that
apply across a screen in moisture flow are complemented by:

+
[ cv ]- = 0 (4-149)

THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS | 307

 to ensure mass conservation.

• See Screen for the feature node details.

• Also see Screen boundary condition described for the single-phase flow
interfaces.

THEORY FOR THE INTERIOR FAN BOUNDARY CONDITION IN MOISTURE

FLOW
When the Moisture Flow multiphysics coupling feature is active, the conditions that
apply across an interior fan are complemented by:

• If direction is Along normal vector, the outlet vapor concentration cavg is defined
by:
 

 down ( ρ g u ⋅ n ) dS c avg =
   down ( ρg u ⋅ ncv ) dS
Γ Γ

• If the direction is opposite to normal vector, the outlet vapor concentration cavg is
defined by:
 

 up ( ρ g u ⋅ n ) dS c avg =
   up ( ρg u ⋅ ncv ) dS
Γ Γ

Theory for the Thermoelectric Effect Interface

The Thermoelectric Effect Interface implements thermoelectric effect, which is the
direct conversion of temperature differences to electric voltage or vice versa. Devices
such as thermoelectric coolers for electronic cooling or portable refrigerators rely on
this effect. While Joule heating (resistive heating) is an irreversible phenomenon, the
thermoelectric effect is, in principle, reversible.

Historically, the thermoelectric effect is known by three different names, reflecting its
discovery in experiments by Seebeck, Peltier, and Thomson. The Seebeck effect is the
conversion of temperature differences into electricity, the Peltier effect is the
conversion of electricity to temperature differences, and the Thomson effect is heat
produced by the product of current density and temperature gradients. These effects
are thermodynamically related by the Thomson relations:

P = ST

308 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

 dS
μ Th = T
dT

where P is the Peltier coefficient (SI unit: V), S is the Seebeck coefficient
(SI unit: V/K), T is the temperature (SI unit: K), and μTh is the Thomson coefficient
(SI unit: V/K). These relations show that all coefficients can be considered different
descriptions of one and the same quantity. The COMSOL formulation primarily uses
the Seebeck coefficient. The Peltier coefficient is also used as an intermediate variable,
but the Thomson coefficient is not used.

When simulating the thermoelectric effect, the following fluxes are the quantities of
interest:

• Conductive heat flux q, defined by

q = – k∇T + PJ (4-150)

• Electric current density J, defined by

J = – σ ( ∇V + S∇T ) (4-151)

Thermoelectric efficiency is measured by the figure of merit Z (SI unit: 1/K), defined
as:

S2 σ
Z = ----------
k

where σ is the electrical conductivity and k the thermal conductivity.

Some other quantities of relevance are the electric field E and the Joule heat source Q:

E = – ∇V

Q = J⋅E

From these definitions, conservation of heat energy and electrical current in an

immobile solid reads:

∂T
ρC p +∇⋅q = Q
∂t

∇ ⋅ J = Qj

where ρ is the density, Cp the heat capacity, and Qj is the current source.

THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS | 309

 HOW THE SEEBECK, PELTIER, AND THOMSON EFFECTS ARE INCLUDED
IN THE GENERAL FORMULATION
The general formulation of thermoelectric effect redefines the heat flux and the electric
current according to Equation 4-150 and Equation 4-151, respectively. This
formulation does not necessarily correspond to the formulation used when only a
particular aspect of thermoelectric effect is considered: Seebeck, Peltier, or Thomson.
This paragraph describes how these separated effects can be recognized in the general
formulation.

Seebeck Effect
The Seebeck effect is described as the conversion of temperature gradient into electric
current. The contribution of the Seebeck effect is defined as a current contribution

J Se = – σS∇T

This formulation corresponds directly to Equation 4-151 used in the general

formulation.

Peltier Effect
The Peltier effect is described as the conversion of t electric current in heat source or
sink. It is defined as an heat source contribution

Q Pe = – P∇ ⋅ J

This contribution is obtained by developing the divergence of q term in the heat

equation when q is defined following Equation 4-150.

Thomson Effect
The Thomson effect defines the heat source induced by a current in presence of a
temperature gradient in thermoelectric material. The heat source is defined by

Q Th = – μ Th J ⋅ ∇T

This contribution is obtained again by developing the divergence of the q term in the
heat equation when q is defined following Equation 4-150. This time consider the
term −TJ ⋅ ∇S. Assuming that S is function of T, then:

dS
– TJ ⋅ ∇S = – T J ⋅ ∇T = – μ Th J ⋅ ∇T
dT

310 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

Theory for the Building Materials Version of the Heat and Moisture
Transport Interface
The Building Materials version of the Heat and Moisture multiphysics coupling
implements the following equations for heat and moisture transport, derived from
Ref. 16:

∂T
( ρC p ) eff ------- + ∇ ⋅ ( – k eff ∇T – L v δ p ∇( φ w p sat ) ) = Q (4-152)
∂t

∂φ w
ξ ---------- + ∇ ⋅ ( – ξ D w ∇φ w – δ p ∇( φ w p sat ) ) = G (4-153)
∂t

See Theory for Heat Transfer in Building Materials and Theory for Moisture Transport
in Building Materials for more details about the notations.

The heat transfer and moisture transport equations are coupled through:

• the definition of the effective thermal properties accounting for moisture content,
• the definition of the latent heat source from the evaporation source in domains,
• the definition of the vapor saturation in function of the temperature.

Theory for the Moist Air Version of the Heat and Moisture Transport
Interface
The Moist Air version of the Heat and Moisture multiphysics coupling implements the
following equations in domains for heat and moisture transport:

∂T
ρ g C p ------- + ρ g C p u ⋅ ∇T + ∇ ⋅ q = Q (4-154)
∂t

q = – k∇T (4-155)

Q = – ( C p, v – C p, a )g w (4-156)

∂c v
M v -------- + M v u ⋅ ∇c v + ∇ ⋅ g w = G (4-157)
∂t

g w = – M v D ∇c v (4-158)

c v = φ w c sat (4-159)

THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS | 311

 See Theory for Heat Transfer in Moist Air and Theory for Moisture Transport in Air
for more details about the notations.

In addition, on boundaries where evaporation or condensation takes place, the

following equation is solved:

q evap = L v g evap (4-160)

The heat transfer and moisture transport equations are coupled through:

• the definition of the effective thermal properties accounting for vapor concentration
in moist air,
• the definition of the diffusive flux of enthalpy (Equation 4-156),
• the definition of the latent heat source from the evaporation source on surfaces
(Equation 4-160),
• the definition of the vapor saturation in function of the temperature
(Equation 4-159).

Theory for the Moist Porous Media Version of the Heat and Moisture
Transport Interface
The Moist Porous Media version of the Heat and Moisture multiphysics coupling
implements the following equations in domains for heat and moisture transport:

∂T
( ρC p ) eff ------- + ( ρ g C p, g u g + ρ l C p, l u l ) ⋅ ∇T + ∇ ⋅ q = Q + Q evap (4-161)
∂t

q = – k eff ∇T (4-162)

Q = – [ ( C p, v – C p, a )g w + C p, l g lc ] (4-163)

Q evap = L v G evap (4-164)

∂w ( φ w )
-------------------- + ρ g u g ⋅ ∇ω v + ∇ ⋅ g w + u l ⋅ ∇ρ l + ∇ ⋅ g lc = G (4-165)
∂t

g w = – ρ g D eff ∇ω v (4-166)

∂ [ εp ρg ωv ( 1 – sl ) ]
G evap = ---------------------------------------------- + ρ g u g ⋅ ∇ω v + ∇ ⋅ g w (4-167)
∂t

312 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

See Theory for Heat Transfer in Moist Porous Media and Theory for Moisture
Transport in Porous Media for more details about the notations.

The heat transfer and moisture transport equations are coupled through:

• the definition of the effective thermal properties accounting for moisture content in
liquid and gas phases,
• the liquid water saturation and velocity field used to defined the convective heat
flux,
• the diffusive flux of enthalpy in moist air and the liquid capillary flux
(Equation 4-163)
• the definition of the latent heat source from the evaporation source in domains
(Equation 4-164),
• the definition of the vapor saturation in function of the temperature.

Theory for the Heat and Moisture Flow Interfaces

The theory for the equations of heat transfer and moisture transport by laminar and
turbulent air flows can be found in Theory for the Moisture Flow Interface and Theory
for the Moist Air Version of the Heat and Moisture Transport Interface.

Theory for the Electromagnetic Heating Interfaces

COMSOL Multiphysics provides four multiphysics interfaces for handling
electromagnetic heating in the Heat Transfer interfaces:

• The Joule Heating Interface

• The Laser Heating Interface (requires the Wave Optics Module)
• The Induction Heating Interface (requires the AC/DC Module for 3D models)
• The Microwave Heating Interface (requires the RF Module)

They all have in common the multiphysics coupling feature Electromagnetic Heating,
which adds weak contributions due to resistive losses in the domains and boundaries,
and shares the temperature variable with the electromagnetics interfaces. The
underlying theory can be found in the AC/DC Module User’s Guide, RF Module
User’s Guide, and Wave Optics Module User’s Guide.

THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS | 313

 Theory for the Thermal Stress Interface
In the Structural Mechanics interfaces, two multiphysics interfaces handle thermal
stress:

• The Thermal Stress, Solid Interface

• The Joule Heating and Thermal Expansion Interface

Both require the Structural Mechanics Module. They have in common the use of the
Thermal Expansion multiphysics coupling that models temperature dependence of the
strain tensor and thermoelastic damping. For more details about the underlying
theory, see the Structural Mechanics Module User’s Guide.

314 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

Theory for Thermal Contact
Theory for the Thermal Contact Feature
The Thermal Contact feature node has correlations to evaluate the joint conductance
at two contacting surfaces.

The heat fluxes at the upside and downside boundaries depend on the temperature
difference according to the relations:

– n d ⋅ ( – k d ∇T d ) = – h ( T u – T d ) + rQ b

– n u ⋅ ( – k u ∇T u ) = – h ( T d – T u ) + ( 1 – r )Q b

At a microscopic level, contact is made at a finite number of spots as in Figure 4-23.

masp,u asp,u
Y

Figure 4-23: Contacting surfaces at the microscopic level.

The joint conductance h has three contributions: the constriction conductance, hc,
from the contact spots, the gap conductance, hg, due to the fluid at the interstitial
space, and the radiative conductance, hr:

h = hc + hg + hr

SURFACE ASPERITIES
The microscopic surface asperities are characterized by the average height σu, asp and
σd, asp and the average slope mu, asp and md, asp. The RMS values σasp and masp are
(4.16 in Ref. 1):

σ asp = σ u2, asp + σ d2, asp m asp = m u2, asp + m d2, asp

THEORY FOR THERMAL CONTACT | 315

 CONSTRICTION CONDUCTANCE

Cooper-Mikic-Yovanovich (CMY) Correlation

The Cooper-Mikic-Yovanovich (CMY) correlation is valid for isotropic rough surfaces
and has been formulated using a model assuming plastic deformation of the surface
asperities. However, this model does not compute nor store the plastic deformations
of the asperities. It means that, despite that a plastic deformation of the asperities is
assumed, this contact model has no memory. For example, if a load is applied twice the
thermal contact is identical in both cases. The Cooper-Mikic-Yovanovich (CMY)
correlation relates hc to the asperities and pressure load at the contact interface:

m asp p 0.95
h c = 1.25k contact -------------  -------
σ asp H c

Here, Hc is the microhardness of the softer material, p is the contact pressure, and
kcontact is the harmonic mean of the contacting surface conductivities:

2k u k d
k contact = -------------------
ku + kd

When ku (resp. kd) is not isotropic, it is replaced by its normal

conductivity nTkun (resp. nTkdn).

The relative pressure p ⁄ Hc can be evaluated by specifying Hc directly or using the

following relation (4.16.1 in Ref. 1) for the relative pressure using c1 and c2, the
Vickers correlation coefficient and size index:

  -----------------------------------
1
p-  p  ( 1 + 0.071c 2 )
------ =  -----------------------------------------------------
-
Hc   σ asp  
c2
c
 1 1.62 -----------
- m
σ 0 asp 

The coefficients c1 and c2 are the Vickers correlation coefficient and size index,
respectively, and σ0 is equal to 1 µm. For materials with Brinell hardness between 1.30
and 7.60 GPa, c1 and c2 are given by the correlation below (4.16.1 in Ref. 1):

c1 HB HB 2 HB 3
------- = 4.0 – 5.77 -------- + 4.0  -------- – 0.61  --------
H0 H0  H0   H0 

316 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

 HB
c 2 = – 0.37 + 0.442 --------
c1

The Brinell hardness is denoted by HB, and H0 is equal to 3.178 GPa.

Mikic Elastic Correlation

The Mikic correlation is valid for isotropic rough surfaces and assumes elastic
deformations of surface asperities. It gives hc by the following relation:

m asp 0.94
h c = 1.54k contact -------------  ------------------------
2p
σ asp mE contact

Here, Econtact is an effective Young’s modulus for the contact interface, satisfying
(4.16.3 in Ref. 1):

1 - 1 – ν u2 1 – ν d2
------------------ = --------------- + ---------------
E contact Eu Ed

where Eu and Ed are the Young’s moduli of the two contacting surfaces and νu and νd
are the Poisson’s ratios.

GAP CONDUCTANCE
The gap conductance due to interstitial fluid cannot be neglected for high fluid
thermal conductivity or high contact pressure. The parallel-plate gap gas correlation
assumes that the interstitial fluid is a gas and defines hg by:

kg
h g = ------------------
Y + Mg

Here kg is the gas conductivity, Y denotes the mean separation thickness (see
Figure 4-23), and Mg is the gas parameter equal to:

kB Tg
M g = αβΛ Λ = ------------------------
2
-
2πD p g

In these relations, α is the contact thermal accommodation parameter, β is a gas

property parameter (equal to 1.7 for air), Λ is the gas mean free path, kB is the
Boltzmann constant, D is the average gas particle diameter, pg is the gas pressure
(often the atmospheric pressure), and Tg is the gap temperature equal to:

THEORY FOR THERMAL CONTACT | 317

 Tu + Td
T g = --------------------
2

The mean separation thickness, Y, is a function of the contact pressure, p. For low
values of p near 0 Pa, Y goes to infinity since no contact occur. For high values of p —
greater than Hc ⁄2 in the Cooper-Mikic-Yovanovich model and greater than Hc ⁄4 in
the Mikic elastic model — Y reduces to 0 meaning that the contact is considered as
perfect.

RADIATIVE CONDUCTANCE
At high temperatures, above 600°C, radiative conductance needs to be considered.
The gray-diffuse parallel plate model provides the following formula for hr:

εu εd
h r = ----------------------------------- σ ( T u3 + T u2 T d + T u T d2 + T d3 )
εu + εd – εu εd

which implies that:

εu εd
h r ( T u – T d ) = ----------------------------------- σ ( T u4 – T d4 )
εu + εd – εu εd

εu εd
h r ( T d – T u ) = ----------------------------------- σ ( T d4 – T u4 )
εu + εd – εu εd

THERMAL FRICTION
The friction heat, Qb, is partitioned into rQb and (1 − r)Qb at the contact interface. If
the two bodies are identical, r and (1 − r) would be 0.5 so that half of the friction heat
goes to each surface. However, in the general case where the two bodies are made of
different materials, the partition rate might not be 0.5. The Charron’s relation (Ref. 2)
defines r as:

1 ρ u C p, u k u
r = --------------- ξd = -------------------------
1 + ξd ρ d C p, d k d

and symmetrically, (1 − r) is:

1 ρ d C p, d k d
( 1 – r ) = --------------- ξu = -------------------------
1 + ξu ρ u C p, u k u

318 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

For anisotropic conductivities, nTkdn (resp. nTkun) replaces kd (resp. ku).

Thermal Contact

Contact Switch: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Contact_and_Friction/contact_switch

REFERENCES
1. A. Bejan and others, Heat Transfer Handbook, John Wiley & Sons, 2003.

2. F. Charron, “Partage de la chaleur entre deux corps frottants,” Publication

Scientifique et Technique du Ministère de l’Air, no. 182, 1943.

THEORY FOR THERMAL CONTACT | 319

 Out-of-Plane Heat Transfer
When the object to model in COMSOL Multiphysics is thin or slender enough along
one of its geometry dimensions, there is usually only a small variation in temperature
along the object’s thickness or cross section. For such objects, it is computationally
more efficient to reduce the model geometry to 2D or even 1D and to use the
out-of-plane heat transfer mechanism. Figure 4-24 shows examples of possible
situations in which this type of geometry reduction can be applied.

qup

qdown

Figure 4-24: Geometry reduction from 3D to 1D (top) and from 3D to 2D (bottom).

The reduced geometry does not include all the boundaries of the original 3D
geometry. For example, the reduced geometry does not represent the upside and
downside surfaces of the plate in Figure 4-24 as boundaries.

Out-of-Plane Radiation and Out-of-Plane Heat Flux

Equation Formulation

2D GEOMETRIES
In 2D geometries, the temperature is assumed to be constant in the out-of-plane
direction (z direction with default spatial coordinate names). The equation for heat
transfer in solids, Equation 4-16, and in fluids, Equation 4-18, are replaced by:

320 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

 ∂T
d z ρC p ------- + ∇ ⋅ q = d z Q + q 0 (4-168)
∂t

∂T
d z ρC p ------- + ρC p d z u ⋅ ∇T + ∇ ⋅ q = d z Q + q 0 (4-169)
∂t

Here dz is the thickness of the domain in the out-of-plane direction. Here, the
conductive heat flux, q, becomes

q = – d z k∇T

1D AXISYMMETRIC GEOMETRIES
In 1D axisymmetric geometries, the temperature is assumed to be constant in the
out-of-plane direction (z direction with default spatial coordinate names) in addition
to the axisymmetry ( φ -coordinate with default spatial coordinate names). The
equation for heat transfer in solids, Equation 6-15 is replaced by

∂T
( 2πrd z )ρC p ------- + ∇ ⋅ q = ( 2πrd z )Q + q 0 (4-170)
∂t

where dz is the thickness of the domain in the z direction. The equation for heat
transfer in fluids, Equation 6-5, is replaced by

∂T
( 2πrd z )ρC p ------- + ( 2πrd z )ρC p u ⋅ ∇T + ∇ ⋅ q = ( 2πrd z )Q + q 0 (4-171)
∂t

Here, the conductive heat flux, q, becomes

q = – ( 2πrd z )k∇T

1D GEOMETRIES
In 1D geometries, the temperature is assumed to be constant in the radial direction.
The equation for heat transfer in solids, Equation 6-15 is replaced by

∂T
A c ρC p ------- + ∇ ⋅ q = A c Q + q 0 (4-172)
∂t

where Ac is the cross section of the domain in the plane perpendicular to the 1D
geometry. The equation for heat transfer in fluids, Equation 6-5, is replaced by

∂T
A c ρC p ------- + A c ρC p u ⋅ ∇T + ∇ ⋅ q = A c Q + q 0 (4-173)
∂t

Here, the conductive heat flux, q, becomes

OUT-OF-PLANE HEAT TRANSFER | 321

 q = – A c k∇T

Out-of-plane flux conditions would apply to the exterior boundaries of the domain if
the 1D geometry was seen as a cylinder. With the geometry reduction process, this
heat flux condition is mathematically expressed using the cross section perimeter, Pc,
as in:

q 0 = P c q 0, z

where q0, z is the heat flux density distributed along the cross section perimeter.

322 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

Convective Heat Transfer
Correlations
One of the most common boundary conditions when modeling heat transfer is
convective cooling or heating whereby a fluid cools or heats a surface by natural or
forced convection. In principle, it is possible to model this process in two ways:

• Using a heat transfer coefficient on the surfaces

• Extending the model to describe the flow and heat transfer in the surrounding fluid

The second approach is the most accurate if the geometry or the external flow is
complicated. The Heat Transfer Module includes the Conjugate Heat Transfer
predefined multiphysics coupling and the CFD Module includes the Nonisothermal
Flow predefined multiphysics coupling for this purpose. However, such a simulation
can become costly, both in terms of computational time and memory requirement.

The first method is simple, yet powerful and efficient. The convective heat flux on the
boundaries in contact with the fluid is then modeled as being proportional to the
temperature difference across a fictitious thermal boundary layer. Mathematically, the
heat flux is described by the equation

– n ⋅ q = h ( T ext – T )

where h is a heat transfer coefficient and Text the temperature of the external fluid far
from the boundary.

The main difficulty in using heat transfer coefficients is in calculating or specifying the
appropriate value of the h coefficient. That coefficient depends on the fluid’s material
properties, and the surface temperature — and, for forced convection, also on the
fluid’s flow rate. In addition, the geometrical configuration affects the coefficient. The
Heat Transfer interface has built-in functions for the heat transfer coefficients. For
most engineering purposes, the use of such coefficients is an accurate and numerically
efficient modeling approach.

In this section:

• Defining the Heat Transfer Coefficients

• Nature of the Flow — The Grashof Number
• Heat Transfer Coefficients — External Natural Convection

CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER CORRELATIONS | 323

 • Heat Transfer Coefficients — Internal Natural Convection
• Heat Transfer Coefficients — External Forced Convection
• Heat Transfer Coefficients — Internal Forced Convection
• Using the Heat and Mass Transfer Analogy for the Evaluation of Moisture Transfer
Coefficients

Defining the Heat Transfer Coefficients

It is possible to divide the convective heat flux into four main categories depending on
the type of convection condition (natural or forced) and on the type of geometry
(internal or external flow). In addition, these cases can all experience either laminar or
turbulent flow conditions, resulting in eight types of convection, as in Figure 4-25.
Natural Forced

External

Internal

Laminar Flow

Turbulent Flow

Figure 4-25: The eight categories of convective heat flux.

The difference between natural and forced convection is that in the forced convection
an external force such as a fan creates the flow. In natural convection, buoyancy forces
induced by temperature differences together with the thermal expansion of the fluid
drive the flow.

Heat transfer books generally contain a large set of empirical and theoretical
correlations for h coefficients. This module includes a subset of them. The expressions
are based on the following set of dimensionless numbers:

• The Nusselt number, NuL = hL ⁄ k

324 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

• The Reynolds number, ReL = ρUL ⁄ μ
• The Prandtl number, Pr = μCp ⁄ k
• The Rayleigh number, RaL = GrLPr

where

• h is the heat transfer coefficient (SI unit: W/(m2·K))

• L is the characteristic length (SI unit: m)
• ΔT is the temperature difference between the surface and the external fluid bulk
(SI unit: K)
• g is the acceleration of gravity (SI unit: m/s2)
• k is the thermal conductivity of the fluid (SI unit: W/(m·K))
• ρ is the fluid density (SI unit: kg/m3)
• U is the bulk velocity (SI unit: m/s)
• μ is the dynamic viscosity (SI unit: Pa·s)
• Cp is the heat capacity at constant pressure of the fluid (SI unit: J/(kg·K))

Further, GrL refers to the Grashof number, which is the squared ratio of the viscous
time scale to the buoyancy time scale multiplied by the Reynolds number.

Nature of the Flow — The Grashof Number

In cases of externally driven flow, such as forced convection, the nature of the flow is
characterized by the Reynolds number, Re, which describes the ratio of the inertial
forces to the viscous forces. However, the velocity scale is initially unknown for
internally driven flows such as natural convection. In such cases the Grashof number,
Gr, characterizes the flow. It describes the ratio of the time scales for viscous diffusion
in the fluid and the internal driving force (the buoyancy force). Like the Reynolds
number it requires the definition of a length scale, the fluid’s physical properties, and
the density scale (densities difference).

The Grashof number, Gr, is defined as:

3
gρ ( ρ ext – ρ s )L
Gr L = -----------------------------------------
2
μ

where g is the acceleration of gravity, ρs denotes the density of the hot surface, ρext
equals the free stream density, L is the length scale, μ represents the fluid’s dynamic
viscosity, and ρ its density.

CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER CORRELATIONS | 325

 This expression of the Grashof number accounts for the all the density variations in the
fluid. This applies to moist air, for which the density depends on temperature and
vapor concentration.

When the density depends on temperature only, in dry air for example, the Grashof
number is well approximated by using the fluid’s coefficient of thermal expansion αp
(SI unit: 1/K):

3
gα p ( T s – T ext )L
Gr L = ----------------------------------------------
2
(μ ⁄ ρ)

where g is the acceleration of gravity, Ts denotes the temperature of the hot surface,
Text equals the free stream temperature, L is the length scale, μ represents the fluid’s
dynamic viscosity, and ρ its density.

In general, the coefficient of thermal expansion αp is given by

1 ∂ρ
α p = – ---  -------
ρ  ∂T p

which for an ideal gas reduces to

1
α p = ----
T

The transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs at a Gr value of 109; the flow is
turbulent for larger values.

The Rayleigh number, Ra, is another indicator of the regime. It is similar to the
Grashof number except that it accounts for the thermal diffusivity: Ra = Pr Gr. A small
value of the Ra number indicates that the conduction dominates. It such case using
heat transfer coefficients to model convective heat transfer is not relevant. Instead,
modeling the fluid as immobile is likely to be accurate.

326 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

Heat Transfer Coefficients — External Natural Convection

VERTICAL WALL

Figure 4-26: Schematic representation of geometry and parameters for the heat transfer
coefficient correlation applied to natural convection on a vertical wall.

The following correlations correspond to equations 9.26 and 9.27 in Ref. 21:


  1⁄4 
 --- k-  0.67Ra L 
 L 0.68 + ---------------------------------------------------------
-  if Ra L ≤ 10 9
9 / 16 4 / 9
   1 +  -------------------
0.492k  
    μC p   
h =  (4-174)
  1⁄6 2
 k 0.387Ra L 
 ----  0.825 + ------------------------------------------------------------
9 / 16 8 / 27
- if Ra L > 10 9
 
L  1 +  -------------------
0.492k  
    μC p   


where the height of the wall, L, is a correlation input.

The Rayleigh number is defined as:

2
gα p ρ C p T – T ext L 3
Ra L = -------------------------------------------------------- (4-175)
kμ

if the density depends on temperature only, or as:

gρC p ρ ext – ρ s L 3
Ra L = ----------------------------------------------- (4-176)
kμ

if the density depends on other parameters.

All material properties are evaluated at (T + Text) ⁄ 2, except ρs, which is evaluated at
the wall temperature, T, and g is the acceleration of gravity equal to 9.81 m/s2. This

CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER CORRELATIONS | 327

 correlation is valid for 104≤ RaL ≤ 1013. The laminar-turbulent transition at RaL = 109
is handled by the use of a smoothed Heaviside function with a transition of size 108,
which corresponds to 10% of the threshold value.

INCLINED WALL

Figure 4-27: Schematic representation of geometry and parameters for the heat transfer
coefficient correlation applied to natural convection on an inclined wall.

The following correlations correspond to equations 9.26 and 9.27 in Ref. 21 (the
same as for a vertical wall):


  
 --- k-  0.67 ( cos ϕRa L ) 1 / 4 
 L  0.68 +  ---------------------------------------------------------- if Ra L ≤ 10 9
9 / 16 4 / 9
  1 +  0.492k
-------------------   
    μC p   
h =  (4-177)
  1⁄6 2
 k 0.387Ra L 
 ----  0.825 + ------------------------------------------------------------
/ /
- if Ra L > 10 9
 L  1 +  0.492k -------------------
9 16
 8 27

    μC p   


where the length of the wall, L, is a correlation input and ϕ is the tilt angle (the angle
between the wall and the vertical direction; ϕ = 0 for vertical walls). These
correlations are valid for −60° < ϕ < 60° and 104≤ RaL ≤ 1013.

The definition of the Raleigh number, RaL, is analogous to the one for vertical walls
and is given by the following:

2
gα p ρ C p T – T ext L 3
Ra L = -------------------------------------------------------- (4-178)
kμ

if the density depends on temperature only, or as:

328 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

 gρC p ρ ext – ρ s L 3
Ra L = ----------------------------------------------- (4-179)
kμ

if the density depends on other parameters.

g denotes the gravitational acceleration, equal to 9.81 m/s2.

For turbulent flow, 1 is used instead of cos ϕ in the expression for h, because this gives
better accuracy (see Ref. 41).

According to Ref. 21, correlations for inclined walls are only satisfactory
for the top side of a cold plate or the down face of a hot plate. Hence,
these correlations are not recommended for the bottom side of a cold face
and for the top side of a hot plate.

The laminar-turbulent transition depends on ϕ (see Ref. 41). Unfortunately, little

data is available about transition. There is some data available in Ref. 41 but this data
is only approximate, according to the authors. In addition, data is only provided for
water (Pr around 6). For this reason, the flow is defined as turbulent, independently
of the ϕ value, when

Ra L > 10 9

All material properties are evaluated at (T + Text) ⁄ 2, except ρswhich is evaluated at the
wall temperature, T. The laminar-turbulent transition at RaL = 109 is handled by the
use of a smoothed Heaviside function with a transition of size 108, which corresponds
to 10% of the threshold value.

HORIZONTAL PLATE, UPSIDE

Figure 4-28: Schematic representation of geometry and parameters for the heat transfer
coefficient correlation applied to natural convection on the top surface of an horizontal
plate.

CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER CORRELATIONS | 329

 The following correlations correspond to equations 9.30–9.32 in Ref. 21 but can also
be found as equations 7.77 and 7.78 in Ref. 41.

If ρ < ρext, then


 k-
---
1⁄4
0.54Ra L if 10 4 ≤ Ra L ≤ 10 7
 L
h =  (4-180)
 k-
---
1⁄3
0.15Ra L if 10 7 ≤ Ra L ≤ 10 11
 L


while if ρ ≥ ρext, then

k 1⁄4
h = ---- 0.27Ra L if 10 5 ≤ Ra L ≤ 10 10 (4-181)
L

RaL is given by Equation 4-175 or Equation 4-176, and L, the characteristic length
(defined as area/perimeter, see Ref. 41) is a correlation input. The material data are
evaluated at (T + Text) ⁄ 2, except ρswhich is evaluated at the wall temperature, T.

When the density depends only on temperature, the conditions ρ < ρext and ρ ≥ ρext
can be replaced by T > Text and T ≤ Text respectively.

The laminar-turbulent transition at RaL = 107 is handled by the use of a smoothed

Heaviside function with a transition of size 106, which corresponds to 10% of the
threshold value.

HORIZONTAL PLATE, DOWNSIDE

Figure 4-29: Schematic representation of geometry and parameters for the heat transfer
coefficient correlation applied to natural convection on the bottom surface of an
horizontal plate.

330 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

Equation 4-180 is used when ρ ≥ ρext (or T ≤ Text) and Equation 4-181 is used when
ρ < ρext (or T > Text). Otherwise it is the same implementation as for Horizontal Plate,
Upside.

LONG HORIZONTAL CYLINDER

Figure 4-30: Schematic representation of geometry and parameters for the heat transfer
coefficient correlation applied to natural convection on a long horizontal cylinder.

The following correlations correspond to equations 9.34 in Ref. 21. It is validated for
RaD ≤ 1012.

 1⁄6 2
k  0.387Ra D 
h = ----  0.6 + ---------------------------------------------------------
⁄ ⁄
- (4-182)
D  1 +  0.559
9 16 8 27

 --------------- 

  Pr  

Here D is the cylinder diameter and RaD is given by

2
gα p ρ C p T – T ext D 3
Ra D = ---------------------------------------------------------
kμ

if the density depends on temperature only, or as:

gρC p ρ ext – ρ s D 3
Ra D = ------------------------------------------------
kμ

if the density depends on other parameters.

The material data are evaluated at (T + Text) ⁄ 2, except ρswhich is evaluated at the wall
temperature, T.

CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER CORRELATIONS | 331

 SPHERE

Figure 4-31: Schematic representation of geometry and parameters for the heat transfer
coefficient correlation applied to natural convection on a sphere.

The following correlations correspond to equation 9.35 in Ref. 21. It is validated for
RaD ≤ 1011 and Pr ≥ 0.7.

 1⁄4 
k  0.589Ra D 
h = ----  2 + ------------------------------------------------------
⁄ ⁄
- (4-183)
D  1 +  0.469
9 16 4 9

 --------------- 

  Pr  

Here D is the cylinder diameter and RaD is given by

2
gα p ρ C p T – T ext D 3
Ra D = ---------------------------------------------------------
kμ

if the density depends on temperature only, or as:

gρC p ρ ext – ρ s D 3
Ra D = ------------------------------------------------
kμ

if the density depends on other parameters.

The material data are evaluated at (T + Text) ⁄ 2, except ρswhich is evaluated at the wall
temperature, T.

332 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

VERTICAL THIN CYLINDER

Figure 4-32: Schematic representation of geometry and parameters for the heat transfer
coefficient correlation applied to natural convection on a vertical thin cylinder.

The following correlation corresponds to equation 7.83 in Ref. 41. It evaluates the
heat transfer coefficient on the lateral surface of the thin cylinder. The horizontal disks
(top and bottom) should be treated as horizontal plates.

For the lateral surface, the heat transfer coefficient reads:

7Ra H Pr 1⁄4
4 ( 272 + 315Pr )H
h = -----  ---  ----------------------------------- + -----------------------------------------------
k 4
 
H 3 5 ( 20 + 21Pr )  35 ( 64 + 63Pr )D 

where D is the cylinder diameter, H is the cylinder height, and RaH is given by

3
gα p T – T ext H
Ra H = -------------------------------------------
kμ

if the density depends on temperature only, or as:

gρC p ρ ext – ρ s H 3
Ra H = ------------------------------------------------
kμ

if the density depends on other parameters.

The material data are evaluated at (T + Text) ⁄ 2, except ρswhich is evaluated at the wall
temperature, T.

If the thermal boundary layer thickness δT is much smaller than the cylinder diameter
D, the curvature does not play any significant role, and vertical wall correlations should
be used. In practice, the (δT < D) criterion requires

1
– ---
D- 4
---- > Ra H
H

CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER CORRELATIONS | 333

 Heat Transfer Coefficients — Internal Natural Convection

NARROW CHIMNEY, PARALLEL PLATES

Figure 4-33: Schematic representation of geometry and parameters for the heat transfer
coefficient correlation applied to natural convection in a parallel-plate narrow chimney.

If RaL < H ⁄ L, then

k 1
h = ----- ------ Ra L (4-184)
H 24

where the plate distance, L, and the chimney height, H, are correlation inputs
(equation 7.96 in Ref. 41). RaL is given by Equation 4-175 or Equation 4-176. The
material data are evaluated at (T + Text) ⁄ 2.

NARROW CHIMNEY, CIRCULAR TUBE

Figure 4-34: Schematic representation of geometry and parameters for the heat transfer
coefficient correlation applied to natural convection in a circular narrow chimney.

If RaD < H ⁄ D, then

k 1
h = ----- ---------- Ra D
H 128

334 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

where the tube diameter, D, and the chimney height, H, are correlation inputs (table
7.2 in Ref. 41 with Dh = D). RaD is given by Equation 4-175 or Equation 4-176 with
L replaced by D. The material data are evaluated at (T + Text) ⁄ 2.

Heat Transfer Coefficients — External Forced Convection

PLATE, AVERAGED TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

Figure 4-35: Schematic representation of geometry and parameters for the averaged heat
transfer coefficient correlation applied to forced convection on an horizontal plate.

This correlation is a combination of equations 7.33 and 7.41 in Ref. 21:

 1⁄2
 0.3387Pr 1 / 3 Re L
k- ------------------------------------------------------
 2 --- - if Re L ≤ 5 ⋅ 10 5

L 0.0468- 2 / 3 1 / 4
 ------------------
h = 1 + (4-185)
   Pr  

 2 ---- Pr 1 / 3 ( 0.037Re 4 ⁄ 5 – 871 ) if Re > 5 ⋅ 10 5
k
 L L L

where Pr = μCp ⁄ k and ReL = ρUL ⁄ μ. The plate length, L, and the exterior velocity,
U, are correlation inputs. The material data are evaluated at (T + Text) ⁄ 2.

The laminar-turbulent transition at ReL = 5.105 is handled by the use of a smoothed

Heaviside function with a transition of size 5.104, which corresponds to 10% of the
threshold value.

CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER CORRELATIONS | 335

 PLATE, LOCAL TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

Figure 4-36: Schematic representation of geometry and parameters for the local heat
transfer coefficient correlation applied to forced convection on an horizontal plate.

This correlation corresponds to equations 5.79b and 5.131’ in Ref. 41:


 k 1⁄2
--- 0.332Pr 1 / 3 Re x if Re x ≤ 5 ⋅ 10 5
 x
h =  (4-186)
 k 4⁄5
--- 0.0296Pr 1 / 3 Re x if Re x > 5 ⋅ 10 5
 x


where Pr = μCp ⁄ k and Rex = ρUx ⁄ μ. The correlation inputs are x, the position along
the plate, and U, the exterior velocity. The material data are evaluated at (T + Text) ⁄ 2.
To avoid division by zero when the position along the plate is located at the origin
point (x = 0), the implementation replaces k ⁄ x by k ⁄ max(x, √ε) where ε is the
floating-point relative accuracy.

The laminar-turbulent transition at Rex = 5.105 is handled by the use of a smoothed

Heaviside function with a transition of size 5.104, which corresponds to 10% of the
threshold value.

336 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

CYLINDER IN CROSS-FLOW

Figure 4-37: Schematic representation of geometry and parameters for the averaged heat
transfer coefficient correlation applied to forced convection on a cylinder in cross-flow.

This correlation is given by equation 7.54 in Ref. 21:

 1⁄2 
k  0.62Re D Pr 1 / 3   Re D  5 ⁄ 8 4 ⁄ 5
2 ⁄ 3 1 ⁄ 4
- 1 + --------------------
h = ----  0.3 + ----------------------------------------------  282000   if Re D Pr ≥ 0.2 (4-187)
D  1 +  0.4  
 --------
- 
  Pr  

where Pr = μCp ⁄ k and ReD = ρUD ⁄ μ. The cylinder diameter, D, and the exterior
velocity, U, are correlation inputs. The material data are evaluated at (T + Text) ⁄ 2.

SPHERE

Figure 4-38: Schematic representation of geometry and parameters for the averaged heat
transfer coefficient correlation applied to forced convection on a sphere.

This correlation corresponds to equation 7.56 in Ref. 21:

0.4 μ 1 ⁄ 4
h = ----  2 + ( 0.4Re D + 0.06Re D )Pr  ----- 
k 1⁄2 2⁄3
(4-188)
D μs

CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER CORRELATIONS | 337

 
 3.5 ≤ Re D ≤ 7.6 ⋅ 10
4

if  0.71 ≤ P r ≤ 380
 μ
 1 ≤ ------------- ≤ 3.2
 μ ( T)

where Pr = μCp ⁄ k and ReD = ρUD ⁄ μ. The sphere diameter, D, and the exterior
velocity, U, are correlation inputs. All material data are evaluated at Text except μs,
which is evaluated at the wall temperature, T.

Heat Transfer Coefficients — Internal Forced Convection

ISOTHERMAL TUBE

Figure 4-39: Schematic representation of geometry and parameters for the averaged heat
transfer coefficient correlation applied to forced convection in an isothermal circular tube.

This correlation corresponds to equations 8.55 and 8.61 in Ref. 21:


 k-
--- 3.66 if Re D ≤ 2500
 D
h =  (4-189)
 ---
k- μ  0.14
4 / 5 Pr 1 ⁄ 3  -----
0.027Re D if Re D > 2500
 D  μ s


where Pr = μCp ⁄ k, and ReD = ρUextD ⁄ μ. D (the tube diameter) and the velocity U
are correlation inputs. All material data are evaluated at (T + Text) ⁄ 2 except μs, which
is evaluated at the wall temperature, T. The laminar-turbulent transition at ReD = 2500
is handled by the use of a smoothed Heaviside function with a transition of size 250,
which corresponds to 10% of the threshold value.

338 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

Using the Heat and Mass Transfer Analogy for the Evaluation of
Moisture Transfer Coefficients
In the same way that the heat flux is described by the equation

– n ⋅ q = h ( T ext – T )

where h is a heat transfer coefficient and Text the temperature of the external fluid far
from the boundary, the moisture flux is described by the equation

– n ⋅ g = M v h m ( c v, ext – c v ) (4-190)

where Mv is the molar mass of water vapor, hm is a moisture transfer coefficient and
cv,ext the vapor concentration of the external fluid far from the boundary.

In Ref. 21, the heat and mass boundary layer analogy is used to express the moisture
transfer coefficient hm as a function of the heat transfer coefficient h:

n n
h m = --------------- h = ----  --------------- h
DLe D k
(4-191)
k k  ρC p D

where Le is the Lewis number, D is the vapor diffusion coefficient in air, k is the
thermal conductivity, ρ is the density, and Cp is the specific heat capacity of the external
fluid evaluated at the same conditions as those specified in the heat transfer correlation
used to compute h.

This relation is valid for laminar and turbulent external flows, and the value n=1/3 is
suggested as a reasonable assumption for most applications in Ref. 21.

Note that the analogy applies only when the density variations due to temperature and
vapor concentration have the same trend. In other words, if the hot air is heavier than
cold air due to the moisture, the correlations are not suitable. Else, all the correlations
described in Heat Transfer Coefficients — External Natural Convection, Heat Transfer
Coefficients — Internal Natural Convection, Heat Transfer Coefficients — External
Forced Convection, and Heat Transfer Coefficients — Internal Forced Convection
may be used to evaluate a moisture transfer coefficient hm to be used in
Equation 4-190.

CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER CORRELATIONS | 339

 Nucleate Pool Boiling Correlation
Pool boiling is evaporation at a solid surface immersed in a bulk-stationary volume of
liquid, where fluid motion is only due to natural convection, by opposition to flow
boiling, for which forced convection is considered.

Different regimes of pool boiling may be distinguished, depending on the difference

between the surface temperature and the saturation temperature of the boiling fluid:

• When the surface temperature is above the saturation temperature of the fluid by
less than 10 K, heat transfer is moderate as it mainly occurs between the surface and
the liquid phase of the fluid by convection, due to the formation of isolated bubbles
at nucleation sites separating from the surface.
• For a temperature difference above 10 K, more nucleation sites become active. This
is called the nucleate boiling regime, at which the heat transfer coefficient can reach
much larger values. When temperature difference further increases, it causes
interference and coalescence of the bubbles, creation of jets and columns,
decreasing fluid motion and convective heat transfer. The critical heat flux value is
reached when the effect of these interferences can’t be compensated by an increase
of the temperature difference. This happens for a temperature difference of about
30 K for water.

Rohsenow’s Correlation for Pool Nucleate Boiling

The Rohsenow’s correlation (Ref. 21) gives an estimation of the heat flux due to
nucleate boiling. It reads

3
g ( ρ l – ρ v ) 1 ⁄ 2 C p, l ( T – T sat )
– n ⋅ q = – μ l L v  ------------------------- ---------------------------------------- (4-192)
 σ  p, l μ l
C
s
---------------
- C L
 k l  sf v

where:

• μl, ρl, kl, and Cp,l are the viscosity, density, thermal conductivity, and heat capacity
of the liquid phase of the fluid, measured at Tsat
• ρv is the density of the saturated vapor of the fluid
• Lv is the latent heat of vaporization
• g is the gravitational acceleration

340 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

• σ is the surface tension of the liquid in contact with its own vapor
• T is the temperature of the solid surface
• Tsat is the saturation temperature of the fluid
• s is an empirical constant, equal to 1 for water, and set to 1.7 for other fluids in
Ref. 21, Ref. 41, and Ref. 42
• Csf is an empirical constant accounting for the combination of liquid and surface
materials, and for the surface finishing. See Ref. 21, Ref. 41, and Ref. 42 for values
of this constant for several combinations.

Note that the correlation is valid for values of gravitational acceleration from 1 to
10 m/s2, and for clean surfaces. It is insensitive to the shape and orientation of the
surface.

Critical Heat Flux for Nucleate Boiling

The correlation given in Equation 4-192 is valid up to a temperature difference at
which the critical heat flux is obtained. The critical heat flux can be expressed in
function of the latent heat, liquid and vapor densities, surface tension, and gravitational
acceleration as follows (Ref. 21):

1⁄2 1⁄4
q 0, max = C max L v ρ v [ σg ( ρ l – ρ v ) ] (4-193)

where Cmax =0.149 for a large horizontal surface, and Cmax =0.116 for a large
horizontal cylinder.

NUCLEATE POOL BOILING CORRELATION | 341

 Equivalent Thermal Conductivity
Correlations
The Nusselt number Nu is the ratio of total heat flux to conductive heat flux. If the
fluid flow is not solved, the heat equation can still use an equivalent conductivity to
account for the convective heat flux in the conductive part. The conductivity is
increased according to Nu to account for the contribution of the convective heat flux.

See Convectively Enhanced Conductivity node.

Correlations giving Nu from various material properties for two configurations of

rectangular enclosures are described below. These correlations are based on the
Rayleigh number

2
ρ g αp Cp
Ra = --------------------------- ΔTL 3
μk

with αp the coefficient of thermal expansion defined as

1 ∂ρ
α p = – ---  -------
ρ  ∂T p

where ρ is the fluid density, g the gravitational acceleration, Cp the heat capacity, μ the
dynamic viscosity, k the thermal conductivity coefficient, ΔT the temperature
difference through the cavity, and L the characteristic dimension of the cavity. The
temperature difference through the cavity may be unknown a priori. In this case, ΔT
can be defined using the Automatic option. The Automatic option defines a minimum
and a maximum operator on the external boundaries of the domains where the
correlation is used. As this option is designed for fluid domains where no heat source
is defined, the difference between the maximum and the minimum of the temperature
corresponds to the temperature difference through the cavity.

Note that only thermally induced variations of the density are accounted for in this
definition. In moist air in particular, the natural convection due to vapor concentration
is neglected.

342 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

Horizontal Cavity With Bottom Heating

Figure 4-40: Schematic representation of geometry and parameters for the equivalent
thermal conductivity correlation applied to an horizontal cavity heated from below.

The following correlation corresponds to equation 9.49 in Ref. 21. It is validated for
3·105 ≤ RaH ≤ 7·109:

1 / 3 Pr 0.074
Nu = 0.069Ra H (4-194)

where RaH is computed from the height H of the cavity and the temperatures T1 and
T2 of the bottom and top walls, and Pr = μCp ⁄ k. The material data are evaluated at
(T1 + T2) ⁄ 2.

Vertical Cavity With Sidewall Heating

Figure 4-41: Schematic representation of geometry and parameters for the equivalent
thermal conductivity correlation applied to a vertical cavity with sidewall heating.

The following correlations correspond to equations 9.50, 9.51, and 9.52 in Ref. 21:
–3 5 3 PrRa L
• If 1 ≤ H ⁄ L ≤ 2, 10 ≤ Pr ≤ 10 , and 10 ≤ ---------------------- :
0.2 + Pr

EQUIVALENT THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY CORRELATIONS | 343

 0.29
Nu = 0.18  ---------------------- Ra L
Pr
(4-195)
0.2 + Pr

• If 2 ≤ H ⁄ L ≤ 10, Pr ≤ 105, and 103 ≤ RaL ≤ 1010:

0.28 H – 1 ⁄ 4
Nu = 0.22  ---------------------- Ra L  -----
Pr
 L (4-196)
0.2 + Pr

• If 10 ≤ H ⁄ L ≤ 40, 1 ≤ Pr ≤ 2 ⋅ 104, and 104 ≤ RaL ≤ 107:

1⁄4 0.012  H – 0.3

Nu = 0.42Ra L Pr ----- (4-197)
 L

where H is the height of the cavity, L is the distance between the side plates, RaL is
computed from L and the temperatures T1 and T2 of the side walls, and Pr = μCp ⁄ k.
The material data are evaluated at (T1 + T2) ⁄ 2.

344 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

Temperature Dependence of Surface
Tension
The variation of the surface tension σ (SI unit: N/m) with temperature at fluid
interfaces must be taken into account for the computation of phenomena such as the
Marangoni effect. These temperature dependencies are available in the form of a
coefficient library for a set of liquid-gas interfaces.

For a liquid water-air interface, the following quadratic relation is used:

–7 2 –5 –2
σ = – 2.3519705 ⋅ 10 T – 1.63350014 ⋅ 10 T + 9.77001279 ⋅ 10

where T (SI unit: K) is the temperature.

In other cases, a linear relation is used instead:

σ = A ( T – T0 ) + B

where T0 is a reference temperature taken at 0°C (273.15 K) and the coefficients A (SI
unit: N/(m·K)) and B (SI unit: N/m) are given in the following table for some
liquid-gas interfaces:
TABLE 4-5: COEFFICIENTS OF SURFACE TENSION

INTERFACE A B REFERENCE

Acetone - Air −1.120 ⋅ 10-4 2.626 ⋅ 10-2 Ref. 43

Acetic Acid - Air −0.994 ⋅ 10-4 2.958 ⋅ 10-2 Ref. 43
-4
Ethanol - Air −0.832 ⋅ 10 2.405 ⋅ 10-2 Ref. 43
-4 -2
Toluene - Air −1.189 ⋅ 10 3.09 ⋅ 10 Ref. 43
-4 -2
Diethyl Ether - Air −0.908 ⋅ 10 1.892 ⋅ 10 Ref. 43
-4 -2
Glycerol - Air −0.885 ⋅ 10 6.517 ⋅ 10 Ref. 43
Heptane - Nitrogen −0.980 ⋅ 10-4 2.21 ⋅ 10-2 Ref. 44
-4 -2
Mercury - Mercury (Vapor) −2.049 ⋅ 10 49.06 ⋅ 10 Ref. 44
-4 -2
Ethylene Glycol - Ethylene −0.890 ⋅ 10 5.021 ⋅ 10 Ref. 44
Glycol (Vapor)

More data can be found in Ref. 43 and Ref. 44.

TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF SURFACE TENSION | 345

 Heat Flux and Heat Balance
The concept of heat flux is not as simple as it first might seem. The reason is that heat
is not a conserved quantity. Instead, the conserved quantity is the total energy. Hence,
there is both a heat flux and an energy flux that are similar but not identical.

This section briefly describes the theory for the variables for Total Heat Flux and
Energy Flux, used when computing Heat and Energy Balance. The definitions of these
postprocessing variables do not affect the computational results, only variables
available for results analysis and visualization.

In this section:

• Total Heat Flux and Energy Flux

• Heat and Energy Balance

Total Heat Flux and Energy Flux

TOTAL HEAT FLUX

The total heat flux vector is defined as (Ref. 5):

q tot = ρuE + q + q r (4-198)

where E is the internal energy. It is the sum of convective heat flux, ρuE, conductive
heat flux, q, and radiative heat flux, qr. Hence, the total heat flux accounts for all
three kinds of heat transfer described in The Physical Mechanisms Underlying Heat
Transfer. Recall that the internal energy is related to the enthalpy, H, via the following
for a fluid (see Thermodynamic Description of Heat Transfer):

p
E = H – ---
ρ

or the following for a solid:

1
E = H + --- P:F
ρ

The total heat flux vector, qtot, is more suited to check the heat balance as described
in the next section Heat and Energy Balance.

346 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

TOTAL ENERGY FLUX
The total energy flux is equal to:

e tot = ρu  --- u ⋅ u + ρu ( E + Ψ ) + q + q r – σu
1
2 

Again, convective heat flux, ρuE, conductive heat flux, q, and radiative heat flux, qr
are accounted in the sum. The additional terms that complete the total energy flux are
the convected kinetic energy, ρu(u ⋅ u ⁄ 2), force potential energy, ρuΨ, and stress,
−σu. For a fluid, this expression becomes (Ref. 5, chapter 3.5):

e tot = ρu  --- u ⋅ u + ρu ( E + Ψ ) + q + q r – ( – pI + τ )u

1
2

Introducing the total internal energy, E0, and total enthalpy, H0:

1 1
E 0 = E + --- u ⋅ u H 0 = H + --- u ⋅ u
2 2

leads to the following equivalent expression involving total enthalpy:

e tot = ρu ( H 0 + Ψ ) + q + q r – τu

The potential Ψ has a simple form in some special cases — for example, for
gravitational effects (Chapter 1.4 in Ref. 40) — but it is in general rather difficult to
derive. Potential energy is therefore often excluded and the total energy flux is
approximated by

e tot = ρuE 0 + q + q r – σu (4-199)

The total energy flux vector, etot, is more suited to check the energy balance as
described in the next section Heat and Energy Balance.

Heat and Energy Balance

HEAT BALANCE
This section assumes a heat transfer model that only solves for the temperature T. In
particular, for a fluid, the velocity field u and pressure field p are user defined or
computed from another physics interface. In this case, the heat balance in a domain
follows the identity below (chapter 11.2 in Ref. 5), derived from Equation 4-13. It
expresses the idea that internal energy variations in time and net heat flux are balanced
by external heat and work sources.

HEAT FLUX AND HEAT BALANCE | 347

 d
dt Ω ρE dv + ∂Ω ext
q tot ⋅ n ds = Q Int – W str, Int (4-200)

The different variables in this formula are defined in Total Heat Flux and Energy Flux.
For this equality to be true, the provided dependent variables (velocity field u and
pressure field p for the Navier-Stokes equations) must satisfy a mass and a momentum
conservation equation. The dissipation power, Wstr, Int, contains both pressure work
and viscous dissipation in fluids. The heat sources QInt include domain sources,
interior boundary, edge and point sources, and radiative source at interior boundaries.

In 2D and 3D components if isolated point or edge source is not adjacent

to a boundary, these are not included in QInt. In this case, these need to
be computed separately.

Equation 4-200 is more visually represented by the diagram of Figure 4-42 below.
Mechanical Losses: Wstr

Heat source: Q
∂E
Accumulated heat:
∂t

Net heat transfer: q tot = ρuE + q + q r

Figure 4-42: A heat balance diagram.

Several predefined variables are available in COMSOL Multiphysics to describe the

heat rates involved in the system heat balance. See Global Variables for Heat and
Energy Balance for their definition.

ENERGY BALANCE
When the temperature T is solved together with additional mass and momentum
equations, the total energy flux also becomes a conserved quantity and the following
equation holds (chapter 11.1 in Ref. 5):

d
dt Ω ρE0 dv + ∂Ω ext
e tot ⋅ n ds = Q Int + W Int (4-201)

348 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

The variables in this formula are defined in Total Heat Flux and Energy Flux.
Equation 4-201 is more visually represented by the diagram of Figure 4-43 below.

Heat source: Q

Work source: W
∂E 0
Accumulated energy:
∂t

Net energy transfer: e tot = ρuE 0 + q + q r – σu

Figure 4-43: An energy balance diagram.

Several predefined variables are available in COMSOL Multiphysics to describe the

energy rates involved in the system energy balance. See Global Variables for Heat and
Energy Balance for their definition.

HEAT FLUX AND HEAT BALANCE | 349

 Frames for the Heat Transfer
Equations
In this section:

• Material and Spatial Frames

• Conversion Between Material and Spatial Frames

Material and Spatial Frames

The heat equation can be formulated either in a spatial coordinate system, with
coordinate axes fixed in space, or in a material coordinate system, fixed to the material
in its reference configuration and following the material as it deforms. COMSOL
Multiphysics refers to these coordinate systems as the spatial frame and the material
frame. In the case of immobile and undeformed materials, these two frames coincide.

USE OF FRAMES
The spatial frame is well adapted to simulate heat transfer in liquids and gases, where
it is unreasonable to follow the state of individual material particles. The temperature
is computed at fixed positions in space.

In solids, the material frame is more convenient. The temperature is computed at

material particles uniquely identified by their position in some given reference
configuration. It makes in particular the anisotropic material properties (thermal
conductivity for example) independent of the current spatial orientation of the
material.

In the heat transfer interfaces, the variables and equations are all defined in the spatial
frame, and depending on the features, the user inputs may be defined in the material
or spatial frame. Hence, they must be internally converted into the spatial frame if
some deformation occurs.

POSITION VECTORS AND DEFORMATION GRADIENT

The position vector in the physical space is identified by the lowercase symbol x and
lowercase letters x, y, and z for each coordinate (or r, ϕ , and z in axisymmetric
components). After a given transformation, the position of an elementary volume is
modified in the spatial frame but not in the material frame. The position vector in the

350 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

material frame is denoted by the uppercase symbol X and uppercase letters X, Y, and
Z for each coordinate (or R, Φ, and Z in axisymmetric components).

The relation between x and X is carried by the deformation gradient:

∂x ∂x ∂x
∂X ∂Y ∂Z
F = ∂y ∂y ∂y (4-202)
∂X ∂Y ∂Z
∂z ∂z ∂z
∂X ∂Y ∂Z

It relates elementary distances dx and dX in the domain, expressed in material and

spatial frames, according to:

dx = FdX (4-203)

The determinant of the deformation gradient, det(F), is the volume ratio field. In
COMSOL Multiphysics, det(F) should always be strictly positive. Otherwise, the
negative value is likely to be caused by an inverted mesh during the resolution of the
model since it corresponds to a mathematical reflection operation.

The deformation gradient tensor and its determinant are essential in the conversion of
physical quantities presented in the next paragraphs between material and spatial
frames.

Note: In COMSOL Multiphysics, the variables spatial.F11, spatial.F12, …,

store the coefficient of the transpose of the deformation gradient tensor F.

• About Frames in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

• Handling Frames in Heat Transfer

Conversion Between Material and Spatial Frames

This section explains how the user inputs are converted between material and spatial
frames. The conversion depends on the dimension of the variables (scalars, vectors, or
tensors) and on the density order.

FRAMES FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER EQUATIONS | 351

 As described in the previous paragraph Material and Spatial Frames, lowercase letters
are used to denote the spatial frame coordinates while uppercase letters denote the
material frame coordinates. In the followings, a physical quantity A will be referred to
as A(x, y, z) in the spatial frame and to as A(X, Y, Z) in the material frame.

The equations solved by the heat transfer interfaces are written in the spatial frame.
When an input is specified in the material frame, conversion is necessary to deduce
A(x, y, z) from A(X, Y, Z).

DENSITY, HEAT SOURCE, HEAT FLUX

In heat transfer, the following variables are relative scalars of weight one (also called
scalar densities):

• Mass density, ρ (SI unit: kg/m3),

• Heat source, Q0 (SI unit: W/m3),
• Production/absorption coefficient, qs (SI unit: W/(m3·K)),
• Heat flux, q0 (SI unit: W/m2),
• Heat transfer coefficient, h (SI unit: W/(m2·K)).

For all these variables, the conversion between the material and the spatial frame
follows the relation:

A ( X, Y, Z )
A ( x, y, z ) = ----------------------
det(F)

This way, the integral of volumetric quantities over the domain, such as the mass
density, is invariant between frames:

Ω ρ( X, Y, Z ) dτ0 = Ω ρ( x, y, z ) det(F) dτ0 = Ω ρ( x, y, z ) dτ

0 0

In these equalities, Ω0 and Ω denote the same domain but represented in the material
frame or the spatial frame, respectively. As expected, the same mass is found by
integrating ρ(X, Y, Z) over the domain in the material frame or by integrating ρ(x, y, z)
over the domain in the spatial frame. The same invariance principle applies to quantities
per unit area, in particular for heat flux and heat transfer coefficients:

∂Ω h( X, Y, Z ) ds0 = ∂Ω h( x, y, z ) det(F) ds0 = ∂Ω h( x, y, z ) ds

0 0

Here, ∂Ω0 and ∂Ω are the boundaries of the same domain in material and spatial
frames, respectively.

352 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

VELOCITY
The relationship between the velocity vectors in the material and spatial frames,
u(X, Y, Z) and u(x, y, z), is

u ( x, y, z ) = Fu ( X, Y, Z )

This is directly deduced from the differential relation of Equation 4-203.

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
Thermal conductivity, k, is a tensor density. The relationship between the value on the
spatial frame and the material frame is:

1 T
k ( x, y, z ) = ------------------- Fk ( X, Y, Z ) F
det ( F )

With this relation, and recalling that

T
n ( X, Y, Z ) = F n ( x, y, z )

T
∇ ( X, Y, Z ) T = F ∇ ( x, y, z ) T

the total conductive heat flux through a boundary, computed in both frames according
to the integrals below, gives the same result:

∂Ω –k( X, Y, Z ) ∇( X, Y, Z ) T ⋅ n( X, Y, Z ) ds0 = ∂Ω –k( x, y, z ) ∇( x, y, z ) T ⋅ n( x, yz ) ds

0

Here, ∂Ω0 and ∂Ω are the boundaries of the same domain in material and spatial
frames, respectively.

When the material frame differs from the spatial frame, the domain features
representing solid domains give the option to specify the thermal conductivity either
on the spatial or the material frame. See Heat Conduction, Solid for details about this
option.

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF A LAYER

The same transformations are applied to thermal conductivity but with different
transformation matrices. The deformation gradient tensor depends on the layer type:

• When the layer is resistive, the deformation gradient tensor Fxdim is equal to the
deformation gradient tensor F defined in Equation 4-202.

FRAMES FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER EQUATIONS | 353

 • When the layer is conductive, the deformation gradient tensor Ft is defined using
tangential derivatives as follows:

xT X xT Y xT Z
F t = yT X yT Y yT Z
zT X zT Y zT Z

where xTX corresponds to the tangential derivative x with respect to X, and so on.
• When the layer is an extra dimension, the deformation gradient tensor Fxdim is
defined as follows:

xT X + n x n X xT Y + n x n Y xT Z + n x n Z
F xdim = yT X + n y n X yT Y + n y n Y yT Z + n y n Z
zT X + n z n X zT Y + n z n Y zT Z + n z n Z

where xTX corresponds to the tangential derivative x with respect to X, and so on.
The (nx, ny, nz) vector corresponds to the normal vector in the spatial frame, and
the (nX, nY, nZ) vector corresponds to the normal vector in the material frame.

TIME DERIVATIVE
Partial differential equations often involve time derivatives of physical quantities such
as temperature or internal energy in heat transfer. The variations of such derivatives
during an elementary time step are studied for the same elementary volume that could
be subjected to spatial transformations. The material derivative, denoted d ⁄ dt, is the
derivation operator used in such cases. The following relation defines the material
derivative in the spatial frame.

d ∂
= + u ( x, y, z ) ⋅ ∇ ( x, y, z )
dt ∂t

The right-hand side of this relation shows a new term u ⋅ ∇ corresponding to

convection in the case of fluids or convected quantity by translational motion in the
case of a solid.

• About Frames in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

• Handling Frames in Heat Transfer

354 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

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tension. Kaye & Laby Online. Version 1.0 (2005), www.kayelaby.npl.co.uk

44. J.J. Jasper, “The Surface Tension of Pure Liquid Compounds”, J. Phys. Chem.
Ref. Data, vol. 1, pp. 841–1010, 1972.

45. G.K. Batchelor, An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics, Cambridge University

Press, 2000.

46. C. P. Thurgood, A. Pollard and H. A. Becker, “The TN quadrature set for the
discrete ordinates method,” J. Heat Transfer, vol. 117, pp. 1068–1070, 1995.

47. M. A. Badri, P. Jolivet, B. Rousseau, S. Le Corre, H. Digonnet and Y. Favennec,

“Vectorial finite elements for solving the radiative transfer equation,” Journal of
Quantitative Spectroscopy and Radiative Transfer, vol. 212, pp. 59–74, 2018.

358 | CHAPTER 4: THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE

 5

The Heat Transfer Module Interfaces

The Heat Transfer Module includes several physics interfaces used to compute the
temperature field, the radiative intensity field, or the relative humidity field:
TABLE 5-1: THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE INTERFACES

INTERFACE TAG VERSIONS

Heat Transfer ht Heat Transfer in Solids

Heat Transfer in Fluids
Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids
Bioheat Transfer
Heat Transfer in Porous Media
Local Thermal Nonequilibrium
Heat Transfer in Packed Beds
Heat Transfer in Moist Porous Media
Heat Transfer in Building Materials
Heat Transfer in Moist Air
Heat Transfer in Shells htlsh Heat Transfer in Shells
Heat Transfer in Films
Heat Transfer in Fractures

359
 TABLE 5-1: THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE INTERFACES

INTERFACE TAG VERSIONS

Lumped Thermal lts Lumped Thermal System

System
Surface-to-Surface rad Surface-to-Surface Radiation
Radiation
Radiation in rpm Radiation in Participating Media
Participating Media
Radiation in rasm Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media
Absorbing-Scattering
Media
Radiative Beam in rbam Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media
Absorbing Media
Moisture Transport mt Moisture Transport in Air
Moisture Transport in Porous Media
Moisture Transport in Building Materials
See also The Heat Transfer in Pipes Interface (htp) in the Pipe Flow Module User’s
Guide.

In this chapter:

• About the Heat Transfer Interfaces

• The Heat Transfer in Solids Interface
• The Heat Transfer in Fluids Interface
• The Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids Interface
• The Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface
• The Local Thermal Nonequilibrium Interface
• The Heat Transfer in Packed Beds Interface
• The Heat Transfer in Moist Porous Media Interface
• The Heat Transfer in Building Materials Interface
• The Heat Transfer in Moist Air Interface
• The Bioheat Transfer Interface
• The Heat Transfer in Shells Interface
• The Heat Transfer in Films Interface
• The Heat Transfer in Fractures Interface
• The Lumped Thermal System Interface

360 | CHAPTER 5: THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE INTERFACES

• The Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface
• The Radiation in Participating Media Interface
• The Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media Interface
• The Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media Interface
• The Moisture Transport in Air Interface
• The Moisture Transport in Porous Media Interface
• The Moisture Transport in Building Materials Interface

See also the Multiphysics Interfaces.

| 361
 About the Heat Transfer Interfaces
The Heat Transfer Module includes the following interfaces:

• Heat Transfer (with several versions)

• Heat Transfer in Shells (with several versions)
• Surface-to-Surface Radiation
• Radiation in Participating Media
• Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media
• Radiation with Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media
• Lumped Thermal System
• Moisture Transport (with several versions)

They are used to compute the temperature field, the radiative intensity field, and the
relative humidity field.

The multiphysics interfaces also compute other physical fields like velocity, pressure, or
electromagnetic fields, depending on the available COMSOL products. See
Multiphysics Interfaces.

The main dependent variable is the temperature, T.

The various kinds of Heat Transfer interfaces and the thermal multiphysics couplings
can be used for modeling heat transfer by conduction, convection, or radiation, as well
as conjugate heat transfer, evaporation, and electromagnetic heating.

Space Dimensions
The physics interfaces are available in 1D, 2D, and 3D and for axisymmetric
components with cylindrical coordinates in 1D and 2D.

All the interfaces except Heat Transfer in Shells apply in domains, with features
available at each geometric level (volumes, surfaces, edges, and points).

The Heat Transfer in Shells interface apply on boundaries, with features available on
surfaces, edges, and points.

The Lumped Thermal System interface is a global interface, with features not attached
to any geometric entity.

362 | CHAPTER 5: THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE INTERFACES

Study Types
Stationary, time-dependent, and frequency domain studies are available with the Heat
Transfer interfaces.

You can consider a heat transfer problem as stationary if the temperature field is
independent of time at each point. The system is said to be at thermal equilibrium. It
happens when the conditions are independent of time or vary on a time scale large
enough so that they can be approximated as constant. This type of study can be used
as an initial step for a time-dependent analysis.

For other cases, use a time-dependent or a frequency domain study.

Study and Study Step Types in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual

Versions of the Heat Transfer Physics Interface

The versions of the Heat Transfer physics interface (ht) are:

• The Heat Transfer in Solids Interface

• The Heat Transfer in Fluids Interface
• The Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids Interface
• The Bioheat Transfer Interface
• The Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface
• The Local Thermal Nonequilibrium Interface
• The Heat Transfer in Moist Porous Media Interface
• The Heat Transfer in Building Materials Interface
• The Heat Transfer in Moist Air Interface

After selecting a version, default nodes are added under the main node, which then
defines which version of the Heat Transfer interface is added. Depending on the
version of the physics interface selected, the default nodes vary. For example:

• If Heat Transfer in Solids ( ) is selected, a Heat Transfer in Solids (ht) interface is

added with a default Solid model.

ABOUT THE HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACES | 363

 • If Heat Transfer in Fluids ( ) is selected, a Heat Transfer in Fluids (ht) interface is
added with a default Fluid model.
• If Heat Transfer in Solids in Fluids ( ) is selected, a Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids
(ht) interface is added with two default models: Solid (enabled by default) and Fluid
(empty selection by default).

Benefits of the Different Heat Transfer Interfaces

The benefit of the different versions of the Heat Transfer interface, with ht as the
common default name (see Heat Transfer Variables), is that it is easy to add the default
settings when selecting the physics interface. At any time, add a Fluid or Solid node from
the Physics toolbar — the functionality is always available.

Depending on the available COMSOL products, a check box is available

under the Physical Model section to allow for isothermal domain modeling.

Also see The Heat Transfer in Pipes Interface in the Pipe Flow Module User’s Guide
for simulating heat transfer in pipe networks, including wall heat transfer to the
surroundings.

Versions of the Heat Transfer in Shells Physics Interface

The versions of the Heat Transfer in Shells physics interface (htlsh) are:

• The Heat Transfer in Shells Interface

• The Heat Transfer in Films Interface
• The Heat Transfer in Fractures Interface

After selecting a version, default nodes are added under the main node, which then
defines which version of the Heat Transfer in Shells interface is added. Depending on
the version of the physics interface selected, the default nodes vary:

• If Heat Transfer in Shells ( ) is selected, a Heat Transfer in Shells (htlsh) interface is

added with a default Solid model.
• If Heat Transfer in Films ( ) is selected, a Heat Transfer in Films (htlsh) interface is
added with a default Fluid model.
• If Heat Transfer in Fractures ( ) is selected, a Heat Transfer in Fractures (hltsh)
interface is added with a default Porous Medium model.

364 | CHAPTER 5: THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE INTERFACES

Benefits of the Different Heat Transfer in Shells Interfaces
The benefit of the different versions of the Heat Transfer in Shells interface, with
htlsh as the common default name (see Heat Transfer Variables), is that it is easy to
add the default settings when selecting the physics interface. At any time, add a Solid
node from the Physics toolbar — the functionality is always available.
TABLE 5-2: THE HEAT TRANSFER IN SHELLS (HTLSH) INTERFACE OPTIONS

ICON NAME DEFAULT PHYSICAL MODEL

Heat Transfer in Shells No check box is selected.

Heat Transfer in Films No check box is selected.

Heat Transfer in Fractures The Heat transfer in porous media check box is
selected.

Layer and Interface Selection Tools

Almost all physics nodes that you add in the Heat Transfer in Shells interface have
either a section named Shell Properties, or a section named Interface Selection.
Selections there interact with the standard selections of geometrical objects
(boundaries and edges) in order to provide a complete specification of where a material
property or boundary condition is to be applied within a layered material.

The physics features can be of two, fundamentally different, types: those who act on
the layers themselves, and those who act on the interfaces between layers. The settings
for these two types of features are slightly different.

LAYER SELECTIONS
When a physics feature acts on layers, the interpretations of layer selections are:

• A boundary selection in the geometry corresponds to a domain contribution in the

selected layers.
• An edge selection in the geometry corresponds to boundary contributions on the
faces of the layers exposed to that edge.
This is illustrated by Figure 5-1 and Figure 5-2, where the patch at the lower left is the
actual shell, and the 3D sketch shows an expanded view of what it would represent in
the physical world.

ABOUT THE HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACES | 365

 Figure 5-1: Boundary selection with layers 2 and 5 selected.

Figure 5-2: Edge selection with layers 2 and 5 selected.

366 | CHAPTER 5: THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE INTERFACES

In the Shell Properties section, it is possible to limit the contributions to individually
selected layers of the selections made in the Boundary Selection section. For a given
Layered Material Link or Layered Material Stack, you get access to a list of check boxes
for the selection of the individual layers.

INTERFACE SELECTIONS
When a physics feature acts on interfaces, the interpretation of interface selections are:

• A boundary selection in the geometry corresponds to boundary contributions on

the selected interfaces.
• An edge selection in the geometry corresponds to edge contributions on the
interface edges parallel to the selected edge.

This is illustrated by Figure 5-3 and Figure 5-4, where the patch at the lower left is the
actual shell, and the 3D sketch shows an expanded view of what it would represent in
the physical world.

Figure 5-3: Boundary selection with interfaces ‘layer 2 - layer 3’ and ‘layer 5 up’ selected.

ABOUT THE HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACES | 367

 Figure 5-4: Edge selection with interfaces ‘layer 2 - layer 3’ and ‘layer 5 up’ selected.

In the Interface Selection section, it is possible to select the interfaces between layers
where the contribution should be added, including the top and bottom interfaces (see

368 | CHAPTER 5: THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE INTERFACES

Figure 5-5 for the interfaces description). For a given Layered Material Link or Layered
Material Stack, you get access to a list of predefined interfaces subsets.

Figure 5-5: Definition of upside and downside settings for a boundary for different
configurations, and corresponding interfaces for a layered material.

See Layered Material, Layered Material Link, Layered Material Stack,

Layered Material Link (Subnode), and Single-Layer Materials in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Using the Extra Dimension Coordinates

It is possible to write expressions that are functions of the coordinates in the thickness
direction of the shell. Expressions based on the usual coordinates, like x, y, and z, are
evaluated on the reference surface (the meshed boundaries). In addition to this, the
locations in the through-thickness direction can be accessed by making explicit or
implicit use of the coordinates in the extra dimension.

The extra dimension coordinate has a name like x_llmat1_xdim. The middle part of
the coordinate name is derived from the tag of the layered material definition where it
is created; in this example a Layered Material Link.

Versions of the Moisture Transport Physics Interface

The versions of the Moisture Transport physics interface (mt) are:

• The Moisture Transport in Air Interface

ABOUT THE HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACES | 369

 • The Moisture Transport in Porous Media Interface
• The Moisture Transport in Building Materials Interface

After selecting a version, default nodes are added under the main node, which then
defines which version of the Moisture Transport interface is added. Depending on the
version of the physics interface selected, the default nodes vary:

• If Moisture Transport in Air ( ) is selected, a Moisture Transport in Air (mt) interface

is added with a default Moist Air model.
• If Moisture Transport in Building Materials ( ) is selected, a Moisture Transport in
Building Materials (mt) interface is added with a default Building Material model.
• If Moisture Transport in Porous Media ( ) is selected, a Moisture Transport in Porous
Media (mt) interface is added with a default Hygroscopic Porous Medium model.

Benefits of the Different Moisture Transport Interfaces

The benefit of the different versions of the Moisture Transport interface, with mt as
the common default name (see Moisture Transport Variables), is that it is easy to add
the default settings when selecting the physics interface. At any time, add a Building
Material, an Hygroscopic Porous Medium, or a Moist Air node from the Physics toolbar —
the functionality is always available.

Additional Physics Options

Then, additional physics options are provided with the other interfaces and
multiphysics interfaces:
TABLE 5-3: ADDITIONAL HEAT TRANSFER PHYSICS OPTIONS

ICON NAME ID

Laminar Flow (under the Conjugate Heat Transfer branch) —

Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus, Turbulent Flow, L-VEL, Turbulent —
Flow, k-ε, Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε (under the Conjugate Heat
Transfer branch)
Surface-to-Surface Radiation (under the Radiation branch) rad
Radiation in Participating Media (under the Radiation branch) rpm
Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media (under the Radiation rasm
branch)
Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media (under the Radiation branch) rbam
Joule Heating (under the Electromagnetic Heating branch) —

370 | CHAPTER 5: THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE INTERFACES

TABLE 5-3: ADDITIONAL HEAT TRANSFER PHYSICS OPTIONS

ICON NAME ID

Heat and Moisture —

Thermoelectric Effect —
More turbulent flow interfaces are available under the Conjugate Heat Transfer branch
with the CFD Module:

• Turbulent Flow, Realizable k-ε

• Turbulent Flow, k-ω
• Turbulent Flow, SST
• Turbulent Flow, Spalart-Allmaras
• Turbulent Flow, v2-f

See The Conjugate Heat Transfer, Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow Interfaces in the
CFD Module User’s Guide for more details.

More interfaces are available under the Electromagnetic Heating branch with a license
for the AC/DC Module, Wave Optics Module, and RF Module.

See The Laser Heating Interface in the Wave Optics Module User’s Guide, The
Induction Heating Interface in the AC/DC Module User’s Guide, and The
Microwave Heating Interface in the RF Module User’s Guide for more details.

Settings for the Heat Transfer Interface

The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is ht.

PHYSICAL MODEL
In 2D and 1D axisymmetric components, set the Thickness dz, which is the thickness
of the domain in the out-of-plane direction. The default value is 1 m.

ABOUT THE HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACES | 371

 In 1D components, set the Cross sectional area Ac and the Cross sectional perimeter Pc
of the domain. Default values are 1 m2 and 2 πA c , respectively.

When the Heat Transfer interface is coupled to an interface modeling

radiation (Surface-to-Surface Radiation, Radiation in Participating
Media, Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media), through a
multiphysics coupling (Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation,
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media, or Heat Transfer with
Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media), these inputs are automatically
defined from the multiphysics coupling. These variables are set to unit
length of the component unit system. This corresponds to the assumption
that the geometry is infinite in the out-of-plane direction and that the
equations are defined per unit length. This assumption is required as it
corresponds to the view factor computation in these dimensions.

Set the Reference temperature Tref. It is used for the evaluation of the reference density
ρref when the Heat Transfer interface is coupled through Nonisothermal Flow
multiphysics coupling to a Fluid Flow interface with Compressibility set to
Incompressible and Specify reference temperature set to From heat transfer interface.
When Specify reference temperature is set to From fluid flow interface in Nonisothermal
Flow coupling node, this input is synchronized with the corresponding input in the
Single Phase Flow interface. It is also used in the definition of the reference enthalpy
Href which is set to 0 J/kg at pref (1 atm) and Tref. The corresponding interface
variable is ht.Tref.

Select the Isothermal domain check box to activate the support for isothermal domain
modeling. See Isothermal Domain Interface and Isothermal Domain.

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
This section is available by clicking the Show More Options button ( ) and selecting
Stabilization in the Show More Options dialog box.

The Streamline diffusion check box is selected by default and should remain selected for
optimal performance for heat transfer in fluids or other applications that include a
convective or translational term. Crosswind diffusion provides extra diffusion in regions

372 | CHAPTER 5: THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE INTERFACES

with sharp gradients. The added diffusion is orthogonal to the streamlines, so
streamline diffusion and crosswind diffusion can be used simultaneously. The
Crosswind diffusion check box is also selected by default.

INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION
The Isotropic diffusion check box is not selected by default. See Heat Transfer
Consistent and Inconsistent Stabilization Methods for details.

DAMAGE INTEGRAL ANALYSIS DISCRETIZATION

When the Thermal Damage subnode is added under Biological Tissue, select the type of
the Shape function for damaged tissue indicators. The default is Discontinuous Lagrange.
The order is set in the Discretization section.

DISCRETIZATION
To display all settings available in this section, click the Show More Options button ( )
and select Advanced Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. You can
choose the type and order of the shape functions used for the variables solved by the
Heat Transfer interfaces.

Temperature
For the temperature, you can choose not only the order of the discretization, but also
the type of shape functions: Lagrange or serendipity. For highly distorted elements,
Lagrange shape functions provide better accuracy than serendipity shape functions of
the same order. The serendipity shape functions will however give significant
reductions of the model size for a given mesh containing hexahedral, prism, or
quadrilateral elements. At first order, Lagrange and serendipity shape functions are the
same.

The default shape functions used for the temperature are Quadratic Lagrange for the
modeling of heat transfer without convection (solids, biological tissue, building
materials), and Linear for the modeling of heat transfer with convection (fluids, porous
media, moist air). See each interface description for details.

Damaged Tissue Indicator

When the Thermal Damage subnode is added under Biological Tissue, you can choose
the discretization level of the Damage tissue indicator shape function: Constant (the
default), Linear, Quadratic, Cubic, Quartic, or Quintic.

ABOUT THE HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACES | 373

 Irreversible Transformation Indicator
When the Irreversible Transformation subfeature is added under a Solid node, you can
choose the discretization level of the Irreversible transformation indicator shape
function: Constant (the default), Linear, Quadratic, Cubic, Quartic, or Quintic.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The Heat Transfer interfaces have the dependent variable Temperature T. The
dependent variable names can be changed. Editing the name of a scalar dependent
variable changes both its field name and the dependent variable name. If a new field
name coincides with the name of another field of the same type, the fields share degrees
of freedom and dependent variable names. A new field name must not coincide with
the name of a field of another type or with a component name belonging to some other
field.

Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer Interface

This section details the nodes available within the Heat Transfer interface:

• Domain Nodes for the Heat Transfer Interface

• Boundary Nodes for the Heat Transfer Interface
• Edge Nodes for the Heat Transfer Interface
• Point Nodes for the Heat Transfer Interface

Some nodes are only available with some COMSOL products.

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

374 | CHAPTER 5: THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE INTERFACES

DOMAIN NODES FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACE
The Heat Transfer interface has the following domain nodes:

• Bioheat • Out-of-Plane Heat Flux

• Biological Tissue • Out-of-Plane Radiation
• Building Material • Pellets (Porous Medium)
• Convectively Enhanced • Pellet-Fluid Interface (Porous
Conductivity Medium)
• Cross Section • Phase Change Material
• Fluid • Porous Matrix (Porous Medium,
• Fluid (Porous Medium) Moist Porous Medium)

• Geothermal Heating • Porous Medium

• Heat Source • Pressure Work

• Immobile Fluids (Porous Medium) • Shape Memory Alloy

• Initial Values • Solid

• Irreversible Transformation • Thermal Damage

• Liquid Water (Moist Porous • Thermal Dispersion

Medium) • Thermoelastic Damping
• Moist Air (Heat Transfer Interface) • Thickness
• Moist Air (Moist Porous Medium) • Translational Motion
• Moist Porous Medium • Viscous Dissipation
• Optically Thick Participating
Medium

When the Isothermal domain check box is selected in the Physical Model section, the
Isothermal Domain node is also available from the context menu or the Physics toolbar
Domains menu.

ABOUT THE HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACES | 375

 BOUNDARY NODES FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACE
The Heat Transfer interface has the following boundary nodes:

• Boundary Heat Source • Outflow

• Continuity • Periodic Condition (Heat Transfer
• Deposited Beam Power Interface)

• External Temperature (Thin Layer, • Phase Change Interface

Thin Film, Fracture) • Surface-to-Ambient Radiation
• Fracture (Heat Transfer Interface) (Heat Transfer Interface)
and Porous Medium (Heat Transfer • Symmetry (Heat Transfer Interface)
in Shells Interface) • Temperature
• Heat Flux • Thermal Contact
• Heat Source (Thin Layer, Thin Film, • Thermal Insulation
Fracture)
• Thin Film (Heat Transfer Interface)
• Inflow and Fluid (Heat Transfer in Shells
• Line Heat Source on Axis Interface)
• Local Thermal Nonequilibrium • Thin Layer (Heat Transfer Interface)
Boundary and Solid (Heat Transfer in Shells
• Lumped System Connector Interface)

• Open Boundary

When the Isothermal domain check box is selected in the Physical Model section, the
Isothermal Domain Interface node is added by default and is also available from the
context menu or the Physics toolbar Boundaries menu.

376 | CHAPTER 5: THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE INTERFACES

EDGE NODES FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACE
The Heat Transfer interface has the following edge nodes (3D components only):

• Heat Flux (Thin Layer, Thin Film, • Temperature (Thin Layer, Thin
Fracture) Film, Fracture, and Heat Transfer in
• Line Heat Source Shells Interface)

• Shell Continuity (Heat Transfer • Thin Rod

Interface) and Continuity (Heat
Transfer in Shells Interface)
• Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin
Layer, Thin Film, Fracture, and
Heat Transfer in Shells Interface)

POINT NODES FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACE

The Heat Transfer interface has the following point nodes:

• Point Heat Flux (Thin Rod) • Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin

• Point Heat Source Rod)

• Point Heat Source on Axis • Temperature (Thin Rod)

Settings for the Heat Transfer in Shells Interface

The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is htlsh.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
By default, all boundaries are available for the application of the Heat Transfer in Shells
interface. Select the Restrict to layered boundaries check box to make the interface
applicable only if a layered material is defined on the boundary. If a layered material
(Material with Layer thickness specified, Single Layer Material, Layered Material Link, or

ABOUT THE HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACES | 377

 Layered Material Stack) is available, its name is then displayed beside the boundary
index (for example, slmat1), otherwise the boundary is marked as not applicable.

SHELL PROPERTIES
Two options are available for the Shell type:

• When the Layered shell option is selected, the Extra Dimension tool is used to solve
the equations through the thickness of a layered material. It is possible to consider
several layers with different thermal properties varying through the thickness, by
using the General option for Layer type in the Thin Layer (Heat Transfer Interface)
and Solid (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface), Thin Film (Heat Transfer Interface)
and Fluid (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface), or Fracture (Heat Transfer Interface)
and Porous Medium (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface) nodes.
• When the Nonlayered shell option is selected, only the thermal properties need to be
specified within the material. This option should be used for thermally thin layers,
for which no through-thickness temperature variation is expected in the layered
material. This lumped approach is available by using the Thermally thin
approximation option for Layer type in the Thin Layer (Heat Transfer Interface) and
Solid (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface), Thin Film (Heat Transfer Interface) and
Fluid (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface), or Fracture (Heat Transfer Interface) and
Porous Medium (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface) nodes.

Layered Shell
By default, the Shell type is Layered shell, and the thickness of the layered material
should be set as follows, depending on the type of material:

• In a Material node, the Layer thickness can be in the table found under the Material
Contents section of the material Settings window. This automatically adds a Shell
subnode under the Material node, transforming it as a layered material.
• When the layered material is a Single Layer Material, the Thickness is set in the Layer
Definition section of the Shell Property Group window.
• For a general Layered Material, added through a Layered Material Link or a Layered
Material Stack, the Thickness is set in the Layer Definition section of the Settings
window. Several layers may be defined in the table, and the Thickness should be
defined for each of them. The total thickness of the layered material is the sum of all
the layers thicknesses.

Note that the Layered shell option should be used whenever a layered material is
applied on the boundaries, because the thickness is part of the material settings.

378 | CHAPTER 5: THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE INTERFACES

In the Solid, Fluid, and Porous Medium nodes, the same layered material is used, and this
choice is not editable. And both the Thermally thin approximation and General options
are available as Layer type in these nodes.

Clear the Use all layers check box to apply the Heat Transfer in Shells interface on some
layers only. Select a Layered material from the list (the interface is then applicable only
on the boundaries where this latter material is defined), and clear the check boxes
corresponding to layers where the interface should not be applied in the Selection table.

Nonlayered Shell
If the Restrict to layered boundaries check box is not selected in the Boundary Selection
section, a nonlayered material may be defined on the selected boundaries, and the
Thickness Lth can be set as a user defined value or expression. This value overrides the
values set in the material nodes.

In the Solid, Fluid, and Porous Medium nodes, the Thickness is set by default to From
physics interface, and is editable only in a manually added node. Only the Thermally thin
approximation option is available as Layer type in these nodes.

You can visualize the selected layered materials and layers in each layered material by
clicking the Layer cross section preview and Layer 3D preview buttons.

• The layer thickness variable, htlsh.ds, used in the weak equations, is

the product of the thickness set in the Shell Properties section,
htlsh.lth, and the scale factor htlsh.lsc, which is equal to 1 by
default, and can be overridden by a user defined value in a single layer
material.
• The layer thickness variable, htlsh.ds, is defined in all dimensions,
and is unrelated to the Out-of-plane thickness of the layered material,
htlsh.d, which is only available in 2D, and might be edited in the
Out-of-Plane Thickness section.

• See Layer and Interface Selection Tools.

• You can provide material parameters with a through-thickness variation
by explicitly or implicitly using expressions containing the extra
dimension coordinate as described in Using the Extra Dimension
Coordinates.

ABOUT THE HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACES | 379

 The desired selection for the physics interface may correspond to
boundaries with different layered materials. This means that a single
physics interface can accommodate several different stacking sequences.

See Layered Material, Layered Material Link, Layered Material Stack,

Layered Material Link (Subnode), and Single-Layer Materials in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for details on the definition
of layered materials.

OUT-OF-PLANE THICKNESS
For 2D components, the cross-section of the layered material is modeled, and its
Out-of-plane thickness, dz (SI unit: m), should be defined (see Equation 4-72). The
default is 1 m.

When the Heat Transfer in Shells interface is coupled to a

Surface-to-Surface Radiation interface through a Heat Transfer with
Surface-to-Surface Radiation multiphysics coupling, these inputs are
automatically defined from the multiphysics coupling. These variables are
set to unit length of the component unit system. This corresponds to the
assumption that the geometry is infinite in the out-of-plane direction and
that the equations are defined per unit length. This assumption is
required as it corresponds to the view factor computation in these
dimensions.

PHYSICAL MODEL
Set the Reference temperature Tref. It is used in the definition of the reference enthalpy
Href which is set to 0 J/kg at pref (1 atm) and Tref. The corresponding interface
variable is htlsh.Tref.

This input is not overriden by the model input found in features like Solid,
Porous Medium, Thin Layer (Heat Transfer Interface) and Solid (Heat
Transfer in Shells Interface), and Fracture (Heat Transfer Interface) and
Porous Medium (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface). It sets the ht.Tref
variable.

380 | CHAPTER 5: THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE INTERFACES

CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
The Streamline diffusion check box is selected by default and should remain selected for
optimal performance for heat transfer in fluids or other applications that include a
convective or translational term. Crosswind diffusion provides extra diffusion in regions
with sharp gradients. The added diffusion is orthogonal to the streamlines, so
streamline diffusion and crosswind diffusion can be used simultaneously. The
Crosswind diffusion check box is also selected by default.

INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION
The Isotropic diffusion check box is not selected by default.

Heat Transfer Consistent and Inconsistent Stabilization Methods

DISCRETIZATION
To display all settings available in this section, click the Show More Options button ( )
and select Advanced Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. You can
choose the type and order of the shape functions used for the variables solved by the
Heat Transfer in Shells interfaces.

Temperature
For the temperature, you can choose not only the order of the discretization, but also
the type of shape functions: Lagrange or serendipity. For highly distorted elements,
Lagrange shape functions provide better accuracy than serendipity shape functions of
the same order. The serendipity shape functions will however give significant
reductions of the model size for a given mesh containing hexahedral, prism, or
quadrilateral elements.

The shape functions used for the temperature are Quadratic Lagrange for the modeling
of heat transfer in shells, and Linear for the modeling of heat transfer in films and heat
transfer in fractures.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The Heat Transfer in Shells interfaces have the dependent variable Temperature T. The
dependent variable names can be changed. Editing the name of a scalar dependent
variable changes both its field name and the dependent variable name. If a new field
name coincides with the name of another field of the same type, the fields share degrees
of freedom and dependent variable names. A new field name must not coincide with

ABOUT THE HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACES | 381

 the name of a field of another type or with a component name belonging to some other
field.

Settings for the Moisture Transport Interface

The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is mt.

PHYSICAL MODEL
In 2D and 1D axisymmetric components, set the Thickness dz, which is the thickness
of the domain in the out-of-plane direction. The default value is 1 m.

In 1D components, set the Cross sectional area Ac and the Cross sectional perimeter Pc
of the domain. Default values are 1 m2 and 2 πA c , respectively.

Set the Reference vapor concentration which is used when the moisture transport
interface is coupled to a fluid flow interface with the Incompressible flow option selected
in the Compressibility list. In this case, the fluid density is evaluated at the Reference
pressure level (defined in the Physical Model section of the fluid flow interface), at the
reference temperature defined in the moisture transport interface (293.15 K), and at
the Reference vapor concentration specified in this section.

Choose the Mixture type for moist air:

• By default, a Diluted species formulation is used in the Moisture Transport in Air

interface and in the Moisture Transport in Building Materials interface. This
formulation is well-adapted for small vapor concentration conditions. In this case,
the density of moist air is supposed not to change with variations of moisture
content, and the moisture content variation is expressed through the transport of
vapor concentration cv
• For larger vapor concentration conditions, the variation of moist air density are
modeled, and the Concentrated species formulation should be used. In this case, the
moisture content variation is expressed through the transport of vapor mass fraction
ωv .

382 | CHAPTER 5: THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE INTERFACES

Note that in hygroscopic porous media domains, the Concentrated species formulation
is always used, and this setting is not used. In building materials domains, this setting
has no effect either.

Finally, select the Account for gravity in liquid velocity check box to enable the Gravity
feature.

CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
The Streamline diffusion check box is selected by default and should remain selected for
optimal performance for applications that include a convective or translational term.
Crosswind diffusion provides extra diffusion in regions with sharp gradients. The added
diffusion is orthogonal to the streamlines, so streamline diffusion and crosswind
diffusion can be used simultaneously. The Crosswind diffusion check box is also selected
by default.

INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION
The Isotropic diffusion check box is not selected by default. To add isotropic diffusion,
select the Isotropic diffusion check box. The field for the tuning parameter δid then
becomes available. The default value is 0.25; increase or decrease the value of δid to
increase or decrease the amount of isotropic diffusion.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Stabilization Techniques
• Selection Information

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options. These settings only apply to the domains in which either a Moist Air
feature or an Hygroscopic Porous Medium feature is active. Select a Convective term —
Non-conservative form (the default) or Conservative form. The latter should be used for
compressible flow.

DISCRETIZATION
To display all settings available in this section, click the Show More Options button ( )
and select Advanced Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. The shape

ABOUT THE HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACES | 383

 functions used for the relative humidity are by default Quadratic Lagrange in building
materials and porous media, and Linear in moist air.

Theory for Moisture Transport

Feature Nodes for the Moisture Transport Interface

This section details the nodes available with the Moisture Transport interface.

DOMAIN NODES FOR THE MOISTURE TRANSPORT INTERFACE

The Moisture Transport interface has the following domain nodes:

• Building Material • Moist Air (Moisture Transport

• Hygroscopic Porous Medium Interface)

• Initial Values • Moisture Source

• Liquid Water (Hygroscopic Porous • Porous Matrix (Hygroscopic Porous

Medium) Medium)

• Moist Air (Hygroscopic Porous • Turbulent Mixing

Medium)

BOUNDARY NODES FOR THE MOISTURE TRANSPORT INTERFACE

The Moisture Transport interface has the following boundary nodes:

• Continuity • Open Boundary

• Inflow • Outflow
• Insulation • Symmetry
• Moist Surface • Thin Moisture Barrier
• Moisture Content • Wet Surface
• Moisture Flux

384 | CHAPTER 5: THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE INTERFACES

The Heat Transfer in Solids Interface
The Heat Transfer in Solids (ht) interface ( ) is used to model heat transfer in solids
by conduction, convection, and radiation. A Solid model is active by default on all
domains. All functionality for including other domain types, such as a fluid domain, is
also available.

The temperature equation defined in solid domains corresponds to the differential

form of the Fourier’s law that may contain additional contributions like heat sources.

When this version of the physics interface is added, these default nodes are added to
the Model Builder: Solid, Thermal Insulation (the default boundary condition), and Initial
Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example,
boundary conditions and sources. You can also right-click Heat Transfer in Solids to
select physics features from the context menu.

By default, the shape functions used for the temperature in solids are Quadratic
Lagrange.

See Settings for the Heat Transfer Interface and Feature Nodes for the
Heat Transfer Interface for a description of all the settings and
functionality.

• Handling Frames in Heat Transfer

• Theory for Heat Transfer in Solids

THE HEAT TRANSFER IN SOLIDS INTERFACE | 385

 The Heat Transfer in Fluids Interface
The Heat Transfer in Fluids (ht) interface ( ) is used to model heat transfer in fluids
by conduction, convection, and radiation. A Fluid model is active by default on all
domains. All functionality for including other domain types, such as a solid domain, is
also available.

The temperature equation defined in fluid domains corresponds to the

convection-diffusion equation that may contain additional contributions like heat
sources.

When this version of the physics interface is added, these default nodes are added to
the Model Builder: Fluid, Thermal Insulation (the default boundary condition), and Initial
Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example,
boundary conditions and sources. You can also right-click Heat Transfer in Fluids to
select physics features from the context menu.

By default, the shape functions used for the temperature in fluids are Linear.

See Settings for the Heat Transfer Interface and Feature Nodes for the
Heat Transfer Interface for details.

• Handling Frames in Heat Transfer

• Theory for Heat Transfer in Fluids

386 | CHAPTER 5: THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE INTERFACES

T he H e a t T r a n sfer i n Sol i d s an d
Fluids Interface
The Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids ( ) interface is automatically added when a
predefined multiphysics interface under the Conjugate Heat Transfer branch is added.

It is used to model heat transfer in solids and fluids by conduction, convection, and
radiation. A Solid model is active by default on all domains, and a Fluid model is also
added but not active.

The settings are the same as for The Heat Transfer in Fluids Interface. This means that
a first order discretization of the temperature is set by default.

See Settings for the Heat Transfer Interface and Feature Nodes for the
Heat Transfer Interface for details.

THE HEAT TRANSFER IN SOLIDS AND FLUIDS INTERFACE | 387

 The Heat Transfer in Porous Media
Interface
The Heat Transfer in Porous Media (ht) interface ( ), found in the Porous Media
physics area under the Heat Transfer branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is
used to model heat transfer by conduction and convection in porous media. A Porous
Medium model is active by default on all domains, with Porous medium type set to Local
thermal equilibrium. All functionality for including other domain types, such as a solid
domain, is also available, and surface-to-ambient radiation may be considered.

The temperature equation defined in porous media domains corresponds to the

convection-diffusion equation with thermodynamic properties averaging models to
account for both solid matrix and fluid properties. This equation is valid when the
temperatures into the porous matrix and the fluid are in equilibrium. If not, use The
Local Thermal Nonequilibrium Interface instead.

The physics interface is an extension of the generic Heat Transfer interface. When this
physics interface is added, the following default nodes are added in the Model Builder:
Porous Medium, Thermal Insulation (the default boundary condition), and Initial Values.
Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example,
boundary conditions. You can also right-click Heat Transfer in Porous Media to select
physics features from the context menu.

By default, the shape functions used for the temperature in porous media are Linear.

See Settings for the Heat Transfer Interface and Feature Nodes for the
Heat Transfer Interface for details.

Theory for Heat Transfer in Porous Media

Free Convection in a Porous Medium: Application Library path

Subsurface_Flow_Module/Heat_Transfer/convection_porous_medium

388 | CHAPTER 5: THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE INTERFACES

T he L o c a l T he r mal N on eq u i l i b ri u m
Interface
The Local Thermal Nonequilibrium interface ( ), found in the Porous Media physics
area under the Heat Transfer branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to
model heat transfer by conduction and convection, in porous media for which the solid
and fluid phase temperatures are not in equilibrium. A Porous Medium model is active
by default on all domains, with Porous medium type set to Local thermal nonequilibrium.
All functionality for including other domain types, such as a solid domain, is also
available, and surface-to-ambient radiation may be considered.

The temperature equations in the solid and fluid phases of the porous medium are
solved and coupled through a transfer term proportional to the temperature difference
between both phases. If this difference can be neglected, use the The Heat Transfer in
Porous Media Interface instead.

The physics interface is an extension of the generic Heat Transfer interface. When this
physics interface is added, the following default nodes are added in the Model Builder:
Porous Medium, Thermal Insulation (the default boundary condition) overridden by
Local Thermal Nonequilibrium Boundary (showing all the boundaries adjacent to
domains where two temperatures are solved for solid and fluid phases), and Initial
Values.

Specific subnodes are also present by default under the Fluid and Porous Matrix
subnodes of the Porous Medium node:

• Initial Values, which allows to set a specific initial temperature for each phase
• Thermal Insulation, which sets a no flux condition for each phase
• Continuity (under Fluid subnode only), which ensures the continuity of the
temperature between the fluid phase and the other domains.

Other subnodes implementing boundary conditions specific to the fluid and solid
phases may be added, to model flow conditions, heat sources, fluxes, and phase
change. This can be done by right-clicking Fluid or Porous Matrix to select physics
features from the context menu.

THE LOCAL THERMAL NONEQUILIBRIUM INTERFACE | 389

 Heat Sources
In the heat source features available under the Fluid and Porous Matrix subnodes, the
user input corresponds to the heat production per total unit volume. It is multiplied
by the volume fraction of each phase and added into the corresponding heat equation.

Heat Fluxes
In the heat flux features available under the Fluid and Porous Matrix subnodes, the user
input corresponds to the heat flux per total unit surface. It is multiplied by the volume
fraction of each phase and added into the corresponding heat equation. The surface
fraction is approximated by the volume fraction.

By default, the shape functions used for the temperature in porous media are Linear.

See Settings for the Heat Transfer Interface and Feature Nodes for the
Heat Transfer Interface for details.

Theory for Heat Transfer in Porous Media

390 | CHAPTER 5: THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE INTERFACES

The Heat Transfer in Packed Beds
Interface
The Heat Transfer in Packed Beds interface ( ), found in the Porous Media physics area
under the Heat Transfer branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to model
heat transfer by conduction and convection, in porous media where the local thermal
equilibrium is not assumed between the solid pellets of a packed bed and the fluid
phase, and where the radial variation of the temperature due to conduction inside the
pellets is accounted for. A Porous Medium model is active by default on all domains,
with Porous medium type set to Packed bed. All functionality for including other
domain types, such as a solid domain, is also available, and surface-to-ambient
radiation may be considered, assuming that radiation effects are handled on the
exterior surface of the pellets only.

The microscale heat equation in the pellets and the macroscale heat equation in the
fluid are solved and coupled either through a transfer term proportional to the
temperature difference between both phases, or a continuity condition on the fluid and
pellets temperatures.

The physics interface is an extension of the generic Heat Transfer interface. When this
physics interface is added, the following default nodes are added in the Model Builder:
Porous Medium, Thermal Insulation (the default boundary condition) overridden by
Local Thermal Nonequilibrium Boundary (showing all the boundaries adjacent to
domains where two temperatures are solved for solid and fluid phases), and Initial
Values.

Specific subnodes are also present by default under the Fluid and Pellets subnodes of
the Porous Medium node:

• Initial Values, which allows to set a specific initial temperature for each phase
• Thermal Insulation (under Fluid subnode only), which sets a no flux condition for the
fluid phase
• Continuity (under Fluid subnode only), which ensures the continuity of the
temperature between the fluid phase and the other domains.

Other subnodes implementing boundary conditions specific to the fluid and pellets
may be added, to model flow conditions, heat sources, fluxes, and phase change. This

THE HEAT TRANSFER IN PACKED BEDS INTERFACE | 391

 can be done by right-clicking Fluid or Pellets to select physics features from the context
menu.

By default, the shape functions used for the temperature in porous media are Linear.

See Settings for the Heat Transfer Interface and Feature Nodes for the
Heat Transfer Interface for details.

Theory for Heat Transfer in Porous Media

392 | CHAPTER 5: THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE INTERFACES

The Heat Transfer in Moist Porous
Media Interface
The Heat Transfer in Moist Porous Media (ht) interface ( ) is automatically added
when the Moist Porous Media version of the predefined multiphysics interface Heat and
Moisture Transport is added. A Moist Porous Medium model is active by default on all
domains. All functionality for including other domain types, such as a solid domain, is
also available.

The temperature equation defined in moist porous media domains corresponds to the
convection-diffusion equation with thermodynamic properties averaging models to
account for solid matrix, liquid water, and moist air properties. This equation is valid
when the temperatures into the porous matrix and the fluid are in equilibrium.

The physics interface is an extension of the generic Heat Transfer interface. When this
physics interface is added, the following default nodes are added in the Model Builder:
Moist Porous Medium, Thermal Insulation (the default boundary condition), and Initial
Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example,
boundary conditions. You can also right-click Heat Transfer in Moist Porous Media to
select physics features from the context menu.

By default, the shape functions used for the temperature in moist porous media are
Linear.

See Settings for the Heat Transfer Interface and Feature Nodes for the
Heat Transfer Interface for details.

Theory for Heat Transfer in Moist Porous Media

THE HEAT TRANSFER IN MOIST POROUS MEDIA INTERFACE | 393

 The Heat Transfer in Building
Materials Interface
The Heat Transfer in Building Materials interface ( ) is automatically added when the
Building Materials version of the predefined multiphysics interface Heat and Moisture
Transport is added. A Building Material model is active by default on all domains.

Use this interface to model heat transfer in building materials defined as porous media
containing moisture, which is a mixture of liquid water and vapor. The temperature
equation corresponds to the diffusion equation in which effective thermodynamic
properties account for both the dry solid matrix and moisture properties. The latent
heat of evaporation is included to define a heat source or sink.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are added in the
Model Builder: Building Material, Thermal Insulation, and Initial Values. Then, from the
Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions.
You can also right-click Heat Transfer in Building Materials to select physics features from
the context menu.

A second order discretization is used by default for the temperature.

See Settings for the Heat Transfer Interface and Feature Nodes for the
Heat Transfer Interface for details.

Theory for Heat Transfer in Building Materials

See Building Material Library in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual for a description of materials containing the thermal and
hygroscopic properties required by some feature nodes of The Heat
Transfer in Building Materials Interface.

394 | CHAPTER 5: THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE INTERFACES

The Heat Transfer in Moist Air
Interface
The Heat Transfer in Moist Air interface ( ) is automatically added when the Moist Air
version of the predefined multiphysics interface Heat and Moisture Transport is added.
A Moist Air (Heat Transfer Interface) model is active by default on all domains.

It is used to model heat transfer in moist air by convection and diffusion, by using
thermodynamics properties defined as a function of the quantity of vapor in the moist
air.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are added in the
Model Builder: Moist Air, Thermal Insulation, and Initial Values. Then, from the Physics
toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions. You can
also right-click Heat Transfer in Moist Air to select physics features from the context
menu.

The settings are the same as for The Heat Transfer in Fluids Interface. This means that
a first order discretization is used by default for the temperature.

See Settings for the Heat Transfer Interface and Feature Nodes for the
Heat Transfer Interface for details.

Theory for Heat Transfer in Fluids

Theory for Heat Transfer in Moist Air

THE HEAT TRANSFER IN MOIST AIR INTERFACE | 395

 The Bioheat Transfer Interface
The Bioheat Transfer (ht) interface ( ), selected under the Heat Transfer branch ( )
when adding a physics interface, is used to model heat transfer by conduction,
convection, and radiation. A Biological Tissue model is active by default on all domains.
All functionality for including other domain types, such as a solid domain, are also
available.

The temperature equation defined in biological tissue domains corresponds to the

differential form of the Fourier’s law with predefined contributions for bioheat
sources. In addition, tissue damage integral models can be included, based on a
temperature threshold or an energy absorption model.

When this version of the physics interface is added, these default nodes are added to
the Model Builder: Biological Tissue (with a default Bioheat node), Thermal Insulation
(the default boundary condition), and Initial Values. All functionality to include both
solid and fluid domains are also available. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other
nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions and sources. You can also
right-click Bioheat Transfer to select physics features from the context menu.

See Settings for the Heat Transfer Interface and Feature Nodes for the
Heat Transfer Interface for details.

• Theory for Bioheat Transfer

• Biological Tissue, Bioheat, and Thermal Damage

Hepatic Tumor Ablation: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Medical_Technology/tumor_ablation

396 | CHAPTER 5: THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE INTERFACES

The Heat Transfer in Shells Interface
The Heat Transfer in Shells (htlsh) interface ( ), found in the Thin Structures physics
area under the Heat Transfer branch ( ), is used to model heat transfer by
conduction, convection and radiation in layered materials represented by boundaries.
The interface is active on all boundaries where a layered material is defined, with a Solid
model active by default. All functionalities for including other boundary contributions,
such as surface-to-ambient radiation, are also available.

A layered material can be defined on the boundaries by adding one of the

following nodes:

• Single Layer Material

• Layered Material Link, together with a Layered Material node
• Layered Material Stack, together with one or several Layered Material
nodes
• Material, with the Layer thickness property specified

See Layered Material, Layered Material Link, Layered Material Stack,

Layered Material Link (Subnode), and Single-Layer Materials in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for details on the definition
of layered materials.

Although the layered material is represented as a boundary in the model, the

through-thickness variation of the temperature is accounted for. It means that the
temperature equation corresponding to the Fourier’s law (see Equation 4-72) is solved
also in the layered material’s thickness direction. In addition, a single boundary may
represent several layers with different thermal properties varying through the thickness
of the layered material. This uses the Extra Dimension tool which defines the equations
on the product space between the boundary and the additional dimension for the
thickness of the layered material. See Modeling Layered Materials for details.

For thermally thin boundaries, it is possible to bypass the use of the product space, by
selecting Nonlayered shell in the Shell type list, and setting a user defined value for the
Thickness Lth directly in the interface. A lumped formulation assuming that heat
transfer mainly follows the tangential direction of the boundary is then available.

THE HEAT TRANSFER IN SHELLS INTERFACE | 397

 See Theoretical Background of the Different Formulations for a description of the
different formulations.

The physics interface is available for 2D components, 3D components, and for

axisymmetric components with cylindrical coordinates in 2D.

When this version of the physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added
to the Model Builder: Solid, Thermal Insulation (an edge condition), and Initial Values.
Then, from the Physics toolbar, add additional nodes that implement, for example,
boundary interface or edge conditions, and heat sources. You can also right-click Heat
Transfer in Shells to select physics features from the context menu.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
See Boundary Selection for a description this section, common to all versions of the
Heat Transfer in Shells interface.

SHELL PROPERTIES
See Shell Properties for a description this section, common to all versions of the Heat
Transfer in Shells interface.

PHYSICAL MODEL
See Physical Model for a description of the Reference temperature setting under the
Physical Model section.

CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
This section is available by clicking the Show More Options button ( ) and selecting
Stabilization in the Show More Options dialog box. See Consistent Stabilization for more
details.

INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION
This section is available by clicking the Show More Options button ( ) and selecting
Stabilization in the Show More Options dialog box. See Inconsistent Stabilization for
more details.

DISCRETIZATION
See Discretization for more details.

Temperature
By default, the shape functions used for the temperature are Quadratic Lagrange. This
setting affects also the discretization of the temperature field in the thickness direction.

398 | CHAPTER 5: THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE INTERFACES

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
See Dependent Variables for details.

See Settings for the Heat Transfer in Shells Interface for a description of
the other settings.

• Handling Frames in Heat Transfer

• Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Shells Interface
• Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

Shell Conduction: Application Library path Heat_Transfer_Module/

Tutorials,_Thin_Structure/shell_conduction

Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Shells Interface

This section details the nodes available with The Heat Transfer in Shells Interface with
default settings:

• Boundary Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Shells Interface

• Boundary Interface Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Shells Interface
• Edge Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Shells Interface

Some nodes are only available with some COMSOL products.

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

The Heat Transfer in Shells Interface does not have any domain node, as
it can be applied only on boundaries.

THE HEAT TRANSFER IN SHELLS INTERFACE | 399

 BOUNDARY NODES FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER IN SHELLS INTERFACE
The Heat Transfer in Shells Interface has the following boundary nodes:

• Heat Source (Heat Transfer in Shells • Thin Film (Heat Transfer Interface)
Interface) and Fluid (Heat Transfer in Shells
• Initial Values (Thin Layer, Thin Interface)
Film, Fracture, and Heat Transfer in • Thin Layer (Heat Transfer Interface)
Shells Interface) and Solid (Heat Transfer in Shells
Interface)

BOUNDARY INTERFACE NODES FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER IN SHELLS

INTERFACE
The Heat Transfer in Shells Interface has the following boundary interface nodes:

• Deposited Beam Power, Interface • Surface-to-Ambient Radiation,

(Heat Transfer in Shells Interface) Interface (Heat Transfer in Shells
• Heat Flux, Interface (Heat Transfer Interface)
in Shells Interface) • Temperature, Interface (Heat
• Heat Source, Interface (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface)
Transfer in Shells Interface) • Thermal Contact, Interface (Heat
• Lumped System Connector, Transfer in Shells Interface)
Interface (Heat Transfer in Shells
Interface)

400 | CHAPTER 5: THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE INTERFACES

EDGE NODES FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER IN SHELLS INTERFACE
The Heat Transfer in Shells Interface has the following edge nodes:

• Heat Flux (Heat Transfer in Shells • Symmetry (Thin Layer, Thin Film,
Interface) Fracture, and Heat Transfer in Shells
• Heat Source (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface)
Interface) • Temperature (Thin Layer, Thin
• Heat Flux (Heat Transfer in Shells Film, Fracture, and Heat Transfer in
Interface) Shells Interface)

• Lumped System Connector (Heat • Thermal Insulation (Thin Layer,

Transfer in Shells Interface) Thin Film, Fracture, and Heat
Transfer in Shells Interface)
• Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin
Layer, Thin Film, Fracture, and
Heat Transfer in Shells Interface)

THE HEAT TRANSFER IN SHELLS INTERFACE | 401

 The Heat Transfer in Films Interface
The Heat Transfer in Films (htlsh) interface ( ), found in the Thin Structures physics
area under the Heat Transfer branch ( ), is used to model heat transfer by
conduction, convection and radiation in layered materials represented by boundaries.
The interface is active on all boundaries where a layered material is defined, with a Fluid
model active by default. All functionalities for including other boundary contributions,
such as surface-to-ambient radiation, are also available.

A layered material can be defined on the boundaries by adding one of the

following nodes:

• Single Layer Material

• Layered Material Link, together with a Layered Material node
• Layered Material Stack, together with one or several Layered Material
nodes
• Material, with the Layer thickness property specified

See Layered Material, Layered Material Link, Layered Material Stack,

Layered Material Link (Subnode), and Single-Layer Materials in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for details on the definition
of layered materials.

Although the layered material is represented as a boundary in the model, the

through-thickness variation of the temperature is accounted for. It means that the
convection-diffusion equation is solved also in the layered material’s thickness
direction. In addition, a single boundary may represent several layers with different
thermal properties varying through the thickness of the layered material. This uses the
Extra Dimension tool which defines the equations on the product space between the
boundary and the additional dimension for the thickness of the layered material. See
Modeling Layered Materials for details.

For thermally thin boundaries, it is possible to bypass the use of the product space, by
selecting Nonlayered shell in the Shell type list, and setting a user defined value for the
Thickness Lth directly in the interface. A lumped formulation assuming that heat
transfer mainly follows the tangential direction of the boundary is then available.

402 | CHAPTER 5: THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE INTERFACES

See Theoretical Background of the Different Formulations for a description of the
different formulations.

The physics interface is available for 2D components, 3D components, and for

axisymmetric components with cylindrical coordinates in 2D.

When this version of the physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added
to the Model Builder: Fluid, Thermal Insulation (an edge condition), and Initial Values.
Then, from the Physics toolbar, add additional nodes that implement, for example,
boundary interface or edge conditions, and heat sources. You can also right-click Heat
Transfer in Films to select physics features from the context menu.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
See Boundary Selection for a description this section, common to all versions of the
Heat Transfer in Shells interface.

SHELL PROPERTIES
See Shell Properties for a description this section, common to all versions of the Heat
Transfer in Shells interface.

PHYSICAL MODEL
See Physical Model for a description of the Reference temperature setting under the
Physical Model section.

CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
This section is available by clicking the Show More Options button ( ) and selecting
Stabilization in the Show More Options dialog box. See Consistent Stabilization for more
details.

INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION
This section is available by clicking the Show More Options button ( ) and selecting
Stabilization in the Show More Options dialog box. See Inconsistent Stabilization for
more details.

DISCRETIZATION
See Discretization for more details.

Temperature
By default, the shape functions used for the temperature are Linear. This setting affects
also the discretization of the temperature field in the thickness direction.

THE HEAT TRANSFER IN FILMS INTERFACE | 403

 DEPENDENT VARIABLES
See Dependent Variables for details.

See Settings for the Heat Transfer in Shells Interface for a description of
the other settings.

• Handling Frames in Heat Transfer

• Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Films Interface
• Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Films Interface

This section details the nodes available with The Heat Transfer in Films Interface with
default settings:

• Boundary Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Films Interface

• Boundary Interface Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Films Interface
• Edge Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Films Interface

Some nodes are only available with some COMSOL products.

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

The Heat Transfer in Films Interface does not have any domain node, as
it can be applied only on boundaries.

404 | CHAPTER 5: THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE INTERFACES

BOUNDARY NODES FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER IN FILMS INTERFACE
The Heat Transfer in Films Interface has the following boundary nodes:

• Heat Source (Heat Transfer in Shells • Thin Film (Heat Transfer Interface)
Interface) and Fluid (Heat Transfer in Shells
• Initial Values (Thin Layer, Thin Interface)
Film, Fracture, and Heat Transfer in • Thin Layer (Heat Transfer Interface)
Shells Interface) and Solid (Heat Transfer in Shells
Interface)

BOUNDARY INTERFACE NODES FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER IN FILMS

INTERFACE
The Heat Transfer in Films Interface has the following boundary interface nodes:

• Deposited Beam Power, Interface • Surface-to-Ambient Radiation,

(Heat Transfer in Shells Interface) Interface (Heat Transfer in Shells
• Heat Flux, Interface (Heat Transfer Interface)
in Shells Interface) • Temperature, Interface (Heat
• Heat Source, Interface (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface)
Transfer in Shells Interface) • Thermal Contact, Interface (Heat
• Lumped System Connector, Transfer in Shells Interface)
Interface (Heat Transfer in Shells
Interface)

THE HEAT TRANSFER IN FILMS INTERFACE | 405

 EDGE NODES FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER IN FILMS INTERFACE
The Heat Transfer in Films Interface has the following edge nodes:

• Heat Flux (Heat Transfer in Shells • Symmetry (Thin Layer, Thin Film,
Interface) Fracture, and Heat Transfer in Shells
• Heat Source (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface)
Interface) • Temperature (Thin Layer, Thin
• Heat Flux (Heat Transfer in Shells Film, Fracture, and Heat Transfer in
Interface) Shells Interface)

• Lumped System Connector (Heat • Thermal Insulation (Thin Layer,

Transfer in Shells Interface) Thin Film, Fracture, and Heat
Transfer in Shells Interface)
• Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin
Layer, Thin Film, Fracture, and
Heat Transfer in Shells Interface)

406 | CHAPTER 5: THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE INTERFACES

The Heat Transfer in Fractures
Interface
The Heat Transfer in Fractures (htlsh) interface ( ), found in the Thin Structures
physics area under the Heat Transfer branch ( ), is used to model heat transfer by
conduction, convection and radiation in layered materials represented by boundaries.
The interface is active on all boundaries where a layered material is defined, with a
Porous Medium model active by default. All functionalities for including other
boundary contributions, such as surface-to-ambient radiation, are also available.

A layered material can be defined on the boundaries by adding one of the

following nodes:

• Single Layer Material

• Layered Material Link, together with a Layered Material node
• Layered Material Stack, together with one or several Layered Material
nodes
• Material, with the Layer thickness property specified

See Layered Material, Layered Material Link, Layered Material Stack,

Layered Material Link (Subnode), and Single-Layer Materials in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for details on the definition
of layered materials.

Although the layered material is represented as a boundary in the model, the

through-thickness variation of the temperature is accounted for. It means that the
temperature equation, corresponding to the convection-diffusion equation with
thermodynamic properties averaging models to account for both solid matrix and fluid
properties, is solved also in the layered material’s thickness direction. This equation is
valid when the temperatures into the porous matrix and the fluid are in equilibrium,
and may contain additional contributions such as heat sources.

In addition, a single boundary may represent several layers with different thermal
properties varying through the thickness of the layered material. This uses the Extra
Dimension tool which defines the equations on the product space between the

THE HEAT TRANSFER IN FRACTURES INTERFACE | 407

 boundary and the additional dimension for the thickness of the layered material. See
Modeling Layered Materials for details.

For thermally thin boundaries, it is possible to bypass the use of the product space, by
selecting Nonlayered shell in the Shell type list, and setting a user defined value for the
Thickness Lth directly in the interface. A lumped formulation assuming that heat
transfer mainly follows the tangential direction of the boundary is then available.

See Theoretical Background of the Different Formulations for a description of the

different formulations.

The physics interface is available for 2D components, 3D components, and for

axisymmetric components with cylindrical coordinates in 2D.

When this version of the physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added
to the Model Builder: Porous Medium, Thermal Insulation (an edge condition), and Initial
Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add additional nodes that implement, for
example, boundary interface or edge conditions, and heat sources. You can also
right-click Heat Transfer in Fractures to select physics features from the context menu.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
See Boundary Selection for a description this section, common to all versions of the
Heat Transfer in Shells interface.

SHELL PROPERTIES
See Shell Properties for a description this section, common to all versions of the Heat
Transfer in Shells interface.

PHYSICAL MODEL
See Physical Model for a description of the Reference temperature setting under the
Physical Model section.

CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
This section is available by clicking the Show More Options button ( ) and selecting
Stabilization in the Show More Options dialog box. See Consistent Stabilization for more
details.

INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION
This section is available by clicking the Show More Options button ( ) and selecting
Stabilization in the Show More Options dialog box. See Inconsistent Stabilization for
more details.

408 | CHAPTER 5: THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE INTERFACES

DISCRETIZATION
See Discretization for more details.

Temperature
By default, the shape functions used for the temperature are Linear. This setting affects
also the discretization of the temperature field in the thickness direction.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
See Dependent Variables for details.

See Settings for the Heat Transfer in Shells Interface for a description of
the other settings.

• Handling Frames in Heat Transfer

• Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Fractures Interface
• Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Fractures Interface

This section details the nodes available with The Heat Transfer in Fractures Interface
with default settings:

• Boundary Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Fractures Interface

• Boundary Interface Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Fractures Interface
• Edge Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Fractures Interface

Some nodes are only available with some COMSOL products.

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

The Heat Transfer in Fractures Interface does not have any domain node,
as it can be applied only on boundaries.

THE HEAT TRANSFER IN FRACTURES INTERFACE | 409

 BOUNDARY NODES FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER IN FRACTURES INTERFACE
The Heat Transfer in Fractures Interface has the following boundary nodes:

• Fracture (Heat Transfer Interface) • Thin Film (Heat Transfer Interface)

and Porous Medium (Heat Transfer and Fluid (Heat Transfer in Shells
in Shells Interface) Interface)
• Heat Source (Heat Transfer in Shells • Thin Layer (Heat Transfer Interface)
Interface) and Solid (Heat Transfer in Shells
• Initial Values (Thin Layer, Thin Interface)
Film, Fracture, and Heat Transfer in
Shells Interface)

BOUNDARY INTERFACE NODES FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER IN FRACTURES

INTERFACE
The Heat Transfer in Fractures Interface has the following boundary interface nodes:

• Deposited Beam Power, Interface • Surface-to-Ambient Radiation,

(Heat Transfer in Shells Interface) Interface (Heat Transfer in Shells
• Heat Flux, Interface (Heat Transfer Interface)
in Shells Interface) • Temperature, Interface (Heat
• Heat Source, Interface (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface)
Transfer in Shells Interface) • Thermal Contact, Interface (Heat
• Lumped System Connector, Transfer in Shells Interface)
Interface (Heat Transfer in Shells
Interface)

410 | CHAPTER 5: THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE INTERFACES

EDGE NODES FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER IN FRACTURES INTERFACE
The Heat Transfer in Fractures Interface has the following edge nodes (for 3D
components only):

• Heat Flux (Heat Transfer in Shells • Symmetry (Thin Layer, Thin Film,
Interface) Fracture, and Heat Transfer in Shells
• Heat Source (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface)
Interface) • Temperature (Thin Layer, Thin
• Heat Flux (Heat Transfer in Shells Film, Fracture, and Heat Transfer in
Interface) Shells Interface)

• Lumped System Connector (Heat • Thermal Insulation (Thin Layer,

Transfer in Shells Interface) Thin Film, Fracture, and Heat
Transfer in Shells Interface)
• Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin
Layer, Thin Film, Fracture, and
Heat Transfer in Shells Interface)

THE HEAT TRANSFER IN FRACTURES INTERFACE | 411

 The Lumped Thermal System
Interface
The Lumped Thermal System (lts) interface ( ) is used to model heat transfer in a
system using a thermal network representation.

By analogy with electrical circuits, it provides a lumped element model that idealizes
the domain and boundary conditions for heat transfer into components such as
thermal resistors, thermal capacitors, and heat rate sources, joined by a network of
perfectly thermally conductive wires.

Components representing heat pipes, thermoelectric modules, or user defined thermal

subsystems are also available, and the temperatures and heat rates on boundaries can
be defined in terminal nodes, including connections to distributed finite element
models.

The physics interface supports stationary and time-domain analysis, and solves an
energy conservation equation using global variables (space-independent) for the
temperatures and heat rates at elements. It is available in all space dimensions.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is lts.

SYSTEM SETTINGS
Specify the following in this section:

• Create unique nodes for new components

• Check for hanging nodes before solving

When Create unique nodes for new components is selected, newly added components
will be assigned unused node names. The components will be disconnected from the
rest of the system and the nodes should be updated to reflect the actual system

412 | CHAPTER 5: THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE INTERFACES

connections. When this setting is deselected, new components will be connected to the
lowest-numbered nodes, starting from 0.

When Check for hanging nodes before solving is selected, a check for hanging (not
connected) nodes is performed before solving the equations. An error message is
displayed if one or more hanging nodes are present in the system.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
Every feature of the physics interface adds certain ODE dependent variables in the
form of temperatures, heat rates, and others. All the ODE dependent variables are
grouped in the following ODE fields:

• Temperatures (default field name: temperatures)

• Heat Rates (default field name: heatRates)
• Other (default field name: other)

DISCRETIZATION
All the dependent variables in this physics interface are global (space-independent) and
do not need any spatial discretization.

Feature Nodes for the Lumped Thermal System Interface

The Lumped Thermal System interface has only global nodes. They are available from
the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux
users), or by right-clicking then main physics interface node to access the context menu
(all users).

Nodes in the lumped thermal system should not be confused with nodes
in the Model Builder tree of the COMSOL Multiphysics software. The
system node names are not restricted to numerical values but can contain
alphanumeric characters.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

THE LUMPED THERMAL SYSTEM INTERFACE | 413

 The following nodes are available from the Physics toolbar, Global menu or
from by right-clicking the Lumped Thermal System interface node.

• Conductive Thermal Resistor • Radiative Thermal Resistor

• Convective Thermal Resistor • Thermal Capacitor
• Heat Pipe • Thermoelectric Module
• Heat Rate Source

The following nodes are available from the Physics toolbar, Global menu or
from by selecting from the Subsystems subnode after right-clicking the
Lumped Thermal System interface node.

• Subsystem Definition • Subsystem Instance

The following nodes are available from the Physics toolbar, Global menu or
from by selecting from the Nodes subnode after right-clicking the Lumped
Thermal System interface node.

• External Terminal • Temperature

• Heat Rate • Thermal Mass
• Radiative Heat Rate

414 | CHAPTER 5: THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE INTERFACES

The Surface-to-Surface Radiation
Interface
The Surface-to-Surface Radiation (rad) interface ( ), found under the Heat
Transfer>Radiation branch ( ), is used to model heat transfer by radiation. It treats
thermal radiation as an energy transfer between boundaries and external heat sources
where the medium does not participate in the radiation (transparent medium).

This interface does not compute the temperature field, it requires it as

model input. If the medium participates in the radiation (semitransparent
medium), then use The Radiation in Participating Media Interface
instead.

The radiosity method is used on boundaries where Surface-to-Surface Radiation is

enabled.

From the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary
conditions. You can also right-click Surface-to-Surface Radiation to select physics
features from the context menu. For the Surface-to-Surface Radiation interface, select a
Stationary or Time Dependent study as a preset study type. Surface-to-Surface Radiation
is always stationary (that is, the radiation time scale is assumed to be shorter than any
other time scale), but the physics interface is compatible with all standard study types.

Absolute (thermodynamical) temperature units must be used. See

Specifying Model Equation Settings in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

In this section:

• Settings for the Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface

• Feature Nodes for the Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface

Settings for the Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface

The Label is the default physics interface name.

THE SURFACE-TO-SURFACE RADIATION INTERFACE | 415

 The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is rad.

RADIATION SETTINGS
Define the Wavelength dependence of radiative properties.

• Keep the default value, Constant, to define a diffuse gray radiation model. In this
case, the surface properties (emissivity, radiosity, reflectivity, transmissivity, critical
angle) have the same definition for all wavelengths. The surface properties can still
depend on other quantities, in particular on the temperature.
• Select Solar and ambient to define a diffuse spectral radiation model with two
spectral bands, one for short wavelengths, [0, λsol/amb], (solar radiation) and one for
large wavelengths, [λsol/amb, +∞[, (ambient radiation). It is then possible to define
the Separation point between spectral bands (SI unit: m), λsol/amb, to adjust the
wavelength intervals corresponding to the solar and ambient radiation. The surface
properties can be defined for each spectral band. In particular it is possible to define
the solar absorptivity for short wavelengths and the surface emissivity for large
wavelengths.
• Select Multiple spectral bands and set the value of the Right endpoint for each spectral
band in the table, to define a diffuse spectral radiation model. The value of the Right
endpoint must be entered without unit. Modify the Wavelength unit to set the unit
of all the endpoints. Right endpoint values should be set in an ascending order. The
values of the Left endpoint for the next spectral band are updated automatically. It is
possible to provide a definition of the surface properties for each spectral band.

The first Left endpoint and the last Right endpoint are predefined and equal
to 0 and +∞, respectively.

Parameters can be used to set the value of the Right endpoint.

The wavelengths λ set in Solar and ambient and Multiple spectral bands are
the wavelengths in vacuum.

416 | CHAPTER 5: THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE INTERFACES

Modify the Transparent media refractive index to define the refractive index. Vacuum
has a refractive index of 1, which is usually a good approximation for air refractive
index.

Select the Use radiation groups check box to be able to define Radiation Group
(Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface). Radiation groups can be used to speed up
the radiation calculations by gathering boundaries that can see one another.

Select the Surface-to-surface radiation method: Direct area integration, Hemicube (the
default), or Ray shooting:

• For Direct Area Integration select a Radiation integration order — 4 is the default.
• For Hemicube select a Radiation resolution — 256 is the default.

• For Ray Shooting select a Radiation resolution — 8 is the default.

TABLE 5-4: SURFACE-TO-SURFACE RADIATION METHODS

DIRECT AREA HEMICUBE RAY SHOOTING

INTEGRATION

Supported 3D, 2Daxi, 2D, 1D 3D, 2Daxi, 2D, 1D 3D, 2D, 2Daxi
dimensions axi,1D axi,1D
Shadowing √ √
effects
Diffuse √ √ √
reflection
Specular √
reflection
Refraction √
Directional √
properties
Wavelength √ (Solar and ambient √ (Solar and ambient √ (Solar and ambient
dependent / Multiple spectral / Multiple spectral / Multiple spectral
properties bands) bands) bands)
External √ √ √
Radiation
Source
Symmetry √ √ √
View factor √ √ √
update control

THE SURFACE-TO-SURFACE RADIATION INTERFACE | 417

 Hemicube
Hemicube is the default method for the heat transfer interfaces. The more
sophisticated and general hemicube method uses a z-buffered projection on the sides
of a hemicube (with generalizations to 2D and 1D) to account for shadowing effects.
Think of it as rendering digital images of the geometry in five different directions (in
3D; in 2D only three directions are needed), and counting the pixels in each mesh
element to evaluate its view factor.

Its accuracy can be influenced by setting the Radiation resolution of the virtual
snapshots. The number of z-buffer pixels on each side of the 3D hemicube equals the
specified resolution squared. Thus the time required to evaluate the irradiation
increases quadratically with resolution. In 2D, the number of z-buffer pixels is
proportional to the resolution property, and thus the time is, as well.

For an axisymmetric geometry, Gm and Famb must be evaluated in a corresponding

3D geometry obtained by revolving the 2D boundaries about the axis. COMSOL
Multiphysics creates this virtual 3D geometry by revolving the 2D boundary mesh into
a 3D mesh. The resolution can be controlled in the azimuthal direction by setting the
number of Azimuthal sectors, which is the same as the number of elements to a full
revolution. Try to balance this number against the mesh resolution in the rz-plane.

Direct Area Integration

COMSOL Multiphysics evaluates the mutual irradiation between surface directly,
without considering which face elements are obstructed by others. This means that
shadowing effects (that is, surface elements being obstructed in nonconvex cases) are
not taken into account. Elements facing away from each other are, however, excluded
from the integrals.

Direct area integration is fast and accurate for simple geometries with no shadowing,
or where the shadowing can be handled by manually assigning boundaries to different
radiation groups.

If shadowing is ignored, global energy is not conserved. Control the

accuracy by specifying a Radiation integration order. Sharp angles and small
gaps between surfaces may require a higher integration order for accuracy
but also more time to evaluate the irradiation.

Ray Shooting
The ray shooting algorithm accounts for directional properties in the view factor
evaluation. This includes specular reflection and transmission of radiation and also the

418 | CHAPTER 5: THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE INTERFACES

angular dependence of surface properties. Select this method to enable the Opaque
Surface (Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface) and Semitransparent Surface
(Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface) boundary conditions.

To compute the radiation incident upon surfaces, the ray shooting algorithm uses a
backwards ray tracing approach, emitting rays from each element outwards, to
determine the total irradiation from surrounding elements. For each element, n+1 rays
are launched in 2D and n²+1 rays in 3D where n is the value selected for
Radiation resolution. To determine the direction of these rays, the hemisphere (angular
space) is divided into n tiles in 2D and n² in 3D. The trajectories are computed as the
rays are absorbed, reflected or transmitted on the model surfaces until their intensity
becomes too small or if the rays go far away from the geometry. The threshold where
the ray trajectory is no longer computed is controlled by the Tolerance. On their
trajectory, two adjacent rays can hit boundaries belonging to two different features, or
detects differences in the radiosity. In such cases, the number of tiles can be locally
refined up to a number of times defined by the Maximum number of adaptations. This
aims to detect irradiation from boundaries that are smaller than the tile size.

Set the Maximal number of reflections (default value is 1000) to define the maximal
number of times that a specific ray is allowed to be reflected by a surface. This avoids
infinite loops in case of perfectly reflecting surfaces. Using large values improves the
view factor accuracy while small ones can be used to limit the view factor evaluation
time.

When using directional dependent surface properties, set Angular dependent properties
to define how the selected directional functions are evaluated.

• Keep the default value, Full resolution, to evaluate the directional function for each
direction. This option improves accuracy and is the most computationally intensive.
• Select Interpolated function to sample the directional function on a grid with (k+1)
points for Polar functions and (k+1)² grid points for Polar and Azimuthal functions.
k is the Number of interpolation points (default value is 100), a strictly positive
integer. The evaluation is done using linear interpolation between the sampled
values. This option can speed up the view factor evaluation when directional
dependent surface properties are used.

To improve the accuracy of the radiation computation the user may increase the
Radiation resolution (default value is 8), decrease the Tolerance (default value is 1e-3)
or increase the Maximum number of adaptations (default value is 3). Conversely
changing these values in the opposite direction should decrease computational time.

THE SURFACE-TO-SURFACE RADIATION INTERFACE | 419

 Also, higher values of the Geometry shape order under Component node may improve
the results.

For an axisymmetric geometry, Gm and Famb must be evaluated in a corresponding

3D geometry. The number of bounces of the rays in the azimuthal direction can be
controlled by setting the Azimuthal discretization (default value is 100).

VIEW FACTOR
This section is available by clicking the Show More Options button ( ) and selecting
Advanced Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

Select the Store view factors on disk check box to store the view factors (mutual and
external irradiation) in the model after the next computation. View factors are reused
automatically provided the mesh, the selection of the radiating boundaries, the
radiation direction, external radiation sources or symmetry conditions are unchanged.
However, adding or removing a feature or modifying a feature selection in the
Surface-to-Surface radiation always forces to recompute view factors. The view factors
are reused for example if only the value of the surface emissivity is changed. When
coupled to a Heat Transfer interface through a Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface
Radiation multiphysics coupling, changes for example on temperature, source or flux
conditions can be made in the Heat Transfer interface without having to recompute the
view factors. The view factors are stored in the model file which may induce a
noticeable increase in file size. When this check box is cleared and the model is saved,
view factors are removed from the model file. View factors are also removed from the
model when clearing the mesh and the solution.

Define the View factors update threshold to control the frequency of view factors
computation in time-dependent simulation. This setting is used in models containing
a Moving Mesh node under Definitions, when the Symmetry for Surface-to-Surface
Radiation feature uses one or more moving symmetry planes or with time-dependent
specular surface properties.

• Keep the default value, Every nonlinear iteration, to update the view factors every
nonlinear iteration. This option is the most computationally intensive.
• Select Every Nth time to update the view factors at least every Nth time where N is
the View factors update time (SI unit: s). For example, set View factors update time
to 1e-3[s] to enforce the update every 1e-3s of simulation time.

420 | CHAPTER 5: THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE INTERFACES

• Select Never update to never update view factors. This option can be used when view
factors update has little effect on the results (short timescales, small geometry
changes). This option is the least computationally intensive.
• Select User defined to define the view factors update threshold manually. The view
factors are updated each time the Expression changes by more than the Tolerance. By
default, the tolerance is set to -1 to force the view factor to be recomputed every
nonlinear iteration. For example, set Expression to intop1(1) and Tolerance to
0.15[m], where intop1() is an integration operator over a deforming boundary,
to update view factors when the boundary length changes more than 0.15m
compared with the previous view factors calculation.

Select the High order mesh elements check box to use the mesh elements as they are
defined by the geometry shape functions to compute view factors. This option is
designed to improve the accuracy and is expected to be more computationally
expensive. If not selected, the view factors are computed using linearized mesh
elements.

Select the Mesh element self-irradiation to account for self-irradiation when a mesh
element is concave with respect to the radiation direction. Self-irradiation is always
accounted for in ray shooting.

JACOBIAN CONTRIBUTION
This section is available by clicking the Show More Options button ( ) and selecting
Advanced Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

Set the Jacobian contribution.

• Keep the default value, Only local contributions to radiosity, to exclude the irradiation
contribution to the Jacobian matrix block corresponding to the radiosity degrees of
freedom. This option is expected to reduce dramatically the time and the memory
required to solve the model.
• Select Include contributions from total irradiation to include the irradiation in the
Jacobian matrix and perform the full Jacobian evaluation. This option can ease the
convergence.

Provided a converged solution is obtained with both options, the same solution is
obtained, within the solver tolerance.

THE SURFACE-TO-SURFACE RADIATION INTERFACE | 421

 DISCRETIZATION

Surface Radiosity
Select Linear (the default), Quadratic, Cubic, Quartic or Quintic to define the
discretization level used for the Surface radiosity shape function.

• About the Heat Transfer Interfaces

• Feature Nodes for the Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface
• The Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface
• Theory for Surface-to-Surface Radiation

Feature Nodes for the Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface

This section details the nodes available with The Surface-to-Surface Radiation
Interface with default settings:

• Domain Nodes for the Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface

• Boundary Nodes for the Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface

Some nodes are only available with some COMSOL products.

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

DOMAIN NODES FOR THE SURFACE-TO-SURFACE RADIATION INTERFACE

The Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface has one domain node: Opacity
(Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface).

422 | CHAPTER 5: THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE INTERFACES

BOUNDARY NODES FOR THE SURFACE-TO-SURFACE RADIATION
INTERFACE
The Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface has the following boundary nodes:

• Diffuse Mirror (Surface-to-Surface • Prescribed Radiosity

Radiation Interface) (Surface-to-Surface Radiation
• Diffuse Surface (Surface-to-Surface Interface)
Radiation Interface) • Semitransparent Surface
• External Radiation Source (Surface-to-Surface Radiation
Interface)
• Opaque Surface (Surface-to-Surface
Radiation Interface) • Radiation Group
(Surface-to-Surface Radiation
Interface)

THE SURFACE-TO-SURFACE RADIATION INTERFACE | 423

 The Radiation in Participating Media
Interface
The Radiation in Participating Media (rpm) interface ( ), found under the Heat
Transfer>Radiation branch ( ), is used to model radiative heat transfer inside
participating (semitransparent media) media.

This physics interface doesn’t compute the temperature field and requires
it as a model input. If the medium does not participate in the radiation
(transparent medium), then use The Surface-to-Surface Radiation
Interface instead.

The radiative intensity equations defined in participating media domains correspond

to a P1 approximation, or to the discrete ordinates method approximation equations,
depending on the selected approximation.

When the physics interface is added, these default nodes are added to the Model Builder:
Participating Medium and Opaque Surface. In addition, when Discrete ordinates method
is selected, Continuity on Interior Boundary is also added. Right-click the main node to
add boundary conditions or other features. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other
nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions. You can also right-click
Radiation in Participating Media node to select physics features from the context menu.

In this section:

• Settings for the Radiation in Participating Media Interface

• Feature Nodes for the Radiation in Participating Media Interface

Settings for the Radiation in Participating Media Interface

The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

424 | CHAPTER 5: THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE INTERFACES

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is rpm.

• Radiative Heat Transfer in Finite Cylindrical Media: Application

Library path Heat_Transfer_Module/Verification_Examples/
cylinder_participating_media
• Radiative Heat Transfer in a Utility Boiler: Application Library
path Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Radiation/boiler

PARTICIPATING MEDIA SETTINGS

Wavelength Dependence of Radiative Properties

Define the Wavelength dependence of radiative properties:

• Keep the default value, Constant, to define a gray radiation model. In this case, the
radiative properties (emissivity, absorption and scattering coefficients) have the same
definition for all wavelengths. These properties can still depend on other quantities,
in particular on the temperature.
• Select Solar and ambient to define a spectral radiation model with two spectral bands,
one for short wavelengths, [0, λsol/amb], (solar radiation) and one for large
wavelengths, [λsol/amb, +∞[, (ambient radiation). It is then possible to define the
Separation point between spectral bands (SI unit: m), λsol/amb, to adjust the
wavelength intervals corresponding to the solar and ambient radiation. The
radiative properties can then be defined for each spectral band.
• Select Multiple spectral bands and set the value of the Right endpoint for each spectral
band in the table, to define a spectral radiation model. The value of the Right
endpoint must be entered without unit. Modify the Wavelength unit to set the unit
of all the endpoints. Right endpoint values should be set in an ascending order. The
values of the Left endpoint for the next spectral band are updated automatically. It is
possible to provide a definition of the surface properties for each spectral band.

The first Left endpoint and the last Right endpoint are predefined and equal
to 0 and +∞, respectively.

Parameters can be used to set the value of the Right endpoint.

The wavelengths λ set in Solar and ambient and Multiple spectral bands are
the wavelengths in vacuum.

THE RADIATION IN PARTICIPATING MEDIA INTERFACE | 425

 Radiation Discretization Method
Select a Radiation discretization method: Discrete ordinates method (the default), or P1
approximation.

• When Discrete ordinates method is selected, Opaque Surface (Radiation in

Participating Media and Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media Interfaces) and
Continuity on Interior Boundary (Radiation in Participating Media and Radiation
in Absorbing-Scattering Media Interfaces) are automatically added as default
features.
• When P1 approximation is selected, Opaque Surface (Radiation in Participating
Media and Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media Interfaces) is automatically
added as a default feature and both this and Incident Intensity (Radiation in
Participating Media and Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media Interfaces) are
made available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics context
menu (Mac or Linux users), or the context menu (all users). Continuity on Interior
Boundary (Radiation in Participating Media and Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering
Media Interfaces) is not available.

The choice of Radiation discretization method also offers different settings

for the Participating Medium (Radiation in Participating Media Interface)
(all methods), Opaque Surface (Radiation in Participating Media and
Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media Interfaces) (P1 approximation),
and Incident Intensity (Radiation in Participating Media and Radiation in
Absorbing-Scattering Media Interfaces) (P1 approximation) nodes.

Refractive Index
For either selection, define the Refractive index nr (dimensionless) of the participating
media. The same refractive index is used for the whole model.

Performance Index
When Discrete ordinates method is selected, choose a Performance index Pindex from the
list. Select a value between 0 and 1 that modifies the strategy used to define automatic
solver settings. The default is 0.4. With small values, a robust setting for the solver is
expected. With large values (up to 1), less memory is needed to solve the model.

Quadrature Set
When Discrete ordinates method is selected, the method of angular discretization of the
radiative intensity direction should be specified. In particular, it defines the method of
computation of the weights wj used in the approximation of the scattering term:

426 | CHAPTER 5: THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE INTERFACES

 n

4π I ( Ω ) dΩ ≈  wj Ij
j=1

Choose a Quadrature set from the list:

• The Level Symmetric Even (the default), Level Symmetric Hybrid, and Equal Weight
Odd sets are SN approximations. Depending on the set and the order selected in the
Discrete ordinates method list, different moment conditions are satisfied. In 3D, S2,
S4, S6, and S8 generate 8, 24, 48, and 80 directions, respectively. In 2D, S2, S4, S6,
and S8 generate 4, 12, 24, and 40 directions, respectively.
• The Quasi-uniform weight approximation discretizes the angular space by using a
reference octahedron with 8 triangular faces, further discretized in function of the
order of the method. This corresponds to a TN approximation, for which
8N2weights are computed at order N.

See Discrete Ordinates Method (DOM) for details about the SN and TN
quadrature sets.

DISCRETIZATION

Radiative Intensity
When the Radiation discretization method is set to Discrete ordinates method in
Participating Media Settings, set the discretization level of the Radiative intensity:
Constant, Linear (the default), Quadratic, Cubic, Quartic, or Quintic.

Incident Radiation
When the Radiation discretization method is set to P1 approximation in Participating
Media Settings, set the discretization level of the Incident radiation: Linear (the default),
Quadratic, Cubic, Quartic, or Quintic.

Feature Nodes for the Radiation in Participating Media Interface

This section details the nodes available with The Radiation in Participating Media
Interface with default settings:

• Domain Nodes for the Radiation in Participating Media Interface

THE RADIATION IN PARTICIPATING MEDIA INTERFACE | 427

 • Boundary Nodes for the Radiation in Participating Media Interface

Some nodes are only available with some COMSOL products.

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

DOMAIN NODES FOR THE RADIATION IN PARTICIPATING MEDIA

INTERFACE
The Radiation in Participating Media Interface has the following domain nodes:

• Initial Values (Radiation in • Participating Medium (Radiation in

Participating Media and Radiation in Participating Media Interface)
Absorbing-Scattering Media • Radiative Source
Interfaces)

BOUNDARY NODES FOR THE RADIATION IN PARTICIPATING MEDIA

INTERFACE
The Radiation in Participating Media Interface has the following boundary nodes:

• Continuity (Radiation in • Incident Intensity (Radiation in

Participating Media and Radiation in Participating Media and Radiation in
Absorbing-Scattering Media Absorbing-Scattering Media
Interfaces) Interfaces)
• Continuity on Interior Boundary • Opaque Surface (Radiation in
(Radiation in Participating Media Participating Media and Radiation in
and Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media
Absorbing-Scattering Media Interfaces)
Interfaces)

428 | CHAPTER 5: THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE INTERFACES

The Radiation in
Absorbing-Scattering Media Interface
The Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media (rasm) interface ( ), found under the
Heat Transfer>Radiation branch ( ), is used to model radiative heat transfer inside
participating (semitransparent media) media supposed to be non-emitting.

The radiative intensity equations defined in participating media domains correspond

to a P1 approximation or to the discrete ordinates method approximation equations,
depending on the selected approximation.

When the physics interface is added, these default nodes are added to the Model Builder:
Absorbing-Scattering Medium and Opaque Surface. In addition, when Discrete ordinates
method is selected, Continuity on Interior Boundary is also added. Right-click the main
node to add boundary conditions or other features. Then, from the Physics toolbar,
add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions. You can also
right-click Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media node to select physics features from
the context menu.

In this section:

• Settings for the Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media Interface

• Feature Nodes for the Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media Interface

Settings for the Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media Interface

The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is rasm.

THE RADIATION IN ABSORBING-SCATTERING MEDIA INTERFACE | 429

 PARTICIPATING MEDIA SETTINGS

Wavelength Dependence of Radiative Properties

Define the Wavelength dependence of radiative properties:

• Keep the default value, Constant, to define a gray radiation model. In this case, the
radiative properties (emissivity, absorption and scattering coefficients) have the same
definition for all wavelengths. These properties can still depend on other quantities,
in particular on the temperature.
• Select Solar and ambient to define a spectral radiation model with two spectral bands,
one for short wavelengths, [0, λsol/amb], (solar radiation) and one for large
wavelengths, [λsol/amb, +∞[, (ambient radiation). It is then possible to define the
Separation point between spectral bands (SI unit: m), λsol/amb, to adjust the
wavelength intervals corresponding to the solar and ambient radiation. The
radiative properties can then be defined for each spectral band.
• Select Multiple spectral bands and set the value of the Right endpoint for each spectral
band in the table, to define a spectral radiation model. The value of the Right
endpoint must be entered without unit. Modify the Wavelength unit to set the unit
of all the endpoints. Right endpoint values should be set in an ascending order. The
values of the Left endpoint for the next spectral band are updated automatically. It is
possible to provide a definition of the surface properties for each spectral band.

The first Left endpoint and the last Right endpoint are predefined and equal
to 0 and +∞, respectively.

Parameters can be used to set the value of the Right endpoint.

The wavelengths λ set in Solar and ambient and Multiple spectral bands are
the wavelengths in vacuum.

Radiation Discretization Method

Select a Radiation discretization method: Discrete ordinates method (the default), or P1
approximation.

• When Discrete ordinates method is selected, Opaque Surface (Radiation in

Participating Media and Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media Interfaces) and
Continuity on Interior Boundary (Radiation in Participating Media and Radiation
in Absorbing-Scattering Media Interfaces) are automatically added as default
boundary features. The Incident Intensity (Radiation in Participating Media and

430 | CHAPTER 5: THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE INTERFACES

 Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media Interfaces) and Periodic Condition
(Radiation in Participating Media and Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media
Interfaces) features are made available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows
users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or the context menu (all users).
• When P1 approximation is selected, Opaque Surface (Radiation in Participating
Media and Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media Interfaces) is automatically
added as a default boundary feature. The Incident Intensity (Radiation in
Participating Media and Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media Interfaces),
Periodic Condition (Radiation in Participating Media and Radiation in
Absorbing-Scattering Media Interfaces), and Symmetry (Radiation in Participating
Media and Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media Interfaces) features are made
available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu
(Mac or Linux users), or the context menu (all users). Continuity on Interior
Boundary (Radiation in Participating Media and Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering
Media Interfaces) is not available.

The choice of Radiation discretization method also offers different settings

for the Absorbing-Scattering Medium (Radiation in
Absorbing-Scattering Media Interface), Opaque Surface (Radiation in
Participating Media and Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media
Interfaces), and Incident Intensity (Radiation in Participating Media and
Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media Interfaces) nodes.

Refractive Index
For either selection, define the Refractive index nr (dimensionless) of the participating
media. The same refractive index is used for the whole model.

Performance Index
When Discrete ordinates method is selected, choose a Performance index Pindex from the
list. Select a value between 0 and 1 that modifies the strategy used to define automatic
solver settings. The default is 0.4. With small values, a robust setting for the solver is
expected. With large values (up to 1), less memory is needed to solve the model.

Quadrature Set
When Discrete ordinates method is selected, the method of angular discretization of the
radiative intensity direction should be specified. In particular, it defines the method of
computation of the weights wj used in the approximation of the scattering term:

THE RADIATION IN ABSORBING-SCATTERING MEDIA INTERFACE | 431

 n

4π I ( Ω ) dΩ ≈  wj Ij
j=1

Choose a Quadrature set from the list:

• The Level Symmetric Even (the default), Level Symmetric Hybrid, and Equal Weight
Odd sets are SN approximations. Depending on the set and the order selected in the
Discrete ordinates method list, different moment conditions are satisfied. In 3D, S2,
S4, S6, and S8 generate 8, 24, 48, and 80 directions, respectively. In 2D, S2, S4, S6,
and S8 generate 4, 12, 24, and 40 directions, respectively.
• The Quasi-uniform weight approximation discretizes the angular space by using a
reference octahedron with 8 triangular faces, further discretized in function of the
order of the method. This corresponds to a TN approximation, for which
8N2weights are computed at order N.

See Discrete Ordinates Method (DOM) for details about the SN and TN
quadrature sets.

DISCRETIZATION

Radiative Intensity
When the Radiation discretization method is set to Discrete ordinates method in
Participating Media Settings, set the discretization level of the Radiative intensity:
Constant, Linear (the default), Quadratic, Cubic, Quartic, or Quintic.

Incident Radiation
When the Radiation discretization method is set to P1 approximation in Participating
Media Settings, set the discretization level of the Incident radiation: Linear (the default),
Quadratic, Cubic, Quartic, or Quintic.

Feature Nodes for the Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media

Interface
This section details the nodes available with The Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering
Media Interface with default settings:

• Domain Nodes for the Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media Interface

432 | CHAPTER 5: THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE INTERFACES

• Boundary Nodes for the Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media Interface

Some nodes are only available with some COMSOL products.

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

DOMAIN NODES FOR THE RADIATION IN ABSORBING-SCATTERING

MEDIA INTERFACE
The Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media Interface has the following domain
nodes:

• Absorbing-Scattering Medium • Radiative Source

(Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering
Media Interface)
• Initial Values (Radiation in
Participating Media and Radiation in
Absorbing-Scattering Media
Interfaces)

THE RADIATION IN ABSORBING-SCATTERING MEDIA INTERFACE | 433

 BOUNDARY NODES FOR THE RADIATION IN ABSORBING-SCATTERING
MEDIA INTERFACE
The Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media Interface has the following boundary
nodes:

• Continuity (Radiation in • Opaque Surface (Radiation in

Participating Media and Radiation in Participating Media and Radiation in
Absorbing-Scattering Media Absorbing-Scattering Media
Interfaces) Interfaces)
• Continuity on Interior Boundary • Periodic Condition (Radiation in
(Radiation in Participating Media Participating Media and Radiation in
and Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media
Absorbing-Scattering Media Interfaces)
Interfaces) • Symmetry (Radiation in
• Incident Intensity (Radiation in Participating Media and Radiation in
Participating Media and Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media
Absorbing-Scattering Media Interfaces)
Interfaces)

434 | CHAPTER 5: THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE INTERFACES

T he R a di a ti v e Beam i n A b sorb i n g
Media Interface
The Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media (rbam) interface ( ), found under the Heat
Transfer>Radiation branch ( ), is used to model the attenuation of an incident light
within a semitransparent material due to absorption. The beam intensity is determined
using the Beer-Lambert Law. As the beam is absorbed it deposits energy which acts as
a heat source.

When the physics interface is added, these default nodes are added to the Model Builder:
Absorbing Medium, Transparent Surface, and Initial Values. Right-click the main node to
add boundary conditions or other features. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other
nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions. You can also right-click
Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media node to select physics features from the context
menu.

In this section:

• Settings for the Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media Interface

• Feature Nodes for the Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media Interface

Settings for the Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media Interface

The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is rbam.

For additional background theory also see Radiative Beam in Absorbing

Media Theory.

THE RADIATIVE BEAM IN ABSORBING MEDIA INTERFACE | 435

 CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
This section is available by clicking the Show More Options button ( ) and selecting
Stabilization. The Streamline diffusion check box is selected by default and should
remain selected for optimal performance. Crosswind diffusion provides extra diffusion
in regions with sharp gradients. The added diffusion is orthogonal to the streamlines,
so streamline diffusion and crosswind diffusion can be used simultaneously. The
Crosswind diffusion check box is also selected by default.

INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION
This section is available by clicking the Show More Options button ( ) and selecting
Stabilization in the Show More Options dialog box. The Isotropic diffusion check box is
not selected by default.

DISCRETIZATION

Intensity
Set the discretization level of the intensity: Constant, Linear (the default), Quadratic,
Cubic, Quartic, or Quintic.

Feature Nodes for the Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media Interface

This section details the nodes available with The Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media
Interface with default settings:

• Domain Nodes for the Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media Interface

• Boundary Nodes for the Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media Interface

Some nodes are only available with some COMSOL products.

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

DOMAIN NODES FOR THE RADIATIVE BEAM IN ABSORBING MEDIA

INTERFACE
The Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media Interface has the following domain nodes:

• Initial Values (Radiative Beam in • Absorbing Medium (Radiative Beam

Absorbing Medium Interface) in Absorbing Medium Interface)

436 | CHAPTER 5: THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE INTERFACES

BOUNDARY NODES FOR THE RADIATIVE BEAM IN ABSORBING MEDIA
INTERFACE
The Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media Interface has the following boundary nodes:

• Incident Intensity (Radiative Beam • Transparent Surface (Radiative

in Absorbing Medium Interface) Beam in Absorbing Medium
• Opaque Surface (Radiative Beam in Interface)
Absorbing Medium Interface)

THE RADIATIVE BEAM IN ABSORBING MEDIA INTERFACE | 437

 T he M o i s tur e Tran sp ort i n A i r
Interface
The Moisture Transport in Air (mt) interface ( ) is used to model moisture transport
through convection and diffusion of vapor in moist air. A Moist Air (Moisture
Transport Interface) model is active by default on all domains.

When this physics interface is added, these default nodes are added to the Model
Builder: Moist Air, Insulation (the default boundary condition), and Initial Values. Then,
from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary
conditions. You can also right-click Moisture Transport in Air to select physics features
from the context menu.

By default, the shape functions used for the relative humidity in porous media are
Linear.

See Settings for the Moisture Transport Interface and Feature Nodes for
the Moisture Transport Interface for details.

Theory for Moisture Transport

438 | CHAPTER 5: THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE INTERFACES

The Moisture Transport in Porous
Media Interface
The Moisture Transport in Porous Media (mt) interface ( ) is used to model moisture
transport into the pores of a porous medium, through convection and diffusion of
vapor in moist air, and convection and capillary flow of liquid water. An Hygroscopic
Porous Medium model is active by default on all domains.

When this physics interface is added, these default nodes are added to the Model
Builder: Hygroscopic Porous Medium, Insulation (the default boundary condition), and
Initial Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for
example, boundary conditions. You can also right-click Moisture Transport in Porous
Media to select physics features from the context menu.

By default, the shape functions used for the relative humidity in porous media are
Linear.

See Settings for the Moisture Transport Interface and Feature Nodes for
the Moisture Transport Interface for details.

Theory for Moisture Transport

THE MOISTURE TRANSPORT IN POROUS MEDIA INTERFACE | 439

 T he M o i s tur e Tran sp ort i n Bu i l d i n g
Materials Interface
The Moisture Transport in Building Materials (mt) interface ( ) is used to model
moisture transport in building materials by taking into account moisture storage,
liquid transport by capillary suction forces, and the diffusive transport of vapor. A
Building Material model is active by default on all domains.

When this physics interface is added, these default nodes are added to the Model
Builder: Building Material, Insulation (the default boundary condition), and Initial
Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example,
boundary conditions. You can also right-click Moisture Transport in Building Materials
to select physics features from the context menu.

The shape functions used for the relative humidity are Quadratic Lagrange.

See Building Material Library in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual for a description of materials containing the thermal and
hygroscopic properties required by some feature nodes of the Moisture
Transport in Building Materials Interface.

See Settings for the Moisture Transport Interface and Feature Nodes for
the Moisture Transport Interface for details.

Theory for Moisture Transport

440 | CHAPTER 5: THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE INTERFACES

 6

The Heat Transfer Features

The Heat Transfer Interfaces have domain, boundary, edge, point, and pair nodes
and subnodes (including out-of-plane and layer features) available. These nodes,
listed in alphabetical order in this section, are available from the Physics ribbon
toolbar (Windows® users), from the Physics context menu (macOS or Linux®
users), or by right-clicking to access the context menu (all users). Subnodes are
available by right-clicking the parent node and selecting it from the Attributes
menu.

In this section:

• Domain Features
• Boundary Features
• Boundary Interface Features
• Edge Features
• Point Features
• Global Features

441
 Domain Features

442 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

The following domain nodes are available for the Heat Transfer interfaces:

• Absorbing Medium (Radiative Beam • Liquid Water (Moist Porous

in Absorbing Medium Interface) Medium)
• Absorbing-Scattering Medium • Moist Air (Heat Transfer Interface)
(Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering • Moist Air (Moist Porous Medium)
Media Interface)
• Moist Porous Medium
• Bioheat
• Opacity (Surface-to-Surface
• Biological Tissue Radiation Interface)
• Building Material • Optically Thick Participating
• Convectively Enhanced Medium
Conductivity • Out-of-Plane Heat Flux
• Cross Section • Out-of-Plane Radiation
• Fluid • Participating Medium (Radiation in
• Fluid (Porous Medium) Participating Media Interface)
• Geothermal Heating • Pellets (Porous Medium)
• Heat Source • Pellet-Fluid Interface (Porous
• Immobile Fluids (Porous Medium) Medium)

• Initial Values • Phase Change Material

• Initial Values (Radiative Beam in • Porous Matrix (Porous Medium,

Absorbing Medium Interface) Moist Porous Medium)

• Initial Values (Radiation in • Porous Medium

Participating Media and Radiation in • Pressure Work
Absorbing-Scattering Media • Radiative Source
Interfaces)
• Shape Memory Alloy
• Irreversible Transformation
• Solid
• Isothermal Domain
• Thermal Damage
• Liquid Water (Moist Porous
• Thermal Dispersion
Medium)
• Thermoelastic Damping
• Thickness
• Translational Motion
• Viscous Dissipation

DOMAIN FEATURES | 443

 For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit
https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

Absorbing Medium (Radiative Beam in Absorbing Medium

Interface)
This node calculates the radiative intensity of incident beams propagating in an
absorbing medium as the solution of the Beer-Lambert equation:

ei
--------- ⋅ ∇I i = – κI i
ei

where

• ei is the orientation of the ith beam (dimensionless).

• Ii is the intensity of the ith beam (SI unit: W/m2).
• κ is the absorption coefficient (SI unit: m–1) of the medium.

The energy deposited by the beams propagation in the absorbing medium is calculated
and the radiative heat source term Q (SI unit: W/m3) is defined by:

Q =
 κIi
i

See Incident Intensity (Radiative Beam in Absorbing Medium Interface) for the
definition of the orientation and profile of the ith beam.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

Temperature
This section is available when temperature-dependent material properties are used.
The default Temperature is User defined. When additional physics interfaces are added
to the model, the temperature variables defined by these physics interfaces can also be
selected from the list. The Common model input option corresponds to the minput.T
variable, set to 293.15 K by default) and all temperature variables from the physics
interfaces included in the model. To edit the minput.T variable, click the Go to Source

444 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

button ( ), and in the Default Model Inputs node under Global Definitions, set a value
for the Temperature in the Expression for remaining selection section.

ABSORBING MEDIUM
The Absorption coefficient of the medium, κ (SI unit: m–1), should be set in this
section.

Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media Theory

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media>Absorbing Medium

Ribbon
Physics tab with Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media selected:

Domains>Absorbing Medium

Absorbing-Scattering Medium (Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering

Media Interface)
This node should be used when radiation occurs in a medium not completely
transparent, in which the radiation rays interact with the medium. It calculates the
heating due to the propagation of the rays, and takes into account the absorbed and
the scattered radiation, depending on the Radiation discretization method selected in
the Participating Media Settings section of the interface. In particular, it can be used
for the modeling of light diffusion in a non-emitting medium.

It calculates the radiative heat source term Qr (SI unit: W/m3), defined by:

Qr = κG

where

• κ is the absorption coefficient (SI unit: m–1).

• G is the incident radiation (SI unit: W/m2), defined by

G= 4π I ( Ω ) dΩ

DOMAIN FEATURES | 445

 where

• I(Ω) is the radiative intensity (SI unit: W/(m2·sr)) at a given position following the
Ω direction, that satisfies the radiative transfer equation with no emission term
σs 4π
Ω ⋅ ∇I ( Ω ) = – β I ( Ω ) + ------
4π 0 I ( Ω′ ) φ ( Ω′, Ω ) dΩ′

• β = κ + σs is the extinction coefficient (SI unit: 1/m).

• σs is the scattering coefficient (SI unit: 1/m).
• φ ( Ω′, Ω ) is the scattering phase function (dimensionless)

If the Radiation discretization method is Discrete ordinates method, G is defined by

G=  ωi Ii
i=1

and

N
σs
 ω j I j φ ( S j, S i )
S i ⋅ ∇I i = κI b ( T ) – βI i + ------ (6-1)
4π
j=1

where

• Si is the ith discrete ordinate.

• Ii is the ith component of the radiative intensity.
• ωj is the ith quadrature weight.

If the Radiation discretization method is P1 approximation, the incident radiation G is

the solution of the following equation

∇ ⋅ ( D P1 ∇G ) – κ G = 0 (6-2)

where DP1 is the P1 diffusion coefficient.

When Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is Solar and ambient or Multiple

spectral bands in the Participating Media Settings section of the interface, Equation 6-1
and Equation 6-2 are solved for each spectral band k: Ii,k is the ith component of the
radiative intensity for spectral band k, and Gk is the incident radiation for spectral band
k.

446 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

The characteristics of the two available radiation discretization methods are
summarized in the following table.
TABLE 6-1: DISCRETIZATION METHODS FOR RADIATION IN ABSORBING-SCATTERING MEDIA (RASM
INTERFACE)

OPTION DOM P1

Optical All τ>>1

thickness
validity
Absorption Yes Yes
modeling
Scattering Linear Linear
modeling Polynomial
Computational High: up to 80 Medium: 1
cost additional additional
degrees of degree of
freedom (Ii) freedom (G)

If radiative emission should be considered as well, the Participating Medium

(Radiation in Participating Media Interface) node should be used instead. The table
below describes the different effects accounted for by the interfaces found under the
Heat Transfer>Radiation branch ( ).
TABLE 6-2: RADIATION EFFECTS CALCULATED BY THE RADIATION INTERFACES

RADIATION RPM RASM RBAM

EFFECT

Absorption Yes Yes Yes

Scattering Yes Yes No
Emission Yes No No

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

Temperature
This section is available when temperature-dependent material properties are used.
The default Temperature is User defined. When additional physics interfaces are added
to the model, the temperature variables defined by these physics interfaces can also be
selected from the list. The Common model input option corresponds to the minput.T
variable, set to 293.15 K by default) and all temperature variables from the physics

DOMAIN FEATURES | 447

 interfaces included in the model. To edit the minput.T variable, click the Go to Source
button ( ), and in the Default model Inputs node under Global Definitions, set a value
for the Temperature in the Expression for remaining selection section.

ABSORPTION
The Absorption coefficient κ should be specified. It defines the amount of radiation,
κI(Ω), that is absorbed by the medium.

The Absorption coefficient κ (SI unit: 1/m) uses values From material by default.

For User defined, set a value or expression. You can define a temperature-dependent
absorption coefficient using the variable rasm.T.

If Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is Solar and ambient or Multiple spectral

bands, the wavelength may be accessed through the rasm.lambda variable. Any
expression set for the absorption coefficient is then averaged on each spectral band to
obtain a piecewise constant absorption coefficient. If the average value of the
absorption coefficient on each band is known, you may use instead the User defined for
each band option to avoid the evaluation of the average.

When Absorption coefficient is set to User defined for each band, enter a value for the
Absorption coefficient for each spectral band in the table displayed underneath. Within
a spectral band, each value is assumed to be independent of wavelength.

SCATTERING
This section defines the scattering property of the participating medium. The
Scattering coefficient σs should be specified.

The Scattering coefficient σs (SI unit: 1/m) uses values From material by default.

For User defined, set a value or expression. You can define a temperature-dependent
scattering coefficient using the variable rasm.T.

If Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is Solar and ambient or Multiple spectral

bands, the wavelength may be accessed through the rasm.lambda variable. Any
expression set for the scattering coefficient is then averaged on each spectral band to
obtain a piecewise constant scattering coefficient. If the average value of the scattering
coefficient on each band is known, you may use instead the User defined for each band
option to avoid the evaluation of the average.

When Scattering coefficient is set to User defined for each band, enter a value for the
Scattering coefficient for each spectral band in the table displayed underneath. Within
a spectral band, each value is assumed to be independent of wavelength.

448 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Choose in addition the Scattering type: Isotropic, Linear anisotropic, Polynomial
anisotropic (only with Discrete ordinates method), or Henyey-Greenstein (only with
Discrete ordinates method).

This setting provides options to approximate the scattering phase function φ using the
cosine of the scattering angle, μ0:

• Isotropic (default) corresponds to the scattering phase function φ (μ0) = 1.

• For Linear anisotropic it defines the scattering phase function as φ (μ0) = 1 + a1μ0.
Enter the Legendre coefficient a1.
• For Polynomial anisotropic it defines the scattering phase function as
12

φ ( μ0 ) = 1 +  am Pm ( μ0 )
m=1

Enter each Legendre coefficient a1, …, a12 as required.

• For Henyey-Greenstein it defines the scattering phase function as

2
1 1–η
φ ( μ 0 ) = ---- ⋅ ------------------------------------------------
3⁄2
-
K 2
( 1 + η – 2ημ 0 )

where – 1 < η < 1 is the anisotropy parameter and K is defined as follows to produce
a normalized phase function:
2
1 1–η
K = ------ ⋅
4π  ------------------------------------------------
2 3⁄2
- dΩ
4π ( 1 + η – 2ημ 0 )

For Linear anisotropic and Polynomial anisotropic, select the Normalize phase function
check box to define a phase function such as

 φ ( μ0 ) dΩ = 4π
4π

The normalization is automatically applied for the Henyey-Greenstein option.

For Linear anisotropic, Polynomial anisotropic, and Henyey-Greenstein, select the

Wavelength-dependent scattering type check box to average each Legendre coefficient

DOMAIN FEATURES | 449

 a1, …, a12 or the Anisotropy parameter μ to obtain piecewise constant coefficients on
each spectral band.

• Theory for Radiation in Participating Media

• Discrete Ordinates Method (DOM)
• P1 Approximation Theory
• Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media Theory

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media>Absorbing-Scattering Medium

Ribbon
Physics tab with Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media selected:

Domains>Absorbing-Scattering Medium

Bioheat
This feature provides the source terms that represent blood perfusion and metabolism
to model heat transfer in biological tissue using the bioheat equation:

ρ b C p, b ω b ( T b – T ) + Q met

BIOHEAT
Enter values or expressions for these properties and source terms:

• Arterial blood temperature Tb, which is the temperature at which blood leaves the
arterial blood veins and enters the capillaries. T is the temperature in the tissue,
which is the dependent variable that is solved for and not a material property.
• Specific heat, blood Cp, b, which describes the amount of heat energy required to
produce a unit temperature change in a unit mass of blood.
• Blood perfusion rate ωb (SI unit: 1/s, which in this case means (m3/s)/m3),
describes the volume of blood per second that flows through a unit volume of tissue.

450 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

• Density, blood ρb, which is the mass per volume of blood.
• Metabolic heat source Qmet, which describes heat generation from metabolism.
Enter this quantity as the unit power per unit volume.

• Theory for Bioheat Transfer

• Biological Tissue
• Thermal Damage

Hepatic Tumor Ablation: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Medical_Technology/tumor_ablation

Microwave Heating of a Cancer Tumor: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Medical_Technology/microwave_cancer_therapy

Modeling a Conical Dielectric Probe for Skin Cancer Diagnosis:

Application Library path Heat_Transfer_Module/Medical_Technology/
conical_dielectric_probe

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

A default Bioheat node is automatically added to the Biological Tissue node.

Context Menus
Bioheat Transfer>Biological Tissue>Bioheat

Ribbon
Physics tab with Biological Tissue selected in the model tree:

Attributes>Bioheat

Biological Tissue
This node adds the bioheat equation as the mathematical model for heat transfer in
biological tissue. This equation can include source terms representing blood perfusion
and metabolism using Pennes’ approximation, through the addition of a Bioheat
subnode; see Equation 4-37. Optionally a damage model can be defined to take into
account overheating or freezing in tissues, by adding a Thermal Damage subnode.

DOMAIN FEATURES | 451

 MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

Volume Reference Temperature

This section is available when a temperature-dependent density defined in a material is
used. On the material frame, the density is evaluated in relation to a reference
temperature in order to ensure conservation of the mass in the presence of temperature
variations. By default the Common model input is used. This corresponds to the variable
minput.Tempref, which is set to 293.15 K by default. To edit it, click the Go to Source
button ( ), and in the Default Model Inputs node under Global Definitions, set a value
for the Volume reference temperature in the Expression for remaining selection section.

The other options are User defined and all temperature variables from the physics
interfaces included in the model.

This model input does not override the Reference temperature Tref set in
the Physical Model section of the physics interface, which is used to
evaluate the reference enthalpy, and a reference density for incompressible
nonisothermal flows.

Temperature
This section is available when material properties are temperature-dependent. By
default, the temperature of the parent interface is used and the section is not editable.
To edit the Temperature field, click Make All Model Inputs Editable ( ). The available
options are User defined (default), Common model input (the minput.T variable, set to
293.15 K by default) and all temperature variables from the physics interfaces included
in the model. To edit the minput.T variable, click the Go to Source button ( ), and
in the Default Model Inputs node under Global Definitions, set a value for the Temperature
in the Expression for remaining selection section.

HEAT CONDUCTION, SOLID

The default Thermal conductivity k uses values From material. For User defined select
Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full based on the characteristics of the thermal
conductivity and enter another value or expression in the field or matrix.

When the material and spatial frames differ (due to the presence in the model of a
Moving Mesh node, or a Solid Mechanics physics interface for example), you can select
on which frame the thermal conductivity is specified.

452 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

By default the Deformation model for thermal conductivity is set to Standard. With this
option, the thermal conductivity is supposed to be given on the material frame. If the
material frame does not coincide with the spatial frame, a conversion is applied to get
the variables ht.kxx, ht.kyy, and so on. This option is often suitable for moderate
elastic strains.

By selecting the Large strain option, the thermal conductivity is supposed to be given
on the spatial frame. In case of isotropic materials, the thermal conductivity variables
ht.kxx, ht.kyy, and so on, are directly equal to the values you have set. In case of
anisotropic materials, the rotation of the material is also taken into account following

T
k ( x, y, z ) = Rk ( X, Y, Z ) R

where R is the rotation matrix between the material and the spatial frames.

THERMODYNAMICS, SOLID
The default Density ρ and Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp are taken From material.
See Material Density in Features Defined in the Material Frame if a
temperature-dependent density should be set.

The heat capacity describes the amount of heat energy required to produce a unit
temperature change in a unit mass.

For User defined enter other values or expressions.

• Theory for Bioheat Transfer

• Bioheat
• Thermal Damage

There are specific predefined materials available in the Bioheat material

database. See Materials Overview and Bioheat Materials Library in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

DOMAIN FEATURES | 453

 Hepatic Tumor Ablation: Application Library path
Heat_Transfer_Module/Medical_Technology/tumor_ablation

Microwave Heating of a Cancer Tumor: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Medical_Technology/microwave_cancer_therapy

Modeling a Conical Dielectric Probe for Skin Cancer Diagnosis:

Application Library path Heat_Transfer_Module/Medical_Technology/
conical_dielectric_probe

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids>Specific Media>Biological Tissue
Heat Transfer in Solids>Specific Media>Biological Tissue
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Specific Media>Biological Tissue
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Specific Media>Biological Tissue
Heat Transfer in Building Materials>Specific Media>Biological Tissue
Bioheat Transfer>Specific Media>Biological Tissue

Ribbon
Physics tab with Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids, Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer
in Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials or Bioheat
Transfer selected:

Domains>Specific Media>Biological Tissue

Building Material
Use this node to model a building material as a porous medium containing a mixture
of liquid water and vapor. The overall change in material properties due to moisture
transfer is accounted for by the change in an apparent thermal conductivity and a heat
source or sink expressed in the divergence operator. It takes into account the latent
heat of evaporation:

∂T
( ρC p ) eff ------- + ∇ ⋅ q = Q (6-3)
∂t

q = – ( k eff ∇T + L v δ p ∇( φ w p sat ) ) (6-4)

454 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

with the following material properties, fields, and source:

• (ρCp)eff (SI unit: J/(m3·K)) is the effective volumetric heat capacity at constant
pressure.
• keff (SI unit: W/(m·K)) is the effective thermal conductivity (a scalar or tensor if the
thermal conductivity is anisotropic).
• Lv (SI unit: J/kg) is the latent heat of evaporation.
• δp (SI unit: s) is the vapor permeability.
• φ w (dimensionless) is the relative humidity.
• psat (SI unit: Pa) is the vapor saturation pressure.
• Q (SI unit: W/m3) is the heat source (or sink). Add one or more heat sources as
separate physics features. See the Heat Source node, for example.

For a steady-state problem the temperature does not change with time and the first
term disappears.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

Volume Reference Temperature

This section is available when a temperature-dependent density defined in a material is
used. On the material frame, the density is evaluated in relation to a reference
temperature in order to ensure conservation of the mass in the presence of temperature
variations. By default the Common model input is used. This corresponds to the variable
minput.Tempref, which is set to 293.15 K by default. To edit it, click the Go to Source
button ( ), and in the Default Model Inputs node under Global Definitions, set a value
for the Volume reference temperature in the Expression for remaining selection section.

The other options are User defined and all temperature variables from the physics
interfaces included in the model.

This model input does not override the Reference temperature Tref set in
the Physical Model section of the physics interface, which is used to
evaluate the reference enthalpy, and a reference density for incompressible
nonisothermal flows.

DOMAIN FEATURES | 455

 Temperature
This section is available when material properties are temperature-dependent. By
default, the temperature of the parent interface is used and the section is not editable.
To edit the Temperature field, click Make All Model Inputs Editable ( ). The available
options are: User defined (default), Common model input (the minput.T variable, set to
293.15 K by default) and all temperature variables from the physics interfaces included
in the model. To edit the minput.T variable, click the Go to Source button ( ), and
in the Default Model Inputs node under Global Definitions, set a value for the Temperature
in the Expression for remaining selection section.

Relative Humidity
This section contains an input for the definition of the relative humidity, which is used
in the right hand side of Equation 6-4.

The default Relative humidity φ w is User defined. When additional physics interfaces are
added to the model, the relative humidity variables defined by these physics interfaces
can also be selected from the list. For example, if a Moisture Transport interface is
added, you can select Relative humidity (mt/pm1) from the list. The Common model
input option is the variable minput.phi, set to 0 by default. To edit it, click the Go to
Source button ( ), and in the Default Model Inputs node under Global Definitions, set
a value for the Relative humidity in the Expression for remaining selection section.

If the node was added automatically after selecting the predefined multiphysics
interface Heat and Moisture Transport, the relative humidity of the multiphysics node
Heat and Moisture is used by default and the section is not editable. To edit the Relative
humidity field, click Make All Model Inputs Editable ( ).

HEAT CONDUCTION
This section provides two options for defining the effective thermal conductivity keff:

• When Equivalent thermal conductivity is selected (default), a value for the Effective
thermal conductivity keff should be specified directly. The default Effective thermal
conductivity is taken From material. For User defined, select Isotropic, Diagonal,
Symmetric, or Full based on the characteristics of the thermal conductivity, and enter
another value or expression. For Isotropic, enter a scalar which will be used to define
a diagonal tensor. For the other options, enter values or expressions into the editable
fields of the tensor.
• When Dry material thermal conductivity is selected, the effective thermal
conductivity is defined as a function of the properties of the solid matrix and
moisture:

456 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

 bw ( φ w )
k eff = k s  1 + --------------------
 ρs 

This definition neglects the contribution due to the variation in the volume fraction
of moist air.

The Dry solid thermal conductivity ks (SI unit: W/(m·K)) and the Thermal
conductivity supplement b (dimensionless) should be specified. By default, the Dry
solid thermal conductivity and Thermal conductivity supplement are taken From
material. For User defined, enter values or expressions in the editable fields.
The Density ρs and the Moisture storage function w ( φ w ) are specified in the
Thermodynamics, Dry Solid and Building Material Properties sections respectively.

THERMODYNAMICS, DRY SOLID

This section defines the thermodynamics properties of the dry solid.

The specific heat capacity describes the amount of thermal energy required to produce
a unit temperature change in a unit mass of the dry solid material.

The Density ρs and the Specific heat capacity Cp,s should be specified. The default
Density and Specific heat capacity are taken From material. For User defined, enter values
or expressions in the editable fields.

The effective volumetric heat capacity at constant pressure is defined to take into
account both the properties of the solid matrix and the moisture:

( ρC p ) eff = ρ s C p, s + w ( φ w )C p, w

where

• ρs (SI unit: kg/m3) is the density of the dry solid.

• Cp,s (SI unit: J/(kg·K)) is the specific heat capacity of the dry solid.
• w ( φ w ) (SI unit: kg/m3) is the water content given by a moisture storage function.
• Cp,w (SI unit: J/(kg·K)) is the heat capacity of water at constant pressure.

BUILDING MATERIAL PROPERTIES

This section defines the properties of the building material for moisture storage and
vapor diffusion.

The Moisture storage function w ( φ w ) should be set to characterize the relationship

between the amount of water accumulated and the relative humidity in the material.

DOMAIN FEATURES | 457

 The default Moisture storage function is taken From material. For User defined, enter
another value or expression.

Two options are available for the specification of vapor diffusion properties of building
materials:

• Vapor permeability (default) to define directly the vapor permeability δp. The default
Vapor permeability is taken From material. For User defined, enter another value or
expression.
• Vapor resistance factor μ to define the vapor permeability δp as:

δ
δ p = ---
μ

where δ (SI unit: s) is the vapor permeability of still air. The default Vapor resistance
factor is taken From material. For User defined, enter another value or expression.

If the node was added automatically after selecting the predefined multiphysics
interface Heat and Moisture Transport, the building material properties of the
multiphysics node Heat and Moisture are used by default and the inputs are not editable.
To edit these fields, click Make All Model Inputs Editable ( ) in the Model Inputs
section.

• The Heat Transfer in Building Materials Interface

• The Heat and Moisture Transport Interfaces
• Heat and Moisture

See Building Material Library in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual for a description of materials containing the thermal and
hygroscopic properties required by the Building Material node.

The Building Material node is defined in the spatial frame. The material
properties should be entered in the spatial frame, and coupling with a
moving frame interface is not supported. See Handling Frames in Heat
Transfer for more details.

458 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

 For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit
https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids>Specific Media>Building Material
Heat Transfer in Solids>Specific Media>Building Material
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Specific Media>Building Material
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Specific Media>Building Material
Heat Transfer in Building Materials>Specific Media>Building Material

Ribbon
Physics tab with Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids, Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer
in Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, or Heat Transfer in Building Materials selected:

Domains>Specific Media>Building Material

Convectively Enhanced Conductivity

This subnode takes into account convective heat flux by enhancing the fluid thermal
conductivity according to the Nusselt number. When added under the Fluid or the
Moist Air node, it sets the fluid velocity to zero, and the user-defined or predefined
velocity model input is ignored.

CONVECTIVELY ENHANCED CONDUCTIVITY

The following options are available in the Nusselt number correlation list:

• Horizontal cavity heated from below, for which values for the Cavity height H and the
Temperature difference ΔT should be specified for the computation of the Nusselt
number. Unfold the Sketch section for more details on the required parameters.
• Vertical rectangular cavity, for which values for the Cavity height H, the Plate distance
L, and the Temperature difference ΔT should be specified for the computation of the
Nusselt number. Unfold the Sketch section for more details on the required
parameters.
• User defined, for which a value for Nu should be specified directly.

For the two first options, select Automatic (default) or User defined to define the
Temperature difference ΔT. When Automatic is selected the temperature difference is

DOMAIN FEATURES | 459

 evaluated as the difference between the maximal and the minimal temperature on the
exterior boundaries of the feature selection.

DYNAMIC VISCOSITY
This section is not available when the Convectively Enhanced Conductivity feature is
added under the Fluid node with Fluid type set as Moist air, or under the Moist Air node.
Else, the Dynamic viscosity μ used to calculate the Nusselt number should be set.

When the Fluid type is Moist air, or when the Convectively Enhanced
Conductivity feature is added under the Moist Air node, the natural
convection due to vapor concentration gradients is neglected. Indeed,
only thermally induced variations of the density are accounted for in these
correlations.

When the Nonisothermal Flow multiphysics coupling node is added, the

Convectively Enhanced Conductivity feature is overridden by the
multiphysics coupling node’s contribution, and convection is explicitly
calculated by using the predefined velocity model input.

Evaporative Cooling of Water: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Phase_Change/evaporative_cooling

Equivalent Thermal Conductivity Correlations

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Fluid>Convectively Enhanced Conductivity
Heat Transfer in Moist Air>Moist Air>Convectively Enhanced Conductivity

More locations are available. For example:

Heat Transfer in Solids>Fluid>Convectively Enhanced Conductivity

Ribbon
Physics tab with Fluid or Moist Air selected in the model tree:

460 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Attributes>Convectively Enhanced Conductivity

Cross Section
Use this node with 1D components to model domains with another cross sectional
area or another cross sectional perimeter than the global one that is used in the Heat
Transfer interface Physical Model section. In 1D geometries, the temperature is
assumed to be constant in the radial direction, and the heat equation is modified to
take that into account. See Equation 4-172 and Equation 4-173.

CROSS SECTION
Enter values for the Cross sectional area Ac and the Cross sectional perimeter Pc to set
the cross section of the domain in the plane perpendicular to the 1D geometry.

The Cross Section feature is disabled when at least one of the multiphysics
couplings (Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation, Heat
Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media, Heat Transfer with
Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media) is active while solving on the same
domain. This is noticed through a warning node displayed under Compile
Equations. The radiation interfaces assume an infinite medium in the
out-of-plane direction, they are thus not compatible with these features.

Out-of-Plane Heat Transfer

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids>Cross Section
Heat Transfer in Solids>Cross Section
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Cross Section
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Cross Section
Heat Transfer in Building Materials>Cross Section
Bioheat Transfer>Cross Section

Ribbon
Physics tab with interface as Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids, Heat Transfer in Solids,
Heat Transfer in Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media or Bioheat Transfer selected:

DOMAIN FEATURES | 461

 Domains>interface >Cross Section

Fluid
This node uses the following version of the heat equation to model heat transfer in
fluids:

∂T
ρC p ------- + ρC p u ⋅ ∇T + ∇ ⋅ q = Q
∂t (6-5)
q = – k∇ T

with the following material properties, fields, and sources:

• ρ (SI unit: kg/m3) is the fluid density.

• Cp (SI unit: J/(kg·K)) is the fluid heat capacity at constant pressure.
• k (SI unit: W/(m·K)) is the fluid thermal conductivity (a scalar or a tensor if the
thermal conductivity is anisotropic).
• u (SI unit: m/s) is the fluid velocity field, either an analytic expression or a velocity
field from a Fluid Flow interface.
• Q (SI unit: W/m3) is the heat source (or sink). Add one or more heat sources as
separate physics features. See the Heat Source node and the Viscous Dissipation and
Pressure Work subnodes, for example.
For a steady-state problem the temperature does not change with time, and the first
term disappears.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

Temperature
This section is available when material properties are temperature-dependent. By
default, the temperature of the parent interface is used and the section is not editable.
To edit the Temperature field, click Make All Model Inputs Editable ( ). The available
options are User defined (default), Common model input (the minput.T variable, set to
293.15 K by default) and all temperature variables from the physics interfaces included
in the model. To edit the minput.T variable, click the Go to Source button ( ), and
in the Default Model Inputs node under Global Definitions, set a value for the Temperature
in the Expression for remaining selection section.

462 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Absolute Pressure
Absolute pressure is used in certain predefined quantities that include enthalpy (the
energy flux, for example).

It is also used if the ideal gas law is applied. See Thermodynamics, Fluid.

The default Absolute pressure pA is taken from Common model input. It corresponds to
the minput.pA variable, set to 1 atm by default. To edit it, click the Go to Source
button ( ), and in the Default Model Inputs node under Global Definitions, set a value
for the Pressure in the Expression for remaining selection section. When additional
physics interfaces are added to the model, the absolute pressure variables defined by
these physics interfaces can also be selected from the list. For example, if a Laminar Flow
interface is added you can select Absolute pressure (spf) from the list. The last option is
User defined.

HEAT CONVECTION
The default Velocity field u is User defined. For User defined enter values or expressions
for the components based on space dimensions. Or select an existing velocity field in
the component (for example, Velocity field (spf) from a Laminar Flow interface). The
Common model input option corresponds to the minput.u variable. To edit it, click the
Go to Source button ( ), and in the Default Model Inputs node under Global
Definitions, set values for the Velocity components in the Expression for remaining
selection section.

HEAT CONDUCTION, FLUID

The thermal conductivity k describes the relationship between the heat flux vector q
and the temperature gradient ∇T in q = −k∇T, which is Fourier’s law of heat
conduction. Enter this quantity as power per length and temperature.

The default Thermal conductivity k is taken From material. For User defined select
Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full based on the characteristics of the thermal
conductivity, and enter values or expressions for the thermal conductivity or its
components. For Isotropic enter a scalar which will be used to define a diagonal tensor.
For the other options, enter values or expressions into the editable fields of the tensor.

THERMODYNAMICS, FLUID
This section defines the thermodynamics properties of the fluid.

The heat capacity at constant pressure Cp describes the amount of heat energy required
to produce a unit temperature change in a unit mass.

DOMAIN FEATURES | 463

 The ratio of specific heats γ is the ratio between the heat capacity at constant pressure,
Cp, and the heat capacity at constant volume, Cv. When using the ideal gas law to
describe a fluid, specifying γ is sufficient to evaluate Cp. For common diatomic gases
such as air, γ = 1.4 is the standard value. Most liquids have γ = 1.1 while water has
γ = 1.0. γ is used in the streamline stabilization and in the ideal gas law when Ideal gas
is selected.

When the density is not taken from a Nonisothermal Flow or a Nonisothermal Mixture
Model coupling node, you should select a Fluid type option for the specification of the
material properties. The available Fluid type options are From material, Ideal gas, and
Gas/Liquid (default). After selecting a Fluid type from the list, further settings display
underneath. See Nonisothermal Mixture Model in the CFD Module User’s Guide for
details.

From Material
This option automatically detects whether the material applied on each domain
selection is an ideal gas or not, and uses the relevant properties from the Material node
for either case.

By using the following definition of the density for an ideal gas:

pA
ρ = -----------
Rs T

with Rs the specific gas constant, pA the absolute pressure, and T the temperature, the
evaluation of the isobaric compressibility coefficient, αp, and of the isothermal
Joule-Thomson coefficient, μJT, is simplified. This may improve efficiency, when
computing pressure work in compressible nonisothermal flows for example, or when
modeling inflow conditions.

The Air material, from the Built-in materials database, has an Ideal gas
property group, and is thus detected as an ideal gas by the Fluid node. The
Liquids and Gases Materials Library, available with some COMSOL
products, also provides such materials.

The Density and the Heat capacity at constant pressure are automatically taken From
material and no further setting is required.

Automatic calculation of the ratio of specific heats

The Ratio of specific heats is calculated automatically using Mayer’s relation:

464 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

 ρC p χ t
γ = ---------------------------------2
ρC p χ t – Tα p

considering that:

• αp is the coefficient of thermal expansion (SI unit: 1/K):

1 ∂ρ
α p = – ---
ρ∂T

• χt is the isothermal compressibility (SI unit: 1/Pa):

1 ∂ρ
χ t = – ---
ρ∂p

For the specification of user defined material properties, the Ideal Gas or Gas/Liquid
options should be used instead.

Ideal Gas
This option uses the ideal gas law to describe the fluid. Only two properties are needed
to define the thermodynamics of the fluid:

• The gas constant, with two options for the Gas constant type: Specific gas constant
Rs or Mean molar mass Mn. If Mean molar mass is selected the software uses the
universal gas constant R = 8.314 J/(mol·K), which is a built-in physical constant, to
calculate the specific gas constant.
• Either the Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp or Ratio of specific heats γ by
selecting the option from the Specify Cp or γ list. For an ideal gas, it is sufficient to
specify either Cp or the ratio of specific heats, γ, as these properties are
interdependent.

Gas/Liquid
This option specifies the Density, the Heat capacity at constant pressure, and the Ratio
of specific heats for a general gas or liquid. By default, the Ratio of specific heats is set
to Automatic, see Automatic calculation of the ratio of specific heats.

• Theory for Heat Transfer in Porous Media

• Theory for Heat Transfer in Fluids

DOMAIN FEATURES | 465

 • When the density is taken from a Nonisothermal Flow coupling node,
the Heat capacity at constant pressure remain to be specified for a
general gas or liquid. Select Ideal gas: ratio of specific heats or Ideal gas:
heat capacity at constant pressure to specify only one property in the
case of an ideal gas.
• When the Heat Transfer interface is coupled to a Phase Transport
interface and to a Fluid Flow interface via the Nonisothermal Flow and
Nonisothermal Mixture Model multiphysics couplings, all the material
properties are taken from the coupling nodes. See Nonisothermal Flow
and Nonisothermal Mixture Model in the CFD Module User’s Guide
for details.

The Viscous Dissipation (for heat generated by viscous friction), Pressure

Work (available with some COMSOL products), and Convectively
Enhanced Conductivity subnodes are available from the context menu
(right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

Heat Sink: Application Library path Heat_Transfer_Module/

Tutorials,_Forced_and_Natural_Convection/heat_sink

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids>Fluid
Heat Transfer in Solids>Fluid
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Fluid
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Fluid
Heat Transfer in Building Materials>Fluid
Bioheat Transfer>Fluid

466 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Ribbon
Physics tab with interface as Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids, Heat Transfer in Solids,
Heat Transfer in Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials
or Bioheat Transfer selected:

Domains>interface>Fluid

Fluid (Porous Medium)

This node defines the velocity field and material properties of the mobile fluid used in
the heat transfer equation of the Porous Medium parent node, to model heat transfer
in a porous matrix, possibly consisting of several solids, and filled with a mobile fluid,
and one or more immobile fluids.

The fluid can be specified as a general gas or liquid, as an ideal gas, or as moist air.

• The total volume fraction and material properties of immobile fluids

can be specified in the Immobile Fluids (Porous Medium) subnode.
• The porosity and material properties of the solid matrix can be
specified in the Porous Matrix (Porous Medium, Moist Porous
Medium) subnode.
• When the porous medium is a packed bed of pellets, the material
properties of the pellets can be specified in the Pellets (Porous
Medium) subnode.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

Volume Reference Temperature

This section is available when a temperature-dependent density defined in a material is
used. On the material frame, the density is evaluated in relation to a reference
temperature in order to ensure conservation of the mass in the presence of temperature
variations. By default the Common model input is used. This corresponds to the variable
minput.Tempref, which is set to 293.15 K by default. To edit it, click the Go to Source
button ( ), and in the Default Model Inputs node under Global Definitions, set a value
for the Volume reference temperature in the Expression for remaining selection section.

DOMAIN FEATURES | 467

 The other options are User defined and all temperature variables from the physics
interfaces included in the model.

This model input does not override the Reference temperature Tref set in
the Physical Model section of the physics interface, which is used to
evaluate the reference enthalpy, and a reference density for incompressible
nonisothermal flows.

Temperature
This section is available when material properties are temperature-dependent. By
default, the temperature of the parent interface is used and the section is not editable.
To edit the Temperature field, click Make All Model Inputs Editable ( ). The available
options are User defined (default), Common model input (the minput.T variable, set to
293.15 K by default) and all temperature variables from the physics interfaces included
in the model. To edit the minput.T variable, click the Go to Source button ( ), and
in the Default Model Inputs node under Global Definitions, set a value for the Temperature
in the Expression for remaining selection section.

Absolute Pressure
Absolute pressure is used in certain predefined quantities that include enthalpy (the
energy flux, for example).

It is also used if the ideal gas law is applied. See Thermodynamics, Fluid.

The default Absolute pressure pA is taken from Common model input. It corresponds to
the variable minput.pA, set to 1 atm by default. To edit it, click the Go to Source
button ( ), and in the Default Model Inputs node under Global Definitions, set a value
for the Pressure in the Expression for remaining selection section. When additional
physics interfaces are added to the model, the absolute pressure variables defined by
these physics interfaces can also be selected from the list. For example, if a Laminar Flow
interface is added, you can select Absolute pressure (spf) from the list. The last option
is User defined.

Concentration
This section can be edited whenever a material property is dependent on
concentration, for example, when the Fluid type is set to Moist air with the Input
quantity set to Concentration.

In the Concentration c (SI unit: mol/m3 or kg/m3) list, select an existing

concentration variable from another physics interface, if there are concentration

468 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

variables, User defined to enter a value or expression for the concentration, or Common
model input that corresponds to the minput.c variable.

HEAT CONVECTION
The default Velocity field u is User defined. For User defined, enter values or expressions
for the components based on space dimensions. Or select an existing velocity field in
the component (for example, Velocity field (spf) from a Laminar Flow interface). The
Common model input option corresponds to the minput.u variable. To edit it, click the
Go to Source button ( ), and in the Default Model Inputs node under Global
Definitions, set values for the Velocity components in the Expression for remaining
selection section.

HEAT CONDUCTION, FLUID

The thermal conductivity kf describes the relationship between the heat flux vector q
and the temperature gradient ∇T in q = −kf∇T, which is Fourier’s law of heat
conduction. Enter this quantity as power per length and temperature.

The default Thermal conductivity kf is taken From material. For User defined, select
Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full based on the characteristics of the thermal
conductivity, and enter another value or expression. For Isotropic, enter a scalar which
will be used to define a diagonal tensor. For the other options, enter values or
expressions into the editable fields of the tensor.

Note that this section is not available when Porous medium type is set to Local thermal
equilibrium and Equivalent thermal conductivity is selected in the Effective thermal
conductivity list of the Porous medium parent node.

THERMODYNAMICS, FLUID
This section defines the thermodynamics properties of the fluid.

The heat capacity at constant pressure Cp,f describes the amount of thermal energy
required to produce a unit temperature change in a unit mass.

The ratio of specific heats γ is the ratio between the heat capacity at constant pressure,
Cp,f, and the heat capacity at constant volume, Cv,f. When using the ideal gas law to
describe a fluid, it is sufficient to specify γ to evaluate Cp,f. For common diatomic gases
such as air, γ = 1.4 is the standard value. Most liquids have γ = 1.1 while water has
γ = 1.0. γ is used in the streamline stabilization and in the ideal gas law when Ideal gas
is selected.

DOMAIN FEATURES | 469

 The ratio of specific heats can be calculated automatically when set to Automatic by
using Mayer’s relation:

ρC p χ t
γ = ---------------------------------2
ρC p χ t – Tα p

considering that:

• αp is the coefficient of thermal expansion (SI unit: 1/K):

1 ∂ρ
α p = – ---
ρ ∂T

• χt is the isothermal compressibility (SI unit: 1/Pa):

1 ∂ρ
χ t = – ---
ρ ∂p

The available options for the Fluid type are Gas/Liquid (default), Moist air, or Ideal gas.
After selecting a Fluid type from the list, other settings are displayed below.

Gas/Liquid
This option specifies the Density, the Heat capacity at constant pressure, and the Ratio
of specific heats for a general gas or liquid.

Ideal Gas
This option uses the ideal gas law to describe the fluid. Only two properties are
necessary to define the thermodynamics of the fluid:

• The gas constant, with two options for the Gas constant type: Specific gas constant
Rs or Mean molar mass Mn. If Mean molar mass is selected, the software uses the
universal gas constant R = 8.314 J/(mol·K), which is a built-in physical constant, to
calculate the specific gas constant.
• Either the Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp,f or the Ratio of specific heats γ by
selecting the option in the Specify Cp or γ list. For an ideal gas, it is sufficient to
specify either Cp,f or the ratio of specific heats, γ, because these properties are
interdependent.

470 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Moist Air
If Moist air is selected, the thermodynamics properties are defined as a function of the
amount of vapor in moist air. The Input quantity options available to define this
amount are as follows:

• Vapor mass fraction to define the ratio between vapor mass and total mass.
• Concentration to define the amount of water vapor in the total volume. If this option
is selected, a Concentration model input is automatically added to the Model Inputs
section.
• Moisture content (default, also called mixing ratio or humidity ratio) to define the
ratio between the mass of water vapor and the mass of dry air.
• Relative humidity φ w , a quantity defined between 0 and 1, where 0 corresponds to
dry air and 1 to air saturated with water vapor. The Relative humidity, temperature
condition T φ and Relative humidity, absolute pressure condition p φ should be
w w
specified.

Theory for Heat Transfer in Moist Air

When the Porous Medium type is set to Local thermal nonequilibrium in the
Porous Medium parent node, the Initial Values, Heat Source, Thermal
Insulation, Symmetry (Heat Transfer Interface), Temperature, Heat
Flux, Lumped System Connector, Phase Change Interface, Continuity,
Inflow, Outflow, Open Boundary, Boundary Heat Source,
Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Heat Transfer Interface), and Deposited
Beam Power features are available under the Fluid subnode.These
subnodes allow the definition of domain and boundary conditions
specific to the fluid phase temperature Tf.

DYNAMIC VISCOSITY
When the Local thermal nonequilibrium option is selected in the Porous medium type list
of the Porous Medium parent node, and Interstitial convective heat transfer coefficient
is set to Spherical pellet bed, the Dynamic viscosity, μ, should be set to evaluate the
Nusselt number. Note that when Fluid type is set to Moist air, the moist air viscosity is
defined by the node, and this section is not present.

DOMAIN FEATURES | 471

 LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Fluid

Ribbon
Physics tab with Porous Medium selected in the model tree:

Attributes>Porous Medium>Fluid

Geothermal Heating
Use this subnode under a Porous Medium node to take into account the contribution
of geothermal heat production by adding a source term Qgeo to the right-hand side of
the heat equation:

Q geo = ρ geo q geo f ( z geo )

The predefined expression of the heat source uses the Geothermal Density, the
Radiogenic heating per unit mass, and a distribution function that can be set.

GEOTHERMAL HEAT PRODUCTION

Specify the Radiogenic heating per unit mass qgeo.

Select an option in the Distribution type list for the definition of f(zgeo):

• If Uniform distribution is selected, f(zgeo) = 1 and the geothermal heat source is

assumed to be independent on depth.
• If Exponential distribution is selected, two additional input fields are displayed
underneath. The exponential distribution f(zgeo) = exp(zgeo ⁄ hgeo), is defined by the
constant Length scale: hgeo and the variable Depth zgeo. The depth can be, for
example, the vertical coordinate direction. The heat source achieves its maximum
value where zgeo = 0, typically the top surface of a model.

GEOTHERMAL DENSITY
Select the Geothermal density: Solids, Porous media, or User defined:

• If Solids is selected, it calculates the geothermal density based on the volume fraction
of solid material

472 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

  θsi ρsi
i
ρ geo = ----------------------
-
 θ si
i

• If Porous media is selected, it calculates the geothermal density based on all mobile
and immobile components of the porous medium:

ρ geo =  θsi ρsi + εp ρf + θimf ρimf

i

• If User defined is selected, enter a value for the Geothermal density ρgeo.

The Geothermal Heating subnode requires the Subsurface Flow Module.

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit
https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Geothermal Heating

Ribbon
Physics tab with Porous Medium selected in the model tree:

Attributes>Geothermal Heating

Heat Source
This node describes heat generation within the domain. You express heating and
cooling with positive and negative values, respectively. Add one or more nodes as
needed — all heat sources within a domain contribute to the total heat source.

The Heat Source node adds a source term Q to the right-hand side of the heat equation:

Q = Q0

Specify Q0 as the heat rate per unit volume, as a linear heat source, or as a heat rate.

DOMAIN FEATURES | 473

 MATERIAL TYPE
Select an option in the Material type list to specify if the inputs of the Heat Source
section are defined in the material or spatial frame:

• The default option for the Heat Source node is Solid, which specifies that the heat
source Q0 is defined in the material frame. Because the heat transfer variables and
equations are defined in the spatial frame, the inputs are internally converted to the
spatial frame. See Conversion Between Material and Spatial Frames for details.
• The Nonsolid option defines Q0 in the spatial frame. No frame conversion is needed.
• The From material option uses the option selected in the Material type list of the
Material Properties section of the material applied on the domain on which the node
is active.

This option has no effect when the component does not contain a moving
frame because the material and spatial frames are identical in such cases.
With a Deformed Geometry or a Moving Mesh interface, the heat
transfer features automatically take into account deformation effects of
the material and spatial frames on heat transfer properties. In particular
the effects of volume changes on the density are considered. See
Handling Frames in Heat Transfer and Material and Spatial Frames for
details.

HEAT SOURCE
Select an option from the Heat Source list:

• For General source (default) enter a value for the distributed heat source Q0 when
the default option (User defined) is selected. See also Additional General Source
Options to use predefined heat sources available from other interfaces.
• For Linear source enter a value for the Production/absorption coefficient qs used in the
predefined linear expression. The advantage of writing the source on this form is
that it can be accounted for in the streamline diffusion stabilization. The
stabilization applies when qs is independent of the temperature, but some stability
can be gained as long as qs is only weakly dependent on the temperature.
• For Heat rate enter a value for the heat rate P0. In this case Q0 = P0⁄V, where V is
the total volume of the selected domains.

474 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Additional General Source Options
For the general heat source Q0 there are predefined heat sources available (in addition
to a User defined heat source) when simulating heat transfer together with electrical or
electromagnetic interfaces. Such sources represent, for example, ohmic heating and
induction heating. Depending on additional physics interfaces, the following are
available:

• With the addition of an Electric Currents interface, the Total power dissipation
density (ec) heat source is available from the General source list.
• With the addition of any version of the Electromagnetic Waves interface (which
requires the RF Module), the Total power dissipation density (emw) and
Electromagnetic power loss density (emw) heat sources are available from the General
source list.
• With the addition of a Magnetic Fields interface (a 3D component requires the AC/
DC Module), the Electromagnetic heating (mf) heat source is available from the
General source list.
• With the addition of a Magnetic and Electric Fields interface (which requires the
AC/DC Module), the Electromagnetic heating (mef) heat source is available from the
General source list.
• For the Heat Transfer in Porous Media interface, with the addition of interfaces
from the Battery Design Module, Corrosion Module, Electrodeposition Module,
or Fuel Cell &Electrolyzer Module, heat sources from the electrochemical current
distribution interfaces are available.

• Handling Frames in Heat Transfer

• Stabilization Techniques in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual

You can specify the source to be a harmonic perturbation in a frequency

domain analysis. To mark the source as being a harmonic perturbation,
right-click the node and choose Harmonic Perturbation. Note that this
updates the node’s icon. See Theory for Harmonic Heat Transfer for
more details.

DOMAIN FEATURES | 475

 For the definition of a localized heat source, see Line Heat Source, Line
Heat Source and Point Heat Source.

For the definition of a heat on a boundary, see Boundary Heat Source.

Forced Convection Cooling of an Enclosure with Fan and Grille:

Application Library path Heat_Transfer_Module/
Power_Electronics_and_Electronic_Cooling/electronic_enclosure_cooling

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids>Heat Source
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Fluid>Heat Source
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Porous Matrix>Heat Source

Ribbon
Physics tab with interface as Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids, or any version of the
Heat Transfer interface selected:

Domains>interface >Heat Source

Physics tab with Porous Medium>Fluid or Porous Medium>Porous Matrix selected in the
model tree:

Attributes>Heat Source

476 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Immobile Fluids (Porous Medium)
This node should be used to model an unsaturated porous matrix whose pore space is
not solely filled with liquid and contains one or more gases considered to be immobile
fluids; or a porous matrix containing insulated enclosures.

The Immobile Fluids node is available only when Porous Medium type is set
to Local thermal equilibrium in the Porous Medium parent node, with
either Plane layers parallel to heat flow, Plane layers perpendicular to heat
flow, Power law, or Equivalent thermal conductivity option selected in the
Effective thermal conductivity list.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

Temperature
This section is available when material properties are temperature-dependent. By
default, the temperature of the parent interface is used and the section is not editable.
To edit the Temperature field, click Make All Model Inputs Editable ( ). The available
options are User defined (default), Common model input (the minput.T variable, set to
293.15 K by default) and all temperature variables from the physics interfaces included
in the model. To edit the minput.T variable, click the Go to Source button ( ), and
in the Default Model Inputs node under Global Definitions, set a value for the Temperature
in the Expression for remaining selection section.

IMMOBILE FLUIDS
In this section, the total Volume fraction of the immobile fluids, θimf, should be set.

The total volume fraction of immobile fluids is calculated from

θ imf =  θimfi
i

The volume fraction available for mobile fluids (that is, the effective porosity) is then
calculated from

ε p = 1 – θ s – θ imf

DOMAIN FEATURES | 477

 where the total volume fraction of immobile solids is calculated from

θs =  θsi
i

HEAT CONDUCTION, IMMOBILE FLUIDS

The default Thermal conductivity kimf use values From material. For User defined select
Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full based on the characteristics of the thermal
conductivity and other values or expressions in the fields or matrices.

When the thermal conductivity is taken From material and more than one Immobile
Fluid subnode is added under the Porous Material node, the effective conductivity for
the equivalent immobile fluid is calculated from

k imf =  θimfi kimfi

i

In the Porous Medium node, the effective thermal conductivity is defined as:

• Plane layers parallel to heat flow (default), which calculates the effective conductivity
of the solid-fluid system as the weighted arithmetic mean (or volume average) of the
conductivities of the fluids and the porous matrix:
k eff = θ s k s + ε p k f + θ imf k imf

• Plane layers perpendicular to heat flow, which calculates the effective conductivity of
the solid-fluid system as the weighted harmonic mean (or reciprocal average) of the
conductivities of the fluids and the porous matrix:

1- θ s ε p θ imf
-------- = ----- + ----- + -----------
k eff k s k f k imf

• Power law, which calculates the effective conductivity of the solid-fluid system as the
weighted geometric mean of the conductivities of the fluids and the porous matrix:

θs εp θ imf
k eff = k s ⋅ k f ⋅ k imf

THERMODYNAMICS, IMMOBILE FLUIDS

The specific heat capacity describes the amount of heat energy required to produce a
unit temperature change in a unit mass of the immobile fluid.

478 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

The Density ρimf and the Specific heat capacity Cp, imf should be specified. When the
density and specific heat capacity are taken From material and more than one Immobile
Fluid subnode is added under the Porous Material node, the effective properties are
obtained by applying a volume average model:

ρ imf =  θimfi ρimfi

i

 θimfi ρimfi Cp, imfi

i
C p, imf = -----------------------------------------------------
-

θ imfi ρ imfi
i

In the Porous Medium node, the effective volumetric heat capacity at constant
pressure is defined as:

( ρC p ) eff = θ s ρ s C p, s + ε p ρ f C p, f + θ imf ρ imf C p, imf

The Immobile Fluids node requires the Subsurface Flow Module. For a
detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit
https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Immobile Fluids

Ribbon
Physics tab with Porous Medium selected in the model tree:

Attributes>Immobile Fluids

Initial Values
This node adds an initial value for the temperature that can serve as an initial condition
for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear solver. In addition to the
default Initial Values node always present in the interface, you can add more Initial
Values nodes if needed.

DOMAIN FEATURES | 479

 INITIAL VALUES
For User defined, enter a value or expression for the initial value of the Temperature T
(SI unit: K). The default value is approximately room temperature, 293.15 K (20ºC).
Else, select an Ambient temperature defined in an Ambient Properties node under
Definitions.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids>Initial Values
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Fluid>Initial Values
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Porous Matrix>Initial Values

Ribbon
Physics tab with interface as Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids, or any version of the
Heat Transfer interface selected:

Domains>interface >Initial Values

Physics tab with Porous Medium>Fluid or Porous Medium>Porous Matrix selected in the
model tree:

Attributes>Initial Values

Initial Values (Radiative Beam in Absorbing Medium Interface)

This node adds an initial value for the radiative intensity that can serve as an initial
condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear solver.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter a value or expression for the initial value of the Radiative intensity I (SI unit: W/
m2). This initial value is used by all the beams defined in the model.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media>Initial Values

Ribbon
Physics tab with Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media selected:

Domains>Initial Values

480 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Initial Values (Radiation in Participating Media and Radiation in
Absorbing-Scattering Media Interfaces)
This node adds an initial value for the radiative intensity I (when Discrete ordinates
method is selected as the Radiation discretization method) or the incident radiation G
(when P1 approximation is selected as the Radiation discretization method) that can
serve as an initial condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a
nonlinear solver.

INITIAL VALUES

Discrete Ordinates Method

When Discrete ordinates method is selected as the Radiation discretization method for
the physics interface, you should define the initial radiative intensity using one of the
following options, depending on the Wavelength dependence of radiative properties set
in the Participating Media Settings section of the interface.

If the Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is Constant, choose between the

following options:

• Use the Blackbody/Graybody assumption and set a value for the Initial temperature T,
to define I=Ib(T). This option is only available in the Radiation in Participating
Media interface.
• Set a User defined value for the Initial radiative intensity I. The default is 0 in the
Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media interface, and rpm.Ibinit in the
Radiation in Participating Media interface.

If Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is Solar and ambient or Multiple spectral

bands, choose among the following options:

• When Initial value is set to Blackbody/Graybody, enter a value for the Initial
temperature T, to define I=Ib(T). This option is only available in the Radiation in
Participating Media interface.
• When Initial value is set to User defined for each band, enter a value for the Initial
radiative intensity for each spectral band in the table displayed underneath. Within
a spectral band, each value is assumed to be independent of wavelength.
• When Initial value is set to User defined distribution, enter a value or expression for
the Initial radiative intensity distribution Iλ. The wavelength may be accessed
through the rpm.lambda or rasm.lambda variable. This distribution is integrated
on each spectral band to obtain the radiative intensity Ii,k for each spectral band.

DOMAIN FEATURES | 481

 P1 Approximation
When P1 approximation is selected as the Radiation discretization method for the physics
interface, you should define the initial incident radiation using one of the following
options, depending on the Wavelength dependence of radiative properties set in the
Participating Media Settings section of the interface.

If the Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is Constant, choose between the

following options:

• Use the Blackbody/Graybody assumption and set a value for the Initial temperature T,
to define G = 4πIb(T). This option is only available in the Radiation in Participating
Media interface.
• Set a User defined value for the Initial incident radiation G. The default is 0 in the
Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media interface, and (4*pi)*rpm.Ibinit in
the Radiation in Participating Media interface.

If Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is Solar and ambient or Multiple spectral

bands, choose among the following options:

• When Initial value is set to Blackbody/Graybody, enter a value for the Initial
temperature T, to define G = 4πIb(T). This option is only available in the Radiation
in Participating Media interface.
• When Initial value is set to User defined for each band, enter a value for the Initial
incident radiation for each spectral band in the table displayed underneath. Within a
spectral band, each value is assumed to be independent of wavelength.
• When Initial value is set to User defined distribution, enter a value or expression for
the Initial incident radiation distribution Gλ. The wavelength may be accessed
through the rpm.lambda or rasm.lambda variable. This distribution is integrated
on each spectral band to obtain the incident radiation Gk for each spectral band.

Theory for Radiation in Participating Media

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Radiation in Participating Media>Initial Values
Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media>Initial Values

482 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Ribbon
Physics tab with Radiation in Participating Media or Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering
Media selected:

Domains>Initial Values

Irreversible Transformation
This subnode should be used to model thermally induced irreversible transformations
in solids.

IRREVERSIBLE TRANSFORMATION
Three models are available to define the material transformation. Select the
Transformation model — Temperature threshold (default), Arrhenius kinetics, or User
defined. The first two models use integral forms over time to express the fraction of
transformation θit as a function of temperature, while you can set it manually with the
third option.

Temperature Threshold
For Temperature threshold, select the type of analysis — Overheating analysis (default)
or Overcooling analysis, depending on the expected temperature variations. See the
Parameters section for the additional settings specific to each type of analysis.

Arrhenius Kinetics
For Arrhenius kinetics, define the parameters used in the Arrhenius equation to
calculate the degree of transformation (see Arrhenius Kinetics for more details):

• Frequency factor A in the Arrhenius equation. Default is taken From material. For
User defined enter a value or an expression.
• Activation energy ΔE in the Arrhenius equation. Default is taken From material. For
User defined enter a value or an expression.
• Polynomial order n of the (1−α) factor to define a polynomial Arrhenius kinetics
equation.
• Enthalpy change L to define the enthalpy variation associated with the
transformation. The following heat source is added to the right-hand side of
Equation 6-15 in Solid node:

∂θ it
Q = – ρL ----------
∂t

DOMAIN FEATURES | 483

 A user defined value can be set for the initial irreversible transformation indicator in
the Initial Values section.

User Defined
Enter values or expressions for the Enthalpy change L and the Fraction of transformation
θit to define the heat source associated with the transformation as:

∂θ it
Q = – ρL ----------
∂t

Specify Different Material Properties

Specific thermodynamics properties before and after complete transformation may be
defined by selecting the Specify different material properties for the transformed state
check box.

Choose a Transformed material, which can point to any material in the model. The
default uses the Domain material. The properties before transformation are the ones
specified in the Heat Conduction, Solid and Thermodynamics, Solid sections of the parent
Solid node. The effective material properties are dynamically updated with the
transformation evolution.

PARAMETERS

Overheating Analysis
Enter values for:

• Transformation temperature Tit, h to define the (high) temperature that the solid
needs to reach to start getting transformed.
• Transformation time tit, h to define the time needed for the complete transformation
to happen while the temperature is above Tit, h.
• Enthalpy change Lit, h to define the enthalpy variation associated with transformation
due to overheating. The following heat source is added to the right-hand side of
Equation 6-15 in Solid node:

∂θ it
Q = – ρL it, h ---------- ( T > T it, h )
∂t

Overcooling Analysis
Enter values for:

• Transformation temperature Tit, c to define the (low) temperature that the solid
needs to reach to start getting transformed.

484 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

• Transformation time tit, c to define the time needed for the complete transformation
to happen while the temperature is below Tit, c.
• Enthalpy change Lit, c to define the enthalpy variation associated with transformation
due to overcooling. The following heat source is added to the right-hand side of
Equation 6-15 in Solid node:

∂θ it
Q = ρL it, c ---------- ( T < T it, c )
∂t

A user defined value can be set for the initial irreversible transformation indicator in
the Initial Values section.

HEAT CONDUCTION
This section is available when the Specify different material properties for the
transformed state check box is selected.

Select a Thermal conductivity kd — From material (default) or User defined, to be used

for transformed solid. For User defined choose Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full
based on the characteristics of the thermal conductivity and enter another value or
expression in the field or matrix.

When the material and spatial frames differ (due to the presence in the model of a
Moving Mesh node, or a Solid Mechanics physics interface for example), you can select
on which frame the Thermal conductivity kd is specified.

By default the Deformation model for thermal conductivity is set to Standard. With this
option, the thermal conductivity is supposed to be given on the material frame. If the
material frame does not coincide with the spatial frame, a conversion is applied to get
the variables ht.k_dxx, ht.k_dyy, and so on. This option is often suitable for
moderate elastic strains.

By selecting the Large strain option, the thermal conductivity is supposed to be given
on the spatial frame. In case of isotropic materials, the thermal conductivity variables
ht.k_dxx, ht.k_dyy, and so on, are directly equal to the values you have set. In case
of anisotropic materials, the rotation of the material is also taken into account
following

T
k d ( x, y, z ) = Rk d ( X, Y, Z ) R

where R is the rotation matrix between the material and the spatial frames.

DOMAIN FEATURES | 485

 THERMODYNAMICS
This section is available when the Specify different material properties for the
transformed state check box is selected.

Select a Density ρd and Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp, d — From material
(default) or User defined, to be used for transformed solid. The heat capacity describes
the amount of heat energy required to produce a unit temperature change in a unit
mass.

INITIAL VALUES
This section is available when the Transformation model is set to Temperature threshold
or Arrhenius kinetics. Set a value or expression for the Initial irreversible transformation
indicator, αinit, to be used as an initial condition for any of the time integral analyses.

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids>Solid>Irreversible Transformation

More locations are available. For example:

Heat Transfer in Fluids>Solid>Irreversible Transformation

Ribbon
Physics tab with Solid selected in the model tree:

Attributes>Irreversible Transformation

Isothermal Domain
This node should be used when the temperature shows sufficiently small spatial
fluctuations to be considered homogeneous in space but not necessarily in time.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

486 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Temperature
This section is available when material properties are temperature-dependent. By
default, the temperature of the parent interface is used and the section is not editable.
To edit the Temperature field, click Make All Model Inputs Editable ( ). The available
options are User defined (default), Common model input (the minput.T variable, set to
293.15 K by default) and all temperature variables from the physics interfaces included
in the model. To edit the minput.T variable, click the Go to Source button ( ), and
in the Default Model Inputs node under Global Definitions, set a value for the Temperature
in the Expression for remaining selection section.

ISOTHERMAL DOMAIN
Two options are available for the Temperature definition into the Isothermal Domain:

• If From heat balance (default) is selected, the temperature is calculated as the

solution of a reduced form of the heat equation due to spatial homogeneity. See
Equation 4-54.
• If From prescribed temperature is selected, the temperature is set to the domain
Temperature T0 that needs to be specified. For User defined, enter a value or
expression for the Temperature T0. Else, select an Ambient temperature defined in an
Ambient Properties node under Definitions.

THERMODYNAMICS
The thermodynamics properties of the Isothermal Domain are set in this section. Two
options are available for the Mass definition:

• If Density is selected, the Density ρ should be specified.

• If Total mass is selected, the Mass m should be specified.
Finally the Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp should be specified.

It is not possible to couple an Isothermal Domain with the Laminar Flow

interface through the Nonisothermal Flow multiphysics condition.

• The following conditions of heat exchange can be applied at isothermal

domain interfaces: thermal insulation, continuity, ventilation,
convective heat flux, and thermal contact. See Isothermal Domain
Interface for more details.
• Also see Theory for Lumped Isothermal Domain.

DOMAIN FEATURES | 487

 Natural Convection Cooling of a Vacuum Flask: Application Library
path Heat_Transfer_Module/Tutorials,_Forced_and_Natural_Convection/
vacuum_flask

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
If the Isothermal domain check box is selected under the Physical Model section:

Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids>Isothermal Domain

Heat Transfer in Solids>Isothermal Domain
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Isothermal Domain
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Isothermal Domain
Heat Transfer in Building Materials>Isothermal Domain
Bioheat Transfer>Isothermal Domain

Ribbon
Physics tab with interface as Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids, Heat Transfer in Solids,
Heat Transfer in Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials
or Bioheat Transfer selected:

Domains>interface >Isothermal Domain

Liquid Water (Moist Porous Medium)

This subnode defines the velocity field ul and the saturation sl of the liquid water phase
used in Equation 6-6 of the Moist Porous Medium parent node. The density ρl (SI
unit: kg/m3), the heat capacity at constant pressure Cp,l (SI unit: J/(kg·K)), and the
thermal conductivity kl (SI unit: W/(m·K)) are defined as functions of temperature.

LIQUID WATER PROPERTIES

The Liquid water saturation, sl, used to evaluate the effective thermodynamics
properties in the Moist Porous Medium parent node, should be set.

The default Velocity field, liquid water, ul, is User defined. For User defined, enter values
or expressions for the components based on space dimensions. Or select an existing
velocity field in the component (for example, Velocity field (spf) from a Laminar Flow
interface).

If the node was added automatically after selecting the predefined multiphysics
interface Heat and Moisture Transport, the liquid saturation and liquid velocity of the

488 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

multiphysics node Heat and Moisture are used by default, and the section is not editable.
To edit the Liquid water saturation and Velocity field, liquid water fields, click Make All
Model Inputs Editable ( ).

• Theory for Heat Transfer in Moist Porous Media

• Heat and Moisture

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Moist Porous Media>Moist Porous Medium>Liquid Water

Ribbon
Physics tab with Moist Porous Medium selected in the model tree:

Attributes>Liquid Water

Moist Air (Heat Transfer Interface)

This node should be used to model heat transfer by convection and diffusion in moist
air, using moisture-dependent thermodynamics properties. It solves Equation 6-5,
with density ρ (SI unit: kg/m3), heat capacity at constant pressure Cp (SI unit: J/
(kg·K)), and thermal conductivity k (SI unit: W/(m·K)) defined as a function of the
amount of vapor in moist air.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

Temperature
This section is available when material properties are temperature-dependent. By
default, the temperature of the parent interface is used and the section is not editable.
To edit the Temperature field, click Make All Model Inputs Editable ( ). The available
options are User defined (default), Common model input (the minput.T variable, set to
293.15 K by default) and all temperature variables from the physics interfaces included
in the model. To edit the minput.T variable, click the Go to Source button ( ), and
in the Default Model Inputs node under Global Definitions, set a value for the Temperature
in the Expression for remaining selection section.

DOMAIN FEATURES | 489

 Absolute Pressure
Absolute pressure is used in certain predefined quantities that include enthalpy (the
energy flux, for example).

The default Absolute pressure pA is taken from Common model input. It corresponds to
the minput.pA variable, set to 1 atm by default. To edit it, click the Go to Source
button ( ), and in the Default Model Inputs node under Global Definitions, set a value
for the Pressure in the Expression for remaining selection section. When additional
physics interfaces are added to the model, the absolute pressure variables defined by
these physics interfaces can also be selected from the list. For example, if a Laminar Flow
interface is added you can select Absolute pressure (spf) from the list. The last option is
User defined.

Concentration
This section can be edited whenever a material property is dependent on
concentration, for example, when the Fluid type is set to Moist air with the Input
quantity set to Concentration.

In the Concentration c (SI unit: mol/m3 or kg/m3) list, select an existing

concentration variable from another physics interface, if there are concentration
variables, User defined to enter a value or expression for the concentration, or Common
model input that corresponds to the minput.c variable.

HEAT CONVECTION
The default Velocity field u is User defined. For User defined enter values or expressions
for the components based on space dimensions. Or select an existing velocity field in
the component (for example, Velocity field (spf) from a Laminar Flow interface). The
Common model input option corresponds to the minput.u variable. To edit it, click the
Go to Source button ( ), and in the Default Model Inputs node under Global
Definitions, set values for the Velocity components in the Expression for remaining
selection section.

THERMODYNAMICS, MOIST AIR

The Input quantity options available to define the amount of vapor in moist air are as
follows:

• Vapor mass fraction ω to define the ratio between vapor mass and total mass.
• Concentration to define the amount of water vapor in the total volume. If selected,
a Concentration model input is added in the Model Inputs section.

490 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

• Moisture content xvap, also called mixing ratio or humidity ratio, to define the ratio
between water vapor mass and dry air mass.
• Relative humidity φ w (default), a quantity defined between 0 and 1, where 0
corresponds to dry air and 1 to air saturated with water vapor. The Relative humidity,
temperature condition T φ and Relative humidity, absolute pressure condition p φ
w w
should be specified.

Depending on the selected Input quantity, enter values or expressions for the User
defined option, select an ambient value (for example, an Ambient relative humidity
defined in an Ambient Properties node under Definitions), or select a value from a
Moisture Transport interface.

Theory for Heat Transfer in Moist Air

With some COMSOL products, the Viscous Dissipation (for heat

generated by viscous friction), Pressure Work, and Convectively
Enhanced Conductivity subnodes are available from the context menu
(right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

Evaporative Cooling of Water: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Phase_Change/evaporative_cooling

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids>Specific Media>Moist Air
Heat Transfer in Solids>Specific Media>Moist Air
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Specific Media>Moist Air
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Specific Media>Moist Air
Heat Transfer in Building Materials>Specific Media>Moist Air
Bioheat Transfer>Specific Media>Moist Air

DOMAIN FEATURES | 491

 Ribbon
Physics tab with Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids, Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer
in Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials or Bioheat
Transfer selected:

Domains>Specific Media>Moist Air

Moist Air (Moist Porous Medium)

This subnode defines the velocity field ug and the moisture-dependent
thermodynamics properties used for the moist air phase in Equation 6-6 of the Moist
Porous Medium parent node. The density ρg (SI unit: kg/m3), the heat capacity at
constant pressure Cp,g (SI unit: J/(kg·K)), and the thermal conductivity kg (SI unit:
W/(m·K)) are defined as functions of the amount of vapor in the moist air phase.

See Heat Convection and Thermodynamics, Moist Air for details on settings.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Moist Porous Media>Moist Porous Medium>Moist Air

Ribbon
Physics tab with Moist Porous Medium selected in the model tree:

Attributes>Moist Air

Moist Porous Medium

This node uses the following version of the heat equation to model heat transfer in a
porous matrix, possibly consisting of several solids, and filled with moist air and liquid
water:

∂T
( ρC p ) eff ------- + ( ρ g C p, g u g + ρ l C p, l u l ) ⋅ ∇T + ∇ ⋅ q = Q + Q evap (6-6)
∂t

q = – k eff ∇T (6-7)

See Theory for Heat Transfer in Moist Porous Media for more details on the variables
in Equation 6-6 and Equation 6-7.

The effective volumetric heat capacity at constant pressure is defined as

492 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

 ( ρC p ) eff = θ s ρ s C p, s + ε p [ ( 1 – s l )ρ g C p, g + s l ρ l C p, l ]

where sl is the liquid water saturation.

If the porous matrix consists of several solids i of volume fraction θsi, heat capacity
Cp,si, and density ρsi, the above equation is modified as follows:

( ρC p ) eff =  θsi ρsi Cp, si + εp [ ( 1 – sl )ρg Cp, g + sl ρl Cp, l ]

i

Note that the velocity fields in moist air and liquid water, ug and ul, can be defined
either as an analytic expression or as the velocity field from a Fluid Flow interface. They
should be interpreted as Darcy velocities, that is, asthe volume flow rate per unit cross
sectional area.

Q (SI unit: W/m3) can be any source (or sink) of heat. Add one or more heat sources
as separate physics features. See Heat Source node for example. When the Heat and
Moisture multiphysics coupling is active, this term includes the diffusive flux of
thermal enthalpy and the liquid capillary flux, calculated from the moisture transport
equation.

Qevap (SI unit: W/m3) is the source (or sink) of heat due to phase change of water.
When the Heat and Moisture multiphysics coupling is active, it calculates this term
from the moisture transport equation.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

Select a coordinate system from the Coordinate system list for the interpretation of
directions in anisotropic material properties. The default is the Global coordinate
system, and the list contains any additional coordinate system (except boundary
coordinate systems) added under the Definitions node.

The subnodes of Moist Porous Medium inherit these coordinate system settings. In
particular, the Velocity field (in Moist Air (Moist Porous Medium) subnode) and the
Dry bulk thermal conductivity and Solid phase thermal conductivity (in Porous Matrix
(Porous Medium, Moist Porous Medium) subnode) should be set according to the
coordinate system selected in this section.

See Coordinate Systems in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for more
details.

DOMAIN FEATURES | 493

 POROUS MEDIUM MODEL SETTINGS
This section defines the averaging model for the computation of the Effective thermal
conductivity keff, taking into account the properties of the solid matrix, moist air, and
liquid water. The following options are available:

• Plane layers parallel to heat flow (default), which calculates the effective conductivity
of the moist porous medium as the weighted arithmetic mean (or volume average)
of the conductivities of the porous matrix, moist air, and liquid water:
k eff = θ s k s + ε p [ ( 1 – s l )k g + s l k l ]

• Plane layers perpendicular to heat flow, which calculates the effective conductivity of
the moist porous medium as the weighted harmonic mean (or reciprocal average)
of the conductivities of the porous matrix, moist air, and liquid water:

1- θs εp
-------- = ----- + -----------------------------------------
k eff k s ( 1 – s l )k g + s l k l

• Power law, which calculates the effective conductivity of the moist porous medium
as the weighted geometric mean of the conductivities of the porous matrix, moist
air, and liquid water:

θs εp
k eff = k s ⋅ [ ( 1 – s l )k g + s l k l ]

If the porous matrix consists of several solids i of volume fraction θsi and thermal
conductivity ksi, the above equations are modified as follows:

• Plane layers parallel to heat flow:

k eff =  θsi ksi + εp [ ( 1 – sl )kg + sl kl ]

i

• Plane layers perpendicular to heat flow:

 θsi εp
1-
 θsi ----------------------- + (----------------------------------------
-------- i -
=
k eff 1 – s l )k g + s l k l
i  si si θ k
i

• Power law:

494 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

    θs

i

 θ si k si i

 i  εp
k eff =  ----------------------
- ⋅ [ ( 1 – s l )k g + s l k l ]
 θ si 
 
 i 

The velocity field and the moisture content of moist air can be specified in the Moist
Air (Moist Porous Medium) subnode.

The liquid water saturation and velocity field can be specified in the Liquid Water
(Moist Porous Medium) subnode.

The porosity and material properties of the solid matrix can be specified in the Porous
Matrix (Porous Medium, Moist Porous Medium) subnode.

See Porous Material in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

• Theory for Heat Transfer in Moist Porous Media

• Theory for Heat Transfer in Moist Air
• Heat and Moisture

With some COMSOL products, the Thermal Dispersion, Viscous

Dissipation, and Geothermal Heating subnodes are available from the
context menu (right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar,
Attributes menu.

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Moist Porous Media>Specific Media>Moist Porous Medium

DOMAIN FEATURES | 495

 Ribbon
Physics tab with Heat Transfer in Moist Porous Media selected:

Domains>Specific Media>Moist Porous Medium

Opacity (Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface)

This node enables to define the surface-to-surface radiation direction on boundaries
surrounding the domains where it is defined. When several spectral bands are defined,
the opacity can be set for all or only a selection of wavelengths.

When the Emitted radiation direction is defined by Opacity controlled in

surface-to-surface boundary features (Diffuse Mirror (Surface-to-Surface Radiation
Interface), Diffuse Surface (Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface), Prescribed
Radiosity (Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface), Opaque Surface
(Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface)), surface-to-surface radiation propagates in
non-opaque domains. Alternatively the Emitted radiation direction can be defined using
the normal orientation or on both sides of boundaries. In this case the Opacity node is
ignored. Note that on boundaries where the Semitransparent Surface
(Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface) is applied, the Emitted radiation direction is
Both sides, and the Opacity node is ignored.

By default, all the domains and the exterior of the Surface-to-Surface Radiation
interface are considered as transparent. To set the exterior as opaque, change the
Selection of the Opacity node to All voids in the Domain Selection section, and set it as
Opaque. Depending on the geometry, an infinite void and several finite voids may be
available for the selection. When the Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation
multiphysics coupling is active, it controls the default opacity.

OPACITY
Depending on the Wavelength dependence of radiative properties defined in the
Radiation Settings section of the physics interface settings, different sections display
underneath:

• When Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is set to Constant, select Opaque

or Transparent to set the domain’s opacity type.
• When Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is set to Solar and ambient or
Multiple spectral bands, set the opacity for each spectral band by selecting the

496 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

 corresponding check box in the Opaque column of the table. By default the check
box is selected for all spectral bands.

Free Convection in a Light Bulb: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Radiation/light_bulb

Thermo-Photo-Voltaic Cell: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Radiation/tpv_cell

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Opacity

Ribbon
Physics tab with Surface-to-Surface Radiation selected in the model tree:

Domains>Opacity

Optically Thick Participating Medium

This node should be used when radiation occurs in a medium with high optical
thickness. It models the heating due to the propagation of the rays by modifying the
thermal conductivity with

16n r2 σT 3
k R = -------------------------
3β R

where nr is the refractive index (dimensionless), σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant

(SI unit: W/(m2·K4)), and βR is the extinction coefficient.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

Temperature
This section is available when material properties are temperature-dependent. By
default, the temperature of the parent interface is used and the section is not editable.
To edit the Temperature field, click Make All Model Inputs Editable ( ). The available
options are User defined (default), Common model input (the minput.T variable, set to

DOMAIN FEATURES | 497

 293.15 K by default) and all temperature variables from the physics interfaces included
in the model. To edit the minput.T variable, click the Go to Source button ( ), and
in the Default Model Inputs node under Global Definitions, set a value for the Temperature
in the Expression for remaining selection section.

OPTICALLY THICK PARTICIPATING MEDIUM

This section defines the method of computation of the properties of the participating
medium.

First, define the Refractive index nr (dimensionless) of the participating medium.The

default value, 1, is usually a good approximation for the air refractive index.

Then, depending on the available quantities, the extinction coefficient βR can be

specified directly or defined as the sum of the absorption and scattering coefficients.
Also see Rosseland Approximation Theory.

The following options are available from the Specify media properties list:

• Absorption and scattering coefficients (default): in this case βR is defined as

βR = κ + σs and the Absorption and Scattering sections display underneath.
• Extinction coefficient: the default Rosseland mean extinction coefficient βR should be
specified directly.

ABSORPTION
This section defines the absorption property of the participating medium. It is available
when Absorption and scattering coefficients is selected from the Specify media properties
list. The Absorption coefficient κ should be specified. It defines the amount of radiation,
κI(Ω), that is absorbed by the medium.

SCATTERING
This section defines the scattering property of the participating medium, and is
available when Absorption and scattering coefficients is selected from the Specify media
properties list. The Scattering coefficient σs should be specified.

See Participating Medium (Radiation in Participating Media Interface)

for the modeling of linear or polynomial anisotropic scattering.

Radiative Cooling of a Glass Plate: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Radiation/glass_plate

498 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids>Solid>Optically Thick Participating Medium
Heat Transfer in Solids>Fluid>Optically Thick Participating Medium
Heat Transfer in Solids>Porous Medium>Optically Thick Participating Medium
Heat Transfer in Solids>Biological Tissue>Optically Thick Participating Medium
Heat Transfer in Solids>Building Material>Optically Thick Participating Medium

Ribbon
Physics tab with Solid, Fluid, Porous Medium, Biological Tissue, or Building Material
selected in the model tree:

Attributes>Optically Thick Participating Medium

Out-of-Plane Heat Flux

The out-of-plane heat transfer mechanism is used to reduce a model geometry to 2D
or even 1D when the temperature variation is small in one or more directions; for
example, when the object to model is thin or slender. For the obtained 1D and 2D
components, this node adds a heat flux q0, u for the upside heat flux and a heat flux
q0, d for the downward heat flux to the right-hand side of the heat equation.

For example, in 2D components, heat transfer in solids and heat transfer in fluids are
given by Equation 6-8 and Equation 6-9:

∂T
d z ρC p ------- – ∇ ⋅ q = d z Q + q 0 (6-8)
∂t

∂T
d z ρC p  ------- + u ⋅ ∇T = ∇ ⋅ q + d z Q + q 0 (6-9)
 ∂t 

q 0 = q 0, u + q 0, d

The convective heat flux adds the following contribution

q 0 = h u ( T ext, u – T ) + h d ( T ext, d – T )

UPSIDE INWARD HEAT FLUX

The available options in the Flux type list are General inward heat flux, Convective heat
flux, and Nucleate boiling heat flux. The settings are the same as for the Heat Flux node.

DOMAIN FEATURES | 499

 DOWNSIDE INWARD HEAT FLUX
The available options in the Flux type list are General inward heat flux, Convective heat
flux, and Nucleate boiling heat flux. The settings are the same as for the Heat Flux node.

The Out-of-Plane Heat Flux feature is disabled when at least one of the
multiphysics couplings (Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation,
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media, Heat Transfer with
Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media) is active while solving on the same
domain. This is noticed through a warning node displayed under Compile
Equations. The radiation interfaces assume an infinite medium in the
out-of-plane direction, they are thus not compatible with these features.

See Out-of-Plane Heat Transfer for the formulation of out-of-plane heat

transfer in 1D, 1D axisymmetric, and 2D geometries.

See also Out-of-Plane Domain Fluxes.

Upside and downside settings can be visualized by plotting the global

normal vector (nx, ny, nz), that always points from downside to upside.
Note that the normal vector (ht.nx, ht.ny, ht.nz) may be oriented
differently.

See Tangent and Normal Variables in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual.

Out-of-Plane Heat Transfer for a Thin Plate: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Verification_Examples/thin_plate

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids>Out-of-Plane>Out-of-Plane Heat Flux
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Fluid>Out-of-Plane Heat Flux
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Porous Matrix>Out-of-Plane Heat Flux

500 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Ribbon
Physics tab with interface as Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids, or any version of the
Heat Transfer interface selected:

Domains>interface>Out-of-Plane Heat Flux

Physics tab with Porous Medium>Fluid or Porous Medium>Porous Matrix selected in the
model tree:

Attributes>Out-of-Plane Heat Flux

Out-of-Plane Radiation
Out-of-plane heat transfer mechanism is used to reduce a model geometry to 2D or
even 1D when the temperature variation is small in one or more directions; for
example, when the object to model is thin or slender. This node models
surface-to-ambient radiation on the upside and downside for the obtained 1D and 2D
components. It adds the following contribution to the right-hand side of Equation 6-8
or Equation 6-9:

ε u σ ( T amb
4
, u – T ) + ε d σ ( T amb, d – T )
4 4 4

UPSIDE PARAMETERS

Surface Emissivity
The default Surface emissivity εu (a dimensionless number between 0 and 1) is taken
From material. For User defined, it should be specified. An emissivity of 0 means that
the surface emits no radiation at all, while an emissivity of 1 means that it is a perfect
blackbody. The default is 0.

Ambient Temperature
For User defined, enter a value or expression for the Ambient temperature Tamb, u. The
default value is approximately room temperature, 293.15 K (20ºC). Else, select an
Ambient temperature defined in an Ambient Properties node under Definitions.

DOMAIN FEATURES | 501

 DOWNSIDE PARAMETERS
Follow the instructions for the Upside Parameters section to define the downside
parameters εd and Tamb, d.

The Out-of-Plane Radiation feature is disabled when at least one of the

multiphysics couplings (Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation,
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media, Heat Transfer with
Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media) is active while solving on the same
domain. This is noticed through a warning node displayed under Compile
Equations. The radiation interfaces assume an infinite medium in the
out-of-plane direction, they are thus not compatible with these features.

Out-of-Plane Heat Transfer

Upside and downside settings can be visualized by plotting the global

normal vector (nx, ny, nz), that always points from downside to upside.
Note that the normal vector (ht.nx, ht.ny, ht.nz) may be oriented
differently.

See Tangent and Normal Variables in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual.

Out-of-Plane Heat Transfer for a Thin Plate: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Verification_Examples/thin_plate

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids>Out-of-Plane>Out-of-Plane Radiation
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Fluid>Out-of-Plane Radiation
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Porous Matrix>Out-of-Plane Radiation

Ribbon
Physics tab with interface as Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids, or any version of the
Heat Transfer interface selected:

502 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Domains>interface>Out-of-Plane Radiation

Physics tab with Porous Medium>Fluid or Porous Medium>Porous Matrix selected in the
model tree:

Attributes>Out-of-Plane Radiation

Participating Medium (Radiation in Participating Media

Interface)
This node should be used when radiation occurs in a medium not completely
transparent, in which the radiation rays interact with the medium. It calculates the
heating due to the propagation of the rays, and takes into account the absorbed, the
emitted, and the scattered radiation, depending on the Radiation discretization method
selected in the Participating Media Settings section of the interface.

It calculates the radiative heat source term Q (SI unit: W/m3), defined by:

Q = κ ( G – 4πI b ( T ) )

where

• κ is the absorption coefficient (SI unit: m–1).

• G is the incident radiation (SI unit: W/m2).
• Ib(T) is the blackbody radiative intensity (SI unit: W/(m2·sr)), defined as
2 4
nr σ T
I b ( T ) = --------------------
π

• nr is the refractive index (dimensionless).

• σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (SI unit: W/(m2·K4)).
• T is the temperature (SI unit: K)

G is defined by

G= 4π I ( Ω ) dΩ
where

• I(Ω) is the radiative intensity (SI unit: W/(m2·sr)) at a given position following the
Ω direction, that satisfies the radiative transfer equation

DOMAIN FEATURES | 503

 σs 4π
Ω ⋅ ∇I ( Ω ) = κ I b ( T ) – β I ( Ω ) + ------
4π 0 I ( Ω′ ) φ ( Ω′, Ω ) dΩ′

• β = κ + σs is the extinction coefficient (SI unit: 1/m).

• σs is the scattering coefficient (SI unit: 1/m).
• φ ( Ω′, Ω ) is the scattering phase function (dimensionless)

If the Radiation discretization method is Discrete ordinates method, G is defined by

 ωi Ii
G= (6-10)

i=1

and

N
σs
 ωj Ij φ ( Sj, Si )
S i ⋅ ∇I i = κI b ( T ) – βI i + ------ (6-11)
4π
j=1

where

• Si is the ith discrete ordinate.

• Ii is the ith component of the radiative intensity.
• ωj is the ith quadrature weight.
If the Radiation discretization method is P1 approximation, G is the solution of the
following equation

∇ ⋅ ( D P1 ∇G ) – κ ( G – 4πI b ) = 0 (6-12)

where DP1 is the P1 diffusion coefficient.

When Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is Solar and ambient or Multiple

spectral bands in the Participating Media Settings section of the interface, Equation 6-10
and Equation 6-11 are solved for each spectral band k: Ii,k is the ith component of the
radiative intensity for spectral band k, and Gk is the incident radiation for spectral band
k.

504 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

The characteristics of the two available radiation discretization methods are
summarized in the following table.
TABLE 6-3: DISCRETIZATION METHODS FOR PARTICIPATING MEDIUM (RPM INTERFACE)

OPTION DOM P1

Optical All τ>>1

thickness
validity
Absorption Yes Yes
modeling
Emission Yes Yes
modeling
Scattering Linear Linear
modeling Polynomial
Computational High: up to 80 Medium: 1
cost additional additional
degrees of degree of
freedom (Ii) freedom (G)

If radiative emission may be neglected, the Absorbing-Scattering Medium (Radiation

in Absorbing-Scattering Media Interface) node may be used instead. The table below
describes the different effects accounted for by the interfaces found under the Heat
Transfer>Radiation branch ( ).
TABLE 6-4: RADIATION EFFECTS CALCULATED BY THE RADIATION INTERFACES

RADIATION RPM RASM RBAM

EFFECT

Absorption Yes Yes Yes

Scattering Yes Yes No
Emission Yes No No

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

Temperature
This section is available when temperature-dependent material properties are used.
The default Temperature is User defined. When additional physics interfaces are added
to the model, the temperature variables defined by these physics interfaces can also be
selected from the list. The Common model input option corresponds to the minput.T

DOMAIN FEATURES | 505

 variable, set to 293.15 K by default) and all temperature variables from the physics
interfaces included in the model. To edit the minput.T variable, click the Go to Source
button ( ), and in the Default Model Inputs node under Global Definitions, set a value
for the Temperature in the Expression for remaining selection section.

FRACTIONAL EMISSIVE POWER

This section is available when the Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is
defined as Solar and ambient or Multiple spectral bands for the physics interface (see
Participating Media Settings).

When the Fractional emissive power is Blackbody/Graybody, the fractional emissive

power is automatically calculated for each spectral band as a function of the band
endpoints and temperature.

When the Fractional emissive power is User defined on each band, define the Fractional
emissive power, FEPk for each spectral band. All fractional emissive powers are
expected to be in [0,1] and their sum is expected to be equal to 1.

ABSORPTION
The Absorption coefficient κ should be specified. It defines the amount of radiation,
κI(Ω), that is absorbed by the medium.

The Absorption coefficient κ (SI unit: 1/m) uses values From material by default.

For User defined, set a value or expression. You can define a temperature-dependent
absorption coefficient using the variable rasm.T.

If Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is Solar and ambient or Multiple spectral

bands, the wavelength may be accessed through the rasm.lambda variable. Any
expression set for the absorption coefficient is then averaged on each spectral band to
obtain a piecewise constant absorption coefficient. If the average value of the
absorption coefficient on each band is known, you may use instead the User defined for
each band option to avoid the evaluation of the average.

When Absorption coefficient is set to User defined for each band, enter a value for the
Absorption coefficient for each spectral band in the table displayed underneath. Within
a spectral band, each value is assumed to be independent of wavelength.

SCATTERING
This section defines the scattering property of the participating medium. The
Scattering coefficient σs should be specified.

506 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

The Scattering coefficient σs (SI unit: 1/m) uses values From material by default.

For User defined, set a value or expression. You can define a temperature-dependent
scattering coefficient using the variable rasm.T.

If Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is Solar and ambient or Multiple spectral

bands, the wavelength may be accessed through the rasm.lambda variable. Any
expression set for the scattering coefficient is then averaged on each spectral band to
obtain a piecewise constant scattering coefficient. If the average value of the scattering
coefficient on each band is known, you may use instead the User defined for each band
option to avoid the evaluation of the average.

When Scattering coefficient is set to User defined for each band, enter a value for the
Scattering coefficient for each spectral band in the table displayed underneath. Within
a spectral band, each value is assumed to be independent of wavelength.

Choose in addition the Scattering type: Isotropic, Linear anisotropic, Polynomial

anisotropic (only with Discrete ordinates method), or Henyey-Greenstein (only with
Discrete ordinates method).

This setting provides options to approximate the scattering phase function φ using the
cosine of the scattering angle, μ0:

• Isotropic (default) corresponds to the scattering phase function φ(μ0) = 1.

• For Linear anisotropic it defines the scattering phase function as φ (μ0) = 1 + a1μ0.
Enter the Legendre coefficient a1.
• For Polynomial anisotropic it defines the scattering phase function as
12

φ ( μ0 ) = 1 +  am Pm ( μ0 )
m=1

Enter each Legendre coefficient a1, …, a12 as required.

• For Henyey-Greenstein it defines the scattering phase function as

2
1 1–η
φ ( μ 0 ) = ---- ⋅ ------------------------------------------------
3⁄2
-
K 2
( 1 + η – 2ημ 0 )

where – 1 < η < 1 is the anisotropy parameter and K is defined as follows to produce
a normalized phase function:

DOMAIN FEATURES | 507

 2
1 1–η
K = ------ ⋅
4π  ------------------------------------------------
( 1 + η – 2ημ )
2 3⁄2
- dΩ
4π 0

For Linear anisotropic and Polynomial anisotropic, select the Normalize phase function
check box to define a phase function such as

 φ ( μ0 ) dΩ = 4π
4π

The normalization is automatically applied for the Henyey-Greenstein option.

For Linear anisotropic, Polynomial anisotropic, and Henyey-Greenstein, select the

Wavelength-dependent scattering type check box to average each Legendre coefficient
a1, …, a12 or the Anisotropy parameter μ to obtain piecewise constant coefficients on
each spectral band.

• Theory for Radiation in Participating Media

• Discrete Ordinates Method (DOM)
• P1 Approximation Theory

Radiative Heat Transfer in a Utility Boiler: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Radiation/boiler

Radiative Cooling of a Glass Plate: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Radiation/glass_plate

Radiative Heat Transfer in Finite Cylindrical Media: Application

Library path Heat_Transfer_Module/Verification_Examples/
cylinder_participating_media

Radiative Heat Transfer in Finite Cylindrical Media — P1 Method:

Application Library path Heat_Transfer_Module/Verification_Examples/
cylinder_participating_media_p1

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Radiation in Participating Media>Participating Medium

508 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Ribbon
Physics tab with Radiation in Participating Media selected:

Domains>Radiation in Participating Media>Participating Medium

Pellets (Porous Medium)

This node defines the porosity and material properties of the pellets contained in a
packed bed, used in the heat transfer equations of the Porous Medium parent node,
when the Packed bed option is selected in the Porous medium type list. The coupling
condition between the pellets and the fluid phase of the packed bed can be specified in
the Pellet-Fluid Interface (Porous Medium) subnode.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

Volume Reference Temperature

This section is available when a temperature-dependent density defined in a material is
used. On the material frame, the density is evaluated in relation to a reference
temperature in order to ensure conservation of the mass in the presence of temperature
variations. By default the Common model input is used. This corresponds to the variable
minput.Tempref, which is set to 293.15 K by default. To edit it, click the Go to Source
button ( ), and in the Default Model Inputs node under Global Definitions, set a value
for the Volume reference temperature in the Expression for remaining selection section.

Other options are User defined and all the temperature variables from the physics
interfaces included in the model.

This model input does not override the Reference temperature Tref set in
the Physical Model section of the physics interface, which is used to
evaluate the reference enthalpy, and a reference density for incompressible
nonisothermal flows.

Temperature
This section is available when material properties are temperature-dependent. By
default, the temperature of the parent interface is used and the section is not editable.
To edit the Temperature field, click Make All Model Inputs Editable ( ). The available
options are User defined (default), Common model input (the minput.T variable, set to

DOMAIN FEATURES | 509

 293.15 K by default) and all temperature variables from the physics interfaces included
in the model. To edit the minput.T variable, click the Go to Source button ( ), and
in the Default Model Inputs node under Global Definitions, set a value for the Temperature
in the Expression for remaining selection section.

POROSITIES
The default Bed porosity εp of the packed bed is taken From material. In a Porous
Material node, the porosity is defined as follows:

εp = 1 –  θsi – θpe – θimfi

i i i

where θsi, θpe and θimfi are the volume fractions of the Solid, Pellet, and Immobile Fluid
subnodes under the Porous Material node.

For User defined, enter a value or expression.

As porosity can be considered within the pellets, set the Pellet porosity, εpe. By default
it is taken From material. Go to the Pellet subnode of the Porous Material node to enter
a value or expression.

HEAT CONDUCTION, PELLETS

Set the thermal conductivity of the porous matrix within the pellets, kpe. It is used to
compute the effective thermal conductivity of the pellet filled with fluid, kpe,eff,
defined by

k pe, eff = ( 1 – ε pe )k pe + ε pe k f

The default Thermal conductivity kpe is taken From material. For User defined, enter a
value or expression. A scalar value should be set as it is used in the 1D microscale
equation.

THERMODYNAMICS, PELLETS
This section defines the thermodynamics properties of the porous matrix within the
pellets.

The specific heat capacity describes the amount of heat energy required to produce a
unit temperature change in a unit of mass of the pellets.

The Density ρpe and the Specific heat capacity Cp, pe should be specified. For From
Material option, see Material Density in Features Defined in the Material Frame if a
temperature-dependent density should be set.

510 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

These properties are used to compute the effective volumetric heat capacity at constant
pressure inside the pellet filled with fluid, (ρCp)pe,eff, defined by

( ρC p ) pe, eff = ( 1 – ε pe )ρ pe C p, pe + ε pe ρ f C p, f

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Pellets

Ribbon
Physics tab with Porous Medium selected in the model tree:

Attributes>Pellets

Pellet-Fluid Interface (Porous Medium)

This node defines the coupling condition between the fluid phase and the pellets, when
the Packed bed option is selected in the Porous medium type list of the Porous Medium
parent node.

PELLET-FLUID INTERFACE
Select an option in the Coupling condition list to couple the macroscale heat equation
solved in the fluid phase and the microscale equation solved in the pellets to account
for radial thermal conduction.

With the Continuous temperature option (default), the temperature at the outer surface
of the pellets and the fluid temperature are enforced to be equal, and the resulting heat
flux is applied in the fluid and pellets equations. See the Constraint Settings section
below for advanced settings relative to the continuity constraint.

With the Convective heat flux option, a heat transfer term, proportional to the
temperature difference between the fluid phase and the outer surface of the pellets, is
applied in the equations of both phases. The heat transfer term is applied in an
averaged way in the fluid equation, by multiplying it by the Specific surface area, Sb.
Either use the Automatic expression for Sb, defined as a function of the average pellet
diameter dpe, or set a User defined value or expression. Either use the Automatic option
for the Interstitial heat transfer coefficient, hpe,f, defined as a function of the average
pellets diameter dpe and the fluid-to-solid Nusselt number for which the fluid dynamic
viscosity μ is needed (and should be set in the Fluid (Porous Medium) subnode). Or
set a User defined value or expression for hpe,f.

DOMAIN FEATURES | 511

 CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options. The settings of this section have no effect when the Coupling condition
is Convective heat flux in the Pellet-Fluid Interface section.

By default Classic constraints is selected. Select the Use weak constraints check box to
replace the standard constraints with a weak implementation. Select the Discontinuous
Galerkin constraints button when Classic constraints do not work satisfactorily.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Pellet-Fluid Interface

Ribbon
Physics tab with Porous Medium selected in the model tree:

Attributes>Pellet-Fluid Interface

Phase Change Material

This subnode should be used to specify the properties of a phase change material
according to the apparent heat capacity formulation, when modeling heat transfer in
solids, fluids, and porous media. This formulation gets its name from the fact that the
latent heat is included as an additional term in the heat capacity. Up to five transitions
in phase per material are supported. Alternatively, a Stefan condition can be defined on
boundaries by using the Phase Change Interface node.

NUMBER OF PHASE TRANSITIONS

To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. The Number of phase transitions
to model is set in this section. In most cases, only one phase transition is needed to
simulate solidification, melting, or evaporation. If you want to model successive
melting and evaporation, or any couple of successive phase transformations, choose an
alternative value in the Number of phase transitions list. The maximum value is 5.

Depending on the Number of phase transitions, several parts display in the Phase Change
section, and several Phase sections display underneath.

512 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

DENSITY
This section is only available when the subnode is added under the Solid node. In this
particular case, a single density should be defined for all phases to ensure mass
conservation on the material frame. Default is taken From material. For User defined,
enter a value or expression for ρ. Note that this setting overrides the setting in the
Thermodynamics, Solid section of the parent Solid node.

PHASE CHANGE
The parameters for the definition of the transition temperature intervals are set in this
section.

Each transition is assumed to occur smoothly in a temperature interval between

Tpc, j → j + 1 − ΔTj → j + 1 ⁄ 2 and Tpc, j → j + 1 + ΔTj → j + 1 ⁄ 2, releasing a total heat per
unit volume equal to Lj →j + 1.

The Phase change temperature between phase 1 and phase 2 Tpc, 1 → 2 should be set to
define the center of the first transition interval. The default is 273.15 K. Enter any
additional phase change temperatures as per the Number of phase transitions.

The Transition interval between phase 1 and phase 2 ΔT1 → 2 should be set to define the
width of the first transition interval. The default is 10 K. Enter any additional transition
intervals as per the Number of phase transitions.

The value of ΔTj → j + 1 must be strictly positive. A value near 0 K corresponds to a

behavior close to a pure substance.

Open the Sketch section for more details on these parameters.

The Latent heat from phase 1 and phase 2 L1 → 2 should be set to define the latent heat
per unit mass released during the first phase transition. Enter any additional latent heat
values as per the Number of phase transitions.

The value of Lj → j + 1 must be positive. The default is 333 kJ/kg, which corresponds
to the latent heat of fusion of water at a pressure of 1 atm.

About the Phases

The different phases are ordered according to the temperatures of fusion. Hence, the
material properties of phase 1 are valid when T < Tpc, 1 → 2, while the material
properties of phase 2 hold for T > Tpc, 1 → 2.

When more than one transition is modeled, the number of phases exceeds 2, and new
variables are created (for example, Tpc, 2 → 3, ΔT2 → 3 or L2 → 3). The phase change
temperatures Tpc, j → j + 1 are increasing and satisfy

DOMAIN FEATURES | 513

 T pc, 1 → 2 < T pc, 2 → 3 < …

This defines distinct domains of temperature bounded by Tpc, j − 1 → j and Tpc, j → j + 1

where the material properties of phase j only apply.

In addition, the values of ΔTj → j + 1 are chosen so that the ranges between
Tpc, j → j + 1 − ΔTj → j + 1 ⁄ 2 and Tpc, j → j + 1 + ΔTj → j + 1 ⁄ 2 do not overlap. If this
condition is not satisfied, unexpected behavior can occur because some phases would
never form completely. The values of ΔTj → j + 1 must all be strictly positive.

PHASE
In each Phase section (based on the Number of phase transitions), the thermal
conductivity and thermodynamics properties of each phase must be set. Then, within
the transition interval, there is a “mushy zone” with mixed material properties.

Select a Material, phase [1,2,...], which can point to any material in the model. The
default uses the Domain material.

When the Phase Change Material subnode is added under a Solid node, the following
material properties should be set:

• Thermal conductivity ki. The default uses the material values for phase i. For User
defined select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full based on the characteristics of the
thermal conductivity, and enter another value or expression. When the material and
spatial frames differ (due to the presence in the model of a Moving Mesh node, or a
Solid Mechanics physics interface for example), you can select on which frame the
Thermal conductivity ki is specified, with the Deformation model for thermal
conductivity option, see Heat Conduction, Solid for details.
• Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp, i. The default is 4200 J/(kg·K).

Note that these settings override the settings of the Heat Conduction, Solid and
Thermodynamics, Solid sections of the parent Solid node.

When the Phase Change Material subnode is added under a Fluid or Porous Medium
node, the following material properties should be set:

• Thermal conductivity ki. The default uses the material values for phase i. For User
defined select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full based on the characteristics of the
thermal conductivity, and enter another value or expression. The default is 1 W/
(m·K).
• Density ρi. The default is 1000 kg/m3.

514 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

• Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp, i. The default is 4200 J/(kg·K).
• Ratio of specific heats γi. The default is Automatic, it calculates the ratio of specific
heats by using Mayer’s relation:

ρC p χ t
γ = ---------------------------------2
ρC p χ t – Tα p

considering that:

• αp is the coefficient of thermal expansion (SI unit: 1/K):

1 ∂ρ
α p = – ---
ρ∂T

• χt is the isothermal compressibility (SI unit: 1/Pa):

1 ∂ρ
χ t = – ---
ρ∂p

Note that these settings override the settings of the Heat Conduction, Fluid and
Thermodynamics, Fluid sections of the parent node. In porous media, phase change is
considered in the fluid material only.

Apparent Heat Capacity Method

It is useful to choose three or more phase transitions to handle extra

changes of material properties such as in mixtures of compounds, metal
alloys, composite materials, or allotropic varieties of a substance. For
example, α, γ, and δ-iron are allotropes of solid iron that can be
considered as phases with distinct phase change temperatures.

DOMAIN FEATURES | 515

 To satisfy energy and mass conservation in phase change models,
particular attention should be paid to the density in time simulations.
When the material density is not constant over time — for example,
dependent on the temperature — volume change is expected. The
transport velocity field and the density must be defined so that mass is
conserved locally. A The Moving Mesh Interface (described in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual) can be used to take into
account model deformation.

Phase Change: Application Library path Heat_Transfer_Module/

Phase_Change/phase_change

Continuous Casting — Apparent Heat Capacity Method: Application

Library path Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Processing/
continuous_casting_apparent_heat_capacity

Cooling and Solidification of Metal: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Processing/cooling_solidification_metal

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids>Solid>Phase Change Material
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Fluid>Phase Change Material
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Phase Change Material
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Fluid>Phase Change Material
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Porous Matrix>Phase Change Material

Ribbon
Physics tab with Solid, Fluid, or Porous Medium selected in the model tree:

Attributes>Phase Change Material

Physics tab with Porous Medium>Fluid selected in the model tree:

Attributes>Phase Change Material

Porous Matrix (Porous Medium, Moist Porous Medium)

This node defines the porosity and material properties of the solid matrix used in the
heat transfer equations of the Moist Porous Medium and Porous Medium parent

516 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

nodes, to model heat transfer in a porous matrix, possibly consisting of several solids,
and filled with a mobile fluid, and one or more immobile fluids.

• The velocity field and material properties of the mobile fluid can be
specified in the Fluid (Porous Medium) subnode, by defining it as a
general gas or liquid, as an ideal gas, or as moist air.
• The total volume fraction and material properties of immobile fluids
can be specified in the Immobile Fluids (Porous Medium) subnode.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

Volume Reference Temperature

This section is available when a temperature-dependent density defined in a material is
used. On the material frame, the density is evaluated in relation to a reference
temperature in order to ensure conservation of the mass in the presence of temperature
variations. By default the Common model input is used. This corresponds to the variable
minput.Tempref, which is set to 293.15 K by default. To edit it, click the Go to Source
button ( ), and in the Default Model Inputs node under Global Definitions, set a value
for the Volume reference temperature in the Expression for remaining selection section.

Other options are User defined and all the temperature variables from the physics
interfaces included in the model.

This model input does not override the Reference temperature Tref set in
the Physical Model section of the physics interface, which is used to
evaluate the reference enthalpy, and a reference density for incompressible
nonisothermal flows.

Temperature
This section is available when material properties are temperature-dependent. By
default, the temperature of the parent interface is used and the section is not editable.
To edit the Temperature field, click Make All Model Inputs Editable ( ). The available
options are User defined (default), Common model input (the minput.T variable, set to
293.15 K by default) and all temperature variables from the physics interfaces included
in the model. To edit the minput.T variable, click the Go to Source button ( ), and

DOMAIN FEATURES | 517

 in the Default Model Inputs node under Global Definitions, set a value for the Temperature
in the Expression for remaining selection section.

MATRIX PROPERTIES
The default Porosity εp of the solid matrix is taken From material. In a Porous Material
node, the porosity is defined as follows:

εp = 1 –  θsi – θimfi
i i

where θsi and θimfi are the volume fractions of the Solid and Immobile Fluids subnodes
under the Porous Material node.

For User defined, enter a value or expression.

Choose to define either the Dry bulk properties or the Solid phase properties for thermal
conductivity, density, and heat capacity at constant pressure of the porous matrix. The
first option sets the properties of the matrix including empty pores, while the second
option defines the properties of the pure solid phase.

HEAT CONDUCTION, POROUS MATRIX

The thermal conductivity ks describes the relationship between the heat flux vector q
and the temperature gradient ∇T in q = −ks∇T, which is Fourier’s law of heat
conduction. Enter this quantity as power per length and temperature.

The default Thermal conductivity ks is taken From material. For User defined select
Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full, based on the characteristics of the thermal
conductivity, and enter another value or expression. For Isotropic, enter a scalar which
will be used to define a diagonal tensor. For the other options, enter values or
expressions into the editable fields of the tensor.

When the thermal conductivity is taken From material and more than one Solid
subnode is added under the Porous Material node, the average property is obtained by
applying a volume average model:

ks =  θsi ksi
i

Alternatively, set the Dry bulk thermal conductivity kb, when Define is set to Dry bulk
properties in the Matrix Properties section. The corresponding property for the solid
phase is then defined as:

518 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

 kb
k s = ------
θs

Note that this section is not available when Porous medium type is set to Local thermal
equilibrium and Equivalent thermal conductivity is selected in the Effective thermal
conductivity list of the Porous medium parent node.

THERMODYNAMICS, POROUS MATRIX

This section defines the thermodynamics properties of the porous matrix.

The specific heat capacity describes the amount of heat energy required to produce a
unit temperature change in a unit of mass of the solid material.

The Density ρs and the Specific heat capacity Cp, s should be specified. For From Material
option, see Material Density in Features Defined in the Material Frame if a
temperature-dependent density should be set.

When the density and specific heat capacity are taken From material and more than one
Solid subnode is added under the Porous Material node, the effective properties are
obtained by applying a volume averaging model:

ρs =  θsi ρsi
i

 θsi ρsi Cp, si

i
C p, s = ------------------------------------
-
 θ si ρ si
i

Alternatively, set the Dry bulk density ρb and the Dry bulk heat capacity at constant
pressure Cp,b when Define is set to Dry bulk properties in the Matrix Properties section.
The corresponding properties for the solid phase are then defined as:

ρb
ρ s = ------
θs

and

DOMAIN FEATURES | 519

 C p, b
C p, s = ------------
θs

When the porosity εp is taken From material, the solid volume fraction θs
is defined in the material, under the Solid subnode. In case of multiple
solids, it is needed to refer to the material, as it is not possible to deduce
the values of θsi for the different solids from the porosity. When the
porosity is User defined, the volume fraction of each solid θsi is obtained
by dividing θs =1-εp by the number of solids.

When the Porous Medium type is set to Local thermal nonequilibrium in the
Porous Medium parent node, the Initial Values, Heat Source, Thermal
Insulation, Symmetry (Heat Transfer Interface), Temperature, Heat
Flux, Lumped System Connector, Continuity, Boundary Heat Source,
Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Heat Transfer Interface), and Deposited
Beam Power features are available under the Porous Matrix subnode.These
subnodes allow the definition of domain and boundary conditions
specific to the fluid phase temperature Ts.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Porous Matrix
Heat Transfer in Moist Porous Media>Moist Porous Medium>Porous Matrix

Ribbon
Physics tab with Porous Medium or Moist Porous Medium selected in the model tree:

Attributes>Porous Matrix

Porous Medium
This node models heat transfer in a porous matrix, possibly consisting of several solids,
and filled with a mobile fluid, and one or more immobile fluids. It allows to make the
local thermal equilibrium assumption or not, and to handle the case of a packed bed
of pellets in a specific way, through the Porous medium type option.

520 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Local thermal equilibrium
With this assumption, one single equation is solved for both phases, using effective
material properties. See Equation 4-41 for details.

In particular, when no immobile fluid is present in the pore space, the effective
volumetric heat capacity at constant pressure is defined as

( ρC p ) eff = θ s ρ s C p, s + ε p ρ f C p, f

If the porous matrix consists of several solids i of volume fraction θsi, heat capacity
Cp,si, and density ρsi, the above equation is modified as follows:

( ρC p ) eff =  θsi ρsi Cp, si + εp ρf Cp, f

i

See Immobile Fluids (Porous Medium) to take into account the presence of immobile
fluids in the expression of effective volumetric heat capacity at constant pressure.

See Porous Medium for the definition of the effective thermal conductivity.

Local Thermal Nonequilibrium

When the solid and fluid temperatures are not in equilibrium, two heat equations are
solved in the solid and fluid subdomains, and coupled through a transfer term
proportional to the temperature difference between both phases. See Equation 4-43
and Equation 4-44 for details about the heat transfer equation in each phase, and
Porous Medium for the definition of the transfer term between fluid and solid phases.

Packed Bed
When the porous medium is a packed bed of pellets, and when the thermal
conductivity of the pellets is small enough compared to the fluid conductivity to
neglect heat transfer between the pellets, the macroscale heat equation for the solid
phase of the standard local thermal nonequilibrium model is replaced by a microscale
equation for the radial variation of the temperature due to conduction in the pellets.

See Equation 4-45 and Equation 4-46 for details about the heat transfer equation in
each phase, and Pellet-Fluid Interface (Porous Medium) for the definition of the
coupling condition between the fluid phase and pellets equations.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

Select a coordinate system from the Coordinate system list for the interpretation of
directions in anisotropic material properties. The default is the Global coordinate

DOMAIN FEATURES | 521

 system, and the list contains any additional coordinate system (except boundary
coordinate systems) added under the Definitions node.

The subnodes of Porous Medium inherit these coordinate system settings. In particular,
the Velocity field and Thermal Conductivity (in Fluid (Porous Medium) subnode) and
the Dry bulk thermal conductivity and Solid phase thermal conductivity (in Porous
Matrix (Porous Medium, Moist Porous Medium) subnode) should be set according to
the coordinate system selected in this section.

See Coordinate Systems in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for more
details.

POROUS MEDIUM
Select between the Local thermal equilibrium, the Local thermal nonequilibrium, and the
Packed bed options in the Porous medium type list.

Depending upon the selected option, further settings are required underneath: either
the effective thermal conductivity required by the single heat transfer equation, or the
parameters used to couple the two heat transfer equations in each phase. See the Local
thermal equilibrium and Local Thermal Nonequilibrium sections below for details.

It also changes the availability of some subnodes:

• The Geothermal Heating, Immobile Fluids, and Optically Thick Participating Medium
subnodes are available under Porous Medium only when the Porous Medium type is
set to Local thermal equilibrium.
• The Initial Values, Heat Source, Thermal Insulation, Symmetry (Heat Transfer
Interface), Temperature, Heat Flux, Lumped System Connector, Phase Change
Interface, Continuity, Inflow, Outflow, Open Boundary, Boundary Heat Source,
Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Heat Transfer Interface), and Deposited Beam
Power features are available under the Fluid (Porous Medium) subnode only when
the Porous Medium type is set to Local thermal nonequilibrium or Packed bed.These
subnodes allow the definition of domain and boundary conditions specific to the
fluid phase temperature Tf.
• The Initial Values, Heat Source, Thermal Insulation, Symmetry (Heat Transfer
Interface), Temperature, Heat Flux, Lumped System Connector, Continuity,
Boundary Heat Source, Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Heat Transfer Interface),
and Deposited Beam Power features are available under the Porous Matrix (Porous
Medium, Moist Porous Medium) subnode only when the Porous Medium type is set
to Local thermal nonequilibrium. These subnodes allow the definition of domain and
boundary conditions specific to the solid phase temperature Ts.

522 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Local Thermal Equilibrium
When Local thermal equilibrium is selected in the Porous medium type list, this section
defines the Effective thermal conductivity taking into account the properties of the solid
matrix and the mobile fluid. The following averaging models are available:

• Plane layers parallel to heat flow (default), which calculates the effective conductivity
of the solid-fluid system as the weighted arithmetic mean (or volume average) of the
conductivities of the fluid and the porous matrix:
k eff = θ s k s + ε p k f

• Plane layers perpendicular to heat flow, which calculates the effective conductivity of
the solid-fluid system as the weighted harmonic mean (or reciprocal average) of the
conductivities of the fluid and the porous matrix:

1- θs εp
-------- = ----- + -----
k eff ks kf

• Power law, which calculates the effective conductivity of the solid-fluid system as the
weighted geometric mean of the conductivities of the fluid and the porous matrix:
θs εp
k eff = k s ⋅ k f

• Solid spherical inclusions, which calculates the effective conductivity of the solid-fluid
system as:
2k f + k s – 2 ( k f – k s )θ s
k eff = k f ----------------------------------------------------------
2k f + k s + ( k f – k s )θ s

• Fluid spherical inclusions, which calculates the effective conductivity of the solid-fluid
system as:
2k s + k f – 2 ( k s – k f )ε p
k eff = k s ----------------------------------------------------------
2k s + k f + ( k s – k f )ε p

• Wrapped screen, which calculates the effective conductivity of the solid-fluid system
as:
k f + k s – ( k f – k s )θ s
k eff = k f ---------------------------------------------------
k f + k s + ( k f – k s )θ s

• Sintered metal fibers, which calculates the effective conductivity of the solid-fluid
system as:

DOMAIN FEATURES | 523

 2 4ε p θ s k f k s
k eff = ε p k f + θ 2s k s + --------------------------
kf + ks

If the porous matrix consists of several solids i of volume fraction θsi and thermal
conductivity ksi, the above equations are modified by replacing ks by
 
θ si k si ⁄ θ si , and θs byθ si .
i i i

The Immobile Fluids subnode is available only with the Plane layers parallel
to heat flow, Plane layers perpendicular to heat flow, and Power law
averaging models.

It is also possible to define directly the effective thermal conductivity, keff. When
Equivalent thermal conductivity is selected in the Effective thermal conductivity list, a
value for the Effective thermal conductivity keff should be specified directly. The default
Effective thermal conductivity is taken From material. When a Porous Material node is
active, the property of the Homogenized Properties section is used. For User defined,
select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full based on the characteristics of the thermal
conductivity, and enter another value or expression. For Isotropic, enter a scalar which
will be used to define a diagonal tensor. For the other options, enter values or
expressions into the editable fields of the tensor.

Local Thermal Nonequilibrium

When Local thermal nonequilibrium is selected in the Porous medium type list, select an
Interstitial convective heat transfer coefficient: Spherical pellets, General configuration, or
User defined (the default).

Spherical Pellets In this particular configuration, the interstitial convective heat

transfer coefficient can be directly expressed as a function of the average pellets
diameter dpe and the fluid-to-solid Nusselt number for which the fluid dynamic
viscosity μ is needed.

Enter a value for the Average diameter dpe (SI unit: m) of the pellets. Default value is
1e-3 m.

The dynamic viscosity needed to evaluate the Nusselt number is set in the Fluid
(Porous Medium) subnode. See Dynamic Viscosity for details.

Note that with this option, the radial variation of the temperature within the pellets is
not precisely accounted for. Change to the Packed bed option (in the Porous medium

524 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

type list) to solve for a specific equation for radial conduction in the pellets. See Packed
Bed for details.

General Configuration The interstitial convective heat transfer coefficient is expressed

as the product of the specific surface area Sb and the interstitial heat transfer coefficient
hsf.

Enter a value for the Specific surface area Sb (SI unit: 1/m).

Enter a value for the Interstitial heat transfer coefficient hsf (SI unit: W/(m2·K)).

3
User Defined Enter a custom value for qsf (SI unit: W/(m ·K)).

• See Immobile Fluids (Porous Medium) to take into account the

presence of immobile fluids in the expression of effective thermal
conductivity in the local thermal equilibrium case.
• The velocity field and material properties of the mobile fluid can be
specified in the Fluid (Porous Medium) subnode, by defining it as a
general gas or liquid, as an ideal gas, or as moist air.
• The porosity εp and material properties of the solid matrix can be
specified in the Porous Matrix (Porous Medium, Moist Porous
Medium) subnode.
• The packed bed and pellets porosities εp and εpe, and the material
properties of the pellets can be specified in the Pellets (Porous
Medium) subnode.
• The coupling condition between the fluid phase and the pellets can be
specified in the Pellet-Fluid Interface (Porous Medium) subnode.
• When the porosity εp is taken From material, the solid volume fraction
θs is defined in the material, under the Solid subnode. In case of
multiple solids, it is needed to refer to the material, as it is not possible
to deduce the values of θsi for the different solids from the porosity.
When the porosity is User defined, the volume fraction of each solid θsi
is obtained by dividing θs =1-εp by the number of solids.

See Porous Material in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

DOMAIN FEATURES | 525

 Theory for Heat Transfer in Porous Media

With some COMSOL products, the Thermal Dispersion, Viscous

Dissipation, and Geothermal Heating subnodes are available from the
context menu (right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar,
Attributes menu.

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids>Porous Medium
Heat Transfer in Solids>Specific Media>Porous Medium
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Specific Media>Porous Medium
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Specific Media>Porous Medium
Heat Transfer in Building Materials>Specific Media>Porous Medium

Ribbon
Physics tab with Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids, Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer
in Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, or Heat Transfer in Building Materials selected:

Domains>Specific Media>Porous Medium

Pressure Work
This subnode adds the following contribution to the right-hand side of the heat
transfer equation to model the result of heating under adiabatic compression as well as
some thermoacoustic effects:

∂p A
Q p = α p T  ---------- + u ⋅ ∇ p A (6-13)
∂t

where αp is the coefficient of thermal expansion defined as:

526 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

 1 ∂ρ
α p = – ---  
ρ ∂T p

The pressure work is calculated using the relative pressure, and is generally small for
low Mach number flows.

No settings are required.

When the Nonisothermal Flow multiphysics coupling node is added, the

effect of pressure work is automatically taken into account. In this case,
the Pressure Work feature is overridden by the multiphysics coupling
node’s contribution.

Theory for Heat Transfer in Fluids

A similar term can be included to take into account thermoelastic effects

in solids. See Thermoelastic Damping.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Fluid>Pressure Work
Heat Transfer in Moist Air>Moist Air>Pressure Work
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Fluid>Pressure Work

Ribbon
Physics tab with Fluid or Porous Medium>Fluid selected in the model tree:

Attributes>Pressure Work

Radiative Source
This node models a radiative heat source within the domain.

When the Radiation discretization method is P1 approximation, it adds a source term Q0

to the right-hand side of the equation defining the incident radiation G.

DOMAIN FEATURES | 527

 When the Radiation discretization method is Discrete ordinates method, the source term
Q0 is divided by 4π to obtain the directional power density to be added in the radiative
heat transfer equation.

When the Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is Solar and ambient or Multiple
spectral bands, a source term Q0,k can be defined for each spectral band.

MATERIAL TYPE
Select an option in the Material type list to specify if the inputs of the Radiative Source
section are defined in the material or spatial frame:

• The default option for the Radiative Source node is Solid, which specifies that the heat
source Q0 is defined in the material frame. Because the radiation variables and
equations are defined in the spatial frame, the inputs are internally converted to the
spatial frame. See Conversion Between Material and Spatial Frames for details.
• The Nonsolid option defines Q0 in the spatial frame. No frame conversion is needed.
• The From material option uses the option selected in the Material type list of the
Material Properties section of the material applied on the domain on which the node
is active.

This option has no effect when the component does not contain a moving
frame because the material and spatial frames are identical in such cases.
With a Deformed Geometry or a Moving Mesh interface, the heat
transfer features automatically take into account deformation effects of
the material and spatial frames on heat transfer properties. In particular
the effects of volume changes on the density are considered. See
Handling Frames in Heat Transfer and Material and Spatial Frames for
details.

RADIATIVE SOURCE
Select a Radiative source type from the list:

• For Power density enter a value for the power density Q0. When the Radiation
discretization method is Discrete ordinates method, Q0 is divided by 4π to obtain the
directional power density q0,j to be added in the radiative heat transfer equation.
When the Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is Solar and ambient or
Multiple spectral bands, the power density can also be User defined for each band, or
set as a User defined distribution.

528 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

• For Directional power density (available when the Radiation discretization method is
Discrete ordinates method) enter directly a value for the directional power density
q0,j. When the Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is Solar and ambient or
Multiple spectral bands, the directional power density can also be User defined for each
band, or set as a User defined distribution.
• For Energy rate enter a value for the energy rate P0. In this case Q0 = P0⁄V, where V
is the total volume of the selected domains. When the Radiation discretization
method is Discrete ordinates method, Q0 is divided by 4π to obtain the directional
power density q0,j to be added in the radiative heat transfer equation. When the
Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is Solar and ambient or Multiple spectral
bands, the energy rate can also be User defined for each band, or set as a User defined
distribution.

When User defined for each band is selected in any of the options above, set a value for
each spectral band in the table displayed underneath. Within a spectral band, each
value is assumed to be independent of wavelength.

When User defined distribution is selected in any of the options above, set a value or
expression. Any expression is then averaged on each spectral band to obtain a piecewise
constant function. If the average value on each band is known, you may use instead the
User defined for each band option to avoid the evaluation of the average.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Radiation in Participating Media>Radiative Source
Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media>Radiative Source

Ribbon
Physics tab with Radiation in Participating Media or Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering
Media selected:

Domains>Radiative Source

Shape Memory Alloy

This node models heat transfer in shape memory alloys, and takes into account the
martensite and austenite composition. This feature is designed to be coupled with the
Shape Memory Alloy feature of the Structural Mechanics interface which calculates the
alloy composition from the mechanical and thermal loads. Changes in martensite and
austenite composition modify the alloys thermal properties (thermal conductivity and

DOMAIN FEATURES | 529

 heat capacity), and release (from austenite to martensite state) or absorb (from
martensite to austenite state) energy.

It uses this version of the heat equation to model heat transfer in alloys:

∂T
ρC p ------- + ρC p u ⋅ ∇T + ∇ ⋅ q = Q
∂t (6-14)
q = – k∇ T

with the following material properties, fields, and sources:

• ρ (SI unit: kg/m3) is the alloy’s density.

• Cp (SI unit: J/(kg·K)) is the alloy’s heat capacity at constant pressure.
• k (SI unit: W/(m·K)) is the alloy’s thermal conductivity (a scalar or a tensor if the
thermal conductivity is anisotropic).
• u (SI unit: m/s) is the velocity field defined by the Translational Motion subnode
when parts of the model are moving in the material frame.
• Q (SI unit: W/m3) is the heat source (or sink). Add one or more heat sources as
separate physics features. See Heat Source node and Thermoelastic Damping
subnode for example.
For a steady-state problem the temperature does not change with time and the first
term disappears.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

Volume Reference Temperature

This section is available when a temperature-dependent density defined in a material is
used. On the material frame, the density is evaluated in relation to a reference
temperature in order to ensure conservation of the mass in the presence of temperature
variations. By default the Common model input is used. This corresponds to the variable
minput.Tempref, which is set to 293.15 K by default. To edit it, click the Go to Source
button ( ), and in the Default Model Inputs node under Global Definitions, set a value
for the Volume reference temperature in the Expression for remaining selection section.

530 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

The other options are User defined and all temperature variables from the physics
interfaces included in the model.

This model input does not override the Reference temperature Tref set in
the Physical Model section of the physics interface, which is used to
evaluate the reference enthalpy, and a reference density for incompressible
nonisothermal flows.

Temperature
This section is available when material properties are temperature-dependent. By
default, the temperature of the parent interface is used and the section is not editable.
To edit the Temperature field, click Make All Model Inputs Editable ( ). The available
options are User defined (default), Common model input (the minput.T variable, set to
293.15 K by default) and all temperature variables from the physics interfaces included
in the model. To edit the minput.T variable, click the Go to Source button ( ), and
in the Default Model Inputs node under Global Definitions, set a value for the Temperature
in the Expression for remaining selection section.

SHAPE MEMORY ALLOY

The Martensite volume fraction, ξ, and the Density of the alloy (defined for both
austenite and martensite states) should be set in this section.

In addition, the following options are available for the computation of the Effective
conductivity by accounting for both austenite and martensite properties:

• Volume average (default), which calculates the effective conductivity of the alloy as
the weighted arithmetic mean of austenite and martensite conductivities:
k = ξk M + ( 1 – ξ )k A

• Reciprocal average, which calculates the effective conductivity of the alloy as the
weighted harmonic mean of austenite and martensite conductivities:

1 ξ 1–ξ
--- = ------- + ------------
k kM kA

• Power law, which calculates the effective conductivity of the alloy as the weighted
geometric mean of austenite and martensite conductivities:

ξ (1 – ξ)
k = kM ⋅ kA

DOMAIN FEATURES | 531

 When the material and spatial frames differ (due to the presence in the model of a
Moving Mesh node, or a Solid Mechanics physics interface for example), you can select
on which frame the thermal conductivities of the austenite and martensite phases are
specified.

By default the Deformation model for thermal conductivity is set to Standard. With this
option, the thermal conductivities are supposed to be given on the material frame. If
the material frame does not coincide with the spatial frame, a conversion is applied to
get the effective conductivity variables. This option is often suitable for moderate
elastic strains.

By selecting the Large strain option, the thermal conductivities are supposed to be
given on the spatial frame. In case of isotropic materials, the effective thermal
conductivity variables are directly equal to the weighted average of the values you have
set. In case of anisotropic materials, the rotation of the material is also taken into
account following

T
k ( x, y, z ) = Rk ( X, Y, Z ) R

where R is the rotation matrix between the material and the spatial frames.

AUSTENITE
Select any component material from the list to define the austenite material properties.
The default uses the Domain material.

The default Thermal conductivity kA is taken From material. For User defined select
Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full based on the characteristics of the thermal
conductivity, and enter another value or expression. For Isotropic enter a scalar which
will be used to define a diagonal tensor. For the other options, enter values or
expressions into the editable fields of the tensor.

The default Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp,A is taken From material. For User
defined enter a value or expression.

MARTENSITE
Select any component material from the list to define the martensite material
properties. The default uses the Domain material.

The default Thermal conductivity kM is taken From material. For User defined select
Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full based on the characteristics of the thermal
conductivity, and enter another value or expression. For Isotropic enter a scalar which

532 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

will be used to define a diagonal tensor. For the other options, enter values or
expressions into the editable fields of the tensor.

The default Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp,M is taken From material. For User
defined enter a value or expression.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids>Specific Media>Shape Memory Alloy
Heat Transfer in Solids>Specific Media>Shape Memory Alloy
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Specific Media>Shape Memory Alloy
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Specific Media>Shape Memory Alloy
Heat Transfer in Building Materials>Specific Media>Shape Memory Alloy
Bioheat Transfer>Specific Media>Shape Memory Alloy

Ribbon
Physics tab with Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids, Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer
in Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials or Bioheat
Transfer selected:

Domains>Specific Media>Shape Memory Alloy

Solid
This node uses this version of the heat equation to model heat transfer in solids:

∂T
ρC p ------- + ρC p u ⋅ ∇T + ∇ ⋅ q = Q
∂t (6-15)
q = – k∇ T

with the following material properties, fields, and sources:

• ρ (SI unit: kg/m3) is the solid density.

• Cp (SI unit: J/(kg·K)) is the solid heat capacity at constant pressure.
• k (SI unit: W/(m·K)) is the solid thermal conductivity (a scalar or a tensor if the
thermal conductivity is anisotropic).
• u (SI unit: m/s) is the velocity field defined by the Translational Motion subnode
when parts of the model are moving in the material frame.

DOMAIN FEATURES | 533

 • Q (SI unit: W/m3) is the heat source (or sink). Add one or more heat sources as
separate physics features. See Heat Source node and Thermoelastic Damping
subnode for example.
For a steady-state problem the temperature does not change with time and the first
term disappears.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

Volume Reference Temperature

This section is available when a temperature-dependent density defined in a material is
used. On the material frame, the density is evaluated in relation to a reference
temperature in order to ensure conservation of the mass in the presence of temperature
variations. By default the Common model input is used. This corresponds to the variable
minput.Tempref, which is set to 293.15 K by default. To edit it, click the Go to Source
button ( ), and in the Default Model Inputs node under Global Definitions, set a value
for the Volume reference temperature in the Expression for remaining selection section.

The other options are User defined and all temperature variables from the physics
interfaces included in the model.

This model input does not override the Reference temperature Tref set in
the Physical Model section of the physics interface, which is used to
evaluate the reference enthalpy, and a reference density for incompressible
nonisothermal flows.

Temperature
This section is available when material properties are temperature-dependent. By
default, the temperature of the parent interface is used and the section is not editable.
To edit the Temperature field, click Make All Model Inputs Editable ( ). The available
options are User defined (default), Common model input (the minput.T variable, set to
293.15 K by default) and all temperature variables from the physics interfaces included
in the model. To edit the minput.T variable, click the Go to Source button ( ), and
in the Default Model Inputs node under Global Definitions, set a value for the Temperature
in the Expression for remaining selection section.

534 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

HEAT CONDUCTION, SOLID
The thermal conductivity k describes the relationship between the heat flux vector q
and the temperature gradient ∇T in q = −k∇T, which is Fourier’s law of heat
conduction. Enter this quantity as power per length and temperature.

The default Thermal conductivity k is taken From material. For User defined select
Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full based on the characteristics of the thermal
conductivity, and enter another value or expression. For Isotropic enter a scalar which
will be used to define a diagonal tensor. For the other options, enter values or
expressions into the editable fields of the tensor.

The components of the thermal conductivity k when given on tensor form (kxx, kyy,
and so on, representing an anisotropic thermal conductivity) are available as ht.kxx,
ht.kyy, and so on (using the default name ht). The single scalar mean effective
thermal conductivity ht.kmean is the mean value of the diagonal elements kxx, kyy,
and kzz.

When the material and spatial frames differ (due to the presence in the model of a
Moving Mesh node, or a Solid Mechanics physics interface for example), you can select
on which frame the thermal conductivity is specified.

By default the Deformation model for thermal conductivity is set to Standard. With this
option, the thermal conductivity is supposed to be given on the material frame. If the
material frame does not coincide with the spatial frame, a conversion is applied to get
the variables ht.kxx, ht.kyy, and so on. This option is often suitable for moderate
elastic strains.

By selecting the Large strain option, the thermal conductivity is supposed to be given
on the spatial frame. In case of isotropic materials, the thermal conductivity variables
ht.kxx, ht.kyy, and so on, are directly equal to the values you have set. In case of
anisotropic materials, the rotation of the material is also taken into account following

T
k ( x, y, z ) = Rk ( X, Y, Z ) R

where R is the rotation matrix between the material and the spatial frames.

Fourier’s law assumes that the thermal conductivity tensor is symmetric.

A nonsymmetric tensor can lead to unphysical results.

DOMAIN FEATURES | 535

 THERMODYNAMICS, SOLID
This section defines the thermodynamics properties of the solid.

The heat capacity at constant pressure describes the amount of heat energy required
to produce a unit temperature change in a unit mass.

The Density ρ and Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp should be specified.

In addition, the thermal diffusivity α, defined as k ⁄ (ρCp) (SI unit: m2/s), is also a
predefined quantity. The thermal diffusivity can be interpreted as a measure of thermal
inertia (heat propagates slowly where the thermal diffusivity is low, for example). The
components of the thermal diffusivity α, when given on tensor form (αxx, αyy, and so
on, representing an anisotropic thermal diffusivity) are available as ht.alphaTdxx,
ht.alphaTdyy, and so on (using the default physics name ht). The single scalar mean
thermal diffusivity ht.alphaTdMean is the mean value of the diagonal elements αxx,
αyy, and αzz. The denominator ρCp is the effective volumetric heat capacity which is
also available as a predefined quantity, ht.C_eff.

• Theory for Heat Transfer in Porous Media

• Theory for Heat Transfer in Solids

The Thermoelastic Damping subnode is available from the context menu

(right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

Heat Generation in a Disc Brake: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Contact_and_Friction/brake_disc

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids>Solid
Heat Transfer in Solids>Solid
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Solid
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Solid

536 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Heat Transfer in Building Materials>Solid
Bioheat Transfer>Solid

Ribbon
Physics tab with interface as Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids, Heat Transfer in Solids,
Heat Transfer in Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials
or Bioheat Transfer selected:

Domains>interface>Solid

Thermal Damage
This node defines a transformation model to take into account damage by overheating
or freezing in biological tissues. The transformation indicator is calculated by a model
based either on a temperature threshold or on Arrhenius kinetics.

DAMAGED TISSUE
Three methods are available for the analysis; choose the Transformation model:
Temperature threshold (default), Arrhenius kinetics, or User defined. Depending on the
material properties you have access to, you may choose one of the damage models.

The Arrhenius kinetics method is only applicable to hyperthermia analysis.

For Temperature threshold, define the settings for the Hyperthermia Analysis or
Cryogenic Analysis. See Temperature Threshold for more details on the parameters of
the model.

Hyperthermia Analysis
Enter values for:

• Damage temperature Td, h to define the (high) temperature that the tissue needs to
reach to start getting damaged. The default is 323.15 K.
• Damage time td, h to define the time needed for the necrosis to happen while the
temperature is above Td, h. The default is 50 s.
• Necrosis temperature Tn, h to define the (high) temperature to be reached for the
necrosis to happen instantly. The default is 373.15 K.
• Enthalpy change Ld, h to define the enthalpy variation associated with damage by
hyperthermia. The following heat source is added to the right-hand side of the
bioheat equation:

DOMAIN FEATURES | 537

 ∂θ d
Q = – ρL d, h --------- ( T > T d, h )
∂t

A user defined value can be set for the initial damaged tissue indicator and the initial
instant necrosis indicator used in the hyperthermia analysis. See the Initial Values
section for details.

Cryogenic Analysis
Enter values for:

• Damage temperature Td, c to define the (low) temperature that the tissue needs to
reach to start getting damaged. The default is 273.15 K.
• Damage time td, c to define the time needed for the necrosis to happen while the
temperature is below Td, c. The default is 50 s.
• Necrosis temperature Tn, c to define the (low) temperature to be reached for the
necrosis to happen instantly. The default is 253.15 K.
• Enthalpy change Ld, c to define the enthalpy variation associated with damage by
freezing. The following heat source is added to the right-hand side of the bioheat
equation:

∂θ d
Q = ρL d, c --------- ( T < T d, c )
∂t

A user defined value can be set for the initial damaged tissue indicator and the initial
instant necrosis indicator used in the cryogenic analysis. See the Initial Values section
for details.

Arrhenius Kinetics
For Arrhenius kinetics, define the parameters to calculate the degree of tissue injury
with the Arrhenius equation (see Arrhenius Kinetics for more details):

• Frequency factor A in the Arrhenius equation. Default is taken From material. For
User defined enter a value or an expression.
• Activation energy ΔE in the Arrhenius equation. Default is taken From material. For
User defined enter a value or an expression.
• Polynomial order n to define a polynomial Arrhenius kinetics equation.
• Enthalpy change L to define the enthalpy variation associated with damage. The
following heat source is added to the right-hand side of the bioheat equation:

538 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

 ∂θ d
Q = – ρL ---------
∂t

A user defined value can be set for the initial damaged tissue indicator of the Arrhenius
equation. See the Initial Values section for details.

User Defined
Enter values or expressions for the Enthalpy change L and the Fraction of transformation
θd to define the heat source associated with the transformation as:

∂θ d
Q = – ρL ---------
∂t

As required, also define how to Specify Different Material Properties for healthy and
damaged tissue.

Specify Different Material Properties

When the Specify different material properties for damaged tissue check box is selected,
choose a Transformed material, which can point to any material in the model. The
default uses the Domain material. The healthy tissue properties correspond to the
properties specified in the Heat Conduction and Thermodynamics sections. The effective
tissue properties change from the healthy tissue properties to the damaged tissue
properties as the damage evolves.

HEAT CONDUCTION
This section is available when the Specify different material properties for damaged tissue
check box is selected.

Select a Thermal conductivity kd — From material (default) or User defined, to be used

for damaged tissue. For User defined choose Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full based
on the characteristics of the thermal conductivity and enter another value or expression
in the field or matrix.

When the material and spatial frames differ (due to the presence in the model of a
Moving Mesh node, or a Solid Mechanics physics interface for example), you can select
on which frame the Thermal conductivity kd is specified.

By default the Deformation model for thermal conductivity is set to Standard. With this
option, the thermal conductivity is supposed to be given on the material frame. If the
material frame does not coincide with the spatial frame, a conversion is applied to get
the variables ht.k_dxx, ht.k_dyy, and so on. This option is often suitable for
moderate elastic strains.

DOMAIN FEATURES | 539

 By selecting the Large strain option, the thermal conductivity is supposed to be given
on the spatial frame. In case of isotropic materials, the thermal conductivity variables
ht.k_dxx, ht.k_dyy, and so on, are directly equal to the values you have set. In case
of anisotropic materials, the rotation of the material is also taken into account
following

T
k d ( x, y, z ) = Rk d ( X, Y, Z ) R

where R is the rotation matrix between the material and the spatial frames.

THERMODYNAMICS
This section is available when the Specify different material properties for damaged tissue
check box is selected.

Select a Density ρd and Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp, d — From material
(default) or User defined, to be used for damaged tissue. The heat capacity describes
the amount of heat energy required to produce a unit temperature change in a unit
mass.

INITIAL VALUES
This section is available when the Transformation model is set to Temperature threshold
or Arrhenius kinetics. Set a value or expression for the Initial damaged tissue indicator,
αinit, to be used as an initial condition for any of the time integral analyses. For the
Temperature threshold model, a value or expression for the Initial instant necrosis
indicator, αn,init, can be set as well.

• Theory for Bioheat Transfer

• Biological Tissue
• Bioheat

There are specific predefined materials available in the Bioheat material

database. See Materials Overview and Bioheat Materials Library in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

540 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

 Hepatic Tumor Ablation: Application Library path
Heat_Transfer_Module/Medical_Technology/tumor_ablation

Microwave Heating of a Cancer Tumor: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Medical_Technology/microwave_cancer_therapy

Modeling a Conical Dielectric Probe for Skin Cancer Diagnosis:

Application Library path Heat_Transfer_Module/Medical_Technology/
conical_dielectric_probe

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Bioheat Transfer>Biological Tissue>Thermal Damage

Ribbon
Physics tab with interface as Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids, Bioheat Transfer, Heat
Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media or Heat Transfer
in Building Materials selected:

Domains>interface>Biological Tissue>Thermal Damage

Thermal Dispersion
This subnode should be used to model the heat transfer due to hydrodynamic mixing
in a fluid flowing through a porous medium. It adds an extra term ∇ ⋅ (kdisp∇T) to the
right-hand side of the heat equation in porous media, through the modification of the
effective thermal conductivity keff with the dispersive thermal conductivity kdisp:

∂T
( ρC p ) eff ------- + ρC p u ⋅ ∇T = ∇ ⋅ ( k eff ∇T ) + Q
∂t

and specifies values for the longitudinal and transverse dispersivities.

DISPERSIVITIES
This section defines the Longitudinal dispersivity λlo and Transverse dispersivity λtr used
for the computation of the tensor of dispersive thermal conductivity:

( k disp ) ij = ρC p D ij

where Dij is the dispersion tensor

DOMAIN FEATURES | 541

 uk ul
D ij = λ ijkl ------------
u

and λijkl is the fourth-order dispersivity tensor

λ lo – λ tr
λ ijkl = λ tr δ ij δ kl + --------------------- ( δ ik δ jl + δ il δ jk )
2

When the Horizontal and vertical transverse dispersivities option is selected in the Define
transverse dispersivity from list, the Transverse horizontal dispersivity λtr, h and
Transverse vertical dispersivity λtr, v are defined instead of the Transverse dispersivity λtr.

In this case, it is assumed that z is the vertical direction and it defines the dispersion
tensor as

D ij =

λ lo u 2 + λ tr, h v 2 + λ tr, v w 2 ( λ lo – λ tr, h )uv ( λ lo – λ tr, v )uw

1-
------ ( λ lo – λ tr, h )uv λ tr, h u2 + λ lo v2 + λ tr, v w2 ( λ lo – λ tr, v )vw
u
( λ lo – λ tr, v )uw ( λ lo – λ tr, v )vw λ tr, v u 2 + λ tr, v v 2 + λ lo w 2

The former formulation corresponds to the general formulation when

λtr, h = λtr, v.

Porous Medium

The Thermal Dispersion node is only available with some COMSOL

products. For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each
product, visit https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

542 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Thermal Dispersion

Ribbon
Physics tab with Porous Medium selected in the model tree:

Attributes>Thermal Dispersion

Thermoelastic Damping
This subnode should be used to model heat generation due to changes in stress, which
may be important in small structures vibrating at high frequencies.

THERMOELASTIC DAMPING
The Thermoelastic damping Qted should be specified either as a User defined value, or as
the thermoelastic damping contribution straight from the solid mechanics interfaces,
when you add a Thermal Expansion subnode (with the Structural Mechanics Module).
In the latter case it is defined by

∂S
Q ted = – αT: -------
∂t

where S is the second Piola-Kirchhoff tensor and α is the coefficient of thermal

expansion.

• Solid
• Thermal Expansion (for Materials) in the Structural Mechanics
Module User’s Guide

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids>Solid>Thermoelastic Damping

More locations are available. For example:

Heat Transfer in Fluids>Solid>Thermoelastic Damping

Ribbon
Physics tab with Solid selected in the model tree:

DOMAIN FEATURES | 543

 Attributes>Thermoelastic Damping

Thickness
Use this node with 2D components to model domains with another thickness than the
overall thickness that is specified in the Heat Transfer interface Physical Model section.
In 2D geometries, the temperature is assumed to be constant in the out-of-plane
direction (z direction with default spatial coordinate names). The heat equation is
modified to take that into account. See Equation 4-168 and Equation 4-169.

THICKNESS
Specify a value for the Thickness dzof the domain in the out-of-plane direction. This
value replaces the overall thickness in the domains that are selected in the Domain
Selection section, and is used to multiply some terms into the heat equation.

The Thickness feature is disabled when at least one of the multiphysics

couplings (Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation, Heat
Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media, Heat Transfer with
Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media) is active while solving on the same
domain. This is noticed through a warning node displayed under Compile
Equations. The radiation interfaces assume an infinite medium in the
out-of-plane direction, they are thus not compatible with these features.

Out-of-Plane Heat Transfer

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids>Thickness
Heat Transfer in Solids>Thickness
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Thickness
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Thickness
Heat Transfer in Building Materials>Thickness
Bioheat Transfer>Thickness

544 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Ribbon
Physics tab with interface as Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids, Heat Transfer in Solids,
Heat Transfer in Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials
or Bioheat Transfer selected:

Domains>interface>Thickness

Translational Motion
This subnode provides movement by translation to the model for heat transfer in
solids. It adds the following contribution to the right-hand side of Equation 6-15,
defined in the parent node:

– ρ C p u trans ⋅ ∇T

The contribution describes the effect of a moving coordinate system, which is required
to model, for example, a moving heat source.

Special care must be taken on boundaries where n ⋅ utrans ≠ 0. The Heat

Flux boundary condition does not, for example, work on boundaries
where n ⋅ utrans < 0.

DOMAIN SELECTION
By default, the selection is the same as for the Solid node that it is attached to, but it is
possible to use more than one Translational Motion subnode, each covering a subset of
the Solid node’s selection.

TRANSLATIONAL MOTION
The x, y, and z (in 3D) components of the Velocity field utrans should be specified in
this section.

Solid

DOMAIN FEATURES | 545

 Heat Generation in a Disc Brake: Application Library path
Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Contact_and_Friction/brake_disc

Friction Stir Welding of an Aluminum Plate: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Contact_and_Friction/friction_stir_welding

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids>Solid>Translational Motion
Bioheat Transfer>Biological Tissue>Translational Motion

More locations are available. For example:

Heat Transfer in Fluids>Solid>Translational Motion

Ribbon
Physics tab with Solid or Biological Tissue selected in the model tree:

Attributes>Translational Motion

Viscous Dissipation
This subnode should be used to take into account the heat source coming from the
transformation of kinetic energy into internal energy due to viscous stresses. Such
effect is expected in fluid regions with large velocity gradients or with high turbulence
levels.

VISCOUS DISSIPATION
The Qvd input should be specified either as a User defined value, or as the viscous
dissipation term contribution straight from the fluid flow interfaces.

For laminar flows, it is defined by

Q vd = τ: ∇u

546 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

where τ is the viscous tensor.

When the Nonisothermal Flow multiphysics coupling node is added, the

effect of viscous dissipation can be taken into account by selecting the
Include viscous dissipation check box under the Flow Heating section. In this
case, the Viscous Dissipation feature is overridden by the multiphysics
coupling node’s contribution.

• Fluid
• Porous Medium
• Phase Change Material

This feature was previously called Viscous Heating.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Fluid>Viscous Dissipation
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Porous Medium>Viscous Dissipation
Heat Transfer in Moist Air>Moist Air>Viscous Dissipation
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Fluid>Viscous Dissipation

Ribbon
Physics tab with Fluid, Moist Air, Porous Medium, or Porous Medium>Fluid selected in the
model tree:

Attributes>Viscous Dissipation

DOMAIN FEATURES | 547

 Bo unda r y Fe a t u res
The following boundary nodes and subnodes are available for the Heat Transfer and
Heat Transfer in Shells interfaces:

• Boundary Heat Source • Local Thermal Nonequilibrium

• Deposited Beam Power Boundary

• External Temperature (Thin Layer, • Lumped System Connector

Thin Film, Fracture) • Open Boundary
• Fracture (Heat Transfer Interface) • Outflow
and Porous Medium (Heat Transfer • Periodic Condition (Heat Transfer
in Shells Interface) Interface)
• Harmonic Perturbation • Phase Change Interface
• Heat Flux • Phase Change Interface, Exterior
• Heat Source (Heat Transfer in Shells • Surface-to-Ambient Radiation
Interface) (Heat Transfer Interface)
• Heat Source (Thin Layer, Thin Film, • Symmetry (Heat Transfer Interface)
Fracture)
• Temperature
• Inflow
• Thermal Contact
• Initial Values (Thin Layer, Thin
• Thermal Insulation
Film, Fracture, and Heat Transfer in
Shells Interface) • Thin Film (Heat Transfer Interface)
and Fluid (Heat Transfer in Shells
• Isothermal Domain Interface
Interface)
• Line Heat Source on Axis
• Thin Layer (Heat Transfer Interface)
and Solid (Heat Transfer in Shells
Interface)

For axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial

symmetry boundaries into account and automatically adds an Axial
Symmetry node that is valid on the axial symmetry boundaries only.

548 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

The following boundary nodes and subnodes are available for the Surface-to-Surface
Radiation, Radiation in Participating Media, Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering
Media, and Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media interfaces:

• Continuity on Interior Boundary • Opaque Surface (Surface-to-Surface

(Radiation in Participating Media Radiation Interface)
and Radiation in • Opaque Surface (Radiation in
Absorbing-Scattering Media Participating Media and Radiation in
Interfaces) Absorbing-Scattering Media
• Continuity (Radiation in Interfaces)
Participating Media and Radiation in • Opaque Surface (Radiative Beam in
Absorbing-Scattering Media Absorbing Medium Interface)
Interfaces)
• Periodic Condition (Radiation in
• Continuity on Interior Boundary Participating Media and Radiation in
(Radiation in Participating Media Absorbing-Scattering Media
and Radiation in Interfaces)
Absorbing-Scattering Media
• Prescribed Radiosity
Interfaces)
(Surface-to-Surface Radiation
• Diffuse Mirror (Surface-to-Surface Interface)
Radiation Interface)
• Radiation Group
• Diffuse Surface (Surface-to-Surface (Surface-to-Surface Radiation
Radiation Interface) Interface)
• Incident Intensity (Radiation in • Semitransparent Surface (Radiation
Participating Media and Radiation in in Participating Media and Radiation
Absorbing-Scattering Media in Absorbing-Scattering Media
Interfaces) Interfaces)
• Incident Intensity (Radiative Beam • Semitransparent Surface
in Absorbing Medium Interface) (Surface-to-Surface Radiation
• Initial Values (Surface-to-Surface Interface)
Radiation Interface) • Symmetry (Radiation in
• Layer Opacity (Surface-to-Surface Participating Media and Radiation in
Radiation Interface) Absorbing-Scattering Media
Interfaces)
• Transparent Surface (Radiative
Beam in Absorbing Medium
Interface)

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 549

 For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit
https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

Boundary Heat Source

This node models a heat source (or heat sink) that is embedded in the boundary. When
selected as a Boundary Heat Source, it also prescribes that the temperature field is
continuous across the pair. Note that in this case the source term is applied on the
source side.

PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to apply this condition to.
A pair must to be created first. See Identity and Contact Pairs in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual for more details.

MATERIAL TYPE
Select an option in the Material type list to specify if the inputs of the Boundary Heat
Source section are defined in the material or spatial frame:

• The default option for the Boundary Heat Source node is Solid, which specifies that
the heat source Qb is defined in the material frame. Because the heat transfer
variables and equations are defined in the spatial frame, the inputs are internally
converted to the spatial frame. See Conversion Between Material and Spatial Frames
for details.
• The Nonsolid option defines Qb in the spatial frame. No frame conversion is needed.
• The From material option uses the option selected in the Material type list of the
Material Properties section of the material applied on the domain on which the node
is active.

This option has no effect when the component does not contain a moving
frame because the material and spatial frames are identical in such cases.
With a Deformed Geometry or a Moving Mesh interface, the heat
transfer features automatically take into account deformation effects of
the material and spatial frames on heat transfer properties. In particular
the effects of volume changes on the density are considered. See
Handling Frames in Heat Transfer and Material and Spatial Frames for
details.

550 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

BOUNDARY HEAT SOURCE
Select an option from the Heat Source list:

• For General source (default) enter a value for the boundary heat source Qb when the
default option, User defined, is selected.
A positive Qb corresponds to heating and a negative Qb corresponds to cooling. For
the general boundary heat source Qb, there are predefined heat sources available
when simulating heat transfer together with electrical or electromagnetic interfaces.
Such sources represent, for example, ohmic heating and induction heating.
• For Heat rate enter the heat rate Pb. In this case Qb = Pb ⁄ A, where A is the total
area of the selected boundaries.

SOURCE POSITION
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options.

Select a Source position to define a side where the heat source is defined: Layer (default),
Upside, or Downside. This setting has no effect unless the temperature differs from one
side of the boundary to the other. Typically when Boundary Heat Source contributes
with a Thin Layer feature.

To define the boundary heat source Qb as a function of the temperature,

use the local temperature variable on the selected boundary,
ht.bhs1.Tvar, that corresponds to the appropriate variable (upside,
downside, or average temperature of a layer, wall temperature with
turbulence modeling), depending on the model configurations. See
Boundary Wall Temperature for a thorough description of the boundary
temperature variables.

You can specify the source to be a harmonic perturbation in a frequency

domain analysis. To mark the source as being a harmonic perturbation,
right-click the node and choose Harmonic Perturbation. Note that this
updates the node’s icon. See Theory for Harmonic Heat Transfer for
more details.

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 551

 Upside and downside settings can be visualized by plotting the global
normal vector (nx, ny, nz), that always points from downside to upside.
Note that the normal vector (ht.nx, ht.ny, ht.nz) may be oriented
differently.

See Tangent and Normal Variables in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual.

• Handling Frames in Heat Transfer

• About the Heat Transfer Interfaces

Evaporative Cooling of Water: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Phase_Change/evaporative_cooling

When Line Heat Flux is applied on a pair, the flux is only applied on the
edge adjacent to the source boundary which is in contact with the
destination boundary. Consider adding another pair with opposite source
and destination boundaries to apply a flux on the edge adjacent to the
destination boundary and in contact with the source boundary.

See Identity and Contact Pairs in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual for more details.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids>Heat Sources>Boundary Heat Source
Heat Transfer in Solids>Pairs>Boundary Heat Source
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Fluid>Heat Sources>Boundary Heat Source
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Porous Matrix>Heat Sources>Boundary
Heat Source

Ribbon
Physics tab with interface as Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids, or any version of the
Heat Transfer interface selected:

Boundaries>interface>Boundary Heat Source

Pairs>interface>Boundary Heat Source

552 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Physics tab with Porous Medium>Fluid or Porous Medium>Porous Matrix selected in the
model tree:

Attributes>Boundary Heat Source

Continuity
This node can be added to pairs, or as a subnode of the Fluid and Porous Matrix
subnodes under Porous Medium. It prescribes that the temperature field is continuous
across the boundary. When applied to pairs, Continuity is only suitable for pairs where
the boundaries match. When added as a subnode of the Fluid and Porous Matrix
subnodes under Porous Medium, it ensures the continuity of the temperature and flux
between the specific phase (fluid or solid) and the medium on the other side of the
boundary (fluid, solid, building material, biological tissue,...). If a thin structure model
(Thin Layer (Heat Transfer Interface) and Solid (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface),
Thin Film (Heat Transfer Interface) and Fluid (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface), or
Fracture (Heat Transfer Interface) and Porous Medium (Heat Transfer in Shells
Interface)) is defined on the boundary, the Continuity node may be applied as well.

PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to apply this condition to.
A pair must to be created first. See Identity and Contact Pairs in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual for more details.

Thermo-Mechanical Analysis of a Surface-Mounted Resistor:

Application Library path Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Stress/
surface_resistor

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids>Pairs>Continuity
Heat Transfer in Shells>Pairs>Continuity
Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Pairs>Continuity
Radiation in Participating Media>Pairs>Continuity
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Fluid>Continuity
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Porous Matrix>Continuity

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 553

 Ribbon
Physics tab with interface as Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids or any version of the Heat
Transfer interface, Heat Transfer in Shells, Radiation in Participating Media or
Surface-to-Surface Radiation selected:

Pairs>interface>Continuity

Continuity (Radiation in Participating Media and Radiation in

Absorbing-Scattering Media Interfaces)
This node can be added to pairs. When the Radiation discretization method is Discrete
ordinates method, it prescribes that the radiative intensity field I is continuous across
the pair. When the Radiation discretization method is P1 approximation, it prescribes that
the incident radiation field G is continuous across the pair. Continuity is only suitable
for pairs where the boundaries match.

PAIR SELECTION
Choose the pair to apply this condition to. A pair must to be created first. See Identity
and Contact Pairs in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for more details.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Radiation in Participating Media>Pairs>Continuity
Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media>Continuity

Ribbon
Physics tab with interface as Radiation in Participating Media or Radiation in
Absorbing-Scattering Media selected:

Pairs>interface>Continuity

Continuity on Interior Boundary (Radiation in Participating

Media and Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media Interfaces)
When Discrete ordinates method is selected, this node enables intensity conservation
across interior boundaries. It is the default boundary condition for all interior

554 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

boundaries. For P1 approximation, this boundary condition is not available since it is
not needed.

Radiative Heat Transfer in a Utility Boiler: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Radiation/boiler

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Radiation in Participating Media>Continuity on Interior Boundary
Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media>Continuity on Interior Boundary

Ribbon
Physics tab with Radiation in Participating Media or Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering
Media selected:

Boundaries>Continuity on Interior Boundary

Deposited Beam Power

This node models heat sources brought by narrow beams, such as laser or electron
beams, to a given boundary.

BEAM ORIENTATION
Enter a value for the Beam orientation e. This vector does not need to be normalized.
In 2D axisymmetric components, it is aligned with the z-axis.

BEAM PROFILE
Either select an option for the Beam profile among the Built-in beam profiles, or set the
it as User defined by entering a value for the Beam power density, I0 (SI unit: W/m2).
The Beam power density corresponds to the beam intensity in the beam cross section.

For Built-in beam profiles, enter a value for the Deposited beam power P0 and the
coordinates of the Beam origin point O.

Then, select a Distribution type: Gaussian (default) or Top-hat disk.

• For Gaussian, enter the Standard deviation σ.

• For Top-hat disk, enter the Beam radius R. Smoothing can be applied by entering a
positive Size of transition zone ΔR. The default value of 0 m corresponds to an ideal
discontinuous top-hat profile.

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 555

 SOURCE POSITION
To display this section click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options.

Select a Source position to define a side where the heat source is defined: Layer (default),
Upside, or Downside. This setting has no effect unless the temperature differs from one
side of the boundary to the other.

The standard deviation of the Gaussian distribution and the radius of the
top-hat distribution can take values smaller than the mesh element size.
For more accurate results, it is important to refine the mesh enough at the
deposited heat source location. Otherwise, an automatic substitution
replaces the standard deviation σ or the beam radius R by the minimum
length to get acceptable results which depends on the mesh element size.

Upside and downside settings can be visualized by plotting the global

normal vector (nx, ny, nz), that always points from downside to upside.
Note that the normal vector (ht.nx, ht.ny, ht.nz) may be oriented
differently.

See Tangent and Normal Variables in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids>Heat Sources>Deposited Beam Power
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Fluid>Heat Sources>Deposited Beam
Power
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Porous Matrix>Heat Sources>Deposited
Beam Power

Ribbon
Physics tab with interface as Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids, or any version of the
Heat Transfer interface selected:

Boundaries>interface>Deposited Beam Power

Physics tab with Porous Medium>Fluid or Porous Medium>Porous Matrix selected in the
model tree:

556 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Attributes>Deposited Beam Power

Diffuse Mirror (Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface)

This node is a variant of the Diffuse Surface (Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface)
node with a surface emissivity equal to zero. Diffuse mirror surfaces are common as
approximations of a surface that is well insulated on one side and for which convection
effects can be neglected on the opposite (radiating) side. It resembles a mirror that
absorbs all irradiation and then radiates it back in all directions. The node adds
radiosity shape function for each spectral band to its selection and uses it as surface
radiosity.

The radiative heat flux on a diffuse mirror boundary is zero.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

Temperature
This section is available when temperature-dependent material properties are used.
The default Temperature is User defined. When additional physics interfaces are added
to the model, the temperature variables defined by these physics interfaces can also be
selected from the list. The Common model input option corresponds to the minput.T
variable, set to 293.15 K by default) and all temperature variables from the physics
interfaces included in the model. To edit the minput.T variable, click the Go to Source
button ( ), and in the Default Model Inputs node under Global Definitions, set a value
for the Temperature in the Expression for remaining selection section.

RADIATION DIRECTION
These settings are the same as for the Diffuse Surface (Surface-to-Surface Radiation
Interface) node.

AMBIENT
These settings are the same as for the Diffuse Surface (Surface-to-Surface Radiation
Interface) node.

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 557

 LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Diffuse Mirror

Ribbon
Physics tab with Surface-to-Surface Radiation selected:

Boundaries>Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Diffuse Mirror

Diffuse Surface (Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface)

Diffuse surfaces reflect radiative intensity uniformly in all directions. This node handles
radiation with a view factor calculation. It is assumed that no radiation is transmitted
through the surface. The feature adds one radiosity shape function per spectral interval
to its selection and uses it as surface radiosity.

It adds a radiative heat source contribution

–n ⋅ q = ε ( G – eb ( T ) )

on the side of the boundary where the radiation is defined, where ε is the surface
emissivity, G is the irradiation, and eb(T) is the blackbody hemispherical total emissive
power. Where the radiation is defined on both sides, the radiative heat source is defined
on both sides too.

If specular reflection should be considered, use the Opaque Surface

(Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface) node instead.

If specular reflection and transmission should be considered, use the Semitransparent

Surface (Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface) node instead.

If no emission should be considered, use the Diffuse Mirror (Surface-to-Surface

Radiation Interface) node instead.

MODEL INPUT
This section has fields and values that are inputs to expressions that define material
properties. If such user-defined property groups have been added, the model inputs
are included here.

There is one standard model input: the Temperature T is used in the expression of the
blackbody radiation intensity and when multiple wavelength intervals are used, for the
fractional emissive power. The temperature model input is also used to determine the

558 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

variable that receives the radiative heat source. When the model input does not contain
a dependent variable, the radiative heat source is ignored.

The default Temperature is User defined. When additional physics interfaces are added
to the model, the temperature variables defined by these physics interfaces can also be
selected from the list. The Common model input option corresponds to the minput.T
variable, set to 293.15 K by default) and all temperature variables from the physics
interfaces included in the model. To edit the minput.T variable, click the Go to Source
button ( ), and in the Default Model Inputs node under Global Definitions, set a value
for the Temperature in the Expression for remaining selection section.

RADIATION DIRECTION
When Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is set to Constant in the Radiation
Settings section of the physics interface, select an Emitted radiation direction based on
the geometric normal (nx, ny, nz): Opacity controlled (default), Negative normal
direction, Positive normal direction, Both sides, or None.

• Opacity controlled requires that each boundary is adjacent to exactly one opaque
domain. Opacity is controlled by the Opacity (Surface-to-Surface Radiation
Interface) domain feature. For external boundaries, the exterior side opacity is
transparent by default but may be edited by setting the Selection of the Opacity
feature on All voids in the Opacity feature. Figure 6-1 illustrates the emitted radiation
direction depending on the opacity of the adjacent domain.

Radiation on one side Radiation on one side Transparent

Opaque

No radiation No radiation

Figure 6-1: Emitted radiation direction with the option Opacity controlled.

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 559

 • Select Negative normal direction to specify that the surface radiates in the negative
normal direction (un vector direction). An arrow indicates the negative normal
direction that corresponds to the direction of the radiation emitted by the surface.
Figure 6-2 illustrates the emitted radiation direction depending on the chosen
option.
• Select Positive normal direction if the surface radiates in the positive normal direction
(dn vector direction). An arrow indicates the positive normal direction that
corresponds to the direction of the radiation emitted by the surface. Figure 6-2
illustrates the emitted radiation direction depending on the chosen option.
• Select Both sides if the surface radiates on both sides. Figure 6-2 illustrates the
emitted radiation direction depending on the chosen option.
• Select None when adjacent domains are either both transparent or both opaque for
a given spectral band. When the Emitted radiation direction is set to None for a
spectral band, the radiative properties set for this spectral band are not used

n n

Positive normal direction Negative normal direction

n n

Both sides None

Figure 6-2: Emitted radiation direction with Positive normal direction, Negative normal
direction and Both sides options.

When Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is set to Solar and ambient or

Multiple spectral bands in the Radiation Settings section of the physics interface, select
an Emitted radiation direction for each spectral band: Opacity controlled (default),
Negative normal direction, Positive normal direction, Both sides, or None. The Emitted
radiation direction defines the radiation direction for each spectral band similarly as
when Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is Constant. Defining a radiation

560 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

direction for each spectral band makes it possible to build models where the
transparency or opacity properties defers between spectral bands.

This is useful for example to represent glass opaque to radiation outside

of the [0.3–2.5 µm] wavelength range.

Note that when Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is set to

Solar and ambient or Multiple spectral bands, the upper bound of the last
spectral band, meant to represent the infinite, is set to 1[mm], for the
computation of the surface material properties.

AMBIENT
Select the Define ambient properties on each side check box when the ambient
properties differs between the sides of a boundary. This is needed to define ambient
temperature for a surface that radiates on both sides and that is exposed to a hot
temperature on one side (for example, fire) and to a cold temperature on the other side
(for example, external temperature). By default, Define ambient properties on each side
is not selected.

Ambient Temperature
The ambient temperature Tamb should be set for the computation of eb(Tamb), the
ambient blackbody hemispherical total emissive power, used for the evaluation of the
ambient irradiation Gamb=Fambεambeb(Tamb).

Set the Ambient temperature Tamb. For User defined, enter a value or expression. Else,
select an Ambient temperature defined in an Ambient Properties node under Definitions.
When Define ambient properties on each side is selected, define the Ambient
temperature, upside Tamb, u and Ambient temperature, downside Tamb, d, respectively.
The geometric normal points from the downside to the upside.

Set Tamb to the far-away temperature in directions where no other

boundaries obstruct the view. Inside a closed cavity, the ambient view
factor, Famb, is theoretically zero and the value of Tamb therefore should
not matter. It is, however, good practice to set Tamb to T or to a typical
temperature value for the cavity surfaces in such cases because that
minimizes errors introduced by the finite resolution of the view factor
evaluation.

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 561

 Ambient Emissivity
The ambient emissivity εamb should be set for the computation of the ambient
irradiation Gamb=Fambεambeb(Tamb).

The Ambient emissivity εamb should be specified. When Blackbody is selected, the
ambient emissivity is set to 1 for the computation of the ambient irradiation Gamb.

If Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is Constant, choose alternatively the

User defined option, and set a value or expression. You can define a
temperature-dependent emissivity using the variable rad.T.

If Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is Solar and ambient or Multiple spectral

bands, the ambient irradiation Gamb,i of each spectral band i is calculated:

• When Ambient emissivity is set to User defined, enter a value or expression for the
Ambient emissivity εamb. The wavelength may be accessed through the rad.lambda
variable. Any expression set for the emissivity is then averaged on each spectral band
to obtain a piecewise constant emissivity, with values εamb,i. If the average value of
the emissivity on each band εamb,i is known, you may use instead the User defined
for each band option to avoid the evaluation of the average.
• When Ambient emissivity is set to User defined for each band, enter a value for the
Ambient emissivity εamb,i for each spectral band. Within a spectral band, each value
is assumed to be independent of wavelength.
When Define ambient properties on each side is selected, define the Ambient emissivity,
upside εamb, u and Ambient emissivity, downside εamb, d, respectively. The geometric
normal points from the downside to the upside.

Diffuse Irradiance
When the Include diffuse irradiance check box is selected, a diffuse irradiation
contribution Idiff is included into the external irradiation. When considering solar
irradiation, it takes into account the irradiation from the sun, scattered by the
atmosphere, and assumed to be isotropic.

• When Diffuse irradiance is set to User defined, enter a value or expression for the
diffuse irradiance.
• When Diffuse irradiance is set to User defined for each band, enter a value or
expression for the diffuse irradiance for each spectral band.
• Select a Clear sky noon diffuse horizontal irradiance defined in an Ambient Properties
node under Definitions to define the diffuse irradiance from ambient properties.

562 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

To consider only the direct irradiation defined in the External Radiation Source
feature, clear the Include diffuse irradiance check box.

FRACTIONAL EMISSIVE POWER

This section is available when the Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is
defined as Solar and ambient or Multiple spectral bands for the physics interface (see
Radiation Settings).

When the Fractional emissive power is Blackbody/Graybody, the fractional emissive

power is automatically calculated for each spectral band as a function of the band
endpoints and surface temperature.

When the Fractional emissive power is User defined for each band, define the Fractional
emissive power, FEPi for each spectral band. All fractional emissive powers are
expected to be in [0,1] and their sum is expected to be equal to 1. Select the Define
fractional emissive power on each side check box to set specific Upside and Downwside
values in the table.

SURFACE EMISSIVITY

In diffuse gray and diffuse spectral radiation models, the surface emissivity
and the absorptivity must be equal. For this reason it is equivalent to
define the surface emissivity or the absorptivity.

If Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is Constant:

• By default, the Emissivity ε (dimensionless) uses values From material. This is a

property of the material surface that depends both on the material itself and the
structure of the surface. Make sure that a material is defined at the boundary level
(by default materials are defined at the domain level).
• For User defined, set a value or expression. You can define a temperature-dependent
emissivity using the variable rad.T.
Select the Define properties on each side check box to set specific values for the radiative
properties on each side. Select the Boundary material, upside and Boundary material,
downside to have different material properties on each side. The boundary material
specified is used only when Emissivity, upside or Emissivity, downside are From material.

If Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is Solar and ambient or Multiple spectral

bands:

• By default, the Emissivity ε (dimensionless) uses values From material.

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 563

 • When Emissivity is set to User defined, enter a value or expression for the Emissivity
ε. The wavelength may be accessed through the rad.lambda variable. Any
expression set for the emissivity is then averaged on each spectral band to obtain a
piecewise constant emissivity. If the average value of the emissivity on each band is
known, you may use instead the User defined for each band option to avoid the
evaluation of the average.
• When Emissivity is set to User defined for each band, enter a value for the Emissivity
for each spectral band. Within a spectral band, each value is assumed to be
independent of wavelength. By default, the same emissivity is defined on both sides.
Select the Define properties on each side check box and fill the Upside and Downside
columns of the table for a specific definition on each side.

Set the surface emissivity to a number between 0 and 1, where 0 represents diffuse
mirror and 1 is appropriate for a perfect blackbody. The proper value for a physical
material lies somewhere in between and can be found from tables or measurements.

In the notation used here, Bi stands for B1, B2,... up to the maximum
number of spectral intervals.

To define temperature dependencies for the user inputs (surface

emissivity for example), use the temperature variable ht.T, that
corresponds to the appropriate variable (upside, downside, or average
temperature of a layer, wall temperature with turbulence modeling),
depending on the model configurations. See Boundary Wall Temperature
for a thorough description of the boundary temperature variables.

Several settings for this node depend on the Wavelength dependence of

radiative properties setting, which is defined for the physics interface.

In addition, the Transparent media refractive index is equal to 1 by default.

See Radiation Settings.

Theory for Surface-to-Surface Radiation

564 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

 Upside and downside settings can be visualized by plotting the global
normal vector (nx, ny, nz), that always points from downside to upside.
Note that the normal vector (ht.nx, ht.ny, ht.nz) may be oriented
differently.

See Tangent and Normal Variables in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual.

Heat Generation in a Disc Brake: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Contact_and_Friction/brake_disc

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Diffuse Surface

Ribbon
Physics tab with Surface-to-Surface Radiation selected:

Boundaries>Diffuse Surface

External Temperature (Thin Layer, Thin Film, Fracture)

Use this subnode to specify the temperature on the exterior side of a thin layer, a thin
film, or a fracture, when Layer type is set to Thermally thick approximation or General,
on exterior boundaries.

TEMPERATURE
For User defined, enter a value or expression for the Temperature T0. Else, select an
Ambient temperature defined in an Ambient Properties node under Definitions.

The equation for this condition is T = T0 where T0 is the external temperature to be

prescribed.

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 565

 CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options.

You can specify a harmonic variation of the temperature value in a

frequency domain analysis of perturbation type, by adding a Harmonic
Perturbation subnode. See Theory for Harmonic Heat Transfer for more
details.

• Thin Layer (Heat Transfer Interface) and Solid (Heat Transfer in Shells
Interface)
• Thin Film (Heat Transfer Interface) and Fluid (Heat Transfer in Shells
Interface)
• Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids>Thin Layer>External Temperature
Heat Transfer in Solids>Thin Film>External Temperature
Heat Transfer in Solids>Fracture>External Temperature

More locations are available. For example:

Heat Transfer in Fluids>Thin Layer>External Temperature

Ribbon
Physics tab with Thin Layer, Thin Film, or Fracture selected in the model tree:

Attributes>External Temperature

Fracture (Heat Transfer Interface) and Porous Medium (Heat

Transfer in Shells Interface)
Use this node to allow heat transfer in fractures on layered materials inside domains. It
can also be used to allow heat transfer in films.

566 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

BOUNDARY SELECTION
When the Porous Medium node is added manually in the Heat Transfer in Fractures
interface, and for the Fracture node, select the Restrict to layered boundaries check box
to make the node applicable only if a layered material is defined on the boundary. If a
layered material (Material with Layer thickness specified, Single Layer Material, Layered
Material Link, or Layered Material Stack) is available, its name is then displayed beside
the boundary index (for example, slmat1), otherwise the boundary is marked as not
applicable.

When Porous Medium is the default node of the Heat Transfer in Fractures interface, it
is applied on all boundaries where the Heat Transfer in Fractures interface is applied,
and neither the boundary selection nor the Restrict to layered boundaries check box are
editable.

Note that when the Shell type is Nonlayered shell in the Shells Properties section of the
parent interface or node, the Restrict to layered boundaries check box is not editable.

SHELL PROPERTIES

Porous Medium (Heat Transfer in Fractures Interface)

Different settings are available, depending on the settings in the Shell Properties
section of the parent interface, and whether Porous Medium is the default node or was
added manually:

• When the Shell type is Layered shell in the Shells Properties section of the parent
interface, the same layered material is used in the Porous Medium node, but you can
limit the contribution to individually selected layers by clearing the Use all layers
check box. For a given Layered Material Link or Layered Material Stack, you get access
to a list of check boxes for the selection of the individual layers. In this case, both
the General and Thermally thin approximation options are available in the Layer Model
section.
• When the Shell type is Nonlayered shell in the Shells Properties section of the parent
interface, the Thickness is taken From physics interface in the Porous Medium node.
This option is not editable when Porous Medium is the default node, but you can
change to User defined and override the interface setting with a specific value or
expression for Lth when the node was added manually. In this case, only the
Thermally thin approximation option is available in the Layer Model section.

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 567

 Fracture (Heat Transfer Interface)
Two options are available for the Shell type:

• When the Shell type is Layered shell, the Extra Dimension tool is used to solve the
equations through the thickness of a layered material. It is possible to consider
several layers with different thermal properties varying through the thickness. This
makes the General and Thermally thin approximation options available for Layer type
in the Layer Model section. You can limit the contribution to individually selected
layers by clearing the Use all layers check box. For a given Layered Material Link or
Layered Material Stack, you get access to a list of check boxes for the selection of the
individual layers.
• Alternatively, set Shell type to Nonlayered shell, and set a user defined value or
expression for the Thickness Lth. This option should be used for thermally thin
layers, for which no through-thickness temperature variation is expected in the
layered material. This removes the General option from the Layer type list in the
Layer Model section.
You can visualize the selected layered materials and layers in each layered material by
clicking the Layer Cross Section Preview and Layer 3D Preview buttons.

• For a general description of layer and interface selections, see Layer and
Interface Selection Tools.
• You can provide material parameters with a through-thickness variation
by using expressions containing the extra dimension coordinate as
described in Using the Extra Dimension Coordinates.

The desired selection for the node may correspond to boundaries with
different layered materials.

See Layered Material, Layered Material Link, Layered Material Stack,

Layered Material Link (Subnode), and Single-Layer Materials in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

568 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Volume Reference Temperature
This section is available when a temperature-dependent density defined in a material is
used. On the material frame, the density is evaluated in relation to a reference
temperature in order to ensure conservation of the mass in the presence of temperature
variations. By default the Common model input is used. This corresponds to the variable
minput.Tempref, which is set to 293.15 K by default. To edit it, click the Go to Source
button ( ), and in the Default Model Inputs node under Global Definitions, set a value
for the Volume reference temperature in the Expression for remaining selection section.

The other options are User defined and all temperature variables from the physics
interfaces included in the model.

This model input does not override the Reference temperature Tref set in
the Physical Model section of the physics interface, which is used to
evaluate the reference enthalpy, and a reference density for incompressible
nonisothermal flows.

Temperature
This section is available when material properties are temperature-dependent. By
default, the temperature of the parent interface is used and the section is not editable.
To edit the Temperature field, click Make All Model Inputs Editable ( ). The available
options are User defined (default), Common model input (the minput.T variable, set to
293.15 K by default) and all temperature variables from the physics interfaces included
in the model. To edit the minput.T variable, click the Go to Source button ( ), and
in the Default Model Inputs node under Global Definitions, set a value for the Temperature
in the Expression for remaining selection section.

Absolute Pressure
Absolute pressure is used in certain predefined quantities that include enthalpy (the
energy flux, for example).

It is also used if the ideal gas law is applied. See Thermodynamics, Fluid.

The default Absolute pressure pA is User defined. When additional physics interfaces are
added to the model, the absolute pressure variables defined by these physics interfaces
can also be selected from the list. For example, if a Laminar Flow interface is added you
can select Absolute pressure (spf) from the list. The Common model input option
corresponds to the minput.pA variable, set to 1 atm by default. To edit it, click the Go
to Source button ( ), and in the Default Model Inputs node under Global Definitions,
set a value for the Pressure in the Expression for remaining selection section.

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 569

 LAYER MODEL
The available options for Layer type are Thermally thin approximation and General. The
former is a lumped model that accounts only for tangential temperature gradients
(along the fracture), whereas the latter accounts also for the normal gradients of
temperature (through the fracture’s thickness).

Within a layered material selection, a single Layer type should be used. If

two layer types are needed for the same layered material, the original
material should be duplicated so that one layered material is defined for
each layer type. A Shell Continuity (Heat Transfer Interface) and
Continuity (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface) node may be added
between the two layered materials.

FLUID MATERIAL
By default, the Boundary material is used.

HEAT CONDUCTION, FLUID

The settings are the same as for Thin Film (Heat Transfer Interface) and Fluid (Heat
Transfer in Shells Interface).

HEAT CONDUCTION, FLUID

The settings are the same as for Thin Film (Heat Transfer Interface) and Fluid (Heat
Transfer in Shells Interface).

THERMODYNAMICS, FLUID
The settings are the same as for Thin Film (Heat Transfer Interface) and Fluid (Heat
Transfer in Shells Interface).

POROUS MATERIAL
By default, the Boundary material is used. The Volume fraction θp should be specified.
The default is 0.

HEAT CONDUCTION, POROUS MATRIX

The default Thermal conductivity kp is taken From layered material. For User defined
select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full based on the characteristics of the thermal
conductivity, and enter another value or expression. Select an Effective conductivity:
Plane layers parallel to heat flow (default) or Power law.

570 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

THERMODYNAMICS, POROUS MATRIX
The default Density ρp and Specific heat capacity Cp, p are taken From layered material.
See Material Density in Features Defined in the Material Frame if a
temperature-dependent density should be set. For User defined enter other values or
expressions.

In the Porous Medium node, only in-plane anisotropy is supported for the
thermal conductivity of the fracture material.

Fracture in Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Thin Structures>Fracture
Heat Transfer in Fractures>Porous Medium

Ribbon
Physics tab with interface as Heat Transfer in Porous Media selected:

Boundaries>Fracture

Physics tab with interface as Heat Transfer in Shells, Heat Transfer in Films or Heat
Transfer in Fractures selected:

Boundaries>Porous Medium

Harmonic Perturbation
Use this subnode to specify the harmonic variation of a prescribed temperature value.
It is used only in a study step of type Frequency-Domain Perturbation.

Enter a value or expression for the Temperature perturbation ΔT0 to be added to the
equilibrium temperature T0 defined in the parent node.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids>Temperature>Harmonic Perturbation

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 571

 More locations are available. For example:

Heat Transfer in Solids>Thin Rod>Temperature>Harmonic Perturbation

Heat Transfer in Solids>Thin Layer>Temperature>Harmonic Perturbation
Heat Transfer in Solids>Thin Film>Temperature>Harmonic Perturbation
Heat Transfer in Solids>Fracture>Temperature>Harmonic Perturbation
Heat Transfer in Solids>Thin Layer>External Temperature>Harmonic Perturbation
Heat Transfer in Shells>Temperature>Harmonic Perturbation

Ribbon
Physics tab with Temperature or External Temperature selected in the model tree:

Attributes>Harmonic Perturbation

Heat Flux
Use this node to add heat flux across boundaries. A positive heat flux adds heat to the
domain. This feature is not applicable to inlet boundaries, use the Inflow condition
instead.

MATERIAL TYPE
Select an option in the Material type list to specify if the inputs of the Heat Flux section
are defined in the material or spatial frame:

• The Solid option specifies that the heat flux q0 is defined in the material frame.
Because the heat transfer variables and equations are defined in the spatial frame, the
inputs are internally converted to the spatial frame. See Conversion Between
Material and Spatial Frames for details.

572 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

• The default option for the Heat Flux node is Nonsolid, which defines q0 in the spatial
frame. No frame conversion is needed.
• The From material option uses the option selected in the Material type list of the
Material Properties section of the material applied on the domain on which the node
is active.

This option has no effect when the component does not contain a moving
frame because the material and spatial frames are identical in such cases.
With a Deformed Geometry or a Moving Mesh interface, the heat
transfer features automatically take into account deformation effects of
the material and spatial frames on heat transfer properties. In particular
the effects of volume changes on the density are considered. See
Handling Frames in Heat Transfer and Material and Spatial Frames for
details.

HEAT FLUX
Select the Flux type from the list: General inward heat flux (default), Convective heat flux,
Heat rate, or Nucleate boiling heat flux.

General Inward Heat Flux

It adds q0 to the total flux across the selected boundaries. Enter a value for q0 to
represent a heat flux that enters the domain. For example, any electric heater is well
represented by this condition, and its geometry can be omitted.

Convective Heat Flux

The default option is to enter a User defined value for the Heat transfer coefficient h.

In addition, the following options are also available to control the type of convective
heat flux to model: External natural convection, Internal natural convection, External
forced convection, or Internal forced convection.

For all options except User defined, select a Fluid: Air (default), Transformer oil, Water,
Moist air, or From material.

When From material is selected, choose a material available on the boundary from the
Materials list.

Depending of the selected option, different parameters are needed. You can refer to
the Sketch section to get an illustration of the configuration.

External Natural Convection

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 573

 For External natural convection select Vertical wall, Inclined wall, Horizontal plate, upside,
Horizontal plate, downside, Long horizontal cylinder, Sphere, or Vertical Thin Cylinder
from the list under Heat transfer coefficient. Then enter the applicable information:

• Wall height L.
• Wall height L and the Tilt angle φ . The tilt angle is the angle between the wall and
the vertical direction, φ = 0 for vertical walls.
• Characteristic length (area/perimeter) L. The characteristic length is the ratio
between the surface area and its perimeter.
• Cylinder diameter D.
• Sphere diameter D.
• Cylinder height H.

Internal Natural Convection

For Internal natural convection select Narrow chimney, parallel plates or Narrow chimney,
circular tube from the list under Heat transfer coefficient. Then enter the applicable
information:

• Plate distance L and a Chimney height H.

• Tube diameter D and a Chimney height H.

External Forced Convection

For External forced convection select Plate, averaged transfer coefficient, Plate, local
transfer coefficient, Cylinder in cross flow, or Sphere from the list under Heat transfer
coefficient. Then enter the applicable information:

• Plate length L and Velocity, fluid U.

• Position along the plate xpl and Velocity, fluid U.
• Cylinder Diameter D and Velocity, fluid U.
• Sphere Diameter D and Velocity, fluid U.

Internal Forced Convection

For Internal forced convection the only option is Isothermal tube. Enter a Tube diameter
D and a Velocity, fluid U.

If Velocity, fluid U is User defined, enter a value or expression. Else, select a Wind velocity
defined in the Consistent Stabilization section of a Heat Transfer or Heat Transfer in
Shells interface.

574 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

External conditions

First, set the Absolute pressure, pA. For User Defined, enter a value or expression. Else,
select an Ambient absolute pressure defined in an Ambient Properties node under
Definitions. The pressure is used to evaluate the Fluid material properties and this setting
is not available for the Transformer oil and Water options.

In addition, enter an External temperature, Text. For User defined, enter a value or
expression. Else, select an Ambient temperature defined in an Ambient Properties node
under Definitions.

Finally, when the Fluid is Moist air, also set the External relative humidity, φ w, ext , and
the Surface relative humidity, φ w, s , used to evaluate the material properties.

Heat Rate
For Heat rate enter the heat rate P0 across the boundaries where the Heat Flux node is
active. In this case q0 = P0 ⁄ A, where A is the total area of the selected boundaries.

Nucleate Boiling Heat Flux

This option computes q0 with the Rohsenow’s correlation, that evaluates the heat flux
due to nucleate boiling on a surface immersed in a liquid pool. See Nucleate Pool
Boiling Correlation for details about the correlation.

The correlation applies to clean surfaces, and is insensitive to the shape and orientation
of the surface. It relies on empirical constants Csf and s that are predefined for several
combinations of fluid and surface materials, and on the boiling fluid properties at
saturation temperature, also predefined for some fluids.

Select an option in the Fluid list:

• When Water, Benzene, n-Pentane, or Ethanol is selected, the material properties of the
liquid and vapor phases required in the correlation are predefined (at saturation
temperature and pA=1 atm). Depending on the selected fluid, different materials
and finishings are available in the Surface list. For each option, the empirical
constants Csf and s are predefined.
• When From material is selected in the Fluid list, first choose materials available on the
boundary from the Liquid materials and Vapor materials lists, to define ρl, Cp,l, kl,
μl, and ρv. Then set the Ambient pressure, pA, the Saturation temperature, Tsat, the
Latent heat of evaporation, Lv, and the Liquid-vapor surface tension, σ. Finally, enter
values or expressions for the Rohsenow’s correlation parameters: the Prandtl number
exponent, s, and the Liquid-surface combination factor, Csf, which accounts for

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 575

 surface roughness, that tends to increase the number of active nucleation sites for
boiling.

• The detailed definition of the predefined heat transfer coefficients for

convective heat transfer is given in Convective Heat Transfer
Correlations.
• For a thorough introduction about how to calculate heat transfer
coefficients, see Incropera and DeWitt in Ref. 21.

• Handling Frames in Heat Transfer

• About the Heat Transfer Interfaces

• Power Transistor: Application Library path Heat_Transfer_Module/

Power_Electronics_and_Electronic_Cooling/power_transistor
• Free Convection in a Water Glass: Application Library path
Heat_Transfer_Module/Tutorials,_Forced_and_Natural_Convection/
cold_water_glass

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids>Heat Flux
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Fluid>Heat Flux
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Porous Matrix>Heat Flux

Ribbon
Physics tab with interface as Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids, or any version of the
Heat Transfer interface selected:

Boundaries>interface>Heat Flux

Physics tab with Porous Medium>Fluid or Porous Medium>Porous Matrix selected in the
model tree:

Attributes>Heat Flux

576 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Heat Source (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface)
This node describes heat generation within the shell through a dsQ contribution to the
right-hand side of Equation 4-72. If it is applied on a pair, note that the source term
is applied on the source side.

Express heating and cooling with positive and negative values, respectively. Add one or
more nodes as needed; all heat sources within a boundary contribute to the total heat
source. Specify the heat source as the heat per volume in the domain, as a linear heat
source, or as a heat rate.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
Select the boundaries on which to apply the heat source. The Restrict to layered
boundaries check box makes the node applicable only if a layered material is defined on
the boundary. It is editable when the Shell type is Layered shell in the Shells Properties
section of the parent interface.

SHELL PROPERTIES
Different settings are available, depending on the settings in the Shell Properties
section of the parent interface:

• When the Shell type is Layered shell in the Shells Properties section of the parent
interface, the same layered material is used in the Heat Source node, but you can limit
the contribution to individually selected layers by clearing the Use all layers check
box. For a given Layered Material Link or Layered Material Stack, you get access to a
list of check boxes for the selection of the individual layers.
• When the Shell type is Nonlayered shell in the Shells Properties section of the parent
interface, the Thickness is taken From physics interface in the Heat Source node. You
can change to User defined and override the interface setting with a specific value or
expression for Lth.
You can visualize the selected layered materials and layers in each layered material by
clicking the Layer Cross Section Preview and Layer 3D Preview buttons.

• For a general description of layer and interface selections, see Layer and
Interface Selection Tools.
• You can provide material parameters with a through-thickness variation
by using expressions containing the extra dimension coordinate as
described in Using the Extra Dimension Coordinates.

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 577

 The desired selection for the node may correspond to boundaries with
different layered materials.

See Layered Material, Layered Material Link, Layered Material Stack,

Layered Material Link (Subnode), and Single-Layer Materials in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

MATERIAL TYPE
These settings are the same as for the Heat Source node available for the other
interfaces.

HEAT SOURCE
These settings are the same as for the Heat Source node available for the other
interfaces.

In 2D components the heat source is multiplied by dz to take into

account the out-of-plane thickness.

You can specify the source to be a harmonic perturbation in a frequency

domain analysis. To mark the source as being a harmonic perturbation,
right-click the node and choose Harmonic Perturbation. Note that this
updates the node’s icon. See Theory for Harmonic Heat Transfer for
more details.

• Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

• Handling Frames in Heat Transfer

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Shells>Heat Source
Heat Transfer in Films>Heat Source
Heat Transfer in Fractures>Heat Source

Ribbon
Physics tab with Heat Transfer in Shells selected:

578 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Boundaries>Heat Transfer in Shells>Heat Source

Heat Source (Thin Layer, Thin Film, Fracture)

Use this subnode to add an internal heat source Qs within a thin layer, thin film, or
fracture. Add one or more heat sources.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
By default, the Heat Source node is applied on all boundaries where the parent node is
applied. See Boundary Selection for details on how to change this setting.

SHELL PROPERTIES
Different settings are available, depending on the settings in the Shell Properties
section of the parent node:

• When the Shell type is Layered shell in the Shells Properties section of the parent
node, the Shell type is Layered shell as well in the Heat Source node. This option is
not editable, but you can limit the contribution to individually selected layers by
clearing the Use all layers check box. For a given Layered Material Link, Layered
Material Stack, or Single Layer Material, you get access to a list of check boxes for the
selection of the individual layers.
• When the Shell type to Nonlayered shell in the Shells Properties section of the parent
node, the Shell type is taken From parent feature in the Heat Source node. You can
change to Nonlayered shell and override the parent node setting with a specific value
or expression for the Thickness Lth.
You can visualize the selected layered materials and layers in each layered material by
clicking the Layer Cross Section Preview and Layer 3D Preview buttons.

• For a general description of layer and interface selections, see Layer and
Interface Selection Tools.
• You can provide material parameters with a through-thickness variation
by using expressions containing the extra dimension coordinate as
described in Using the Extra Dimension Coordinates.

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 579

 The desired selection for the node may correspond to boundaries with
different layered materials.

See Layered Material, Layered Material Link, Layered Material Stack,

Layered Material Link (Subnode), and Single-Layer Materials in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

MATERIAL TYPE
Select an option in the Material type list to specify if the inputs of the Heat Source
section are defined in the material or spatial frame:

• The default option for the Heat Source node is Solid when added under Thin Layer
and Fracture, which specifies that the heat source Qs is defined in the material frame.
Because the heat transfer variables and equations are defined in the spatial frame, the
inputs are internally converted to the spatial frame. See Conversion Between
Material and Spatial Frames for details.
• The Nonsolid option defines Qs in the spatial frame. No frame conversion is needed.
• The From material option uses the option selected in the Material type list of the
Material Properties section of the material applied on the domain on which the node
is active.

This option has no effect when the component does not contain a moving
frame because the material and spatial frames are identical in such cases.
With a Deformed Geometry or a Moving Mesh interface, the heat
transfer features automatically take into account deformation effects of
the material and spatial frames on heat transfer properties. In particular
the effects of volume changes on the density are considered. See
Handling Frames in Heat Transfer and Material and Spatial Frames for
details.

580 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

HEAT SOURCE
Select the General source (default) or Heat rate button to define Qs.

• For General source enter a value or expression for Qs as a heat source per volume.
• For Heat rate define the heat rate Ps. In this case Qs = Ps ⁄ V where V equal to the
volume of the layer selection.

You can specify the source to be a harmonic perturbation in a frequency

domain analysis. To mark the source as being a harmonic perturbation,
right-click the node and choose Harmonic Perturbation. Note that this
updates the node’s icon. See Theory for Harmonic Heat Transfer for
more details.

• Thin Layer (Heat Transfer Interface) and Solid (Heat Transfer in Shells
Interface)
• Thin Film (Heat Transfer Interface) and Fluid (Heat Transfer in Shells
Interface)
• Fracture (Heat Transfer Interface) and Porous Medium (Heat Transfer
in Shells Interface)
• Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids>Thin Layer>Heat Source
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Thin Film>Heat Source
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Fracture>Heat Source

More locations are available. For example:

Heat Transfer in Fluids>Thin Layer>Heat Source

Ribbon
Physics tab with Thin Layer selected in the model tree:

Attributes>Heat Source

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 581

 Incident Intensity (Radiation in Participating Media and
Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media Interfaces)
Use this node to specify the radiative intensity along incident directions on a boundary.
This intensity is a power per unit solid angle and unit surface area projected onto the
plane normal to the radiation direction. It may be specified for each spectral band.

PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to apply this condition to.
A pair must to be created first. See Identity and Contact Pairs in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual for more details.

INCIDENT INTENSITY
When Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is Constant, the External radiation
intensity Ii should be specified. This represents the value of radiative intensity along
incoming discrete directions. Values of radiative intensity on outgoing discrete
directions are not prescribed.

If External radiation intensity is User defined, set a value or expression for Iext.

Alternatively, choose Blackbody radiation or Graybody radiation to define Ii as Ib(Text)

or εIb(Text), respectively (available with the Radiation in Participating Media interface
only). Set the External temperature Text (SI unit: K, default value 293.15K) to specify
the temperature at which the blackbody radiation intensity Ib is evaluated.
Alternatively, select an Ambient temperature defined in an Ambient Properties node
under Definitions. For Graybody radiation, the Emissivity ε and External Temperature
Text should be defined. If the Emissivity is defined From material, make sure that a
material is defined at the boundary level (materials are defined by default at the domain
level). If User defined is selected for the Emissivity, enter another value for ε. If the Define
properties on each side check box is selected, define the Emissivity, upside εu and the
Emissivity, downside εd. Select the Boundary material, upside and Boundary material,
downside to have different material properties on each side. The boundary material
specified is used only when Emissivity, upside or Emissivity, downside are From material.

If Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is Solar and ambient or Multiple spectral

bands, the External radiation intensity Ii,k for each spectral band should be specified.
Select an option between Graybody radiation, Blackbody radiation, User defined for each
band, or User defined distribution.

If External radiation intensity is Blackbody radiation or Graybody radiation (available with

the Radiation in Participating Media interface only), Ii,k is defined from the blackbody

582 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

intensity Ib(Text), the fractional emissive power for each spectral band at external
temperature FEPk(Text), the emissivity εk and the External temperature Text (SI unit:
K, default value 293.15K). For Graybody radiation, the Emissivity εk and External
Temperature Text should be defined from a user expression or by selecting an Ambient
temperature defined in an Ambient Properties node under Definitions. For User defined
for each band, set a value for each spectral band in the table displayed underneath.
Within a spectral band, each value is assumed to be independent of wavelength. If the
Define properties on each side check box is selected, define the Emissivity, upside εu and
the Emissivity, downside εd. Select the Boundary material, upside and Boundary material,
downside to have different material properties on each side. The boundary material
specified is used only when Emissivity, upside or Emissivity, downside are From material.

If External radiation intensity is User defined for each band, set a value or expression for
Iext,k for each spectral band in the table displayed underneath. If the Define incident
intensity on each side check box is selected, set values in the Upside and Downside
columns.

If External radiation intensity is User defined distribution, set a value or expression for
Iλ,ext. Any expression is then averaged on each spectral band to obtain a piecewise
constant radiation intensity. If the average value of the radiation intensity on each band
is known, you may use instead the User defined for each band option to avoid the
evaluation of the average. If the Define incident intensity on each side check box is
selected, set values for Iλ,ext,u and Iλ,ext,d.

When Discrete ordinates method is selected, the components of each

discrete ordinate vector can be used in this expression. The syntax is
name.sx, name.sy, and name.sz, where name is the physics interface
node name. By default, the Radiation in Participating Media interface is
rpm so rpm.sx, rpm.sy, and rpm.sz correspond to the components of
discrete ordinate vectors.

• Participating Medium (Radiation in Participating Media Interface)

• Absorbing-Scattering Medium (Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering
Media Interface)
• Theory for Radiation in Participating Media

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 583

 LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Radiation in Participating Media>Incident Intensity
Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media>Incident Intensity
Radiation in Participating Media>Pairs>Incident Intensity
Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media>Pairs>Incident Intensity

Ribbon
Physics tab with Radiation in Participating Media or Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering
Media selected:

Boundaries>Incident Intensity
Pairs>Incident Intensity

Incident Intensity (Radiative Beam in Absorbing Medium Interface)

Use this node to specify an incident radiative beam on the boundaries of an absorbing
medium. The incident beam is defined from its propagation direction and incident
intensity. See Absorbing Medium (Radiative Beam in Absorbing Medium Interface)
for the modeling of the beam absorption in the medium.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
Select the boundaries on which to apply the incident beam. The radiative intensity
corresponding to the incident beam will be defined on any selected boundary such that
the dot product between the beam orientation and the outgoing normal vector from
the physics interface selection is negative.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

BEAM ORIENTATION
Enter values for the Beam orientation e. The orientation vector does not need to be
normalized.

584 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

BEAM PROFILE
Either select an option for the Beam profile among the Built-in beam profiles, or set the
it as User defined by entering a value for the Beam power density, I0 (SI unit: W/m2).
The Beam power density corresponds to the beam intensity in the beam cross section.

For Built-in beam profiles, enter a value for the Deposited beam power P0 and the
coordinates of the Beam origin point O.

Then, select a Distribution type: Gaussian (default) or Top-hat disk.

• For Gaussian, enter the Standard deviation σ.

• For Top-hat disk, enter the Beam radius R. Smoothing can be applied by entering a
positive Size of transition zone ΔR. The default value of 0 m corresponds to an ideal
discontinuous top-hat profile.

This feature does not take into account shielding effect between multiple
absorbing media. In addition, a radiative beam leaving an absorbing
medium will not generate an incident beam in an absorbing medium
placed behind the first one.

The standard deviation of the Gaussian distribution and the radius of the
top-hat distribution can take values smaller than the mesh element size.
For more accurate results, it is important to refine the mesh enough at the
heat source location. Otherwise, an automatic substitution replaces the
standard deviation σ or the radius R by the minimum length to get
acceptable results which depends on the mesh element size.

Upside and downside settings can be visualized by plotting the global

normal vector (nx, ny, nz), that always points from downside to upside.
Note that the normal vector (ht.nx, ht.ny, ht.nz) may be oriented
differently.

See Tangent and Normal Variables in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual.

Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media Theory

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 585

 LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media>Incident Intensity

Ribbon
Physics tab with Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media selected:

Boundaries>Incident Intensity

Inflow
Use this node to model inflow of heat through a virtual domain, at inlet boundaries of
non-solid domains. The upstream temperature Tustr and upstream absolute pressure
pustr are known at the outer boundary of the virtual domain. The inflow condition is
often similar to a temperature condition. However using this condition the upstream
temperature is not strictly enforced at the inlet. The higher the flow rate, the smallest
difference between the inlet temperature and upstream temperature. In case of heat
sources or temperature constraints close to the inlet boundary, the inflow condition
induces a temperature profile that approaches to the temperature profile that would be
obtained by computing the solution in the virtual domain upstream the inlet.

This boundary condition estimates the heat flux through the inlet boundary from a
Danckwerts condition on the enthalpy:

– n ⋅ q = ρΔHu ⋅ n (6-16)

where ΔH is the sensible enthalpy. See Theory for the Inflow Boundary Condition for
the definition of ΔH and more details on the Danckwerts condition.

UPSTREAM PROPERTIES
The Upstream temperature Tustr should be specified. For User Defined, enter a value or
expression. Else, select any available input (like Ambient temperature defined in an
Ambient Properties node under Definitions).

Select the Specify upstream absolute pressure check-box to set a different value than the
absolute inlet pressure for the Upstream absolute pressure pustr, and take into account
work done by pressure forces in the expression of the enthalpy. For User Defined, enter
a value or expression. Else, select an Ambient absolute pressure defined in an Ambient
Properties node under Definitions.

586 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids>Flow Conditions>Inflow
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Fluid>Flow Conditions>Inflow
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Porous Matrix>Flow Conditions>Inflow

Ribbon
Physics tab with interface as Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids, or any version of the
Heat Transfer interface selected:

Boundaries>interface >Inflow

Physics tab with Porous Medium>Fluid selected in the model tree:

Attributes>Inflow

Initial Values (Thin Layer, Thin Film, Fracture, and Heat Transfer
in Shells Interface)
This node adds an initial value for the temperature that can serve as an initial condition
for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear solver. If more than one
set of initial values is needed, add an Initial Values node from the Physics toolbar.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
When the Initial Values node is added manually in the Heat Transfer in Shells interface
or under the Thin Layer, Thin Film, or Fracture node, select the Restrict to layered
boundaries check box to make the node applicable only if a layered material is defined
on the boundary. If a layered material (Material with Layer thickness specified, Single
Layer Material, Layered Material Link, or Layered Material Stack) is available, its name is
then displayed beside the boundary index (for example, slmat1), otherwise the
boundary is marked as not applicable.

When Initial Values is the default node of the Heat Transfer in Shells interface, or the
default subnode of the Thin Layer, Thin Film, or Fracture node, it is applied on all the
boundaries where the parent node is applied, and neither the boundary selection nor
the Restrict to layered boundaries check box are editable.

Note that when the Shell type is Nonlayered shell in the Shells Properties section of the
parent interface or node, the Restrict to layered boundaries check box is not editable.

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 587

 SHELL PROPERTIES
Different settings are available, depending on the settings in the Shell Properties
section of the parent interface or node, and whether Initial Values is the default node
or was added manually:

• When the Shell type is Layered shell in the Shells Properties section of the parent
interface or node, the same layered material is used in the Initial Values node, but
you can limit the contribution to individually selected layers by clearing the Use all
layers check box, when this is not the default Initial Values node. For a given Layered
Material Link or Layered Material Stack, you get access to a list of check boxes for the
selection of the individual layers.
• When the Shell type is Nonlayered shell in the Shells Properties section of the parent
interface or node, the Thickness is taken From physics interface or From parent feature
in the Initial Values node. This option is not editable when Initial Values is the default
node or subnode, but you can change to User defined and override the parent setting
with a specific value or expression for Lth when the node was added manually.

You can visualize the selected layered materials and layers in each layered material by
clicking the Layer Cross Section Preview and Layer 3D Preview buttons.

• For a general description of layer and interface selections, see Layer and
Interface Selection Tools.
• You can provide material parameters with a through-thickness variation
by using expressions containing the extra dimension coordinate as
described in Using the Extra Dimension Coordinates.

The desired selection for the node may correspond to boundaries with
different layered materials.

See Layered Material, Layered Material Link, Layered Material Stack,

Layered Material Link (Subnode), and Single-Layer Materials in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

INITIAL VALUES
For User defined, enter a value or expression for the initial value of the Temperature T.
The default is approximately room temperature, 293.15 K (20º C). Else, select an
Ambient temperature defined in an Ambient Properties node under Definitions.

588 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

When Initial Values is added as a subnode of Thin Layer, Thin Film, or Fracture node with
Layer type set as Thermally thick approximation, it is applicable only on exterior
boundaries and defines the initial temperature on the outer side of the thin structure.
Note that the initial temperature of the inner side of the thin structure is always defined
from the initial condition of the adjacent domains.

When Initial Values is added as a subnode of Thin Layer, Thin Film, or Fracture node with
Layer type set as Thermally thick approximation or General, an additional option, From
adjacent domains, is available. When it is selected, the initial temperature of the layer is
uniform through the thickness and is equal to the average value of initial temperature
in the adjacent domains. Note that this option is not available when the Initial Values
feature is added in the Heat Transfer in Shells interface.

Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

Disk-Stack Heat Sink: Application Library path Heat_Transfer_Module/

Thermal_Contact_and_Friction/disk_stack_heat_sink

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids>Thin Layer>Initial Values
Heat Transfer in Solids>Thin Film>Initial Values
Heat Transfer in Solids>Fracture>Initial Values
Heat Transfer in Shells>Initial Values
Heat Transfer in Films>Initial Values
Heat Transfer in Fractures>Initial Values

Ribbon
Physics tab with Thin Layer selected in the model tree:

Attributes>Initial Values

Physics tab with Heat Transfer in Shells selected:

Boundaries>Heat Transfer in Shells>Initial Values

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 589

 Initial Values (Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface)
This node adds an initial value for the surface radiosity.

INITIAL VALUES
Depending on the Wavelength dependence of radiative properties set in the Radiation
Settings section of the interface, further settings display underneath.

If the Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is Constant, set the Initial value to
Blackbody/Graybody or User defined:

• When Initial value is set to User defined, enter a value or expression for the Initial
surface radiosity J. Select the Define initial surface radiosity on each side check box to
set specific values for the Initial surface radiosity, upside Ju and Initial surface
radiosity, downside Jd.
• When Radiative intensity is set to Blackbody/Graybody, enter a value for the Initial
temperature Tinit.

If Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is Solar and ambient or Multiple spectral

bands, set the Initial value to Blackbody/Graybody, User defined for each band, or User
defined:

• When Initial value is set to User defined, enter a value or expression for the Initial
surface radiosity distribution Jλ. The wavelength may be accessed through the
rad.lambda variable. This distribution is integrated on each spectral band to obtain
the source heat rate Ji for each spectral band.
• When Initial value is set to Blackbody/Graybody, enter a value for the Initial
temperature Tinit. For User defined, enter a value or expression for the initial value
of the Initial temperature Tinit. Else, select an Ambient temperature defined in an
Ambient Properties node under Definitions.
• When Initial value is set to User defined for each band, enter a value for the Initial
surface radiosity Ji for each spectral band. Within a spectral band, each value is
assumed to be independent of wavelength. By default, the same radiosity is defined
on both sides. Select the Define initial surface radiosity on each side check box and fill
the Upside and Downside columns of the table for a specific definition on each side.

Theory for Surface-to-Surface Radiation

590 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Initial Values

Ribbon
Physics tab with Surface-to-Surface Radiation selected:

Boundaries>Initial Values

Isothermal Domain Interface

This node adds several conditions for temperature exchange at the interfaces of an
isothermal domain. It can be applied on interior and exterior boundaries of the
computational domain, except on the boundaries found inside a single isothermal
domain.

In addition to the default Isothermal domain Interface node always present when the
Isothermal domain check box is selected under Physical Model section, you can add more
Isothermal domain Interface nodes if needed.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

Temperature
This section is available when material properties are temperature-dependent. By
default, the temperature of the parent interface is used and the section is not editable.
To edit the Temperature field, click Make All Model Inputs Editable ( ). The available
options are User defined (default), Common model input (the minput.T variable, set to
293.15 K by default) and all temperature variables from the physics interfaces included
in the model. To edit the minput.T variable, click the Go to Source button ( ), and
in the Default Model Inputs node under Global Definitions, set a value for the Temperature
in the Expression for remaining selection section.

PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to apply this condition to.
A pair must to be created first. See Identity and Contact Pairs in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual for more details.

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 591

 ISOTHERMAL DOMAIN INTERFACE
The available Interface type options are Thermal insulation (default), Continuity,
Ventilation, Convective heat flux, and Thermal contact. Depending on the Interface type
selected from the list, further settings are required.

The description of all the available options is summarized in the following table:
TABLE 6-5: ISOTHERMAL DOMAIN INTERFACE OPTIONS

OPTION ISOTHERMAL DOMAIN ADJACENT DOMAIN DESCRIPTION

Thermal Insulation Any Any No flux

Continuity Any Any Temperature
continuity
Ventilation Fluid Fluid Mass flux
Convective Heat Flux Solid Fluid Heat flux
(convective)
Thermal Contact Solid Solid Heat flux
(conductive)

Thermal Insulation
This condition should be used if no heat exchange occurs between the isothermal
domain and the adjacent domain.

Continuity
With this condition, the temperatures of each side of the boundary are forced to be
equal.

Ventilation
This condition specifies the mass flux at the interface between an isothermal domain
and another domain containing the same fluid.

The available Flow direction options are Positive normal direction (default), Negative
normal direction, and Both sides. For each option, either the Mass flux or the Mass flow
rate should be specified:

• ϕ d → u is the mass flux in the positive direction and ϕ u → d is the mass flux in the
negative direction.
• Φd → u is the mass flow rate in the positive direction and Φu → d is the mass flow rate
in the negative direction.
The External temperature found under the section of the same name must be set when
the isothermal domain interface is also an exterior boundary.

592 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Convective Heat Flux
This condition specifies the convective heat flux at the interface of a solid isothermal
domain adjacent to a fluid.

Either the Heat transfer coefficient h or the Thermal conductance hth should be
specified.

When the Heat transfer coefficient h option is selected, the default option is to enter a
User defined value for the Heat transfer coefficient h.

In addition, the following options are also available to control the type of convective
heat flux to model: External natural convection, Internal natural convection, External
forced convection, or Internal forced convection. A complete description of these options
can be found in Heat Flux, Convective Heat Flux.

The External temperature found under the section of the same name must be set when
the isothermal domain interface is also an exterior boundary.

Nucleate Boiling Heat Flux

The heat flux q0 is computed with the Rohsenow’s correlation, that evaluates the heat
flux due to nucleate boiling on a surface immersed in a liquid pool. See Nucleate Pool
Boiling Correlation for details about the correlation. Select materials from the Fluid
and Surface lists. When a predefined material (Water, Benzene, n-Pentane, or Ethanol) is
used for the fluid, no additional parameters are required, because the liquid and vapor
properties are predefined (at saturation temperature) and the Rohsenow’s correlation
parameters Csf and s are available for different surface materials. Else, see Nucleate
Boiling Heat Flux (Heat Flux feature) for details about the settings.

Thermal Contact
This condition specifies the conductive heat flux at the interface of a solid isothermal
domain adjacent to a solid.

Either specify the Surface thermal resistance, Rt,s (SI unit: K·m2/W), or set the Thermal
resistance, Rt (SI unit: K/W) and evaluate Rt,s from it:

R t, s = R t A

where A (SI unit: m2) is the surface area of the boundary.

The External temperature found under the section of the same name must be set when
the isothermal domain interface is also an exterior boundary.

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 593

 EXTERNAL TEMPERATURE
This section is not available if the Interface type is set to Thermal Insulation or Continuity.
Else, the External temperature, Text should be specified. It is used to calculate the heat
exchange with the exterior by the Ventilation, Convective heat flux, and Thermal contact
options on isothermal domain interfaces that are also exterior boundaries. The value is
ignored on interior boundaries.

For User defined, enter a value or expression for the Temperature Text. Else, select an
Ambient temperature defined in an Ambient Properties node under Definitions.

INTERFACE OPACITY
Select Opaque (default) or Transparent to set the interface’s opacity type.

This is needed when the interface contributes with any boundary condition from the
Radiation menu. It picks the side where irradiation starts from.

• Isothermal Domain
• Theory for Lumped Isothermal Domain
• The detailed definition of the predefined heat transfer coefficients is
given in Convective Heat Transfer Correlations.

• For a thorough introduction about how to calculate heat transfer

coefficients, see Incropera and DeWitt in Ref. 21.

Natural Convection Cooling of a Vacuum Flask: Application Library

path Heat_Transfer_Module/Tutorials,_Forced_and_Natural_Convection/
vacuum_flask

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
If the Isothermal domain check box is selected under the Physical Model section:

Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids>Isothermal Domain Interface

Heat Transfer in Solids>Isothermal Domain Interface
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Isothermal Domain Interface

594 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Isothermal Domain Interface
Bioheat Transfer>Isothermal Domain Interface
Heat Transfer in Solids>Pairs>Isothermal Domain Interface
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Pairs>Isothermal Domain Interface
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Pairs>Isothermal Domain Interface
Bioheat Transfer>Pairs>Isothermal Domain Interface

Ribbon
Physics tab with interface as Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids, Heat Transfer in Solids,
Heat Transfer in Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials
or Bioheat Transfer selected:

Boundaries>interface >Isothermal Domain Interface

Pairs>interface >Isothermal Domain Interface

Layer Opacity (Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface)

This subnode enables to define the opacity of a boundary. When the boundary
represents a thin layer, this subnode can be used to specify the in-depth opacity of the
layer, independently on the opacity at the surface of the layer when using the Diffuse
Mirror (Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface), Diffuse Surface (Surface-to-Surface
Radiation Interface), and Opaque Surface (Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface)
nodes.

When several spectral bands are defined, the opacity can be set for all or only a selection
of wavelengths.

OPACITY
Depending on the Wavelength dependence of radiative properties defined in the
Radiation Settings section of the physics interface settings, different sections display
underneath:

• When Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is set to Constant, select Opaque

or Transparent to set the layer’s opacity type.
• When Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is set to Solar and ambient or
Multiple spectral bands, set the opacity for each spectral band by selecting the
corresponding check box in the Opaque column of the table. By default the check
box is selected for all spectral bands.

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 595

 LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Diffuse Mirror>Layer Opacity
Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Diffuse Surface>Layer Opacity
Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Prescribed Radiosity>Layer Opacity

Ribbon
Physics tab with Surface-to-Surface Radiation selected in the model tree:

Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Diffuse Surface>Layer Opacity

Line Heat Source on Axis

This node, available for 2D axisymmetric components, models a heat source (or sink)
that is so thin that it has no thickness in the model geometry. The settings are the same
as for the Line Heat Source node.

You can specify the source to be a harmonic perturbation in a frequency

domain analysis. To mark the source as being a harmonic perturbation,
right-click the node and choose Harmonic Perturbation. Note that this
updates the node’s icon. See Theory for Harmonic Heat Transfer for
more details.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids>Line Heat Source on Axis
Heat Transfer in Solids>Line Heat Source on Axis
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Line Heat Source on Axis
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Line Heat Source on Axis
Bioheat Transfer>Line Heat Source on Axis

Ribbon
Physics tab with interface as Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids, Heat Transfer in Solids,
Heat Transfer in Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials
or Bioheat Transfer selected:

Boundaries>interface>Line Heat Source on Axis

596 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Local Thermal Nonequilibrium Boundary
This node is active by default on all the interior and exterior boundaries of the
computational domain, adjacent to domains where a Porous Medium node is applied
with Porous medium type set to Local thermal nonequilibrium. It shows which
boundaries are adjacent to domains where two temperatures, Tf and Ts, are solved.

On these boundaries, the conditions available at the physics interface level are not
applicable, because they define conditions on a single temperature, T. There are
however a few exceptions on interior boundaries:

• The thin structures conditions (Thin Layer, Thin Film, Fracture, and Thermal Contact),
which represent a thin domain as a boundary, where a single temperature, T, is
solved. They can be combined with other boundary conditions on T, available at the
physics interface level on boundaries where a thin structure condition is applied:
Boundary Heat Source, Deposited Beam Power, and Surface-to-Ambient Radiation.
• The Thermal Insulation node, which enforces thermal insulation for both the fluid
and solid phases.
• The Periodic Condition node, which applies a periodic condition for each phase.

Other boundary conditions can be applied specifically to the fluid or porous matrix
phase, by adding subnodes to the Fluid (Porous Medium) and Porous Matrix (Porous
Medium, Moist Porous Medium) subnodes.

Concerning the domain conditions, the Heat Source and Initial Values nodes, available
at the physics interface level, are not applicable in the domains delimited by the Local
Thermal Nonequilibrium Boundary condition.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids>Local Thermal Nonequilibrium Boundary
Heat Transfer in Solids>Local Thermal Nonequilibrium Boundary
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Local Thermal Nonequilibrium Boundary
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Local Thermal Nonequilibrium Boundary
Bioheat Transfer>Local Thermal Nonequilibrium Boundary

Ribbon
Physics tab with interface as Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids, Heat Transfer in Solids,
Heat Transfer in Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials
or Bioheat Transfer selected:

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 597

 Boundaries>interface>Local Thermal Nonequilibrium Boundary

Lumped System Connector

Use this node to connect the distributed finite element model to a thermal network.

The average temperature on the selected boundaries can be prescribed at a node of the
thermal network where an External Terminal feature of The Lumped Thermal System
Interface is applied.

In return, the heat rate defined at the node of the thermal network is applied on the
selected boundaries.

TERMINAL INPUTS
Select an External Terminal feature in the Source list to define which node of the thermal
network provides the heat rate Pext to be prescribed on the boundary.

When the Isothermal terminal check box is not selected (default), the average
temperature on the boundaries is constrained to the temperature at the terminal node
of the thermal network. Select this check box to apply the constraint on the
space-dependent temperature instead, which corresponds to a stronger constraint.

Lumped Composite Thermal Barrier: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Tutorials,_Thin_Structure/
lumped_composite_thermal_barrier

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids>Lumped System Connector
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Fluid>Lumped System Connector
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Porous Matrix>Lumped System Connector

Ribbon
Physics tab with interface as Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids, or any version of the
Heat Transfer interface selected:

Boundaries>interface>Lumped System Connector

Physics tab with Porous Medium>Fluid or Porous Medium>Porous Matrix selected in the
model tree:

598 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Attributes>Lumped System Connector

Opaque Surface (Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface)

This node is a variant of the Diffuse Surface (Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface)
node with specular reflectivity. It is available when the Surface-to-surface radiation
method is set to Ray shooting in the settings of the Surface-to-Surface Radiation
interface. It applies to glossy surfaces where specular radiation should be considered in
addition to diffuse radiation. The node adds to its selection a radiosity shape function
for each spectral band, and uses it as surface radiosity.

If only diffuse reflection is to be taken into account, use the Diffuse Surface
(Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface) node instead.

It is assumed that no radiation is transmitted through the surface. If radiative

transmission is also to be taken into account, use the Semitransparent Surface
(Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface) node instead.

MODEL INPUT
This section has fields and values that are inputs to expressions that define material
properties. If such user-defined property groups have been added, the model inputs
are included here.

There is one standard model input: the Temperature T is used in the expression of the
blackbody radiation intensity and when multiple wavelength intervals are used, for the
fractional emissive power. The temperature model input is also used to determine the
variable that receives the radiative heat source. When the model input does not contain
a dependent variable, the radiative heat source is ignored.

The default Temperature is User defined. When additional physics interfaces are added
to the model, the temperature variables defined by these physics interfaces can also be
selected from the list. The Common model input option corresponds to the minput.T
variable, set to 293.15 K by default) and all temperature variables from the physics
interfaces included in the model. To edit the minput.T variable, click the Go to Source
button ( ), and in the Default Model Inputs node under Global Definitions, set a value
for the Temperature in the Expression for remaining selection section.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

Select a boundary system from the Coordinate system list to define the reference vector
for the azimuthal angle. The first component of the boundary system selected is the
reference vector used for directional surface properties. The default is the boundary

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 599

 system of the model, and the list contains any additional boundary system added under
the Definitions node.

See Coordinate Systems in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for more
details.

RADIATION DIRECTION
These settings are the same as for the Diffuse Surface (Surface-to-Surface Radiation
Interface) node.

AMBIENT
These settings are the same as for the Diffuse Surface (Surface-to-Surface Radiation
Interface) node.

FRACTIONAL EMISSIVE POWER

These settings are the same as for the Diffuse Surface (Surface-to-Surface Radiation
Interface) node.

SURFACE RADIATIVE PROPERTIES

Directional Dependence
By default, the Directional dependence of the surface emissivity is set to Constant. The
Emissivity can be defined by an expression depending on other variables such as
temperature or spatial coordinates. Switch to the Polar or Polar and azimuthal options
to define the dependences on the polar and azimuthal angles, θ and ϕ , by specifying
a Directional emissivity function, f ε . When using the Polar option, select from the
Directional emissivity function list any function of one argument already defined in the
component, under the Definitions node. For the Polar and azimuthal option, select from
the functions of two arguments. By default, only the Zero function is available in the
list, defining f ε ( θ ) = 0 or f ε ( θ, ϕ ) = 0 .

The other dependencies (temperature T, spatial coordinates x) are treated separately

in the Emissivity expression, and used to define the total emissivity:

ε tot ( θ, ϕ, T, x ) = f ε ( θ, ϕ ) + ε ( T, x )

600 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Select the Define properties on each side check box to define specific directional
dependences of the surface emissivity on each side of the boundary, and set the
Directional dependence, upside and Directional dependence, downside accordingly.

The reference vector for the azimuthal angle is given by the first
component of the Coordinate system selected in the Coordinate System
Selection section.

Emissivity, Directional Emissivity Function, and Diffuse Reflectivity

If the Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is Constant:

• By default, Emissivity ε (dimensionless) and Diffuse reflectivity ρd (dimensionless) use

values From material. These are properties of the surface that depend both on the
material itself and the structure of the surface. Make sure that a material is defined
at the boundary level (by default materials are defined at the domain level).
• For User defined, set values or expressions. You can define the emissivity and
reflectivity as functions of temperature using the variable rad.T.
Select the Define properties on each side check box to define specific values for each side.
Select the Boundary material, upside and Boundary material, downside to have different
material properties on each side. The boundary material specified is used only when
Emissivity, upside, Emissivity, downside, Diffuse reflectivity, upside, and Diffuse
reflectivity, downside are From material.

If the Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is Solar and ambient or Multiple

spectral bands:

• By default, the Emissivity ε (dimensionless) and Diffuse reflectivity ρd (dimensionless)

use values From material.
• When Emissivity is User defined, enter a value or expression for Emissivity ε. The
wavelength is accessible through the rad.lambda variable. Any expression set for
the emissivity is then averaged over each spectral band to obtain a piecewise constant
emissivity. If the average value of the emissivity on each band is known, you can use
instead the User defined for each band option to avoid the evaluation of the average.
• When Diffuse reflectivity is User defined, enter a value or expression for the Diffuse
reflectivity ρd. The wavelength is accessible through the rad.lambda variable. Any
expression set for the reflectivity is then averaged on each spectral band to obtain a
piecewise constant reflectivity. If the average value of the reflectivity on each band is
known, you may use instead the User defined for each band option to avoid the
evaluation of the average.

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 601

 • When Emissivity is User defined for each band, enter a value for the Emissivity for each
spectral band. Within a spectral band, each value is assumed to be independent of
wavelength. By default, the same emissivity is set on both sides. Select the Define
properties on each side check box and fill the Upside and Downside columns of the
table for a specific definition on each side.
• When Diffuse reflectivity is User defined for each band, enter a value for the Diffuse
reflectivity for each spectral band. Within a spectral band, each value is assumed to
be independent of wavelength. By default, the same reflectivity is defined on both
sides. Select the Define properties on each side check box and fill the Upside and
Downside columns of the table for a specific definition on each side.
Set the surface emissivity to a number between 0 and 1, where 0 represents a diffuse
mirror and 1 is suitable for a perfect blackbody. The appropriate value for a physical
material is somewhere in between and can be found in tables or measurements.

Set the diffuse reflectivity of the surface to a number between 0 and 1, where 1 applies
to a perfect diffuse surface and 0 is appropriate when the reflection is only specular.

The specular surface reflectivity, ρs, is then defined as

ρs = 1 – ρd – ε

When the Emitted radiation direction is set to None for a spectral band, the information
defined for that spectral band in this section is not used.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Opaque Surface

Ribbon
Physics tab with Surface-to-Surface Radiation selected:

Boundaries>Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Opaque Surface

Opaque Surface (Radiation in Participating Media and Radiation

in Absorbing-Scattering Media Interfaces)
This node defines a boundary that is opaque to radiation. It prescribes the incident
intensities on a boundary and takes into account the net radiative heat flux, qr,net,
which is absorbed by the surface.

602 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

The net radiative heat flux is defined as the difference between the incoming and
outgoing radiative heat fluxes:

q r, net = q r, in – q r, out

The incoming and outgoing radiative heat fluxes are defined from the weighted sums
of the incident intensities.

See Opaque Surface for more details on the definition of the radiative intensities on
the boundary.

If the boundary is semitransparent, consider using the Semitransparent Surface

(Radiation in Participating Media and Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media
Interfaces) node instead.

PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to apply this condition to.
A pair must to be created first. See Identity and Contact Pairs in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual for more details.

MODELS INPUT
This section has fields and values that are inputs to expressions that define material
properties. If such user-defined materials are added, the model inputs appear here.

There is one standard model input — the Temperature T, which is used in the
expression of the blackbody radiative intensity.

The definition of the boundary temperature may be different from that of

the temperature in the adjacent domain.

FRACTIONAL EMISSIVE POWER

This section is available when the Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is
defined as Solar and ambient or Multiple spectral bands in the Radiation in Participating
Media interface (see Participating Media Settings).

When the Fractional emissive power is Blackbody/Graybody, the fractional emissive

power FEPk is automatically calculated for each spectral band as a function of the band
endpoints and temperature.

When the Fractional emissive power is User defined for each band, define the Fractional
emissive power, FEPk for each spectral band in the table displayed underneath. All

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 603

 fractional emissive powers are expected to be in [0,1] and their sum must be equal to
1. Select the Define fractional emissive power on each side check box to set specific
Upside and Downwside values in the table.

SURFACE RADIATIVE PROPERTIES

Select a Surface type to define the behavior of the surface: Gray surface or Black surface.
The definition of the incident intensities used to define the incoming and outgoing
radiative heat fluxes depends on the option selected in this list.

Gray Surface
If Gray surface is selected, the surface emissivity should be set. This is a property of the
material surface that depends both on the material itself and the structure of the
surface.

An emissivity of 0 means that the surface does not emit any radiation and that all
outgoing radiation is diffusely reflected by this boundary. An emissivity of 1 means that
the surface is a perfect blackbody: all outgoing radiation is fully absorbed on this
boundary. When the node is added in the Radiation in Participating Media interface
with the Discrete Ordinates Method, the radiative intensity along the discrete
incoming directions on this boundary is defined by

1–ε
I i = εI b ( T ) + ----------- q r, out
π

When it is added in the Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media interface with the

Discrete Ordinates Method, no emission is taken into account, and the radiative
intensity along the incoming discrete directions on this boundary is defined by

1–ε
I i = ----------- q r, out
π

The default value of the Emissivity ε is taken From material. Make sure a material is
defined at the boundary level (by default materials are defined at the domain level).

For User defined enter another value or expression. You can define a
temperature-dependent emissivity using the variable rpm.T or rasm.T.

If the Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is Solar and ambient or Multiple

spectral bands, the wavelength can be accessed by the rpm.lambda or rasm.lambda
variable. Any expression defined for the emissivity is then averaged over each spectral
band to obtain a piecewise constant emissivity. If the average value of the emissivity on

604 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

each band is known, you may use instead the option User defined for each band to avoid
the evaluation of the average.

If the Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is Solar and ambient or Multiple

spectral bands, alternatively set the Emissivity to User defined for each band to enter a
value for each spectral band in the table shown below. Within a spectral band, each
value is assumed to be independent of wavelength.

Select the Define properties on each side check box to set specific values on each side of
the boundary. The Emissivity, upside and Emissivity, downside should be set, with the
same options as those described above.

Black Surface
If Black surface is selected, no user input is required, and the radiative intensity along
the discrete incoming directions on this boundary is defined by

Ii = Ib ( T )

if the node is added in the Radiation in Participating Media interface. When the node
is added in the Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media interface,

Ii = 0

Values of radiative intensity along discrete outgoing directions are not prescribed.

When P1 approximation is selected as the Radiation discretization method

for the physics interface, there is additional theory, equations, and
variables described in P1 Approximation Theory.

• Participating Medium (Radiation in Participating Media Interface)

• Absorbing-Scattering Medium (Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering
Media Interface)
• Theory for Radiation in Participating Media

Radiative Heat Transfer in a Utility Boiler: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Radiation/boiler

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 605

 LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Radiation in Participating Media>Opaque Surface
Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media>Opaque Surface
Radiation in Participating Media>Pairs>Opaque Surface
Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media>Pairs>Opaque Surface

Ribbon
Physics tab with Radiation in Participating Media or Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering
Media selected:

Boundaries>Opaque Surface
Pairs>Opaque Surface

Opaque Surface (Radiative Beam in Absorbing Medium Interface)

Use this node to set an absorbing medium’s boundary opaque to radiation. This
condition applies to all the radiative beams defined by an active Incident Intensity
condition. If the beam propagates from the opaque surface to the absorbing medium,
the radiative intensity is set to 0. Otherwise, the radiative beam is absorbed by the
surface and deposits all its energy on it. A boundary heat source, Qb, is defined and
corresponds to the energy deposited by the entire radiative beam on the opaque
surface. See Absorbing Medium (Radiative Beam in Absorbing Medium Interface) for
modeling the absorption of the radiative beam in the medium.

Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media Theory

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media>Opaque Surface

Ribbon
Physics tab with Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media selected:

Boundaries>Opaque Surface

606 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Open Boundary
Use this condition to define a boundary as the limit between a non-solid domain of
the geometry and the rest of the same fluid domain that is not represented in the
geometry. At the open boundary both inflow and outflow conditions are supported.

For an outgoing fluid flow across the boundary, it applies a zero conductive flux
condition:

– n ⋅ q = 0, n⋅u≥0 (6-17)

For an incoming flow of velocity field u across the boundary, it accounts by default for
the heat flux induced by the flow rate through a Danckwerts condition on the
enthalpy:

– n ⋅ q = ρΔHu ⋅ n, n⋅u<0 (6-18)

where ΔH is the sensible enthalpy. See Theory for the Inflow Boundary Condition for
more details on the Danckwerts condition and the definition of ΔH.

Alternatively the open boundary condition can set a constraint on the temperature for
an incoming flow

T = T ustr, n⋅u<0 (6-19)

Both conditions are based on the knowledge of the upstream temperature at the outer
boundary of the virtual domain, but the first one should be preferred to take into
account the feedback of the model heat sources and temperature constraints on the
inlet temperature profile.

UPSTREAM PROPERTIES
Enter the Upstream temperature Tustr outside the open boundary. For User Defined,
enter a value or expression. Else, select any available input (like an Ambient temperature
defined in an Ambient Properties node under Definitions).

INFLOW CONDITION
Unfold this section to change the inflow condition:

• The Flux (Danckwerts) condition (default) prescribes the flux defined from the
upstream temperature and the fluid velocity at the boundary. Using this condition
the temperature condition is not strictly enforced at the inlet. Instead a flux is set on

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 607

 this boundary. The higher the flow rate, the smallest difference between the inlet
temperature and upstream temperature.
• The Discontinuous Galerkin constraints option enforces the upstream temperature on
the boundary.

Natural Convection Cooling of a Vacuum Flask: Application Library

path Heat_Transfer_Module/Tutorials,_Forced_and_Natural_Convection/
vacuum_flask

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids>Flow Conditions>Open Boundary
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Fluid>Flow Conditions>Open Boundary
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Porous Matrix>Flow Conditions>Open
Boundary

Ribbon
Physics tab with interface as Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids, or any version of the
Heat Transfer interface selected:

Boundaries>interface>Open Boundary

Physics tab with Porous Medium>Fluid selected in the model tree:

Attributes>Open Boundary

Outflow
This node provides a suitable boundary condition for convection-dominated heat
transfer at outlet boundaries. In a model with convective heat transfer, this condition
states that the only heat transfer occurring across the boundary is by convection. The
temperature gradient in the normal direction is zero, and there is no radiation. This is
usually a good approximation of the conditions at an outlet boundary in a heat transfer
model with fluid flow.

608 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

BOUNDARY SELECTION
The Outflow node does not require any user input. If required, select the boundaries
that are convection-dominated outlet boundaries.

Heat Sink: Application Library path Heat_Transfer_Module/

Tutorials,_Forced_and_Natural_Convection/heat_sink

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids>Flow Conditions>Outflow
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Fluid>Flow Conditions>Outflow
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Porous Matrix>Flow Conditions>Outflow

Ribbon
Physics tab with interface as Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids, or any version of the
Heat Transfer interface selected:

Boundaries>interface >Outflow

Physics tab with Porous Medium>Fluid selected in the model tree:

Attributes>Outflow

Periodic Condition (Heat Transfer Interface)

Use this node to add periodic temperature conditions to boundary pairs. The
Destination Selection subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the parent
node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

For information about the Orientation of Source section, see Orientation of Source and
Destination in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

PERIODIC CONDITION
Enter a Temperature offset ΔT to the temperature periodicity. The default value is 0 K,
so that the source and destination temperatures are equal.

Convection Cooling of Circuit Boards — 3D Forced Convection:

Application Library path Heat_Transfer_Module/
Power_Electronics_and_Electronic_Cooling/circuit_board_forced_3d

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 609

 LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids>Periodic Condition
Heat Transfer in Solids>Periodic Condition
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Periodic Condition
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Periodic Condition
Bioheat Transfer>Periodic Condition

Ribbon
Physics tab with interface as Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids, Heat Transfer in Solids,
Heat Transfer in Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials
or Bioheat Transfer selected:

Boundaries>interface>Periodic Condition

Periodic Condition (Radiation in Participating Media and

Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media Interfaces)
Use this node to add periodic conditions for the radiative intensity or incident
radiation on boundary pairs. The Destination Selection subnode is available from the
context menu (right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes
menu.

For information about the Orientation of Source section, see Orientation of Source and
Destination in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Radiation in Participating Media>Periodic Condition
Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media>Periodic Condition

Ribbon
Physics tab with Radiation in Participating Media or Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering
Media selected:

Boundaries>Periodic Condition

610 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Phase Change Interface
Use this node to define the temperature and the position of the interface between two
phases of the same material, using the Stefan condition. It is applicable on boundaries
between Fluid and Solid domains, and on interior boundaries of Fluid, Solid, and
Porous Medium domains, in 2D, 2D axisymmetric, and 3D components.

For an equivalent condition applicable on exterior boundaries, use Phase Change

Interface, Exterior instead.

The following hypotheses are made when using this node:

• One of the phases, the one that corresponds to the coldest phase, should be
immobile. The properties of this phase are denoted by subscript s, which stands for
solid, but this phase can be an immobile fluid as well. The properties of the other
phase are denoted by subscript f, which stands for fluid.
• In a porous medium, the porous matrix is not subject to phase change, which occurs
only in the fluid material. The effective density of the phase change material used in
the Stefan condition depends on the porosity. Thus, a Porous Medium node should
be active on each side of the phase change interface.
• Mass conservation should be verified. This can be ensured by using a velocity field
calculated by a Fluid Flow interface in the fluid domain. If Solid nodes are used for
both phases, they should have the same density, to ensure mass conservation on the
material frame.
• No topology changes are allowed for the interface. If some topology change is
expected, the Phase Change Material subnode should be used instead.

In stationary and time-dependent studies, the temperature is set to the phase change
temperature on the interface:

T = T pc

In addition, in time-dependent studies, the Stefan condition defines the phase change
interface velocity vn from the conductive heat flux jump across the interface, q, the
latent heat of phase change from solid to fluid, L s → f , and the solid density, ρs:

q
v n = --------------------
ρs Ls → f

with

q = – k s ∇T s + k f ∇T f

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 611

 The fluid velocity at the interface, vf, is defined as:

ρf – ρs
v f = ---------------- v n
ρf

In order to simulate the deformation of the fluid and solid domains, a Deforming
Domain node (under the Deformed Geometry branch in Definitions) should be active on
the adjacent domains on each side of the phase change interface, the velocity vn is set
on the boundaries where the Phase Change Interface node is active, in the same way as
if you apply the Prescribed Normal Mesh Velocity node. Note that for large deformations
of the interface, you may need to add an Automatic Remeshing node in the solver
sequence to preserve the mesh quality. See Prescribed Normal Mesh Velocity and
Automatic Remeshing in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for details.

PHASE CHANGE INTERFACE

This section defines the parameters used in the Stefan condition.

First, set the Phase change temperature, Tpc (SI unit: K), and the Latent heat, L s → f
(SI unit: J/kg), associated to the transition from solid to fluid phase. A positive value
should be set for the latent heat.

Then, choose which side of the phase change interface is the Solid side, either Upside,
or Downside.

The red arrow indicates the location of the solid phase, relatively to the
selected boundaries in the Graphics window. Upside and downside
settings are based on the global normal vector (nx, ny, nz), that always
points from downside to upside. Note that the normal vector (ht.nx,
ht.ny, ht.nz) may be oriented differently.

See Tangent and Normal Variables in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual.

Finally, choose the method of Heat flux jump evaluation. By default the Lagrange
multiplier option is selected and introduces a variable on the boundary, the Lagrange
multiplier, to prescribe the temperature and calculate the heat flux jump accurately.

Alternatively, select Temperature gradient to prescribe the temperature condition using

a strong constraint and evaluate the heat flux jump from the temperature field gradient
on each side of the interface.

612 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

The Temperature gradient option leads to a formulation that is easier to handle from a
numerical point of view, especially for the iterative solvers, however the accuracy of the
heat flux jump is strongly dependent on the size of the mesh next to the boundary. In
this case a very fine mesh may be needed to reach the same the of accuracy compared
to the default option with a default mesh. See Weak Constraints in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual for more details on the use of Lagrange multipliers.

MOVING BOUNDARY SMOOTHING

Numerical oscillations may appear in the interface velocity, with both methods of Heat
flux jump evaluation.

To overcome this difficulty, select the Enable moving boundary smoothing check box to
stabilize the boundary displacement. This setting smooths the normal mesh velocity
by adding the following smoothing velocity contribution, proportional to the mean
curvature of the interface, H (SI unit: 1/m), and the mesh element size, h (SI unit: m):

v mbs = δ mbs v n hH

This additional velocity is null for rectilinear interfaces but will artificially increase the
normal mesh velocity for highly curved interfaces, such as along droplets or bubbles.

Note that adding this smoothing term modifies the physical modeling, and may alter
mass conservation. Set the Moving boundary smoothing tuning parameter, δmbs, a
dimensionless number to allow a trade-off between numerical stability and precision of
the physical modeling.

See Arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian Method.

Tin Melting Front: Application Library path Heat_Transfer_Module/

Phase_Change/tin_melting_front

Continuous Casting — Arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian Method:

Application Library path Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Processing/
continuous_casting_ale

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids>Phase Change Interface

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 613

 Heat Transfer in Solids>Phase Change Interface
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Phase Change Interface
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Phase Change Interface

Ribbon
Physics tab with interface as Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids, Heat Transfer in Solids,
Heat Transfer in Fluids, or Heat Transfer in Porous Media selected:

Boundaries>interface>Phase Change Interface

Phase Change Interface, Exterior

Use this node to define the temperature and the position of the interface of a phase
change material, using the Stefan condition. It is applicable on exterior boundaries
adjacent to Fluid, Solid, and Porous Medium domains, in 2D, 2D axisymmetric, and
3D components.

For an equivalent condition on interior boundaries, use the Phase Change Interface
node instead. The settings for these two nodes are similar, except that some properties
entering in the expression of the Stefan velocity should be specified on exterior
boundaries, depending on which side of the phase change interface the solid phase is
located, outside or inside the computational domain. See the Phase Change Interface
and Heat Flux sections for details. On interior boundaries the heat flux and solid phase
properties are computed from the adjacent domains.

MATERIAL TYPE
Select an option in the Material type list to specify if the inputs of the Heat Flux section
are defined in the material or spatial frame:

• The Solid option specifies that the heat flux q0 is defined in the material frame.
Because the heat transfer variables and equations are defined in the spatial frame, the
inputs are internally converted to the spatial frame. See Conversion Between
Material and Spatial Frames for details.

614 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

• The default option for the Phase Change Interface, Exterior node is Nonsolid, which
defines q0 in the spatial frame. No frame conversion is needed.
• The From material option uses the option selected in the Material type list of the
Material Properties section of the material applied on the boundary on which the
node is active.

This option has no effect when the component does not contain a moving
frame because the material and spatial frames are identical in such cases.
With a Deformed Geometry or a Moving Mesh interface, the heat
transfer features automatically take into account deformation effects of
the material and spatial frames on heat transfer properties. In particular
the effects of volume changes on the density are considered. See
Handling Frames in Heat Transfer and Material and Spatial Frames for
details.

PHASE CHANGE INTERFACE

This section defines the parameters used in the Stefan condition.

First, set the Phase change temperature, Tpc (SI unit: K), and the Latent heat, L s → f
(SI unit: J/kg), associated to the transition from solid to fluid phase. A positive value
should be set for the latent heat.

Then, choose which side of the phase change interface is the Solid side, either Inside,
or Outside the computational domain.

When the solid phase is outside the computational domain, the Solid density, ρs (SI
unit: kg/m3), and the Solid translation velocity, us (SI unit: m/s), should be specified.

When the solid phase is inside the computational domain, the Fluid density, ρf (SI unit:
kg/m3) should be specified.

Both solid and fluid densities are used to evaluate the fluid velocity at the interface, vf,
defined as:

ρf – ρs
v f = ---------------- v n
ρf

The red arrow indicates the location of the solid phase, relatively to the
selected boundaries in the Graphics window.

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 615

 Finally, choose the method of Heat flux jump evaluation. By default the Lagrange
multiplier option is selected and introduces a variable on the boundary, the Lagrange
multiplier, to prescribe the temperature and calculate the heat flux jump accurately.

Alternatively, select Temperature gradient to prescribe the temperature condition using

a strong constraint and evaluate the heat flux jump from the temperature field gradient
at the interface.

The Temperature gradient option leads to a formulation that is easier to handle from a
numerical point of view, especially for the iterative solvers, however the accuracy of the
heat flux jump is strongly dependent on the size of the mesh next to the boundary. In
this case a very fine mesh may be needed to reach the same the of accuracy compared
to the default option with a default mesh. See Weak Constraints in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual for more details on the use of Lagrange multipliers.

MOVING BOUNDARY SMOOTHING

See Moving Boundary Smoothing in the Phase Change Interface node for details about
this section.

HEAT FLUX
Click to select the General inward heat flux (default), Convective heat flux, or Heat rate
button. Note that the Convective heat flux option is only available when the solid phase
is inside the computational domain. The settings are the same as in the Heat Flux node,
see Heat Flux for details.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids>Phase Change Interface, Exterior
Heat Transfer in Solids>Phase Change Interface, Exterior
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Phase Change Interface, Exterior
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Phase Change Interface, Exterior

Ribbon
Physics tab with interface as Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids, Heat Transfer in Solids,
Heat Transfer in Fluids, or Heat Transfer in Porous Media selected:

Boundaries>interface>Phase Change Interface, Exterior

616 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Prescribed Radiosity (Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface)
Use this node to specify radiosity on the boundary for each spectral band. Radiosity
can be defined as blackbody or graybody radiation. A user-defined surface radiosity
expression can also be defined.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

Select a boundary system from the Coordinate system list to define the reference vector
for the azimuthal angle. The first component of the boundary system selected is the
reference vector used for directional surface properties. The default is the boundary
system of the model, and the list contains any additional boundary system added under
the Definitions node.

Directional dependence of radiative properties is available when the Surface-to-surface

radiation method is set to Ray shooting in the settings of the Surface-to-Surface
Radiation interface.

See Coordinate Systems in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for more
details.

RADIATION DIRECTION
These settings are the same as for the Diffuse Surface (Surface-to-Surface Radiation
Interface) node.

RADIOSITY

Radiosity does not directly affect the boundary condition on the boundary
where it is specified, but rather defines how that boundary affects others
through radiation.

If Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is Constant, select a Radiosity expression

between Graybody radiation (default), Blackbody radiation, or User defined.

If Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is Solar and ambient or Multiple spectral

bands, select a Radiosity expression between Graybody radiation (default), Blackbody
radiation, User defined for each band, or User defined.

Blackbody Radiation
When Blackbody radiation is selected it defines the surface radiosity expression
corresponding to a blackbody. Define the External temperature Text (SI unit: K, default
value 293.15K) to specify the temperature at which the blackbody radiation intensity

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 617

 eb is evaluated. Alternatively, select an Ambient temperature defined in an Ambient
Properties node under Definitions.

• When Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is set to Constant it defines

J = eb(Text) when radiation is defined on one side or Ju = eb(Text) and Jd = eb(Text)
when radiation is defined on both sides.
• When Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is set to Solar and ambient or
Multiple spectral bands, it defines for each spectral band Ji = FEPi(Text)eb(Text)
when radiation is defined on one side or Ji, d = FEPi, d(Text)eb(Text) and
Ju = FEPi, u(Text)eb(Text) when radiation is defined on both sides.

• The blackbody hemispherical total emissive power is defined by

eb(T) = n2σT4

Graybody Radiation
When Graybody radiation is selected, it sets the surface radiosity expression
corresponding to a graybody with a temperature Text.

Directional dependence of radiative properties is available when the Surface-to-surface

radiation method is set to Ray shooting in the settings of the Surface-to-Surface
Radiation interface. By default, the Directional dependence of the surface emissivity is
set to Constant. The Emissivity can be defined by an expression depending on other
variables such as temperature or spatial coordinates. Switch to the Polar or Polar and
azimuthal options to define the dependences on the polar and azimuthal angles, θ and
ϕ , by specifying a Directional emissivity function, f ε . When using the Polar option,
select from the Directional emissivity function list any function of one argument already
defined in the component, under the Definitions node. For the Polar and azimuthal
option, select from the functions of two arguments. By default, only the Zero function
is available in the list, defining f ε ( θ ) = 0 or f ε ( θ, ϕ ) = 0 .

The other dependencies (temperature T, spatial coordinates x) are treated separately

in the Emissivity expression, and used to define the total emissivity:

ε tot ( θ, ϕ, T, x ) = f ε ( θ, ϕ ) + ε ( T, x )

618 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Select the Define properties on each side check box to define specific directional
dependences of the surface emissivity on each side of the boundary, and set the
Directional dependence, upside and Directional dependence, downside accordingly.

The reference vector for the azimuthal angle is given by the first
component of the Coordinate System selected in the Coordinate System
Selection section.

By default, the Emissivity ε is defined From material. In this case, make sure that a
material is defined at the boundary level (materials are defined by default at the domain
level). If User defined is selected for the Emissivity, enter another value for ε. For User
defined for each band option, set a value for each spectral band in the table. Within a
spectral band, each value is assumed to be independent of wavelength.

If Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is set to Constant:

• When radiation is defined on one side, define the Emissivity ε and the External
temperature Text to set J = εeb(Text), or
• When radiation is defined on both sides, define the Emissivity, upside εu, Emissivity,
downside εd and the External temperature Text. The surface radiosity on upside and
downside is then defined by Ju = εueb(Text) and Jd = εdeb(Text) respectively.
If Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is set to Solar and ambient or Multiple
spectral bands, for all spectral bands:

• When radiation is defined on one side for Bi spectral band, define the Emissivity εi
and the External temperature Text to set Ji = FEPiεieb(Text), or
• When radiation is defined on both sides for Bi spectral band, define the Emissivity,
upside εu, Emissivity, downside εd and the External temperature Text. The surface
radiosity on upside and downside is then defined by Ju = FEPBi(Text)εBi, ueb(Text)
and Jd = FEPBi(Text)εBi, deb(Text), respectively.

Set the surface emissivity to a number between 0 and 1, where 0

represents diffuse mirror and 1 is appropriate for a perfect blackbody. The
proper value for a physical material lies somewhere in between and can be
found from tables or measurements.

User Defined
If Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is set to Constant and Radiosity
expression is set to User defined, it sets the surface radiosity expression to J = J0, which

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 619

 specifies how the radiosity of a boundary is evaluated when that boundary is visible in
the calculation of the irradiation onto another boundary in the model. Enter a value
or expression for the Surface radiosity, J0.

Select the Define prescribed radiosity on each side check box to set specific values on
each side, and define the surface Radiosity expression J0, u and J0, d on the upside and
downside, respectively. The geometric normal points from the downside to the upside.

If Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is Solar and ambient or Multiple spectral

bands, similar settings are available for each spectral band.

User Defined on Each Band

The surface radiosity J0,i should be set for each spectral band by filling the table. Select
the Define prescribed radiosity on each side check box to set specific values on each side,
and set the Upside and Downside cells in the table.

Several settings for this node depend on the Wavelength dependence of

radiative properties setting, which is defined for the physics interface. See
Radiation Settings.

Upside and downside settings can be visualized by plotting the global

normal vector (nx, ny, nz), that always points from downside to upside.
Note that the normal vector (ht.nx, ht.ny, ht.nz) may be oriented
differently.

See Tangent and Normal Variables in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual.

To define temperature dependencies for the user inputs (surface

emissivity for example), use the temperature variable ht.T, that
corresponds to the appropriate variable (upside, downside, or average
temperature of a layer, wall temperature with turbulence modeling),
depending on the model configurations. See Boundary Wall Temperature
for a thorough description of the boundary temperature variables.

Theory for Surface-to-Surface Radiation

620 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Prescribed Radiosity

Ribbon
Physics tab with Surface-to-Surface Radiation selected:

Boundaries>Prescribed Radiosity

Radiation Group (Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface)

This node enables you to specify radiation groups to speed up the radiation
calculations and gather boundaries in a radiation problem that can see one another.

By default, all radiative boundaries (selected in a Diffuse Surface (Surface-to-Surface

Radiation Interface), Diffuse Mirror (Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface), or
Prescribed Radiosity (Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface) node) belong to the
same radiation group.

To change this, select the Use radiation groups check box under Radiation Settings to
add a Radiation Group to a Surface-to-Surface Radiation (rad) interface.

When a boundary is added to another radiation group, it is overridden in the default

group. Then this boundary can be added to other radiation groups without being
overridden by the manually added radiation groups.

Be careful when grouping boundaries in axisymmetric geometries. The

grouping cannot be based on which boundaries have a free view toward
each other in the 2D geometry. Instead, consider the full 3D geometry,
obtained by revolving the model geometry about the z axis, when
defining groups.

For example, parallel vertical boundaries must typically belong to the

same group in 2D axisymmetric components, but to different groups in a
planar model using the same 2D geometry.

The figure below shows four examples of possible boundary groupings. On boundaries
that have no number, the user has NOT set a node among the Diffuse Surface
(Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface), Diffuse Mirror (Surface-to-Surface
Radiation Interface), and Prescribed Radiosity (Surface-to-Surface Radiation

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 621

 Interface) nodes. These boundaries do not irradiate other boundaries, neither do other
boundaries irradiate them.

On boundaries that belong to one or more radiation group, the user has set a node
among the Diffuse Surface (Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface), Diffuse Mirror
(Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface), and Prescribed Radiosity (Surface-to-Surface
Radiation Interface) nodes. The numbers on each boundary specify different groups
to which the boundary belongs.
A B
1 1 1 2
2 123

12 1 2
3 3

C 1
D Inefficient boundary grouping
1 1
1 1
1 1
2 2

1 1
2 2 1 1

Figure 6-3: Examples of radiation group boundaries.

To obtain optimal computational performance, it is good practice to specify as many

groups as possible as opposed to specifying few but large groups. For example, case B
is more efficient than case D.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
This section should contain any boundary that is selected in a Diffuse Surface, Diffuse
Mirror, or Prescribed Radiosity node and that has a chance to see one of the boundary
that is already selected in the Radiation Group.

RADIATION GROUP
When the Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is Constant, the radiation
group is valid for all wavelengths, and all this section is then empty.

622 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

When the Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is set to Solar and ambient or
Multiple spectral bands, the radiation group is defined for all spectral bands by default.
Clear Radiation group defined on spectral band i check boxes to remove the Bi spectral
bands from these radiation groups.

Several settings for this node depend on the Wavelength dependence of

radiative properties setting, which is defined for the physics interface. See
Radiation Settings.

Theory for Surface-to-Surface Radiation

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
If the Use radiation groups check box is selected under the Radiation Settings section:

Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Radiation Group

Ribbon
Physics tab with Surface-to-Surface Radiation selected:

Boundaries>Radiation Group

Semitransparent Surface (Radiation in Participating Media and

Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media Interfaces)
This node defines a boundary semitransparent to radiation. If no radiation is
transmitted through the surface, use the Opaque Surface (Radiation in Participating
Media and Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media Interfaces) node instead.

It prescribes incident intensities on a boundary and takes into account the net radiative
heat flux absorbed by the surface, modeling emitted, reflected, and (diffusively and
specularly) transmitted radiative intensity on the boundary.

When the Radiation discretization method is Discrete ordinates method, the net radiative
heat flux is defined as the difference between the incoming and outgoing radiative heat
fluxes, and the incoming and outgoing radiative heat fluxes are defined from the
weighted sums of the incident intensities. See Semitransparent Surface for more
details.

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 623

 When the Radiation discretization method is P1 approximation, the net radiative heat
flux is defined from the incident radiation G. See Semitransparent Surface for more
details.

At the internal boundaries, the net radiative heat fluxes, qr,net,d and qr,net,u on each
side of the surface are defined. Specific radiative properties of the surface can be
defined on each side of the boundary.

PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to apply this condition to.
A pair must to be created first. See Identity and Contact Pairs in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual for more details.

MODELS INPUT
This section has fields and values that are inputs to expressions that define material
properties. If such user-defined materials are added, the model inputs appear here.

There is one standard model input — the Temperature T, which is used in the
expression of the blackbody radiative intensity.

The definition of the boundary temperature may be different from that of

the temperature in the adjacent domain.

FRACTIONAL EMISSIVE POWER

This section is available when the Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is
defined as Solar and ambient or Multiple spectral bands in the Radiation in Participating
Media interface (see Participating Media Settings).

When the Fractional emissive power is Blackbody/Graybody, the fractional emissive

power FEPk is automatically calculated for each spectral band as a function of the band
endpoints and temperature.

When the Fractional emissive power is User defined for each band, define the Fractional
emissive power, FEPk for each spectral band in the table displayed below. All fractional
emissive powers are expected to be in [0,1] and their sum must equal 1. Select the
Define fractional emissive power on each side check box to set specific Upside and
Downwside values in the table.

624 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

SURFACE RADIATIVE PROPERTIES
The radiation properties of the boundary and the external radiation intensity should
be set in this section.

Emissivity, Diffuse Transmissivity, and Specular Transmissivity

If the Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is Constant:

• By default, the Emissivity ε (dimensionless), Diffuse transmissivity τd (dimensionless),

and Specular transmissivity τs (dimensionless) use values From material. These are
properties of the material surface that depend both on the material itself and the
structure of the surface. Make sure a material is defined at the boundary level (by
default materials are defined at the domain level).
• For User defined, set values or expressions. You can define temperature-dependent
emissivity and transmissivities using the variable rad.T.
Select the Define properties on each side check box to set specific values for each side.
Select the Boundary material, upside and Boundary material, downside to have different
material properties on each side. The boundary material specified is used only when
Emissivity, upside, Emissivity, downside, Diffuse transmissivity, upside, Diffuse
transmissivity, downside, Specular transmissivity, upside, and Specular transmissivity,
downside are From material.

If the Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is Solar and ambient or Multiple

spectral bands:

• By default, Emissivity ε (dimensionless), Diffuse transmissivity τd (dimensionless),

and Specular transmissivity τs (dimensionless) use values From material.
• When Emissivity is User defined, enter a value or expression for the Emissivity ε. The
wavelength is accessible through the rad.lambda variable. Any expression set for
the emissivity is then averaged on each spectral band to obtain a piecewise constant
emissivity. If the average value of the emissivity on each band is known, you can use
instead the User defined for each band option to avoid the evaluation of the average.
• When Diffuse transmissivity is User defined, enter a value or expression for the Diffuse
transmissivity τd. The wavelength is accessible through the rad.lambda variable.
Any expression set for the transmissivity is then averaged on each spectral band to
obtain a piecewise constant transmissivity. If the average value of the transmissivity
on each band is known, you can use instead the User defined for each band option to
avoid the evaluation of the average.
• When Specular transmissivity is User defined, enter a value or expression for the
Specular transmissivity τs. The wavelength is accessible through the rad.lambda

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 625

 variable. Any expression set for the specular transmissivity is then averaged on each
spectral band to obtain a piecewise constant specular transmissivity. If the average
value of the specular transmissivity on each band is known, you can use instead the
User defined for each band option to avoid the evaluation of the average.
• When Emissivity is User defined for each band, enter a value for the Emissivity for each
spectral band. Within a spectral band, each value is assumed to be independent of
wavelength. By default, the same emissivity is defined on both sides. Select the
Define properties on each side check box and fill the Upside and Downside columns of
the table for a specific definition on each side.
• When Diffuse transmissivity is User defined for each band, enter a value for the Diffuse
transmissivity for each spectral band. Within a spectral band, each value is assumed
to be independent of wavelength. By default, the same transmissivity is defined on
both sides. Select the Define properties on each side check box and fill the Upside and
Downside columns of the table for a specific definition on each side.
• When Specular transmissivity is User defined for each band, enter a value for the
Specular transmissivity for each spectral band. Within a spectral band, each value is
assumed to be independent of wavelength. By default, the same transmissivity is
defined on both sides. Select the Define properties on each side check box and fill the
Upside and Downside columns of the table for a specific definition on each side.
Set the surface emissivity to a number between 0 and 1, where 0 represents a diffuse
mirror and 1 is suitable for a perfect blackbody. The appropriate value for a physical
material is somewhere in between and can be found in tables or measurements.

Set the surface diffuse transmissivity to a number between 0 and 1, where 0 applies to
an opaque surface and 1 is appropriate for a fully transparent surface.

Set the surface specular transmissivity to a number between 0 and 1, where 0 applies
to a perfect diffuse surface and 1 is appropriate when transmissivity is only specular.

The Specular transmissivity is only needed when Discrete ordinates method

is selected.

EXTERNAL RADIATION INTENSITY

The external radiation intensity should be defined when the boundary condition is
applied to an external boundary. This intensity is a power per unit solid angle and unit
surface area projected onto the plane normal to the direction of radiation. It can be
specified for each spectral band.

626 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

When the Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is set to Constant, two options
are available to define the external radiation intensity. Set for External radiation intensity
to User defined to define Iext (SI unit: W/m²/sr) directly. Alternatively, select
Blackbody radiation to define Iext as Ib(Text) and set the External temperature Text (SI
unit: K, default value 293.15K) or select an Ambient temperature to specify the
temperature at which the blackbody radiation intensity Ib is evaluated.

When the Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is set to Solar and ambient or
to Multiple spectral bands, the external radiation intensity, Iext,k is defined for each
spectral band.

Set External radiation intensity to Blackbody radiation and set the External temperature
Text (SI unit: K, default value 293.15K) or select an Ambient temperature to define
Iext,k from the blackbody intensity Ib(Text), the External temperature Text, and the
fractional emissive power for each spectral band at external temperature FEPk(Text).

Set the External radiation intensity to User defined for each band, to define Iext,k from
user defined expression for each spectral band in the table displayed underneath.

Set the External radiation intensity to User defined distribution, and define an expression
for Iλ,ext(SI unit: W/m3/sr) to define Iext,k from a spectral distribution. In this case
Iext,k is automatically computed per spectral band as the integral of the distribution
over each spectral band. If this integral over each band is known, you can use instead
the User defined for each band option to avoid the numerical overhead due to the
evaluation of the average.

When Discrete ordinates method is selected, the components of each

discrete ordinate vector can be used in this expression. The syntax is
name.sx, name.sy, and name.sz, where name is the name of the physics
interface node. By default, the Radiation in Participating Media interface
is rpm so rpm.sx, rpm.sy, and rpm.sz correspond to the components of
discrete ordinate vectors.

• Participating Medium (Radiation in Participating Media Interface)

• Absorbing-Scattering Medium (Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering
Media Interface)
• Theory for Radiation in Participating Media

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 627

 LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Radiation in Participating Media>Semitransparent Surface
Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media>Semitransparent Surface
Radiation in Participating Media>Pairs>Semitransparent Surface
Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media>Pairs>Semitransparent Surface

Ribbon
Physics tab with Radiation in Participating Media or Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering
Media selected:

Boundaries>Semitransparent Surface
Pairs>Semitransparent Surface

Semitransparent Surface (Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface)

This node is a variant of the Opaque Surface (Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface)
node. In addition to specular and diffuse reflection, specular transmission can also be
considered on the surface. It is available when the Surface-to-surface radiation method
is set to Ray shooting in the Surface-to-Surface Radiation interface settings. The node
adds a radiosity shape function for each spectral band to its selection and uses it as
surface radiosity.

If no radiation is transmitted through the surface, use the Opaque Surface

(Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface) node instead.

Radiation is assumed to occur on both sides of the surface.

MODEL INPUT
This section has fields and values that are inputs to expressions that define material
properties. If such user-defined property groups have been added, the model inputs
are included here.

There is one standard model input: the Temperature T is used in the expression of the
blackbody radiation intensity and when multiple wavelength intervals are used, for the
fractional emissive power. The temperature model input is also used to determine the
variable that receives the radiative heat source. When the model input does not contain
a dependent variable, the radiative heat source is ignored.

The default Temperature is User defined. When additional physics interfaces are added
to the model, the temperature variables defined by these physics interfaces can also be

628 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

selected from the list. The Common model input option corresponds to the minput.T
variable, set to 293.15 K by default) and all temperature variables from the physics
interfaces included in the model. To edit the minput.T variable, click the Go to Source
button ( ), and in the Default Model Inputs node under Global Definitions, set a value
for the Temperature in the Expression for remaining selection section.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

Select a boundary system from the Coordinate system list to define the reference vector
for the azimuthal angle. The first component of the boundary system selected is the
reference vector used for directional surface properties. The default is the boundary
system of the model, and the list contains any additional boundary system added under
the Definitions node.

See Coordinate Systems in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for more
details.

AMBIENT
These settings are the same as for the Diffuse Surface (Surface-to-Surface Radiation
Interface) node.

FRACTIONAL EMISSIVE POWER

These settings are the same as for the Diffuse Surface (Surface-to-Surface Radiation
Interface) node.

SURFACE RADIATIVE PROPERTIES

Directional Dependence
By default, the Directional dependence of the surface radiative properties (emissivity and
transmissivity) is set to Constant. The Emissivity and Transmissivity may be set to
expressions depending on other variables like the temperature or the spatial
coordinates. Change to Polar or Polar and azimuthal options to define dependences on
the polar and azimuthal angles, θ and ϕ , through the specification of a Directional
emissivity function, f ε and a Directional transmissivity function, f τ . When the Polar
option is used, select in the list any function of one argument already defined in the
component, under the Definitions node. For the Polar and azimuthal option, select
among the functions of two arguments. By default, only the Zero function is available
in the list, defining f ε ( θ ) = 0 , f τ ( θ ) = 0 , f ε ( θ, ϕ ) = 0 , or f τ ( θ, ϕ ) = 0 .

The other dependencies (temperature T, spatial coordinates x) are handled separately

in the Emissivity and Transmissivity expressions, and used to define the total properties:

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 629

 ε tot ( θ, ϕ, T, x ) = f ε ( θ, ϕ ) + ε ( T, x )

τ tot ( θ, ϕ, T, x ) = f τ ( θ, ϕ ) + τ ( T, x )

Emissivity, Diffuse Reflectivity, Transmissivity and Critical Angle

If Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is Constant:

• By default, the Emissivity ε (dimensionless), Diffuse reflectivity ρd (dimensionless),

and Transmissivity τ (dimensionless) use values From material. These are properties
of the material surface that depend both on the material itself and the structure of
the surface. Make sure that a material is defined at the boundary level (by default
materials are defined at the domain level).
• For User defined, set values or expressions. You may set temperature-dependent
emissivity and reflectivity using the variable rad.T.
Select the Define properties on each side check box to set specific values on each side.
Select the Boundary material, upside and Boundary material, downside to have different
material properties on each side. The boundary material specified is used only when
Emissivity, upside, Emissivity, downside, Diffuse reflectivity, upside, Diffuse reflectivity,
downside, Transmissivity, upside, Transmissivity, downside are From material.

If Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is Solar and ambient or Multiple spectral

bands:

• By default, the Emissivity ε (dimensionless), Diffuse reflectivity ρd (dimensionless),

and Transmissivity τ (dimensionless) use values From material.
• When Emissivity is set to User defined, enter a value or expression for the Emissivity
ε. The wavelength may be accessed through the rad.lambda variable. Any
expression set for the emissivity is then averaged on each spectral band to obtain a
piecewise constant emissivity. If the average value of the emissivity on each band is
known, you may use instead the User defined for each band option to avoid the
evaluation of the average.
• When Diffuse reflectivity is set to User defined, enter a value or expression for the
Diffuse reflectivity ρd. The wavelength may be accessed through the rad.lambda
variable. Any expression set for the reflectivity is then averaged on each spectral band
to obtain a piecewise constant reflectivity. If the average value of the reflectivity on
each band is known, you may use instead the User defined for each band option to
avoid the evaluation of the average.
• When Transmissivity is set to User defined, enter a value or expression for the
Transmissivity τ. The wavelength may be accessed through the rad.lambda variable.

630 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

 Any expression set for the transmissivity is then averaged on each spectral band to
obtain a piecewise constant transmissivity. If the average value of the transmissivity
on each band is known, you may use instead the User defined for each band option
to avoid the evaluation of the average.
• When Emissivity is set to User defined for each band, enter a value for the Emissivity
for each spectral band. Within a spectral band, each value is assumed to be
independent of wavelength. By default, the same emissivity is defined on both sides.
Select the Define properties on each side check box and fill the Upside and Downside
columns of the table for a specific definition on each side.
• When Diffuse reflectivity is set to User defined for each band, enter a value for the
Diffuse reflectivity for each spectral band. Within a spectral band, each value is
assumed to be independent of wavelength. By default, the same reflectivity is
defined on both sides. Select the Define diffuse reflectivity on each side check box and
fill the Upside and Downside columns of the table for a specific definition on each
side.
• When Transmissivity is set to User defined for each band, enter a value for the
Transmissivity for each spectral band. Within a spectral band, each value is assumed
to be independent of wavelength. By default, the same transmissivity is defined on
both sides. Select the Define properties on each side check box and fill the Upside and
Downside columns of the table for a specific definition on each side.
Set the surface emissivity to a number between 0 and 1, where 0 represents a diffuse
mirror and 1 is appropriate for a perfect blackbody. The proper value for a physical
material lies somewhere in between and can be found from tables or measurements.

Set the surface diffuse reflectivity to a number between 0 and 1, where 1 applies to a
perfect diffuse surface and 0 is appropriate when reflection is only specular.

Set the surface transmissivity to a number between 0 and 1, where 0 applies to an

opaque surface and 1 is appropriate for a fully transparent surface.

The surface specular reflectivity, ρs, is then defined as

ρs = 1 – ρd – ε – τ

Set a value or expression for the Critical angle θc, which is the minimum angle of
incidence (measured between the ray and the normal to the surface) for transmission
to occur. Below this angle, all the radiation is reflected. The pi/2 default value ensures
that total reflection does not occur by default.

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 631

 When the Radiating side is set to None for a spectral band, the information set for this
spectral band in this section is not used.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Semitransparent Surface

Ribbon
Physics tab with Surface-to-Surface Radiation selected:

Boundaries>Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Semitransparent Surface

Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Heat Transfer Interface)

Use this node to take into account radiation from boundaries to the ambient. The net
inward heat flux from surface-to-ambient radiation is

4 4
– n ⋅ q = εσ ( T amb – T )

where ε is the surface emissivity, σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (a predefined

physical constant), and Tamb is the ambient temperature.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

Temperature
This section is available when material properties are temperature-dependent. By
default, the temperature of the parent interface is used and the section is not editable.
To edit the Temperature field, click Make All Model Inputs Editable ( ). The available
options are User defined (default), Common model input (the minput.T variable, set to
293.15 K by default) and all temperature variables from the physics interfaces included
in the model. To edit the minput.T variable, click the Go to Source button ( ), and
in the Default Model Inputs node under Global Definitions, set a value for the Temperature
in the Expression for remaining selection section.

632 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

RADIATION SETTINGS
Define on which side of the boundary is the ambient domain that receives the
radiation, by selecting a Radiating side: Upside or Downside.

Upside and downside settings can be visualized by plotting the global

normal vector (nx, ny, nz), that always points from downside to upside.
Note that the normal vector (ht.nx, ht.ny, ht.nz) may be oriented
differently.

See Tangent and Normal Variables in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual.

SURFACE-TO-AMBIENT RADIATION

Ambient Temperature
For User defined, enter an Ambient temperature Tamb. The default value is
approximately room temperature, 293.15 K (20ºC). Else, select an Ambient
temperature defined in an Ambient Properties node under Definitions.

Surface Emissivity
The default Surface emissivity ε (a dimensionless number between 0 and 1) is taken
From material. For User defined, it should be specified. An emissivity of 0 means that
the surface emits no radiation at all while an emissivity of 1 means that it is a perfect
blackbody.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids>Heat Sources>Surface-to-Ambient Radiation
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Fluid>Heat Sources>Surface-to-Ambient
Radiation
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Porous Matrix>Heat
Sources>Surface-to-Ambient Radiation

Ribbon
Physics tab with interface as Heat Transfer in Solids, or any version of the Heat Transfer
interface selected:

Boundaries>Surface-to-Ambient Radiation

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 633

 Physics tab with Porous Medium>Fluid or Porous Medium>Porous Matrix selected in the
model tree:

Attributes>Surface-to-Ambient Radiation

Symmetry (Heat Transfer Interface)

This node provides a boundary condition for symmetry boundaries. This boundary
condition is similar to a Thermal Insulation condition, and it means that there is no
heat flux across the boundary.

The symmetry condition only applies to the temperature field. It has no

effect on the radiosity (surface-to-surface radiation) and on the radiative
intensity (radiation in participating media). Use Symmetry for
Surface-to-Surface Radiation to take into account the symmetry in the
computation of the view factors.

Heat Generation in a Disc Brake: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Contact_and_Friction/brake_disc

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids>Symmetry
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Fluid>Symmetry
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Porous Matrix>Symmetry

Ribbon
Physics tab with interface as Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids, or any version of the
Heat Transfer interface selected:

Boundaries>interface>Symmetry

Physics tab with Porous Medium>Fluid or Porous Medium>Porous Matrix selected in the
model tree:

Attributes>Symmetry

634 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Symmetry (Radiation in Participating Media and Radiation in
Absorbing-Scattering Media Interfaces)
This node provides a condition for symmetry boundaries when the Radiation
discretization method is P1 approximation. It means that there is no heat flux across the
boundary.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Radiation in Participating Media>Symmetry
Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media>Symmetry

Ribbon
Physics tab with Radiation in Participating Media or Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering
Media selected:

Boundaries>Symmetry

Temperature
Use this node to specify the temperature somewhere in the geometry, for example, on
boundaries.

PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to apply this condition to.
A pair must to be created first. See Identity and Contact Pairs in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual for more details.

TEMPERATURE
The equation for this condition is T = T0, where T0 is the prescribed temperature on
the boundary. For User defined, enter a value or expression for the Temperature T0.
Else, select an Ambient temperature defined in an Ambient Properties node under
Definitions.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options. By default Classic constraints is selected. Select the Use weak constraints
check box to replace the standard constraints with a weak implementation. Select the

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 635

 Discontinuous Galerkin constraints button when Classic constraints do not work
satisfactorily.

The Discontinuous Galerkin constraints option is especially useful to

prevent oscillations on inlet boundaries where convection dominates.
Unlike the Classic constraints, these constraints do not enforce the
temperature on the boundary extremities. This is relevant on fluid inlets
where the temperature condition should not be enforced on the walls at
the inlet extremities. Note that Discontinuous Galerkin constraints are not
supported for resistive thin layers or with turbulent wall functions.

You can specify a harmonic variation of the temperature value in a

frequency domain analysis of perturbation type, by adding a Harmonic
Perturbation subnode. See Theory for Harmonic Heat Transfer for more
details.

Steady-State 2D Axisymmetric Heat Transfer with Conduction:

Application Library path Heat_Transfer_Module/Tutorials,_Conduction/
cylinder_conduction

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids>Temperature
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Fluid>Temperature
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Porous Matrix>Temperature

Ribbon
Physics tab with interface as Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids, or any version of the
Heat Transfer interface selected:

Boundaries>interface>Temperature
Pairs>interface>Temperature

Physics tab with Porous Medium>Fluid or Porous Medium>Porous Matrix selected in the
model tree:

Attributes>Temperature

636 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Thermal Contact
This node defines correlations for the conductance h at the interface of two bodies in
contact. It can be added to pairs by selecting Thermal Contact from the Pairs menu.
Note that in this case the source term is applied on the destination side.

The conductance h is involved in the heat flux across the surfaces in contact according
to:

– n d ⋅ q d = – h ( T u – T d ) + rQ b

– n u ⋅ q u = – h ( T d – T u ) + ( 1 – r )Q b

where u and d subscripts refer to the upside and downside of the slit, respectively. Pair
version of Thermal Contact should be activated on a Identity Pair or on a Contact Pair
where a structural mechanics physics interface defines a contact pair feature.

PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to apply this condition to.
A pair must to be created first. See Identity and Contact Pairs in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual for more details.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

Temperature
This section is available when material properties are temperature-dependent. By
default, the temperature of the parent interface is used and the section is not editable.
To edit the Temperature field, click Make All Model Inputs Editable ( ). The available
options are User defined (default), Common model input (the minput.T variable, set to
293.15 K by default) and all temperature variables from the physics interfaces included
in the model. To edit the minput.T variable, click the Go to Source button ( ), and
in the Default Model Inputs node under Global Definitions, set a value for the Temperature
in the Expression for remaining selection section.

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 637

 MATERIAL TYPE
Select an option in the Material type list to specify if the inputs of the Thermal Friction
section are defined in the material or spatial frame:

• The default option for the Thermal Contact node is Solid, which specifies that the heat
source Qb is defined in the material frame. Because the heat transfer variables and
equations are defined in the spatial frame, the inputs are internally converted to the
spatial frame. See Conversion Between Material and Spatial Frames for details.
• The Nonsolid option defines Qb in the spatial frame. No frame conversion is needed.
• The From material option uses the option selected in the Material type list of the
Material Properties section of the material applied on the boundary on which the
node is active.

This option has no effect when the component does not contain a moving
frame because the material and spatial frames are identical in such cases.
With a Deformed Geometry or a Moving Mesh interface, the heat
transfer features automatically take into account deformation effects of
the material and spatial frames on heat transfer properties. In particular
the effects of volume changes on the density are considered. See
Handling Frames in Heat Transfer and Material and Spatial Frames for
details.

THERMAL CONTACT
Select a Contact model: Constriction conductance with interstitial gas (default), or
Equivalent thin resistive layer.

With the Constriction conductance with interstitial gas model, you consider the
microscopic configuration of the joint, by setting both the constriction conductance
at the contact spots, hc, and the gap conductance due to the fluid in the interstitial
space, hg, to evaluate the joint conductance. The characteristic size of the microscopic
surface asperities, and both the conductance of constriction and gap need to be
specified.

To represent the surfaces asperities and the fluid gap between these surfaces by an
equivalent thin layer, select the Equivalent thin resistive layer option instead.

The radiative conductance can be accounted for with the two contact models. It
should be considered at high temperatures, above 600°C.

See Theory for Thermal Contact for details.

638 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Depending on the selected Contact model, further settings display underneath.

Constriction Conductance with Interstitial Gas

Select a Constriction conductance: Cooper-Mikic-Yovanovich correlation (default), Mikic
elastic correlation, or User defined. For User defined enter a value or expression for hc.

Then select the Gap conductance: User defined (default) or Parallel-plate gap gas
conductance (available if Cooper-Mikic-Yovanovich correlation or Mikic elastic correlation
is selected as the Constriction conductance). For User defined enter a value for hg.

Equivalent Thin Resistive Layer

The available options to specify the resistive behavior of the equivalent layer are Layer
resistance (default), Layer conductance, and Layer thermal conductivity and thickness.
Depending on the selected option, enter values or expressions for the Layer resistance,
Req, the Layer conductance, heq, the Layer thermal conductivity, keq, and the Layer
thickness, ds.

Radiative Conductance
Finally, choose the Radiative conductance: User defined (default) or Gray-diffuse parallel
surfaces. For User defined enter a value for hr.

CONTACT SURFACE PROPERTIES

This section is available when the Contact model is Constriction conductance with
interstitial gas, if Cooper-Mikic-Yovanovich correlation or Mikic elastic correlation are
chosen as the Constriction conductance correlation for the Constriction conductance.
Enter values for the:

• Surface roughness, asperities average height σasp

• Surface roughness, asperities average slope masp
• Contact pressure p

For Cooper-Mikic-Yovanovich correlation select a Hardness definition: Microhardness

(default), Vickers hardness, or Brinell hardness.

• For Microhardness enter a value for Hc.

• For Vickers hardness enter a value for the Vickers correlation coefficient c1 and Vickers
size index c2.
• For Brinell hardness enter a value for HB. It should be between 1.30 and 7.60 GPa.

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 639

 For Mikic elastic correlation select a Contact interface Young’s modulus Econtact:
Weighted harmonic mean (default) or User defined.

• For Weighted harmonic mean, enter values or expressions for the Young’s modulus,
upside, Eu, the Young’s modulus, downside, Ed, the Poisson’s ratio, upside, νu, and
the Poisson’s ratio, downside, νd. If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, enter
instead values or expressions for the Young’s modulus, source, Esrc, the Young’s
modulus, destination, Edst, the Poisson’s ratio, source, νsrc, and the Poisson’s ratio,
destination, νdst.
• For User defined enter another value or expression for Econtact.

GAP PROPERTIES
This section is available when the Contact model is Constriction conductance with
interstitial gas, if Parallel-plate gap gas conductance is selected as the Gap conductance
correlation under Thermal Contact.

The default Gas thermal conductivity kgap is taken From material. For User defined select
Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full based on the characteristics of the gas thermal
conductivity, and enter another value or expression.

Also enter the following:

• Gas pressure pgap

• Gas thermal accommodation parameter α
• Gas fluid parameter β
• Gas particles diameter D

RADIATIVE CONDUCTANCE
This section is available when Gray-diffuse parallel surfaces is selected as the Radiative
conductance correlation under Thermal Contact.

By default the Surface emissivity ε is taken From material. For User defined enter another
value or expression.

THERMAL FRICTION
Select a Heat partition coefficient r: Charron’s relation (default) or User defined. For User
defined enter a value for r.

640 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Select either the General source (default) or Heat rate.

• For General source enter a frictional heat source Qb.

• For Heat rate enter the heat rate Pb.

Theory for Thermal Contact

Upside and downside settings can be visualized by plotting the global

normal vector (nx, ny, nz), that always points from downside to upside.
Note that the normal vector (ht.nx, ht.ny, ht.nz) may be oriented
differently.

In addition, surface plots for the temperatures on the upside (ht.Tu) and
downside (ht.Td) of the slit are automatically generated in 3D
components.

See Tangent and Normal Variables in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual.

Thermal Contact Resistance Between an Electronic Package and a

Heat Sink: Application Library path Heat_Transfer_Module/
Thermal_Contact_and_Friction/
thermal_contact_electronic_package_heat_sink

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids>Thin Structures>Thermal Contact
Heat Transfer in Solids>Thin Structures>Thermal Contact
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Thin Structures>Thermal Contact
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Thin Structures>Thermal Contact
Bioheat Transfer>Thin Structures>Thermal Contact
Heat Transfer in Solids>Pairs>Thermal Contact
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Pairs>Thermal Contact
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Pairs>Thermal Contact
Bioheat Transfer>Pairs>Thermal Contact

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 641

 Ribbon
Physics tab with interface as Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids, Heat Transfer in Solids,
Heat Transfer in Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials
or Bioheat Transfer selected:

Pairs>interface>Thermal Contact

Thermal Insulation
This node is the default boundary condition for all Heat Transfer interfaces. This
boundary condition means that there is no heat flux across the boundary:

–n ⋅ q = 0

and hence specifies where the domain is well insulated. Intuitively, this equation says
that the temperature gradient across the boundary is zero. For this to be true, the
temperature on one side of the boundary must equal the temperature on the other
side. Because there is no temperature difference across the boundary, heat cannot
transfer across it. As the default boundary condition, it can be applied only on external
boundaries; but when added manually, it can be applied also on interior boundaries.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids>Thermal Insulation
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Fluid>Thermal Insulation
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Porous Matrix>Thermal Insulation

Ribbon
Physics tab with interface as Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids, or any version of the
Heat Transfer interface selected:

Boundaries>interface>Thermal Insulation

Physics tab with Porous Medium>Fluid or Porous Medium>Porous Matrix selected in the
model tree:

Attributes>Thermal Insulation

642 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Thin Film (Heat Transfer Interface) and Fluid (Heat Transfer in
Shells Interface)
This node behaves like Fluid but is applicable on boundaries.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
When the Fluid node is added manually in the Heat Transfer in Films interface, and for
the Thin Film node, select the Restrict to layered boundaries check box to make the node
applicable only if a layered material is defined on the boundary. If a layered material
(Material with Layer thickness specified, Single Layer Material, Layered Material Link, or
Layered Material Stack) is available, its name is then displayed beside the boundary
index (for example, slmat1), otherwise the boundary is marked as not applicable.

When Fluid is the default node of the Heat Transfer in Films interface, it is applied on
all boundaries where the Heat Transfer in Films interface is applied, and neither the
boundary selection nor the Restrict to layered boundaries check box are editable.

Note that when the Shell type is Nonlayered shell in the Shells Properties section of the
parent interface or node, the Restrict to layered boundaries check box is not editable.

SHELL PROPERTIES

Fluid (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface)

Different settings are available, depending on the settings in the Shell Properties
section of the parent interface, and whether Fluid is the default node or was added
manually:

• When the Shell type is Layered shell in the Shells Properties section of the parent
interface, the same layered material is used in the Fluid node, but you can limit the
contribution to individually selected layers by clearing the Use all layers check box.
For a given Layered Material Link or Layered Material Stack, you get access to a list of
check boxes for the selection of the individual layers. In this case, both the General
and Thermally thin approximation options are available in the Layer Model section.
• When the Shell type is Nonlayered shell in the Shells Properties section of the parent
interface, the Thickness is taken From physics interface in the Fluid node. This option
is not editable when Fluid is the default node, but you can change to User defined
and override the interface setting with a specific value or expression for Lth when
the node was added manually. In this case, only the Thermally thin approximation
option is available in the Layer Model section.

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 643

 Thin Film (Heat Transfer Interface)
Two options are available for the Shell type:

• When the Shell type is Layered shell, the Extra Dimension tool is used to solve the
equations through the thickness of a layered material. It is possible to consider
several layers with different thermal properties varying through the thickness. This
makes the General and Thermally thin approximation options available for Layer type
in the Layer Model section. You can limit the contribution to individually selected
layers by clearing the Use all layers check box. For a given Layered Material Link or
Layered Material Stack, you get access to a list of check boxes for the selection of the
individual layers.
• Alternatively, set Shell type to Nonlayered shell, and set a user defined value or
expression for the Thickness Lth. This option should be used for thermally thin
layers, for which no through-thickness temperature variation is expected in the
layered material. This makes Thermally thin approximation the only option available
for Layer type in the Layer Model section.

You can visualize the selected layered materials and layers in each layered material by
clicking the Layer Cross Section Preview and Layer 3D Preview buttons.

• For a general description of layer and interface selections, see Layer and
Interface Selection Tools.
• You can provide material parameters with a through-thickness variation
by using expressions containing the extra dimension coordinate as
described in Using the Extra Dimension Coordinates.

The desired selection for the node may correspond to boundaries with
different layered materials.

See Layered Material, Layered Material Link, Layered Material Stack,

Layered Material Link (Subnode), and Single-Layer Materials in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

644 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Temperature
This section is available when material properties are temperature-dependent. By
default, the temperature of the parent interface is used and the section is not editable.
To edit the Temperature field, click Make All Model Inputs Editable ( ). The available
options are User defined (default), Common model input (the minput.T variable, set to
293.15 K by default) and all temperature variables from the physics interfaces included
in the model. To edit the minput.T variable, click the Go to Source button ( ), and
in the Default Model Inputs node under Global Definitions, set a value for the Temperature
in the Expression for remaining selection section.

Absolute Pressure
Absolute pressure is used in certain predefined quantities that include enthalpy (the
energy flux, for example).

It is also used if the ideal gas law is applied. See Thermodynamics, Fluid.

The default Absolute pressure pA is User defined. When additional physics interfaces are
added to the model, the absolute pressure variables defined by these physics interfaces
can also be selected from the list. For example, if a Laminar Flow interface is added you
can select Absolute pressure (spf) from the list. The Common model input option
corresponds to the minput.pA variable, set to 1 atm by default. To edit it, click the Go
to Source button ( ), and in the Default Model Inputs node under Global Definitions,
set a value for the Pressure in the Expression for remaining selection section.

LAYER MODEL
The available options for Layer type are Thermally thin approximation, and General
(when the Shell type is Layered material in the Shell Properties section). The former is
a lumped model that accounts only for tangential temperature gradients (along the
film), whereas the latter accounts also for the normal gradients of temperature
(through the film’s thickness). The second model may be used for the modeling of
bearings for example.

If the Layer type is Thermally thin approximation, and the Shell type is Layered shell, the
Layerwise constant properties check box is available to solve the equations with
weighted averaged material properties, assuming that these properties are constant
within each layer. When suitable, this allows to compute efficiently the homogenized
properties of the layered material. By default this check box is not selected, and the
properties are integrated through the thickness of the layered material. It means that
you can provide material parameters with a through-thickness variation by using

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 645

 expressions containing the extra dimension coordinate, as described in Using the Extra
Dimension Coordinates.

HEAT CONVECTION
The settings are the same as in the Fluid domain feature.

HEAT CONDUCTION, FLUID

The settings are the same as in the Fluid domain feature.

THERMODYNAMICS, FLUID
The settings are the same as in the Fluid domain feature, except for the available
options in the Fluid type list: Ideal gas, Gas/Liquid, and Moist air.

See the Fluid domain feature for more details on the Ideal gas and Gas/Liquid options.

Moist Air
If Moist air is selected, the thermodynamics properties are defined as a function of the
amount of vapor in moist air. The Input quantity options available to define this
amount are as follows:

• Vapor mass fraction to define the ratio between vapor mass and total mass. Enter a
value or expression for the Vapor mass fraction ω.
• Concentration to define the amount of water vapor in the total volume. If selected,
a Concentration model input is added to the Model Inputs section.
• Moisture content (default), also called mixing ratio or humidity ratio, to define the
ratio between water vapor mass and dry air mass. For User defined, enter a value or
expression for the Moisture Content xvap. Else, select an Ambient moisture content
defined in an Ambient Properties node under Definitions.
• Relative humidity φ w , a quantity defined between 0 and 1, where 0 corresponds to
dry air and 1 to air saturated with water vapor. The Relative humidity, temperature
condition T φ and Relative humidity, absolute pressure condition p φ should be
w w
specified.

Within a layered material selection, a single Layer type should be used. If

two layer types are needed for the same layered material, the original
material should be duplicated so that one layered material is defined for
each layer type. A Shell Continuity (Heat Transfer Interface) and
Continuity (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface) node may be added
between the two layered materials.

646 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

 The thermal conductivity of the thin film is assumed to be isotropic, even
if an anisotropic property is defined for the material.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Thin Structures>Thin Film
Heat Transfer in Films>Fluid

Ribbon
Physics tab with interface as Heat Transfer in Fluids selected:

Boundaries>Thin Film

Physics tab with interface as Heat Transfer in Films selected:

Boundaries>Fluid

Thin Layer (Heat Transfer Interface) and Solid (Heat Transfer in

Shells Interface)
These nodes define the thermal conductivity and thermodynamics properties of a
material located on internal or external boundaries. The Thin Layer node is available
under the Heat Transfer interface, while the Solid node is available under the Heat
Transfer in Shells interface.

The material can be formed of one or more layers, and different conductive behaviors
can be modeled through the setting of the Layer type:

• Select Thermally thick approximation to model a layer that is a bad thermal conductor
compared to the adjacent geometry. In this case, the tangential heat flux is neglected
and only the heat flux across the layer’s thickness is considered. The layer can be
constituted of multiple sub-layers with specific thickness and thermal properties.
Each sub-layer can be distinguished when a heat source is applied to the layer. This
option may also be used to enforce consistent initial conditions.
• Select Thermally thin approximation to model a layer that is a good thermal
conductor compared to the adjacent geometry. In this case, the temperature
difference and heat flux across the layer’s thickness are neglected. Only the
tangential heat flux is considered. The sub-layers are not distinguished when a heat
source is applied to the layer.

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 647

 • Select General to model a layer in which both the normal and tangential heat fluxes
should be considered. The layer can be constituted of multiple sub-layers with
specific thickness and thermal properties, and heat sources can be applied on a
sub-layer selection, and on up and down sides of the layer.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
When the Solid node is added manually in the Heat Transfer in Shells interface, and for
the Thin Layer node, select the Restrict to layered boundaries check box to make the
node applicable only if a layered material is defined on the boundary. If a layered
material (Material with Layer thickness specified, Single Layer Material, Layered Material
Link, or Layered Material Stack) is available, its name is then displayed beside the
boundary index (for example, slmat1), otherwise the boundary is marked as not
applicable.

When Solid is the default node of the Heat Transfer in Shells interface, it is applied on
all boundaries where the Heat Transfer in Shells interface is applied, and neither the
boundary selection nor the Restrict to layered boundaries check box are editable.

Note that when the Shell type is Nonlayered shell in the Shells Properties section of the
parent interface or node, the Restrict to layered boundaries check box is not editable.

SHELL PROPERTIES

Solid (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface)

Different settings are available, depending on the settings in the Shell Properties
section of the parent interface, and whether Solid is the default node or was added
manually:

• When the Shell type is Layered shell in the Shells Properties section of the parent
interface, the same layered material is used in the Solid node, but you can limit the
contribution to individually selected layers by clearing the Use all layers check box,
when the node was added manually. For a given Layered Material Link or Layered
Material Stack, you get access to a list of check boxes for the selection of the
individual layers. In this case, both the General and Thermally thin approximation
options are available in the Layer Model section.
• When the Shell type is Nonlayered shell in the Shells Properties section of the parent
interface, the Thickness is taken From physics interface in the Solid node. This option
is not editable when Solid is the default node, but you can change to User defined
and override the interface’s setting with a specific value or expression for Lth when

648 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

 the node was added manually. In this case, only the Thermally thin approximation
option is available in the Layer Model section.

Thin Layer (Heat Transfer Interface)

Two options are available for the Shell type:

• When the Shell type is Layered shell, the Extra Dimension tool is used to solve the
equations through the thickness of a layered material. It is possible to consider
several layers with different thermal properties varying through the thickness. This
makes the General, Thermally thin approximation, and Thermally thick approximation
options available for Layer type in the Layer Model section. You can limit the
contribution to individually selected layers by clearing the Use all layers check box.
For a given Layered Material Link or Layered Material Stack, you get access to a list of
check boxes for the selection of the individual layers.
• Alternatively, set Shell type to Nonlayered shell, and set a user defined value or
expression for the Thickness Lth. This option should be used for thermally thin
layers, for which no through-thickness temperature variation is expected in the
layered material. This removes the General option from the Layer type list in the
Layer Model section.

You can visualize the selected layered materials and layers in each layered material by
clicking the Layer Cross Section Preview and Layer 3D Preview buttons.

• For a general description of layer and interface selections, see Layer and
Interface Selection Tools.
• You can provide material parameters with a through-thickness variation
by using expressions containing the extra dimension coordinate as
described in Using the Extra Dimension Coordinates.

The desired selection for the node may correspond to boundaries with
different layered materials.

See Layered Material, Layered Material Link, Layered Material Stack,

Layered Material Link (Subnode), and Single-Layer Materials in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 649

 MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

Volume Reference Temperature

This section is available when a temperature-dependent density defined in a material is
used. On the material frame, the density is evaluated in relation to a reference
temperature in order to ensure conservation of the mass in the presence of temperature
variations. By default the Common model input is used. This corresponds to the variable
minput.Tempref, which is set to 293.15 K by default. To edit it, click the Go to Source
button ( ), and in the Default Model Inputs node under Global Definitions, set a value
for the Volume reference temperature in the Expression for remaining selection section.

The other options are User defined and all temperature variables from the physics
interfaces included in the model.

This model input does not override the Reference temperature Tref set in
the Physical Model section of the physics interface, which is used to
evaluate the reference enthalpy, and a reference density for incompressible
nonisothermal flows.

Temperature
This section is available when material properties are temperature-dependent. By
default, the temperature of the parent interface is used and the section is not editable.
To edit the Temperature field, click Make All Model Inputs Editable ( ). The available
options are User defined (default), Common model input (the minput.T variable, set to
293.15 K by default) and all temperature variables from the physics interfaces included
in the model. To edit the minput.T variable, click the Go to Source button ( ), and
in the Default Model Inputs node under Global Definitions, set a value for the Temperature
in the Expression for remaining selection section.

LAYER MODEL
The available options for Layer type are Thermally thin approximation, Thermally thick
approximation (available only in the Thin Layer feature), and General.

If Layer type is Thermally thick approximation, from the Specify list select Layer
properties (default) or Thermal resistance.

650 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

If the Layer type is Thermally thin approximation, and the Shell type is Layered shell, the
Layerwise constant properties check box is available to solve the equations with
weighted averaged material properties, assuming that these properties are constant
within each layer. When suitable, this allows to compute efficiently the homogenized
properties of the layered material. By default this check box is not selected, and the
properties are integrated through the thickness of the layered material. It means that
you can provide material parameters with a through-thickness variation by using
expressions containing the extra dimension coordinate, as described in Using the Extra
Dimension Coordinates.

Within a layered material selection, a single Layer type should be used. If

two layer types are needed for the same layered material, the original
material should be duplicated so that one layered material is defined for
each layer type. A Shell Continuity (Heat Transfer Interface) and
Continuity (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface) node may be added
between the two layered materials.

HEAT CONDUCTION
The default Thermal conductivity k is taken From layered material. For User defined
select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full to enter another value or expression.

Alternatively, set a value for the Thermal resistance Rs if Specify is set to Thermal
resistance in the Layer Model section (for Thermally thick approximation).

THERMODYNAMICS
By default the Density ρ and Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp of the layer are taken
From layered material. See Material Density in Features Defined in the Material Frame
if a temperature-dependent density should be set. For User defined enter other values
or expressions.

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 651

 When Layer type is Thermally thick approximation, these properties are only used in
time-dependent studies, but must be set in all cases.

These subnodes are available for Thin Layer node:

• Heat Source (Thin Layer, Thin Film, Fracture) — to add a layer

internal heat source, Qs, within the layer.
• Heat Flux (Thin Layer, Thin Film, Fracture) — to add a heat flux
through a specified set of boundaries.
• Temperature (Thin Layer, Thin Film, Fracture, and Heat Transfer in
Shells Interface) — to set a prescribed temperature condition on a
specified set of boundaries.
• Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin Layer, Thin Film, Fracture, and
Heat Transfer in Shells Interface) — to add a surface-to-ambient
radiation for the layer end.

When multiple layers are defined they are numbered from the downside
(Layer 1) to the upside. Upside and downside settings can be visualized
by plotting the global normal vector (nx, ny, nz), that always points from
downside to upside. Note that the normal vector (ht.nx, ht.ny, ht.nz)
may be oriented differently.

See Tangent and Normal Variables in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual.

• Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

• Boundary Wall Temperature
• Plotting and Evaluating Results in Layered Materials

• Heat Transfer in a Surface-Mount Package for a Silicon Chip:

Application Library path Heat_Transfer_Module/
Power_Electronics_and_Electronic_Cooling/surface_mount_package
• Silica Glass Block Coated with a Copper Layer: Application Library
path Heat_Transfer_Module/Tutorials,_Thin_Structure/copper_layer

652 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids>Thin Structures>Thin Layer
Heat Transfer in Shells>Solid

Ribbon
Physics tab with interface as Heat Transfer in Solids selected:

Boundaries>Thin Layer

Physics tab with interface as Heat Transfer in Shells selected:

Boundaries>Solid

Transparent Surface (Radiative Beam in Absorbing Medium

Interface)
Use this node to model an absorbing medium’s boundary where there is no radiative
intensity absorption. All the outgoing beams traveling from the medium to the exterior
leave the media without depositing any energy at this boundary. The intensity of
radiative beams entering the absorbing media is set to zero. See Opaque Surface
(Radiative Beam in Absorbing Medium Interface) to take into account radiative
intensity absorption on boundaries.

Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media Theory

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media>Transparent Surface

Ribbon
Physics tab with Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media selected:

Boundaries>Transparent Surface

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 653

 Boundary Interface Features
The Heat Transfer interfaces have the following boundary interface nodes and
subnodes available:

• Deposited Beam Power, Interface • Surface-to-Ambient Radiation,

(Heat Transfer in Shells Interface) Interface (Heat Transfer in Shells
• Heat Flux, Interface (Heat Transfer Interface)
in Shells Interface) • Temperature, Interface (Heat
• Heat Source, Interface (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface)
Transfer in Shells Interface) • Thermal Contact, Interface (Heat
• Lumped System Connector, Transfer in Shells Interface)
Interface (Heat Transfer in Shells • Thermal Insulation, Interface (Heat
Interface) Transfer in Shells Interface)

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

Deposited Beam Power, Interface (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface)

This node models heat sources brought by narrow beams, such as laser or electron
beams, to the exterior interfaces of a shell and, for the case of a layered shell, to the
interfaces between its layers.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
Select the boundaries on which to apply the heat source.

In addition, select the Restrict to layered boundaries check box to make the node
applicable only if a layered material is defined on the boundary. If a layered material
(Material with Layer thickness specified, Single Layer Material, Layered Material Link, or
Layered Material Stack) is available, its name is then displayed beside the boundary
index (for example, slmat1), otherwise the boundary is marked as not applicable.

Note that when the Shell type is Nonlayered shell in the Shells Properties section of the
parent interface, the Restrict to layered boundaries check box is not editable.

654 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

INTERFACE SELECTION
Set the interfaces for which the heat source contribution should be applied. These can
be internal interfaces between layers or the top and bottom surfaces.

Different settings are available, depending on the settings in the Shell Properties
section of the parent interface:

• When the Shell type is Layered shell in the Shells Properties section of the parent
interface, the available options in the Apply to list are Top interface, Bottom interface,
Exterior interfaces, Interior interfaces, All interfaces, and Selected interfaces. With the
last option you can select any set of interfaces for a given layered material, by
clearing the check boxes corresponding to layer interfaces where the node should
not be applied in the Selection table. The top and bottom interfaces refer respectively
to the upside and downside of the boundary, defined from the orientation of the
normal vector. See Interface Selections for more details on the interfaces
identification.
• When the Shell type is Nonlayered shell in the Shells Properties section of the parent
interface, a single layer material is defined on the boundary, and the available
options in the Apply to list are Top interface, Bottom interface, and All interfaces. This
setting has no effect unless the temperature differs from one side of the boundary
to the other.
You can visualize the selected interfaces by clicking the Layer Cross Section Preview and
Layer 3D Preview buttons.

• For a general description of layer and interface selections, see Layer and
Interface Selection Tools.
• You can provide material parameters with a through-thickness variation
by using expressions containing the extra dimension coordinate as
described in Using the Extra Dimension Coordinates.

The desired selection for the node may correspond to boundaries with
different layered materials.

See Layered Material, Layered Material Link, Layered Material Stack,

Layered Material Link (Subnode), and Single-Layer Materials in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

BOUNDARY INTERFACE FEATURES | 655

 Upside and downside settings can be visualized by plotting the global
normal vector (nx, ny, nz), that always points from downside to upside.
Note that the normal vector (ht.nx, ht.ny, ht.nz) may be oriented
differently.

See Tangent and Normal Variables in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual.

BEAM ORIENTATION
Enter a value for the Beam orientation e. This vector does not need to be normalized.
In 2D axisymmetric components, it is aligned with the z-axis.

BEAM PROFILE
Either select an option for the Beam profile among the Built-in beam profiles, or set the
it as User defined by entering a value for the Beam power density, I0 (SI unit: W/m2).
The Beam power density corresponds to the beam intensity in the beam cross section.

For Built-in beam profiles, enter a value for the Deposited beam power P0 and the
coordinates of the Beam origin point O.

Then, select a Distribution type: Gaussian (default) or Top-hat disk.

• For Gaussian, enter the Standard deviation σ.

• For Top-hat disk, enter the Beam radius R. Smoothing can be applied by entering a
positive Size of transition zone ΔR. The default value of 0 m corresponds to an ideal
discontinuous top-hat profile.

The standard deviation of the Gaussian distribution and the radius of the
top-hat distribution can take values smaller than the mesh element size.
For more accurate results, it is important to refine the mesh enough at the
deposited heat source location. Otherwise, an automatic substitution
replaces the standard deviation σ or the beam radius R by the minimum
length to get acceptable results which depends on the mesh element size.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Shells>Interfaces>Deposited Beam Power, Interface
Heat Transfer in Films>Interfaces>Deposited Beam Power, Interface

656 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Heat Transfer in Fractures>Interfaces>Deposited Beam Power, Interface

Ribbon
Physics tab with Heat Transfer in Shells selected in the model tree:

Boundaries>Deposited Beam Power, Interface

Heat Flux, Interface (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface)

This node adds a heat flux q0 on the exterior interfaces of a shell and, for the case of a
layered shell, at the interfaces between its layers.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
Select the boundaries on which to apply the heat flux.

In addition, select the Restrict to layered boundaries check box to make the node
applicable only if a layered material is defined on the boundary. If a layered material
(Material with Layer thickness specified, Single Layer Material, Layered Material Link, or
Layered Material Stack) is available, its name is then displayed beside the boundary
index (for example, slmat1), otherwise the boundary is marked as not applicable.

Note that when the Shell type is Nonlayered shell in the Shells Properties section of the
parent interface, the Restrict to layered boundaries check box is not editable.

INTERFACE SELECTION
Set the interfaces for which the heat flux should be applied. These can be internal
interfaces between layers or the top and bottom surfaces.

Different settings are available, depending on the settings in the Shell Properties
section of the parent interface:

• When the Shell type is Layered shell in the Shells Properties section of the parent
interface, the available options in the Apply to list are Top interface, Bottom interface,
Exterior interfaces, All interfaces, and Selected interfaces. With the last option you can
select any set of interfaces for a given layered material, by clearing the check boxes
corresponding to layer interfaces where the node should not be applied in the
Selection table. The top and bottom interfaces refer respectively to the upside and
downside of the boundary, defined from the orientation of the normal vector. See
Interface Selections for more details on the interfaces identification.
• When the Shell type is Nonlayered shell in the Shells Properties section of the parent
interface, a single layer material is defined on the boundary, and the available
options in the Apply to list are Top interface, Bottom interface, and All interfaces. This

BOUNDARY INTERFACE FEATURES | 657

 setting has no effect unless the temperature differs from one side of the boundary
to the other.
You can visualize the selected interfaces by clicking the Layer Cross Section Preview and
Layer 3D Preview buttons.

• For a general description of layer and interface selections, see Layer and
Interface Selection Tools.
• You can provide material parameters with a through-thickness variation
by using expressions containing the extra dimension coordinate as
described in Using the Extra Dimension Coordinates.

The desired selection for the node may correspond to boundaries with
different layered materials.

See Layered Material, Layered Material Link, Layered Material Stack,

Layered Material Link (Subnode), and Single-Layer Materials in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Upside and downside settings can be visualized by plotting the global

normal vector (nx, ny, nz), that always points from downside to upside.
Note that the normal vector (ht.nx, ht.ny, ht.nz) may be oriented
differently.

See Tangent and Normal Variables in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual.

MATERIAL TYPE
Select an option in the Material type list to specify if the inputs of the Heat Flux section
are defined in the material or spatial frame:

• The Solid option specifies that the heat fluxes q0 is defined in the material frame.
Because the heat transfer variables and equations are defined in the spatial frame, the
inputs are internally converted to the spatial frame. See Conversion Between
Material and Spatial Frames for details.

658 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

• The default option for the Heat Flux node is Nonsolid, which defines q0 in the spatial
frame. No frame conversion is needed.
• The From material option uses the option selected in the Material type list of the
Material Properties section of the material applied on the domain on which the node
is active.

This option has no effect when the component does not contain a moving
frame because the material and spatial frames are identical in such cases.
With a Deformed Geometry or a Moving Mesh interface, the heat
transfer features automatically take into account deformation effects of
the material and spatial frames on heat transfer properties. In particular
the effects of volume changes on the density are considered. See
Handling Frames in Heat Transfer and Material and Spatial Frames for
details.

HEAT FLUX
These settings are the same as for the Heat Flux node.

In 2D the heat flux contribution is multiplied by dz to take into account

the out-of-plane thickness.

• Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

• Convective Heat Transfer Correlations

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Shells>Interfaces>Heat Flux, Interface
Heat Transfer in Films>Interfaces>Heat Flux, Interface
Heat Transfer in Fractures>Interfaces>Heat Flux, Interface

Ribbon
Physics tab with Heat Transfer in Shells selected in the model tree:

Boundaries>Heat Flux, Interface

BOUNDARY INTERFACE FEATURES | 659

 Heat Source, Interface (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface)
This node models a heat source (or sink) on the exterior interfaces of a shell and, for
the case of a layered shell, at the interfaces between its layers. It adds a heat source
q = Qb or q = Pb ⁄ A. A positive q is heating and a negative q is cooling.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
Select the boundaries on which to apply the heat source.

In addition, select the Restrict to layered boundaries check box to make the node
applicable only if a layered material is defined on the boundary. If a layered material
(Material with Layer thickness specified, Single Layer Material, Layered Material Link, or
Layered Material Stack) is available, its name is then displayed beside the boundary
index (for example, slmat1), otherwise the boundary is marked as not applicable.

Note that when the Shell type is Nonlayered shell in the Shells Properties section of the
parent interface, the Restrict to layered boundaries check box is not editable.

INTERFACE SELECTION
Set the interfaces for which the heat source contribution should be applied. These can
be internal interfaces between layers or the top and bottom surfaces.

Different settings are available, depending on the settings in the Shell Properties
section of the parent interface:

• When the Shell type is Layered shell in the Shells Properties section of the parent
interface, the available options in the Apply to list are Top interface, Bottom interface,
Exterior interfaces, Interior interfaces, All interfaces, and Selected interfaces. With the
last option you can select any set of interfaces for a given layered material, by
clearing the check boxes corresponding to layer interfaces where the node should
not be applied in the Selection table. The top and bottom interfaces refer respectively
to the upside and downside of the boundary, defined from the orientation of the
normal vector. See Interface Selections for more details on the interfaces
identification.
• When the Shell type is Nonlayered shell in the Shells Properties section of the parent
interface, a single layer material is defined on the boundary, and the available
options in the Apply to list are Top interface, Bottom interface, and All interfaces. This
setting has no effect unless the temperature differs from one side of the boundary
to the other.

660 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

You can visualize the selected interfaces by clicking the Layer Cross Section Preview and
Layer 3D Preview buttons.

• For a general description of layer and interface selections, see Layer and
Interface Selection Tools.
• You can provide material parameters with a through-thickness variation
by using expressions containing the extra dimension coordinate as
described in Using the Extra Dimension Coordinates.

The desired selection for the node may correspond to boundaries with
different layered materials.

See Layered Material, Layered Material Link, Layered Material Stack,

Layered Material Link (Subnode), and Single-Layer Materials in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Upside and downside settings can be visualized by plotting the global

normal vector (nx, ny, nz), that always points from downside to upside.
Note that the normal vector (ht.nx, ht.ny, ht.nz) may be oriented
differently.

See Tangent and Normal Variables in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual.

MATERIAL TYPE
Select an option in the Material type list to specify if the inputs of the Boundary Heat
Source section are defined in the material or spatial frame:

• The default option for the Heat Source node is Solid, which specifies that the heat
source Qb is defined in the material frame. Because the heat transfer variables and
equations are defined in the spatial frame, the inputs are internally converted to the
spatial frame. See Conversion Between Material and Spatial Frames for details.

BOUNDARY INTERFACE FEATURES | 661

 • The Nonsolid option defines Qb in the spatial frame. No frame conversion is needed.
• The From material option uses the option selected in the Material type list of the
Material Properties section of the material applied on the domain on which the node
is active.

This option has no effect when the component does not contain a moving
frame because the material and spatial frames are identical in such cases.
With a Deformed Geometry or a Moving Mesh interface, the heat
transfer features automatically take into account deformation effects of
the material and spatial frames on heat transfer properties. In particular
the effects of volume changes on the density are considered. See
Handling Frames in Heat Transfer and Material and Spatial Frames for
details.

BOUNDARY HEAT SOURCE

Click the General source (default) or Heat rate button.

For General source, enter the boundary heat source Qb. A positive Qb is heating and a
negative Qb is cooling.

For Heat rate enter the heat rate Pb. In this case Qb = Pb ⁄ A, where A is the total area
of the selected layers interface.

In 2D components, the equation contains an additional factor, dz, to take

into account the out-of-plane thickness. This is because the selected
points correspond to edges in a 3D geometry.

You can specify the source to be a harmonic perturbation in a frequency

domain analysis. To mark the source as being a harmonic perturbation,
right-click the node and choose Harmonic Perturbation. Note that this
updates the node’s icon. See Theory for Harmonic Heat Transfer for
more details.

• Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

• Handling Frames in Heat Transfer

662 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Shells>Interfaces>Heat Source, Interface
Heat Transfer in Films>Interfaces>Heat Source, Interface
Heat Transfer in Fractures>Interfaces>Heat Source, Interface

Ribbon
Physics tab with Heat Transfer in Shells selected in the model tree:

Boundaries>Heat Source, Interface

Lumped System Connector, Interface (Heat Transfer in Shells

Interface)
Use this node to connect the distributed finite element model to a thermal network.

The average temperature on the selected interface can be prescribed at a node of the
thermal network where an External Terminal feature of The Lumped Thermal System
Interface is applied.

In return, the heat rate defined at the node of the thermal network is applied on the
selected interface.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
Select the boundaries on which to apply the connector.

In addition, select the Restrict to layered boundaries check box to make the node
applicable only if a layered material is defined on the boundary. If a layered material
(Material with Layer thickness specified, Single Layer Material, Layered Material Link, or
Layered Material Stack) is available, its name is then displayed beside the boundary
index (for example, slmat1), otherwise the boundary is marked as not applicable.

Note that when the Shell type is Nonlayered shell in the Shells Properties section of the
parent interface, the Restrict to layered boundaries check box is not editable.

INTERFACE SELECTION
Set the interfaces for which the connector should be applied. These can be the top and
bottom surfaces of the layered material.

BOUNDARY INTERFACE FEATURES | 663

 Different settings are available, depending on the settings in the Shell Properties
section of the parent interface:

• When the Shell type is Layered shell in the Shells Properties section of the parent
interface, the available options in the Apply to list are Top interface, Bottom interface,
Exterior interfaces, and Selected interfaces. With the last option you can select the
interfaces for a given layered material, by clearing the check boxes corresponding to
layer interfaces where the node should not be applied in the Selection table. The top
and bottom interfaces refer respectively to the upside and downside of the
boundary, defined from the orientation of the normal vector. See Interface
Selections for more details on the interfaces identification.
• When the Shell type is Nonlayered shell in the Shells Properties section of the parent
interface, a single layer material is defined on the boundary, and the available
options in the Apply to list are Top interface, Bottom interface, and All interfaces.
You can visualize the selected interfaces by clicking the Layer Cross Section Preview and
Layer 3D Preview buttons.

• For a general description of layer and interface selections, see Layer and
Interface Selection Tools.
• You can provide material parameters with a through-thickness variation
by using expressions containing the extra dimension coordinate as
described in Using the Extra Dimension Coordinates.

The desired selection for the node may correspond to boundaries with
different layered materials.

See Layered Material, Layered Material Link, Layered Material Stack,

Layered Material Link (Subnode), and Single-Layer Materials in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Upside and downside settings can be visualized by plotting the global

normal vector (nx, ny, nz), that always points from downside to upside.
Note that the normal vector (ht.nx, ht.ny, ht.nz) may be oriented
differently.

See Tangent and Normal Variables in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual.

664 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

TERMINAL INPUTS
Select an External Terminal feature in the Source list to define which node of the thermal
network provides the heat rate Pext to be prescribed on the interface.

When the Isothermal terminal check box is not selected (default), the average
temperature on the interface is constrained to the temperature at the terminal node of
the thermal network. Select this check box to apply the constraint on the
space-dependent temperature instead, which corresponds to a stronger constraint.

Lumped Composite Thermal Barrier with Shells: Application Library

path Heat_Transfer_Module/Tutorials,_Thin_Structure/
lumped_composite_thermal_barrier_shells

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Shells>Interfaces>Lumped System Connector, Interface
Heat Transfer in Films>Interfaces>Lumped System Connector, Interface
Heat Transfer in Fractures>Interfaces>Lumped System Connector, Interface

Ribbon
Physics tab with Heat Transfer in Shells selected in the model tree:

Boundaries>Lumped System Connector, Interface

Surface-to-Ambient Radiation, Interface (Heat Transfer in Shells

Interface)
Use this node to add surface-to-ambient radiation on the exterior interfaces of a shell
and, for the case of a layered shell, at the interfaces between its layers. The net inward
heat flux due to surface-to-ambient radiation is

4 4
– n ⋅ q = εσ ( T amb – T )

where ε is the surface emissivity, σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (a predefined

physical constant), and Tamb is the ambient temperature.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
Select the boundaries on which to add surface-to-ambient radiation.

BOUNDARY INTERFACE FEATURES | 665

 In addition, select the Restrict to layered boundaries check box to make the node
applicable only if a layered material is defined on the boundary. If a layered material
(Material with Layer thickness specified, Single Layer Material, Layered Material Link, or
Layered Material Stack) is available, its name is then displayed beside the boundary
index (for example, slmat1), otherwise the boundary is marked as not applicable.

Note that when the Shell type is Nonlayered shell in the Shells Properties section of the
parent interface, the Restrict to layered boundaries check box is not editable.

INTERFACE SELECTION
Set the interfaces for which surface-to-surface radiation should be considered. These
can be internal interfaces between layers or the top and bottom surfaces.

Different settings are available, depending on the settings in the Shell Properties
section of the parent interface:

• When the Shell type is Layered shell in the Shells Properties section of the parent
interface, the available options in the Apply to list are Top interface, Bottom interface,
Exterior interfaces, Interior interfaces, All interfaces, and Selected interfaces. With the
last option you can select any set of interfaces for a given layered material, by
clearing the check boxes corresponding to layer interfaces where the node should
not be applied in the Selection table. The top and bottom interfaces refer respectively
to the upside and downside of the boundary, defined from the orientation of the
normal vector. See Interface Selections for more details on the interfaces
identification.
• When the Shell type is Nonlayered shell in the Shells Properties section of the parent
interface, a single layer material is defined on the boundary, and the available
options in the Apply to list are Top interface, Bottom interface, and All interfaces. This
setting has no effect unless the temperature differs from one side of the boundary
to the other.
You can visualize the selected interfaces by clicking the Layer Cross Section Preview and
Layer 3D Preview buttons.

• For a general description of layer and interface selections, see Layer and
Interface Selection Tools.
• You can provide material parameters with a through-thickness variation
by explicitly or implicitly using expressions containing the extra
dimension coordinate as described in Using the Extra Dimension
Coordinates.

666 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

 The desired selection for the node may correspond to boundaries with
different layered materials.

See Layered Material, Layered Material Link, Layered Material Stack,

Layered Material Link (Subnode), and Single-Layer Materials in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Upside and downside settings can be visualized by plotting the global

normal vector (nx, ny, nz), that always points from downside to upside.
Note that the normal vector (ht.nx, ht.ny, ht.nz) may be oriented
differently.

See Tangent and Normal Variables in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

Temperature
This section is available when material properties are temperature-dependent. By
default, the temperature of the parent interface is used and the section is not editable.
To edit the Temperature field, click Make All Model Inputs Editable ( ). The available
options are User defined (default), Common model input (the minput.T variable, set to
293.15 K by default) and all temperature variables from the physics interfaces included
in the model. To edit the minput.T variable, click the Go to Source button ( ), and
in the Default Model Inputs node under Global Definitions, set a value for the Temperature
in the Expression for remaining selection section.

SURFACE-TO-AMBIENT RADIATION

Surface Emissivity
The default Surface emissivity ε (a dimensionless number between 0 and 1) is taken
From layered material. For User defined, it should be specified. An emissivity of 0 means
that the surface emits no radiation at all while an emissivity of 1 means that it is a
perfect blackbody.

BOUNDARY INTERFACE FEATURES | 667

 Ambient Temperature
For User defined, enter an Ambient temperature Tamb. Else, select an Ambient
temperature defined in an Ambient Properties node under Definitions.

In 2D, the equation has an additional factor, dz, to take into account the
out-of-plane thickness.

Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Shells>Interfaces>Surface-to-Ambient Radiation, Interface
Heat Transfer in Films>Interfaces>Surface-to-Ambient Radiation, Interface
Heat Transfer in Fractures>Interfaces>Surface-to-Ambient Radiation, Interface

Ribbon
Physics tab with Heat Transfer in Shells selected in the model tree:

Boundaries>Surface-to-Ambient Radiation, Interface

Temperature, Interface (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface)

Use this node to specify the temperature on the exterior interfaces of a shell and, for
the case of a layered shell, at the interfaces between its layers.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
Select the boundaries on which to specify the temperature.

In addition, select the Restrict to layered boundaries check box to make the node
applicable only if a layered material is defined on the boundary. If a layered material
(Material with Layer thickness specified, Single Layer Material, Layered Material Link, or
Layered Material Stack) is available, its name is then displayed beside the boundary
index (for example, slmat1), otherwise the boundary is marked as not applicable.

Note that when the Shell type is Nonlayered shell in the Shells Properties section of the
parent interface, the Restrict to layered boundaries check box is not editable.

668 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

INTERFACE SELECTION
This section is available only when the Shell type is Layered shell in the Shells Properties
section of the parent physics interface.

Set the interfaces for which the temperature should be prescribed. These can be
internal interfaces between layers or the top and bottom surfaces.

The available options in the Apply to list are Top interface, Bottom interface, Exterior
interfaces, Interior interfaces, All interfaces, and Selected interfaces. With the last option
you can select any set of interfaces for a given layered material, by clearing the check
boxes corresponding to layer interfaces where the node should not be applied in the
Selection table. The top and bottom interfaces refer respectively to the upside and
downside of the boundary, defined from the orientation of the normal vector. See
Interface Selections for more details on the interfaces identification.

You can visualize the selected interfaces by clicking the Layer Cross Section Preview and
Layer 3D Preview buttons.

• For a general description of layer and interface selections, see Layer and
Interface Selection Tools.
• You can provide material parameters with a through-thickness variation
by using expressions containing the extra dimension coordinate as
described in Using the Extra Dimension Coordinates.

The desired selection for the node may correspond to boundaries with
different layered materials.

See Layered Material, Layered Material Link, Layered Material Stack,

Layered Material Link (Subnode), and Single-Layer Materials in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Upside and downside settings can be visualized by plotting the global

normal vector (nx, ny, nz), that always points from downside to upside.
Note that the normal vector (ht.nx, ht.ny, ht.nz) may be oriented
differently.

See Tangent and Normal Variables in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual.

BOUNDARY INTERFACE FEATURES | 669

 TEMPERATURE
For User defined, enter a value or expression for the Temperature T0. Else, select an
Ambient temperature defined in an Ambient Properties node under Definitions.

The equation for this condition is T = T0 where T0 is the prescribed temperature.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options.

You can specify a harmonic variation of the temperature value in a

frequency domain analysis of perturbation type, by adding a Harmonic
Perturbation subnode. See Theory for Harmonic Heat Transfer for more
details.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Shells>Interfaces>Temperature, Interface
Heat Transfer in Films>Interfaces>Temperature, Interface
Heat Transfer in Fractures>Interfaces>Temperature, Interface

Ribbon
Physics tab with Heat Transfer in Shells selected in the model tree:

Boundaries>Temperature, Interface

Thermal Contact, Interface (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface)

Use this node to specify thermal contact at the internal interfaces between the layers
of a layered shell. The surfaces asperities of the interfaces and the fluid gap between
these surfaces are represented by an equivalent thin layer, for which the thermal
conductance should be specified. This node is available only when the Shell type is
Layered shell in the Shells Properties section of the parent physics interface.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
Select the boundaries on which to specify the thermal contact. If a layered material
(Material with Layer thickness specified, Single Layer Material, Layered Material Link, or
Layered Material Stack) is available, its name is then displayed beside the boundary
index (for example, slmat1), otherwise the boundary is marked as not applicable.

670 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

INTERFACE SELECTION
Set the interfaces for which the thermal contact should be prescribed. These can be
only internal interfaces between layers.

The available options in the Apply to list are Interior interfaces and Selected interfaces.
With the second option you can select any set of internal interfaces for a given layered
material, by clearing the check boxes corresponding to layer interfaces where the node
should not be applied in the Selection table. See Interface Selections for more details
on the interfaces identification.

You can visualize the selected interfaces by clicking the Layer Cross Section Preview and
Layer 3D Preview buttons.

• For a general description of layer and interface selections, see Layer and
Interface Selection Tools.
• You can provide material parameters with a through-thickness variation
by using expressions containing the extra dimension coordinate as
described in Using the Extra Dimension Coordinates.

The desired selection for the node may correspond to boundaries with
different layered materials.

See Layered Material, Layered Material Link, Layered Material Stack,

Layered Material Link (Subnode), and Single-Layer Materials in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Upside and downside settings can be visualized by plotting the global

normal vector (nx, ny, nz), that always points from downside to upside.
Note that the normal vector (ht.nx, ht.ny, ht.nz) may be oriented
differently.

See Tangent and Normal Variables in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

BOUNDARY INTERFACE FEATURES | 671

 Temperature
This section is available when material properties are temperature-dependent. By
default, the temperature of the parent interface is used and the section is not editable.
To edit the Temperature field, click Make All Model Inputs Editable ( ). The available
options are User defined (default), Common model input (the minput.T variable, set to
293.15 K by default) and all temperature variables from the physics interfaces included
in the model. To edit the minput.T variable, click the Go to Source button ( ), and
in the Default Model Inputs node under Global Definitions, set a value for the Temperature
in the Expression for remaining selection section.

THERMAL CONTACT
The available options to specify the resistive behavior of the gap are Gap resistance
(default), Gap conductance, and Gap thermal conductivity and thickness. Depending on
the selected option, enter values or expressions for the Gap resistance, Req, the Gap
conductance, heq, the Gap thermal conductivity, keq, and the Gap thickness, ds.

Radiative Conductance
The radiative conductance should be considered at high temperatures, above 600°C.
Choose the Radiative conductance: User defined (default) or Gray-diffuse parallel
surfaces. For User defined enter a value for hr.

RADIATIVE CONDUCTANCE
This section is available when Gray-diffuse parallel surfaces is selected as the Radiative
conductance under Thermal Contact.

By default the Surface emissivity, upside and the Surface emissivity, downside, εu and εd,
are taken From material. For User defined enter another value or expression.

Theory for Thermal Contact

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Shells>Interfaces>Thermal Contact, Interface
Heat Transfer in Films>Interfaces>Thermal Contact, Interface
Heat Transfer in Fractures>Interfaces>Thermal Contact, Interface

Ribbon
Physics tab with Heat Transfer in Shells selected in the model tree:

672 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Boundaries>Thermal Contact, Interface

Thermal Insulation, Interface (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface)

Use this node to specify thermal insulation on the exterior interfaces of a shell and, for
the case of a layered shell, at the interfaces between its layers.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
Select the boundaries on which to specify the thermal insulation. If a layered material
(Material with Layer thickness specified, Single Layer Material, Layered Material Link, or
Layered Material Stack) is available, its name is then displayed beside the boundary
index (for example, slmat1), otherwise the boundary is marked as not applicable.

INTERFACE SELECTION
Set the interfaces for which the thermal insulation should be prescribed. These can be
internal interfaces between layers or the top and bottom surfaces.

Different settings are available, depending on the settings in the Shell Properties
section of the parent interface:

• When the Shell type is Layered shell in the Shells Properties section of the parent
interface, the available options in the Apply to list are Top interface, Bottom interface,
Exterior interfaces, Interior interfaces, All interfaces, and Selected interfaces. With the
last option you can select any set of interfaces for a given layered material, by
clearing the check boxes corresponding to layer interfaces where the node should
not be applied in the Selection table. The top and bottom interfaces refer respectively
to the upside and downside of the boundary, defined from the orientation of the
normal vector. See Interface Selections for more details on the interfaces
identification.
• When the Shell type is Nonlayered shell in the Shells Properties section of the parent
interface, a single layer material is defined on the boundary, and the available
options in the Apply to list are Top interface, Bottom interface, and All interfaces.

BOUNDARY INTERFACE FEATURES | 673

 You can visualize the selected interfaces by clicking the Layer Cross Section Preview and
Layer 3D Preview buttons.

• For a general description of layer and interface selections, see Layer and
Interface Selection Tools.
• You can provide material parameters with a through-thickness variation
by using expressions containing the extra dimension coordinate as
described in Using the Extra Dimension Coordinates.

The desired selection for the node may correspond to boundaries with
different layered materials.

See Layered Material, Layered Material Link, Layered Material Stack,

Layered Material Link (Subnode), and Single-Layer Materials in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Upside and downside settings can be visualized by plotting the global

normal vector (nx, ny, nz), that always points from downside to upside.
Note that the normal vector (ht.nx, ht.ny, ht.nz) may be oriented
differently.

See Tangent and Normal Variables in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Shells>Interfaces>Thermal Insulation, Interface
Heat Transfer in Films>Interfaces>Thermal Insulation, Interface
Heat Transfer in Fractures>Interfaces>Thermal Insulation, Interface

Ribbon
Physics tab with Heat Transfer in Shells selected in the model tree:

Boundaries>Thermal Insulation, Interface

674 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Edge Features
The Heat Transfer interfaces have the following edge nodes and subnodes available:

• Heat Flux (Heat Transfer in Shells • Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin

Interface) Layer, Thin Film, Fracture, and
• Heat Flux (Thin Layer, Thin Film, Heat Transfer in Shells Interface)
Fracture) • Symmetry (Thin Layer, Thin Film,
• Heat Source (Heat Transfer in Shells Fracture, and Heat Transfer in Shells
Interface) Interface)

• Line Heat Source • Temperature (Thin Layer, Thin

Film, Fracture, and Heat Transfer in
• Lumped System Connector (Heat
Shells Interface)
Transfer in Shells Interface)
• Thermal Insulation (Thin Layer,
• Shell Continuity (Heat Transfer
Thin Film, Fracture, and Heat
Interface) and Continuity (Heat
Transfer in Shells Interface)
Transfer in Shells Interface)
• Thin Rod

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

Heat Flux (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface)

Use this node to add heat flux across boundaries of a shell. A positive heat flux adds
heat to the domain. This feature adds a heat source (or sink) to edges. It adds a heat
flux q = q0.

EDGE SELECTION
Select the edges on which to apply the heat flux. The Restrict to layered edges check
box makes the node applicable only if a layered material is defined on the edge. If a
layered material (Material with Layer thickness specified, Single Layer Material, Layered
Material Link, or Layered Material Stack) is available, its name is then displayed beside
the edge index (for example, slmat1), otherwise the edge is marked as not applicable.

EDGE FEATURES | 675

 Note that when the Shell type is Nonlayered shell in the Shells Properties section of the
parent interface, the Restrict to layered boundaries check box is not editable.

In addition, in 2D, edges are modeled as points and this section is named Point
Selection, containing a Restrict to layered points check box.

SHELL PROPERTIES
Different settings are available, depending on the settings in the Shell Properties
section of the parent interface:

• When the Shell type is Layered shell in the Shells Properties section of the parent
interface, the same layered material is used in the Heat Flux node, but you can limit
the contribution to individually selected layers by clearing the Use all layers check
box. For a given Layered Material Link or Layered Material Stack, you get access to a
list of check boxes for the selection of the individual layers.
• When the Shell type is Nonlayered shell in the Shells Properties section of the parent
interface, the Thikness is From physics interface in the Heat Flux node. You can change
to User defined and override the interface setting with a specific value or expression
for Lth.

You can visualize the selected layered materials and layers in each layered material by
clicking the Layer Cross Section Preview and Layer 3D Preview buttons.

• For a general description of layer and interface selections, see Layer and
Interface Selection Tools.
• You can provide material parameters with a through-thickness variation
by using expressions containing the extra dimension coordinate as
described in Using the Extra Dimension Coordinates.

The desired selection for the node may correspond to boundaries with
different layered materials.

See Layered Material, Layered Material Link, Layered Material Stack,

Layered Material Link (Subnode), and Single-Layer Materials in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

676 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

MATERIAL TYPE
Select an option in the Material type list to specify if the inputs of the Heat Flux section
are defined in the material or spatial frame:

• The Solid option specifies that the heat flux q0 is defined in the material frame.
Because the heat transfer variables and equations are defined in the spatial frame, the
inputs are internally converted to the spatial frame. See Conversion Between
Material and Spatial Frames for details.
• The default option for the Heat Flux node is Nonsolid, which defines q0 in the spatial
frame. No frame conversion is needed.
• The From material option uses the option selected in the Material type list of the
Material Properties section of the material applied on the domain on which the node
is active.

This option has no effect when the component does not contain a moving
frame because the material and spatial frames are identical in such cases.
With a Deformed Geometry or a Moving Mesh interface, the heat
transfer features automatically take into account deformation effects of
the material and spatial frames on heat transfer properties. In particular
the effects of volume changes on the density are considered. See
Handling Frames in Heat Transfer and Material and Spatial Frames for
details.

HEAT FLUX
These settings are the same as for the Heat Flux (Thin Layer, Thin Film, Fracture)
node available for the other interfaces.

In 2D, q = dzq0 to take into account the out-of-plane thickness.

• Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

• Handling Frames in Heat Transfer

Shell Conduction: Application Library path Heat_Transfer_Module/

Tutorials,_Thin_Structure/shell_conduction

EDGE FEATURES | 677

 LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Shells>Heat Flux

Ribbon
Physics tab with Heat Transfer in Shells selected:

Egdes>Heat Flux

Heat Flux (Thin Layer, Thin Film, Fracture)

Use this subnode to add heat flux across boundaries of a thin layer, a thin film or a
fracture. A positive heat flux adds heat to the layer.

EDGE SELECTION
Select the edges on which to apply the heat flux. The Restrict to layered edges check
box makes the node applicable only if a layered material is defined on the edge. If a
layered material (Material with Layer thickness specified, Single Layer Material, Layered
Material Link, or Layered Material Stack) is available, its name is then displayed beside
the edge index (for example, slmat1), otherwise the edge is marked as not applicable.

Note that when the Shell type is Nonlayered shell in the Shells Properties section of the
parent node, the Restrict to layered boundaries check box is not editable.

In addition, in 2D, edges are modeled as points and this section is named Point
Selection, containing a Restrict to layered points check box.

SHELL PROPERTIES
Different settings are available, depending on the settings in the Shell Properties
section of the parent node:

• When the Shell type is Layered shell in the Shells Properties section of the parent
node, the same layered material is used in the Heat Flux node. This option is not
editable, but you can limit the contribution to individually selected layers by clearing
the Use all layers check box. For a given Layered Material Link or Layered Material
Stack, you get access to a list of check boxes for the selection of the individual layers.
• When the Shell type is Nonlayered shell in the Shells Properties section of the parent
interface, the Thickness is taken From parent feature in the Heat Flux node. You can
change to User defined and override the parent node setting with a specific value or
expression for Lth.

678 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

You can visualize the selected layered materials and layers in each layered material by
clicking the Layer Cross Section Preview and Layer 3D Preview buttons.

• For a general description of layer and interface selections, see Layer and
Interface Selection Tools.
• You can provide material parameters with a through-thickness variation
by using expressions containing the extra dimension coordinate as
described in Using the Extra Dimension Coordinates.

The desired selection for the node may correspond to boundaries with
different layered materials.

See Layered Material, Layered Material Link, Layered Material Stack,

Layered Material Link (Subnode), and Single-Layer Materials in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

MATERIAL TYPE
Select an option in the Material type list to specify if the inputs of the Heat Flux section
are defined in the material or spatial frame:

• The Solid option specifies that the heat flux q0 is defined in the material frame.
Because the heat transfer variables and equations are defined in the spatial frame, the
inputs are internally converted to the spatial frame. See Conversion Between
Material and Spatial Frames for details.

EDGE FEATURES | 679

 • The default option for the Heat Flux subnode is Nonsolid, which defines q0 in the
spatial frame. No frame conversion is needed.
• The From material option uses the option selected in the Material type list of the
Material Properties section of the material applied on the domain on which the node
is active.

This option has no effect when the component does not contain a moving
frame because the material and spatial frames are identical in such cases.
With a Deformed Geometry or a Moving Mesh interface, the heat
transfer features automatically take into account deformation effects of
the material and spatial frames on heat transfer properties. In particular
the effects of volume changes on the density are considered. See
Handling Frames in Heat Transfer and Material and Spatial Frames for
details.

HEAT FLUX
The options available in the Flux type list are: General inward heat flux (default),
Convective heat flux, Nucleate boiling heat flux, and Heat rate (3D components only)
button.

• If General inward heat flux is selected, it adds q0 to the total flux across the selected
edges. Enter a value for q0 to represent a heat flux that enters the layer. For example,
any electric heater is well represented by this condition and its geometry can be
omitted.
• If Convective heat flux is selected, it adds q0 in the form q0 = h ⋅ (Text − T). Enter the
Heat transfer coefficient h and the External temperature Text. This latter value
depends on the geometry and the ambient flow conditions. For User defined, enter
a value or expression. Else, select an Ambient temperature defined in an Ambient
Properties node under Definitions. This option is only available when the Layer type
is Thermally thin approximation or General in the parent feature.
• If Nucleate boiling heat flux is selected, it adds q0 estimated with the Rohsenow’s
correlation. See Nucleate Boiling Heat Flux for the settings. This option is only

680 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

 available when the Layer type is Thermally thin approximation or General in the parent
feature.
• 3D Components: If Heat rate is selected, it adds q0 in the form q0 = P0 ⁄ A where A
is equal to the area of the edge selection. Enter the heat rate P0.

• Thin Layer (Heat Transfer Interface) and Solid (Heat Transfer in Shells
Interface)
• Thin Film (Heat Transfer Interface) and Fluid (Heat Transfer in Shells
Interface)
• Fracture (Heat Transfer Interface) and Porous Medium (Heat Transfer
in Shells Interface)
• Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures
• Handling Frames in Heat Transfer

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids>Thin Layer>Heat Flux
Heat Transfer in Solids>Thin Film>Heat Flux
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Fracture>Heat Flux

Ribbon
Physics tab with Thin Layer, Thin Film, or Fracture selected in the model tree:

Attributes>Heat Flux

Heat Source (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface)

This node models a linear heat source (or sink). It adds a heat source q = Qb or
q = Pb ⁄ A. A positive q is heating and a negative q is cooling.

EDGE SELECTION
Select the edges on which to apply the heat source. The Restrict to layered edges check
box makes the node applicable only if a layered material is defined on the edge. If a
layered material (Material with Layer thickness specified, Single Layer Material, Layered
Material Link, or Layered Material Stack) is available, its name is then displayed beside
the edge index (for example, slmat1), otherwise the edge is marked as not applicable.

EDGE FEATURES | 681

 Note that when the Shell type is Nonlayered shell in the Shells Properties section of the
parent interface, the Restrict to layered boundaries check box is not editable.

In addition, in 2D, edges are modeled as points and this section is named Point
Selection, containing a Restrict to layered points check box.

SHELL PROPERTIES
Different settings are available, depending on the settings in the Shell Properties
section of the parent interface:

• When the Shell type is Layered shell in the Shells Properties section of the parent
interface, the same layered material is used in the Heat Source node, but you can limit
the contribution to individually selected layers by clearing the Use all layers check
box. For a given Layered Material Link or Layered Material Stack, you get access to a
list of check boxes for the selection of the individual layers.
• When the Shell type is Nonlayered shell in the Shells Properties section of the parent
interface, the Thickness is taken From physics interface in the Heat Source node. You
can change to User defined and override the interface setting with a specific value or
expression for Lth.

You can visualize the selected layered materials and layers in each layered material by
clicking the Layer Cross Section Preview and Layer 3D Preview buttons.

• For a general description of layer and interface selections, see Layer and
Interface Selection Tools.
• You can provide material parameters with a through-thickness variation
by using expressions containing the extra dimension coordinate as
described in Using the Extra Dimension Coordinates.

The desired selection for the node may correspond to boundaries with
different layered materials.

See Layered Material, Layered Material Link, Layered Material Stack,

Layered Material Link (Subnode), and Single-Layer Materials in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

682 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

MATERIAL TYPE
Select an option in the Material type list to specify if the inputs of the Heat Source
section are defined in the material or spatial frame:

• The default option for the Heat Source node is Solid, which specifies that the heat
source Qb is defined in the material frame. Because the heat transfer variables and
equations are defined in the spatial frame, the inputs are internally converted to the
spatial frame. See Conversion Between Material and Spatial Frames for details.
• The Nonsolid option defines Qb in the spatial frame. No frame conversion is needed.
• The From material option uses the option selected in the Material type list of the
Material Properties section of the material applied on the domain on which the node
is active.

This option has no effect when the component does not contain a moving
frame because the material and spatial frames are identical in such cases.
With a Deformed Geometry or a Moving Mesh interface, the heat
transfer features automatically take into account deformation effects of
the material and spatial frames on heat transfer properties. In particular
the effects of volume changes on the density are considered. See
Handling Frames in Heat Transfer and Material and Spatial Frames for
details.

BOUNDARY HEAT SOURCE

Select an option from the Heat Source list:

For General source (default), enter the boundary heat source Qb. A positive Qb is
heating and a negative Qb is cooling.

For Heat rate enter the heat rate Pb. In this case Qb = Pb ⁄ A, where A is the total area
of the selected edges (where A is the product of the layer’s thickness ds by the total
length of the selected edges).

In 2D components, the equation contains an additional factor, dz, to take

into account the out-of-plane thickness. This is because the selected
points correspond to edges in a 3D geometry.

EDGE FEATURES | 683

 You can specify the source to be a harmonic perturbation in a frequency
domain analysis. To mark the source as being a harmonic perturbation,
right-click the node and choose Harmonic Perturbation. Note that this
updates the node’s icon. See Theory for Harmonic Heat Transfer for
more details.

• Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

• Handling Frames in Heat Transfer

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Shells>Heat Source
Heat Transfer in Films>Heat Source
Heat Transfer in Fractures>Heat Source

Ribbon
Physics tab with Heat Transfer in Shells selected:

Edges>Heat Source

Line Heat Source

This node models a heat source (or sink) that is so thin that it has no thickness in the
model geometry. It is available in 3D on edges. In 2D and 2D axisymmetric, it is
available on points.

In theory, the temperature in a line source in 3D is plus or minus infinity (to

compensate for the fact that the heat source does not have any volume). The finite
element discretization used in COMSOL Multiphysics returns a finite temperature
distribution along the line, but that distribution must be interpreted in a weak sense.

MATERIAL TYPE
Select an option in the Material type list to specify if the inputs of the Line Heat Source
section are defined in the material or spatial frame:

• The default option for the Line Heat Source node is Solid, which specifies that the heat
source Ql is defined in the material frame. Because the heat transfer variables and

684 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

 equations are defined in the spatial frame, the inputs are internally converted to the
spatial frame. See Conversion Between Material and Spatial Frames for details.
• The Nonsolid option defines Ql in the spatial frame. No frame conversion is needed.
• The From material option uses the option selected in the Material type list of the
Material Properties section of the material applied on the domain on which the node
is active.

This option has no effect when the component does not contain a moving
frame because the material and spatial frames are identical in such cases.
With a Deformed Geometry or a Moving Mesh interface, the heat
transfer features automatically take into account deformation effects of
the material and spatial frames on heat transfer properties. In particular
the effects of volume changes on the density are considered. See
Handling Frames in Heat Transfer and Material and Spatial Frames for
details.

LINE HEAT SOURCE

Select an option in the Heat source list:

• If General source (default) is selected, enter a value for the distributed heat source,
Ql in unit power per unit length. A positive Ql corresponds to heating while a
negative Ql corresponds to cooling.
• If Heat rate is selected, enter the heat rate Pl.

HEAT SOURCE RADIUS

With the Heat Transfer Module, you can model the heat source explicitly and apply it
on a cylinder around the line. This section is not available when the node is added
under the Thin Rod feature.

Select the Specify heat source radius check box to define the Heat source radius R. This
averages the source on a cylinder of given radius around the line. This option avoids
obtaining an increasing temperature value at the line when meshing finer than this
radius. It makes use of the diskavg operator for averaging around the source.

See Built-In Operators in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

for additional information about the diskavg operator.

EDGE FEATURES | 685

 You can specify the source to be a harmonic perturbation in a frequency
domain analysis. To mark the source as being a harmonic perturbation,
right-click the node and choose Harmonic Perturbation. Note that this
updates the node’s icon. See Theory for Harmonic Heat Transfer for
more details.

• Handling Frames in Heat Transfer

• About the Heat Transfer Interfaces

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids>support >Line Heat Source
Heat Transfer in Solids>support>Line Heat Source
Heat Transfer in Fluids>support >Line Heat Source
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>support >Line Heat Source
Bioheat Transfer>support >Line Heat Source
Heat Transfer in Solids>support>Thin Rod>Line Heat Source

Ribbon
Physics tab with Heat Transfer, Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in Fluids, Heat
Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials, or Bioheat Transfer selected:

support >Line Heat Source

support >Thin Rod>Line Heat Source

with support as Egdes in 3D and Points in 2D.

Lumped System Connector (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface)

Use this node to connect the distributed finite element model to a thermal network.

The average temperature on the selected edge can be prescribed at a node of the
thermal network where an External Terminal feature of The Lumped Thermal System
Interface is applied.

In return, the heat rate defined at the node of the thermal network is applied on the
selected edge.

686 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

EDGE SELECTION
Select the edges on which to apply the connector. The Restrict to layered edges check
box makes the node applicable only if a layered material is defined on the edge. If a
layered material (Material with Layer thickness specified, Single Layer Material, Layered
Material Link, or Layered Material Stack) is available, its name is then displayed beside
the edge index (for example, slmat1), otherwise the edge is marked as not applicable.

Note that when the Shell type is Nonlayered shell in the Shells Properties section of the
parent interface, the Restrict to layered boundaries check box is not editable.

In addition, in 2D, edges are modeled as points and this section is named Point
Selection, containing a Restrict to layered points check box.

SHELL PROPERTIES
Different settings are available, depending on the settings in the Shell Properties
section of the parent interface:

• When the Shell type is Layered shell in the Shells Properties section of the parent
interface, the same layered material is used in the Lumped System Connector node,
but you can limit the contribution to individually selected layers by clearing the Use
all layers check box. For a given Layered Material Link or Layered Material Stack, you
get access to a list of check boxes for the selection of the individual layers.
• When the Shell type is Nonlayered shell in the Shells Properties section of the parent
interface, the Thickness is From physics interface in the Lumped System Connector
node. You can change to User defined and override the interface setting with a
specific value or expression for Lth.

You can visualize the selected layered materials and layers in each layered material by
clicking the Layer Cross Section Preview and Layer 3D Preview buttons.

• For a general description of layer and interface selections, see Layer and
Interface Selection Tools.
• You can provide material parameters with a through-thickness variation
by using expressions containing the extra dimension coordinate as
described in Using the Extra Dimension Coordinates.

EDGE FEATURES | 687

 The desired selection for the node may correspond to boundaries with
different layered materials.

See Layered Material, Layered Material Link, Layered Material Stack,

Layered Material Link (Subnode), and Single-Layer Materials in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

TERMINAL INPUTS
Select an External Terminal feature in the Source list to define which node of the thermal
network provides the heat rate Pext to be prescribed on the edge.

When the Isothermal terminal check box is not selected (default), the average
temperature on the edge is constrained to the temperature at the terminal node of the
thermal network. Select this check box to apply the constraint on the space-dependent
temperature instead, which corresponds to a stronger constraint.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Shells>Lumped System Connector

Ribbon
Physics tab with Heat Transfer in Shells selected:

Egdes>Lumped System Connector

Shell Continuity (Heat Transfer Interface) and Continuity (Heat

Transfer in Shells Interface)
Use this node to specify the side-by-side continuity conditions on the temperature field
at an edge between two layered materials. By default, the temperature is discontinuous
at the interface between two layered materials.

LAYER SELECTION
Select Source and Destination layered materials from the drop-down lists. This makes
the node applicable on the edges adjacent to both selected layered materials. Click the
Layer Cross Section Preview button to visualize the settings.

688 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options.

See Layered Material, Layered Material Link, Layered Material Stack,

Layered Material Link (Subnode), and Single-Layer Materials in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for details on the definition
of layered materials.

The definition of coinciding layer meshes at the continuity interface

results in a more robust continuity condition. See the Mesh elements
settings in the Layer Definition sections of the concerned Single Layer
Material and Layered Material.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids>Shell Continuity
Heat Transfer in Shells>Continuity
Heat Transfer in Films>Continuity
Heat Transfer in Fractures>Continuity

Ribbon
Physics tab with Heat Transfer in Solids selected in the model tree:

Egdes>Shell Continuity

Physics tab with Heat Transfer in Shells selected in the model tree:

Egdes>Continuity

Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin Layer, Thin Film, Fracture,

and Heat Transfer in Shells Interface)
Use this subnode to add surface-to-ambient radiation to lines (geometrical edges in
3D or geometrical points in 2D and 2D axisymmetric) that represent thin boundaries
of a thin layer, a thin film, or a fracture.

The net inward heat flux from surface-to-ambient radiation is

EDGE FEATURES | 689

 4 4
– n ⋅ q = εσ ( T amb – T )

where ε is the surface emissivity, σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (a predefined

physical constant), and Tamb is the ambient temperature.

EDGE SELECTION
Select the edges on which to add surface-to-ambient radiation. The Restrict to layered
edges check box makes the node applicable only if a layered material is defined on the
edge. If a layered material (Material with Layer thickness specified, Single Layer Material,
Layered Material Link, or Layered Material Stack) is available, its name is then displayed
beside the edge index (for example, slmat1), otherwise the edge is marked as not
applicable.

Note that when the Shell type is Nonlayered shell in the Shells Properties section of the
parent interface or node, the Restrict to layered boundaries check box is not editable.

In addition, in 2D, edges are modeled as points and this section is named Point
Selection, containing a Restrict to layered points check box.

SHELL PROPERTIES
Different settings are available, depending on the settings in the Shell Properties
section of the parent interface or node:

• When the Shell type is Layered shell in the Shells Properties section of the parent
interface, the same layered material is used in the Surface-to-Ambient Radiation node,
but you can limit the contribution to individually selected layers by clearing the Use
all layers check box. For a given Layered Material Link or Layered Material Stack, you
get access to a list of check boxes for the selection of the individual layers.
• When the Shell type is Nonlayered shell in the Shells Properties section of the parent
interface or node, the Thickness is taken From physics interface (or From parent
feature) in the Surface-to-ambient radiation node. You can change to User defined and
override the parent node setting with a specific value or expression for Lth.

690 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

You can visualize the selected layered materials and layers in each layered material by
clicking the Layer Cross Section Preview and Layer 3D Preview buttons.

The desired selection for the node may correspond to boundaries with
different layered materials.

See Layered Material, Layered Material Link, Layered Material Stack,

Layered Material Link (Subnode), and Single-Layer Materials in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

Temperature
This section is available when material properties are temperature-dependent. By
default, the temperature of the parent interface is used and the section is not editable.
To edit the Temperature field, click Make All Model Inputs Editable ( ). The available
options are User defined (default), Common model input (the minput.T variable, set to
293.15 K by default) and all temperature variables from the physics interfaces included
in the model. To edit the minput.T variable, click the Go to Source button ( ), and
in the Default Model Inputs node under Global Definitions, set a value for the Temperature
in the Expression for remaining selection section.

SURFACE-TO-AMBIENT RADIATION

Ambient Temperature
For User defined, enter an Ambient temperature Tamb. The default value is
approximately room temperature, 293.15 K (20ºC). Else, select an Ambient
temperature defined in an Ambient Properties node under Definitions.

Surface Emissivity
The default Surface emissivity ε (a dimensionless number between 0 and 1) is taken
From material. For User defined, it should be specified. An emissivity of 0 means that

EDGE FEATURES | 691

 the surface emits no radiation at all while an emissivity of 1 means that it is a perfect
blackbody.

• Thin Layer (Heat Transfer Interface) and Solid (Heat Transfer in Shells
Interface)
• Thin Film (Heat Transfer Interface) and Fluid (Heat Transfer in Shells
Interface)
• Fracture (Heat Transfer Interface) and Porous Medium (Heat Transfer
in Shells Interface)
• Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids>Thin Layer>Surface-to-Ambient Radiation
Heat Transfer in Solids>Thin Film>Surface-to-Ambient Radiation
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Fracture>Surface-to-Ambient Radiation
Heat Transfer in Shells>Surface-to-Ambient Radiation

Ribbon
Physics tab with Thin Layer, Thin Film, or Fracture selected in the model tree:

Attributes>Surface-to-Ambient Radiation

Physics tab with Heat Transfer in Shells selected:

Egdes>Surface-to-Ambient Radiation

Symmetry (Thin Layer, Thin Film, Fracture, and Heat Transfer in

Shells Interface)
This node provides a no flux condition for symmetry edges, similar to a Thermal
Insulation (Thin Layer, Thin Film, Fracture, and Heat Transfer in Shells Interface)
condition.

It can be applied to exterior edges (3D) or points (2D and 2D axisymmetric) adjacent
to the boundaries selected in the parent interface.

692 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

EDGE SELECTION
Select the exterior edges on which to apply the symmetry condition. The Restrict to
layered edges check box makes the node applicable only if a layered material is defined
on the edge. If a layered material (Material with Layer thickness specified, Single Layer
Material, Layered Material Link, or Layered Material Stack) is available, its name is then
displayed beside the edge index (for example, slmat1), otherwise the edge is marked
as not applicable.

Note that when the Shell type is Nonlayered shell in the Shells Properties section of the
parent interface, the Restrict to layered boundaries check box is not editable.

In addition, in 2D, edges are modeled as points and this section is named Point
Selection, containing a Restrict to layered points check box.

The desired selection for the node may correspond to boundaries with
different layered materials.

See Layered Material, Layered Material Link, Layered Material Stack,

Layered Material Link (Subnode), and Single-Layer Materials in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

SHELL PROPERTIES
This section is available only when the Shell type is Layered shell in the Shells Properties
section of the parent interface. You can limit the contribution to some layered materials
(but not individually selected layers) by clearing the Use all layers check box.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Shells>Symmetry
Heat Transfer in Films>Symmetry
Heat Transfer in Fractures>Symmetry

Ribbon
Physics tab with Heat Transfer in Shells selected in the model tree:

Egdes>Symmetry

EDGE FEATURES | 693

 Temperature (Thin Layer, Thin Film, Fracture, and Heat Transfer in
Shells Interface)
Use this subnode to specify the temperature on a set of lines (geometrical edges in 3D
or geometrical points in 2D and 2D axisymmetric) that represent the boundaries of a
thin domain (layer, film, fracture, or shell). Only edges (3D) or points (2D and 2D
axisymmetric) adjacent to the boundaries can be selected in the parent node.

EDGE SELECTION
Select the edges on which to specify the temperature. The Restrict to layered edges
check box makes the node applicable only if a layered material is defined on the edge.
If a layered material (Material with Layer thickness specified, Single Layer Material,
Layered Material Link, or Layered Material Stack) is available, its name is then displayed
beside the edge index (for example, slmat1), otherwise the edge is marked as not
applicable.

Note that when the Shell type is Nonlayered shell in the Shells Properties section of the
parent interface or node, the Restrict to layered boundaries check box is not editable.

In addition, in 2D, edges are modeled as points and this section is named Point
Selection, containing a Restrict to layered points check box.

The desired selection for the node may correspond to boundaries with
different layered materials.

See Layered Material, Layered Material Link, Layered Material Stack,

Layered Material Link (Subnode), and Single-Layer Materials in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

SHELL PROPERTIES
This section is available only when the Shell type is Layered shell in the Shells Properties
section of the parent interface or node. You can limit the contribution to individually
selected layers by clearing the Use all layers check box. For a given Layered Material Link
or Layered Material Stack, you get access to a list of check boxes for the selection of the
individual layers.

TEMPERATURE
For User defined, enter a value or expression for the Temperature T0. Else, select an
Ambient temperature defined in an Ambient Properties node under Definitions.

694 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

The equation for this condition is T = T0 where T0 is the prescribed temperature.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options.

You can specify a harmonic variation of the temperature value in a

frequency domain analysis of perturbation type, by adding a Harmonic
Perturbation subnode. See Theory for Harmonic Heat Transfer for more
details.

• Thin Layer (Heat Transfer Interface) and Solid (Heat Transfer in Shells
Interface)
• Thin Film (Heat Transfer Interface) and Fluid (Heat Transfer in Shells
Interface)
• Fracture (Heat Transfer Interface) and Porous Medium (Heat Transfer
in Shells Interface)
• Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

Shell Conduction: Application Library path Heat_Transfer_Module/

Tutorials,_Thin_Structure/shell_conduction

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids>Thin Layer>Temperature
Heat Transfer in Solids>Thin Film>Temperature
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Fracture>Temperature
Heat Transfer in Shells>Temperature
Heat Transfer in Films>Temperature
Heat Transfer in Fractures>Temperature

Ribbon
Physics tab with Thin Layer, Thin Film, or Fracture selected in the model tree:

Attributes>Temperature

EDGE FEATURES | 695

 Physics tab with Heat Transfer in Shells selected in the model tree:

Egdes>Temperature

Thermal Insulation (Thin Layer, Thin Film, Fracture, and Heat

Transfer in Shells Interface)
This node is the default edge condition on shells. This condition means that there is
no heat flux across the edge:

–n ⋅ q = 0

and hence specifies where the shell is insulated. In most cases, the heat flux q is defined
from the Fourier’s law, and this condition sets the temperature gradient to zero across
the edge. As the default edge condition, this feature is applicable only on external
edges; but when added manually, it can be applied on interior edges as well.

At internal edges, and as a subfeature of Thin Layer, Thin Film or Fracture features, the
thermal insulation condition can always be applied, but is only taken into account
when the Layer type is General in the parent feature.

At internal edges corresponding to the junction of shells of different layered materials,

if the Layer type is General in the Thin Layer, Thin Film or Fracture parent feature (Heat
Transfer interface), or in the Solid, Fluid or Porous Medium feature (Heat Transfer in
Shells interface), thermal insulation is implicit, and the temperature field is
discontinuous across the edge, even if no Thermal Insulation subnode is active. This
default behavior can be modified by using the Shell Continuity (Heat Transfer
Interface) and Continuity (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface) feature on the edge.

EDGE SELECTION
Select the edges on which to apply a no flux condition. The Restrict to layered edges
check box makes the node applicable only if a layered material is defined on the edge.
If a layered material (Material with Layer thickness specified, Single Layer Material,
Layered Material Link, or Layered Material Stack) is available, its name is then displayed
beside the edge index (for example, slmat1), otherwise the edge is marked as not
applicable.

Note that when the Shell type is Nonlayered shell in the Shells Properties section of the
parent interface or node, the Restrict to layered boundaries check box is not editable.

In addition, in 2D, edges are modeled as points and this section is named Point
Selection, containing a Restrict to layered points check box.

696 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

SHELL PROPERTIES
This section is available only when the Shell type is Layered shell in the Shells Properties
section of the parent interface or node. You can limit the contribution to individually
selected layers by clearing the Use all layers check box. For a given Layered Material Link
or Layered Material Stack, you get access to a list of check boxes for the selection of the
individual layers.

When the Layer type is Thermally thin approximation, and the shell is
adjacent to domains where the temperature field is continuous, applying
a thermal insulation on such a thermally thin edge has no effect.

The desired selection for the node may correspond to boundaries with
different layered materials.

See Layered Material, Layered Material Link, Layered Material Stack,

Layered Material Link (Subnode), and Single-Layer Materials in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

Shell Conduction: Application Library path Heat_Transfer_Module/

Tutorials,_Thin_Structure/shell_conduction

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids>Thin Layer>Thermal Insulation
Heat Transfer in Shells>Thermal Insulation

Ribbon
Physics tab with Thin Layer selected in the model tree:

Attributes>Thermal Insulation

Physics tab with Heat Transfer in Shells selected:

Egdes>Thermal Insulation

EDGE FEATURES | 697

 Thin Rod
Use this node to define the thermal and radius properties of conductive rods located
on edges in a 3D component.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

Volume Reference Temperature

This section is available when a temperature-dependent density defined in a material is
used. On the material frame, the density is evaluated in relation to a reference
temperature in order to ensure conservation of the mass in the presence of temperature
variations. By default the Common model input is used. This corresponds to the variable
minput.Tempref, which is set to 293.15 K by default. To edit it, click the Go to Source
button ( ), and in the Default Model Inputs node under Global Definitions, set a value
for the Volume reference temperature in the Expression for remaining selection section.

The other options are User defined and all temperature variables from the physics
interfaces included in the model.

This model input does not override the Reference temperature Tref set in
the Physical Model section of the physics interface, which is used to
evaluate the reference enthalpy, and a reference density for incompressible
nonisothermal flows.

Temperature
This section is available when material properties are temperature-dependent. By
default, the temperature of the parent interface is used and the section is not editable.
To edit the Temperature field, click Make All Model Inputs Editable ( ). The available
options are User defined (default), Common model input (the minput.T variable, set to
293.15 K by default) and all temperature variables from the physics interfaces included
in the model. To edit the minput.T variable, click the Go to Source button ( ), and
in the Default Model Inputs node under Global Definitions, set a value for the Temperature
in the Expression for remaining selection section.

THIN ROD
The Rod radius rl should be specified.

698 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

HEAT CONDUCTION
The Thermal conductivity kl should be specified. By default it is taken From material.
For User defined select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full to enter another value or
expression.

THERMODYNAMICS
By default the Density ρl and the Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp, l values are taken
From material. See Material Density in Features Defined in the Material Frame if a
temperature-dependent density should be set. For User defined enter other values or
expressions.

These additional subnodes are available for the Thin Rod node:

• Line Heat Source — to add an internal heat source, Ql, within the rod.
• Temperature (Thin Rod) — to set a prescribed temperature condition
on a specified set of points.
• Point Heat Flux (Thin Rod) — to add a heat flux through a specified
set of points.
• Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin Rod) — to add
surface-to-ambient radiation at the rod end points.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids>Edges>Thin Rod
Heat Transfer in Solids>Edges>Thin Rod
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Edges>Thin Rod
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Edges>Thin Rod
Bioheat Transfer>Edges>Thin Rod

Ribbon
Physics tab with Heat Transfer, Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in Fluids, Heat
Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials, or Bioheat Transfer selected:

Edges>Thin Rod

EDGE FEATURES | 699

 P o i nt Fe a tur e s
The Heat Transfer interfaces have the following point nodes and subnodes available:

• Point Heat Flux (Thin Rod) • Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin

• Point Heat Source Rod)

• Point Heat Source on Axis • Temperature (Thin Rod)

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

Point Heat Flux (Thin Rod)

Use this subnode to add heat flux at points of a thin rod. A positive heat flux adds heat
to the rod.

HEAT FLUX
The available options in the Flux type list are: General inward heat flux (default),
Convective heat flux, and Nucleate boiling heat flux.

• If General inward heat flux is selected, it adds q0 to the total flux across the selected
points. Enter a value for q0 to represent a heat flux that enters the rod.
• If Convective heat flux is selected, it adds q0 in the form q0 = h ⋅ (Text − T). Enter the
Heat transfer coefficient h and the External temperature Text. The value depends on
the geometry and the ambient flow conditions.
• If Nucleate boiling heat flux is selected, it adds q0 estimated with the Rohsenow’s
correlation. See Nucleate Boiling Heat Flux for details about the settings.

Thin Rod

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids>Thin Rod>Point Heat Flux

700 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

More locations are available. For example:

Heat Transfer in Fluids>Thin Rod>Point Heat Flux

Ribbon
Physics tab with Thin Rod selected in the model tree:

Attributes>Point Heat Flux

Point Heat Source

This node, available for 3D components, models a heat source (or sink) that is so small
that it can be considered to have no spatial extension.

In theory, the temperature in a point source in 3D is plus infinity (to compensate for
the fact that the heat source does not have a spatial extension). The finite element
discretization used in COMSOL Multiphysics returns a finite value, but that value
must be interpreted in a weak sense.

POINT HEAT SOURCE

Enter the Point heat source Qp in unit power. A positive Qp corresponds to heating
while a negative Qp corresponds to cooling.

HEAT SOURCE RADIUS

With the Heat Transfer Module, you can model the heat source explicitly and apply it
on a ball or disk around the point.

Select the Specify heat source radius check box to define the Heat source radius R. This
setting averages the source on a ball or disk of given radius around the point, and
avoids obtaining an increasing temperature shift at the point when meshing finer than
this radius. It makes use of the ballavg or diskavg operator for averaging around the
source.

See Built-In Operators in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

for additional information about the ballavg and diskavg operators.

POINT FEATURES | 701

 You can specify the source to be a harmonic perturbation in a frequency
domain analysis. To mark the source as being a harmonic perturbation,
right-click the node and choose Harmonic Perturbation. Note that this
updates the node’s icon. See Theory for Harmonic Heat Transfer for
more details.

• Handling Frames in Heat Transfer

• About the Heat Transfer Interfaces

Heat Conduction with a Localized Heat Source on a Disk: Application

Library path Heat_Transfer_Module/Verification_Examples/
localized_heat_source

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids>Points>Point Heat Source
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Points>Point Heat Source
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Points>Point Heat Source
Bioheat Transfer>Points>Point Heat Source

Ribbon
Physics tab with Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous
Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials, or Bioheat Transfer selected:

Points>Point Heat Source

Point Heat Source on Axis

This node, available for 2D axisymmetric components, models a heat source (or sink)
that is so small that it can be considered to have no spatial extension.

702 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

The settings are the same as for the Point Heat Source node.

You can specify the source to be a harmonic perturbation in a frequency

domain analysis. To mark the source as being a harmonic perturbation,
right-click the node and choose Harmonic Perturbation. Note that this
updates the node’s icon. See Theory for Harmonic Heat Transfer for
more details.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids>Points>Point Heat Source on Axis
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Points>Point Heat Source on Axis
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Points>Point Heat Source on Axis
Bioheat Transfer>Points>Point Heat Source on Axis

Ribbon
Physics tab with Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous
Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials, or Bioheat Transfer selected:

Points>Point Heat Source on Axis

Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin Rod)

Use this subnode to add surface-to-ambient radiation to points that represent
boundaries of a thin rod.

The net inward heat flux from surface-to-ambient radiation is


4 4
lim Q ds = d s εσ ( T amb – T )
∂S → 0 ∂S

where ε is the surface emissivity, σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (a predefined

physical constant), and Tamb is the ambient temperature.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

POINT FEATURES | 703

 Temperature
This section is available when material properties are temperature-dependent. By
default, the temperature of the parent interface is used and the section is not editable.
To edit the Temperature field, click Make All Model Inputs Editable ( ). The available
options are User defined (default), Common model input (the minput.T variable, set to
293.15 K by default) and all temperature variables from the physics interfaces included
in the model. To edit the minput.T variable, click the Go to Source button ( ), and
in the Default Model Inputs node under Global Definitions, set a value for the Temperature
in the Expression for remaining selection section.

SURFACE-TO-AMBIENT RADIATION

Ambient Temperature
For User defined, enter an Ambient temperature Tamb. The default value is
approximately room temperature, 293.15 K (20ºC). Else, select an Ambient
temperature defined in an Ambient Properties node under Definitions.

Surface Emissivity
The default Surface emissivity ε (a dimensionless number between 0 and 1) is taken
From material. For User defined, it should be specified. An emissivity of 0 means that
the surface emits no radiation at all while an emissivity of 1 means that it is a perfect
blackbody.

Thin Rod

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids>Thin Rod>Surface-to-Ambient Radiation

More locations are available. For example:

Heat Transfer in Fluids>Thin Rod>Surface-to-Ambient Radiation

Ribbon
Physics tab with Thin Rod selected in the model tree:

Attributes>Surface-to-Ambient Radiation

704 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Temperature (Thin Rod)
Use this subnode to specify the temperature on a set of points that represent
boundaries of a rod. Only points adjacent to the boundaries can be selected in the
parent node.

TEMPERATURE
For User defined, enter a value or expression for the Temperature T0. Else, select an
Ambient temperature defined in an Ambient Properties node under Definitions. The
equation for this condition is T = T0 where T0 is the prescribed temperature on the
points.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options.

Thin Rod

You can specify a harmonic variation of the temperature value in a

frequency domain analysis of perturbation type, by adding a Harmonic
Perturbation subnode. See Theory for Harmonic Heat Transfer for more
details.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Heat Transfer in Solids>Thin Rod>Temperature

More locations are available. For example:

Heat Transfer in Fluids>Thin Rod>Temperature

Ribbon
Physics tab with Thin Rod selected in the model tree:

Attributes>Temperature

POINT FEATURES | 705

 Global Features
The Heat Transfer interfaces have the following global nodes available:

• External Radiation Source

• Symmetry for Surface-to-Surface
Radiation

The Lumped Thermal System interface has the following global nodes available:

• Conductive Thermal Resistor • Radiative Thermal Resistor

• Convective Thermal Resistor • Subsystem Definition
• External Terminal • Subsystem Instance
• Heat Pipe • Temperature
• Heat Rate • Thermal Capacitor
• Heat Rate Source • Thermal Mass
• Nucleate Boiling Heat Rate • Thermoelectric Module
• Radiative Heat Rate

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

Conductive Thermal Resistor

This feature models a two-port passive component of the thermal system. It connects
two nodes, by creating a difference in the temperatures of its two connecting ports. It
models heat loss by conduction in a domain.

It adds equations for the heat rates Pp1 and Pp2 and the temperatures Tp1 and Tp2 at
the connecting ports p1 and p2 of the component, and defines the following relation
between the heat rate P and the temperature difference ΔT:

ΔT
P = – --------
R

706 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

where R (SI unit: K/W) is the thermal resistance, which may be defined depending on
thermal and geometric properties, and may take into account convection and radiation
in optically thick participating medium.

See Theory for the Conductive Thermal Resistor Component for more details on the
underlying theory.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

By default the Temperature is User defined and the average of the two port
temperatures, Tave = 0.5*(Tp1+Tp2), is set.

IDENTIFIER
Enter a Component name for the thermal resistor. The prefix is R.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the two Node names for the nodes connected by the thermal resistor.

COMPONENT PARAMETERS
The thermal resistance used to express the heat rate P in function of the temperature
difference ΔT should be defined in this section.

• When Specify is Thermal resistance, enter directly a value or expression for R.

• When Specify is Thermal and geometric properties, further settings display
underneath to define the thermal resistance depending on the thermal conductivity
and the geometric configuration.

Select any material from the Material list to define the Thermal conductivity k From
material. For User defined enter a value or expression.

Select a Configuration among the following options, and set the needed geometric
properties:

• Plane shell (default): set values or expressions for the surface Area A and the Thickness
L of the plane. The thermal resistance is then defined as

GLOBAL FEATURES | 707

 L
R = -------
kA

• Cylindrical shell: set values or expressions for the Inner radius ri, the Outer radius ro,
and the Height H of the cylinder. The thermal resistance is then defined as
ro
R = ---------------- ln  -----
1
2πkH ri

• Spherical shell: set values or expressions for the Inner radius ri and the Outer radius
ro of the sphere. The thermal resistance is then defined as

R = ----------  ---- – -----

1 1 1
4πk  r i r o

When the Configuration is Plane shell, select the Convectively enhanced conductivity
check box to take into account convective heat flux by enhancing the thermal
conductivity according to the Nusselt number. Further settings (see below) are then
required in the Convectively Enhanced Conductivity section that appears underneath.

For all Configuration options, select the Optically thick participating medium check box
to take into account radiation in a medium with high optical thickness. Further settings
(see below) are then required in the Optically Thick Participating Medium section that
appears underneath.

CONVECTIVELY ENHANCED CONDUCTIVITY

This section is available when the Convectively enhanced conductivity check box is
selected in the Component Parameters section. Convection is accounted for by
multiplying the thermal conductivity by the Nusselt number.

The following options are available in the Nusselt number correlation list:

• Horizontal cavity heated from below, for which values for the Cavity height H and the
Temperature difference ΔT should be specified for the computation of the Nusselt
number. Unfold the Sketch section for more details on the required parameters.
• Vertical rectangular cavity, for which values for the Cavity height H, the Plate distance
L, and the Temperature difference ΔT should be specified for the computation of the
Nusselt number. Unfold the Sketch section for more details on the required
parameters. By default, the Thickness value set in the Component Parameters section
for L is used for the Plate distance.
• User defined, for which a value for Nu should be specified directly.

708 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

For the two first options, select Automatic (default) or User defined to define the
Temperature difference ΔT. When Automatic is selected the temperature difference
across the component is used.

Select a Fluid type between Gas/Liquid and Ideal gas, and depending on the selected
option, set values or expressions for the material properties needed to calculate the
Nusselt number. When the properties are taken From material, the material selected in
the Component Parameters section is used. If the material properties are
temperature-dependent, they are evaluated at the average temperature in the
component, Tave = 0.5*(Tp1+Tp2).

Equivalent Thermal Conductivity Correlations

OPTICALLY THICK PARTICIPATING MEDIUM

This section is available when the Optically thick participating medium check box is
selected in the Component Parameters section. It defines the properties of the
participating medium to model the heating due to the propagation of the rays by
modifying the thermal conductivity with

16n r2 σ s T 3
k R = ---------------------------
3β R

where nr is the refractive index (dimensionless), σs is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant

(SI unit: W/(m2·K4)), and βR is the extinction coefficient. The settings are the same
as for the Optically Thick Participating Medium feature.

When the properties are taken From material, the material selected in the Component
Parameters section is used. If the material properties are temperature-dependent, they
are evaluated at the average temperature in the component, Tave = 0.5*(Tp1+Tp2).

INITIAL VALUES
Set user defined values or expressions for the Initial temperature at node 1, T1,init, and
the Initial temperature at node 2, T2,init, to be used at initialization, in particular to
evaluate the material properties of the component.

GLOBAL FEATURES | 709

 RESULTS
Select appropriate options in the Add the following to default results in order to include
the following global variables (space-independent) in the default plots:

• Heat rate
• Temperature at node 1
• Temperature at node 2

Lumped Composite Thermal Barrier: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Tutorials,_Thin_Structure/
lumped_composite_thermal_barrier

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Lumped Thermal System>Conductive Thermal Resistor

Ribbon
Physics tab with Lumped Thermal System selected:

Global>Conductive Thermal Resistor

Convective Thermal Resistor

This feature models a two-port passive component of the thermal system. It connects
two nodes, by creating a difference in the temperatures of its two connecting ports. It
models heat loss by convection in a fluid of temperature Tp2 over a solid wall of
temperature Tp1.

It adds equations for the heat rates Pp1 and Pp2 and the temperatures Tp1 and Tp2 at
the connecting ports p1 and p2 of the component, and defines the following relation
between the heat rate P and the temperature difference ΔT:

ΔT
P = – ---------------
R conv

where Rconv (SI unit: K/W) is the thermal resistance, which is defined from the surface
Area A and the Heat transfer coefficient h as

1
R conv = --------
hA

710 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

By default the Temperature is User defined and set to the port p1 temperature, Tvar =
Tp1.

IDENTIFIER
Enter a Component name for the convective thermal resistor. The prefix is CR.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the two Node names for the nodes connected by the convective thermal resistor.
Note that the ports p1 and p2 correspond respectively to the solid wall and fluid
regarding the evaluation of the temperature.

COMPONENT PARAMETERS
Set the Area A of the surface of the convective heat rate and define the Heat transfer
coefficient h used to express the convective thermal resistance. The default option is to
enter a User defined value for the Heat transfer coefficient h.

In addition, the following options are also available to control the type of convective
heat rate to model: External natural convection, Internal natural convection, External
forced convection, or Internal forced convection.

For all options except User defined, select a Fluid: Air (default), Transformer oil, Water,
Moist air, or From material.

When From material is selected, choose a material available from the Materials list.

Depending of the selected option, different parameters are needed. You can refer to
the Sketch section to get an illustration of the configuration.

See the Fluid feature for more details on the settings related to each correlation.

The external conditions should be set.

Set the Absolute pressure, pA. For User Defined, enter a value or expression. Else, select
an Ambient absolute pressure defined in an Ambient Properties node under Definitions.
The pressure is used to evaluate the Fluid material properties and this setting is not
available for the Transformer oil and Water options.

GLOBAL FEATURES | 711

 Finally, when the Fluid is Moist air, also set the External relative humidity, φ w, ext , and
the Surface relative humidity, φ w, s , used to evaluate the material properties.

For the external temperature, the temperature Tp2 at the connecting port p2 is used.

• This feature is the two-port component equivalent of the Heat Rate

node with Convective heat rate option.
• The detailed definition of the predefined heat transfer coefficients is
given in Convective Heat Transfer Correlations.
• For a thorough introduction about how to calculate heat transfer
coefficients, see Incropera and DeWitt in Ref. 21.

INITIAL VALUES
Set user defined values or expressions for the Initial temperature at node 1, T1,init, and
the Initial temperature at node 2, T2,init, to be used at initialization, in particular to
evaluate the heat transfer coefficient.

RESULTS
Select appropriate options in the Add the following to default results in order to include
the following global variables (space-independent) in the default plots:

• Heat rate
• Temperature at node 1
• Temperature at node 2

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Lumped Thermal System>Convective Thermal Resistor

Ribbon
Physics tab with Lumped Thermal System selected:

Global>Convective Thermal Resistor

External Radiation Source

Use this node in 2D and 3D components to define an external radiation source as a
point or directional radiation source with view factors calculation. Only the external
view factors (Fext) are recomputed when the radiation source moves, not the complete

712 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

view factors. When specular radiation is involved (with Opaque Surface or
Semitransparent Surface), the cost of computation of these external view factors can be
important. Each External Radiation Source node contributes to the incident radiative
heat flux on all spectral bands, GBi on all the boundaries where a Diffuse Surface, Diffuse
Mirror, Opaque Surface or Semitransparent Surface boundary condition is active. The
source contribution, GextDir, i, is equal to the product of the view factor of the source
by the source radiosity. For radiation sources located on a point, GextDir, i=Fext, i Ps, i.
For directional radiative source, GextDir, i =Fext, i q0, s.

Only direct irradiation from the source is accounted for. Diffuse irradiation inclusion
is controlled through the Include diffuse radiation check box in Ambient section of
Diffuse Surface (Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface) and Diffuse Mirror
(Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface) features.

The external radiation sources are ignored on the boundaries when

neither Diffuse Surface, Diffuse Mirror, Opaque Surface nor Semitransparent
Surface is active.

EXTERNAL RADIATION SOURCE

Select a Source position: Point coordinate (default) or Infinite distance. In 3D, Solar
position is also available.

Point Coordinate
For Point coordinate define the Source location xs. The source radiates uniformly in all
directions.

xs should not belong to any surface where a Diffuse Surface, Diffuse Mirror,
Opaque Surface or Semitransparent Surface boundary condition is active.

Infinite Distance
For Infinite distance define the Incident radiation direction is.

GLOBAL FEATURES | 713

 Solar Position

Solar position is available for 3D components. When this option is

selected, use it to estimate the external radiative heat source due to the
direct striking of the Sun rays.

North, west, and the up directions correspond to the x, y, and z

directions, respectively. Azimuth angle is measured from true north,
hence x direction corresponds to true north as well.

Depending on the presence of an Ambient Properties node under Definitions and on the
type of Ambient data selected in this node, further parameters should be set for the
definition of the location on earth.

If the type of Ambient data is Meteorological data (ASHRAE 2013) or Meteorological data
(ASHRAE 2017) in the Ambient Properties node under Definitions, it is available in the
Ambient data list of the External Radiation Source node. When selected from this list,
the location is set to the Weather station selected in the Ambient Properties node under
Definitions. Click to select the Include daylight saving time (Time zone + 1) check box to
add one hour to the default setting for the station selected.

Else, when Ambient data is User defined in the Ambient Properties node under
Definitions, None is the only option in the Ambient data list of the External Radiation
Source node, and the following parameters should be set.

Select an option from the Location defined by list: Coordinates (default) or City.

For City select a predefined city and country combination from the list. Click to select
the Include daylight saving time (Time zone + 1) check box to add one hour to the
default setting for the city selected. For example, if New York City, USA is selected and
the default standard time zone is UTC–5 hours, when the check box is selected, the
daylight saving time is used instead (UTC–4 hours).

If Coordinates is selected, or your city is not listed in the Location defined by table, define
the following parameters:

• Latitude, a decimal value, positive in the northern hemisphere (the default is

Greenwich UK latitude, 51.477). Enter a value without a unit to avoid double
conversion. This is because the latitude value is expected to represent degrees but
the model’s unit for angles may be different (for example, the SI unit for the angle
is radians).

714 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

• Longitude, a decimal value, positive at the east of the Prime Meridian (the default is
Greenwich UK longitude, −0.0005). Enter a value without a unit to avoid double
conversion. This is because the latitude value is expected to represent degrees but
the model’s unit for angles may be different (for example, the SI unit for the angle
is radians).
• Time zone, the number of hours to add to UTC to get local time (the default is
Greenwich UK time zone, 0). For example in New York City, USA the time zone is
UTC–5 hours (standard time zone) or UTC–4 hours (with daylight saving time).

For either selection (City or Coordinates), in the Date table enter the:

• Day, the default is 01. Enter a value without a unit to avoid double conversion. This
is because the value is expected to represent days but the model’s unit for time may
be different (for example, the SI unit for time is seconds).
• Month, the default is 6 (June). Enter a value without a unit to avoid double
conversion. This is because the value is expected to represent months but the
model’s unit for time may be different (for example, the SI unit for time is seconds).
• Year, the default is 2012. Enter a value without a unit to avoid double conversion.
This is because the value is expected to represent years but the model’s unit for time
may be different (for example, the SI unit for time is seconds). The solar position is
accurate for a date between 2000 and 2199.

For either selection (City or Coordinates), in the Local time table enter the:

• Hour, the default is 12. Enter a value without a unit to avoid double conversion. This
is because the value is expected to represent hours but the model’s unit for time may
be different (for example, the SI unit for time is seconds).
• Minute, the default is 0. Enter a value without a unit to avoid double conversion.
This is because the value is expected to represent minutes but the model’s unit for
time may be different (for example, the SI unit for time is seconds).
• Second, the default is 0.

For temporal studies, these inputs define the start time of the simulation. By default,
the Update time from solver check box is selected, and the time is then automatically
updated with the time from the solver. Clear this check box to manually set the time
update.

For either selection of Ambient data type in an Ambient Properties node under
Definitions, define the Solar irradiance field Is as the incident radiative intensity coming
directly from the sun. Is represents the heat flux received from the sun by a surface

GLOBAL FEATURES | 715

 perpendicular to the sun rays. When surfaces are not perpendicular to the sun rays the
heat flux received from the sun depends on the incident angle.

For User defined, enter a value or expression for the Solar irradiance Is. Else, select a
Clear sky noon beam normal irradiance defined in an Ambient Properties node under
Definitions.

If Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is Solar and ambient or Multiple spectral

bands, the solar irradiance is divided among all spectral bands Bi as
qs, i = q0,sFEPi(Tsun) where FEPi(Tsun) is the fractional blackbody emissive power
over Bi interval at Tsun = 5780 K.

RADIATIVE INTENSITY
This section is available when Source position is set either to Point coordinate or Infinite
distance.

Point Coordinate
If Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is Constant, enter a value or expression
to define the Source heat rate Ps.

If Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is Solar and ambient or Multiple spectral

bands, set the Radiative intensity to Blackbody, User defined for each band, or User
defined.

When Radiative intensity is set to User defined, enter a value or expression for the Source
heat rate distribution Ps,λ. The wavelength may be accessed through the rad.lambda
variable. This distribution is integrated on each spectral band to obtain the source heat
rate Ps,i for each spectral band.

When Radiative intensity is set to Blackbody, enter a value for the Source temperature Ts
and the Source heat rate Ps, to define the source power on the spectral band Bi as
Ps, i = FEPi(Ts)Ps where FEPi(Ts) is the fractional blackbody emissive power over Bi
interval at Ts.

When Radiative intensity is set to User defined for each band, enter a value for the Source
heat rate Ps,i for each spectral band. Within a spectral band, each value is assumed to
be independent of wavelength.

Infinite Distance
If Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is Constant, enter a value or expression
to define the Source heat flux q0,s. Alternatively, select a Clear sky noon beam normal
irradiance defined in an Ambient Properties node under Definitions.

716 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

If Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is Solar and ambient or Multiple spectral
bands, set the Radiative intensity to Blackbody, User defined for each band, or User
defined.

When Radiative intensity is set to User defined, enter a value or expression for the Source
heat flux distribution q0,s,λ. The wavelength may be accessed through the rad.lambda
variable. This distribution is integrated on each spectral band to obtain the source heat
flux q0,s,i for each spectral band.

When Radiative intensity is set to Blackbody, enter a value for the Source temperature Ts
and the Source heat flux q0,s, to define the source heat flux on the spectral band Bi as
qs, i = FEPi(Ts)q0,s where FEPi(Ts) is the fractional blackbody emissive power over Bi
interval at Ts.

When Radiative intensity is set to User defined for each band, enter a value for the Source
heat flux q0,s,i for each spectral band. Within a spectral band, each value is assumed to
be independent of wavelength.

The Wavelength dependence of radiative properties is defined in the physics

interface settings, in the Radiation Settings section. When only one
spectral band is defined, the i subscript in variable names is removed.

The sun position is updated if the location, date, or local time changes
during a simulation. In particular for transient analysis, if the unit system
for the time is in seconds (default), the time change can be taken into
account by adding t to the Second field in the Local time table. Note that
no validity range is prescribed on the time inputs. It is possible to enter
values that exceed the expected boundary. For example, entering 5h 2min
81s is equivalent to 5h 3min 21s. This makes it possible to enter t in the
second field, even if the solution is calculated for more than 60s.

The Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface

Theory for Surface-to-Surface Radiation

Sun’s Radiation Effect on Two Coolers Placed Under a Parasol:

Application Library path Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Radiation/parasol

GLOBAL FEATURES | 717

 LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Surface-to-Surface Radiation>External Radiation Source

Ribbon
Physics tab with Surface-to-Surface Radiation selected:

Global>External Radiation Source

Symmetry for Surface-to-Surface Radiation

Use this node to calculate view factors on only a part of a symmetric geometry to
improve efficiency, by defining either one symmetry plane in 2D, 2D axisymmetric,
and 3D components, multiple perpendicular symmetry planes in 2D and 3D
components; or sectors of symmetry in 2D and 3D components. In addition, a
reflection plane can be defined inside each sector of symmetry. Table 6-6 summarizes
the available options for each dimension.
TABLE 6-6: OPTIONS FOR SYMMETRY DEFINITION, EXAMPLE WITH 5 SECTORS

SYMMETRY 2D 2D AXISYMMETRIC 3D
TYPE

One Plane

Two Not applicable

Planes

718 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

TABLE 6-6: OPTIONS FOR SYMMETRY DEFINITION, EXAMPLE WITH 5 SECTORS

SYMMETRY 2D 2D AXISYMMETRIC 3D
TYPE

Three Not applicable Not applicable

Planes

Sectors Not applicable

Sectors Not applicable

and
Reflection

SYMMETRY FOR SURFACE-TO-SURFACE RADIATION

Depending on component’s dimension, select the Type of symmetry to be defined:

• In 2D components, select between Plane of symmetry (default), Two perpendicular

planes of symmetry, or Sectors of symmetry.
• In 2D axisymmetric components, only the Plane of symmetry option is available.
• In 3D components, select between Plane of symmetry (default), Two perpendicular
planes of symmetry, Three perpendicular planes of symmetry, or Sectors of symmetry.
Depending on the Type of symmetry selected from the list and on the dimension,
further settings are required.

GLOBAL FEATURES | 719

 Plane of Symmetry
The coordinates of the points defining the plane should be set:

• In 2D components, the symmetry plane is defined by two points. If the Selection

method is Coordinates, set the x and y coordinates of the First point on plane of
reflection and of the Second point on plane of reflection. Else, if the Selection method
is Point Selection, you can directly select the points from the Graphics window. In the
Selection of First Point and Selection of Second Point sections, first use the Active
button to toggle between turning ON and OFF selections, that is,
making the selections active for that selection list. Then select the points from the
Graphics window.
• In 2D axisymmetric components, the symmetry plane is parallel to the z=0 plane. If
the Selection method is Coordinates, set the z coordinate of plane of reflection, zsym.
Else, if the Selection method is Point Selection, you can directly select the point from
the Graphics window. In the Selection of the Point Defining the Plane of Reflection
section, first use the Active button to toggle between turning ON and OFF
selections, that is, making the selection active for that selection list. Then
select the point from the Graphics window.
• In 3D components, the symmetry plane is defined by three points. If the Selection
method is Coordinates, set the x, y, and z coordinates of the First point on plane of
reflection, the Second point on plane of reflection, and the Third point on plane of
reflection. Else, if the Selection method is Point Selection, you can directly select the
points from the Graphics window. In the Selection of First Point, Selection of Second
Point, and Selection of Third Point sections, first use the Active button to toggle
between turning ON and OFF selections, that is, making the
selections active for that selection list. Then select the points from the Graphics
window.
The Show the plane of symmetry check box is selected by default. Clear it to hide the
plane in the Graphics window.

Two Perpendicular Planes of Symmetry

• In 2D components, the planes intersection line is along the out-of-plane direction.
The Point at the intersection of symmetry planes and the Rotation angle from
Cartesian axis, θ, should be defined.
• In 3D components, the Planes intersection line can be set Along the x-axis, Along the
y-axis, or Along the z-axis. A Point at the intersection of symmetry planes and the
Rotation angle from Cartesian axis, θ, should be defined. The position of the point
along the intersection line can be arbitrary as it does not change the planes

720 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

 definition. The direction of the angle θ can be checked on the figure displayed below
the settings, for each case of alignment of the intersection line.
The Show the planes of symmetry check box is selected by default. Clear it to hide the
planes in the Graphics window.

Three Perpendicular Planes of Symmetry

The planes are parallel to the Cartesian axis. Only the Point at the intersection of
symmetry planes should be defined.

The Show the planes of symmetry check box is selected by default. Clear it to hide the
planes in the Graphics window.

Sectors of Symmetry
The coordinates of the points defining the symmetry axis should be set:

• In 2D components, the symmetry axis is the out-of-plane vector, and the center of
the symmetry must be defined. Set the x and y coordinates of the Point of central
symmetry.
• In 3D components, the symmetry axis is defined by two points. Set the x, y, and z
coordinates of the First point defining sector symmetry axis and the Second point
defining sector symmetry axis.

Enter a value for the Number of sectors. This should be a numerical value greater or
equal to 2.

If the Reflection for symmetrical sector check box is selected, set the coordinates of the
Radial direction of reflection plane, u. This option can be used when each sector has
itself a plane of symmetry.

• The Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface

• Theory for Surface-to-Surface Radiation

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Symmetry for Surface-to-Surface Radiation

Ribbon
Physics tab with Surface-to-Surface Radiation selected:

Global>Symmetry for Surface-to-Surface Radiation

GLOBAL FEATURES | 721

 External Terminal
Use this feature to connect a node (one-port component) of the thermal system to a
distributed finite element model. It prescribes the temperature Text provided by a
Lumped System Connector boundary feature of a Heat Transfer interface, a Lumped
System Connector, Interface (Heat Transfer in Shells Interface) boundary interface
feature of a Heat Transfer in Shells interface, or a Lumped System Connector (Heat
Transfer in Shells Interface) edge interface feature of a Heat Transfer in Shells
interface.

The Lumped System Connector feature uses the heat rate defined by the External
Terminal feature on the selected node to set a heat flux on the corresponding boundary,
interface, or edge in the distributed finite element model.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the Node name for the external terminal.

EXTERNAL CONNECTION
This section displays an information message about the connection status of the node:

• If the External Terminal feature is selected in the Source list of a Thermal Connector
feature, the message Current status: connected is displayed.
• Else, the message Current status: not connected is displayed. The default value
293.15[K] is used for Text.

RESULTS
Select appropriate options in the Add the following to default results in order to include
the following global variables (space-independent) in the default plots:

• Heat rate
• Temperature

Lumped Composite Thermal Barrier: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Tutorials,_Thin_Structure/
lumped_composite_thermal_barrier

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Lumped Thermal System>Nodes>External Terminal

722 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Ribbon
Physics tab with Lumped Thermal System selected:

Global>Nodes>External Terminal

Heat Pipe
This feature models a two-port passive component of the thermal system used to take
into account heat loss in a heat pipe. It connects two nodes, by creating a difference in
the temperatures of its two connecting ports, corresponding to the evaporator and
condenser sides of the heat pipe.

It adds equations for the heat rates Pp1 and Pp2 and the temperatures Tp1 and Tp2 at
the connecting ports p1 and p2 of the component, and defines the following relation
between the heat rate P and the temperature difference ΔT:

ΔT
P = – --------
R

where R (SI unit: K/W) is the total thermal resistance, accounting for the relevant heat
transfer processes present in the heat pipe. It may be defined either directly or as the
sum of the resistances related to conduction through the solid wall and porous wick of
the heat pipe, depending on the available data for the thermal and geometric
properties.

Note that ΔT =Tcondenser -Tevaporator and is meant to be negative in the classical

operating mode of the heat pipe. The heat rate P is set to 0 when this condition does
not hold.

See Theory for the Heat Pipe Component for more details on the underlying theory.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

By default the Temperature is User defined and the average of the two port
temperatures, Tave = 0.5*(Tp1+Tp2), is set.

IDENTIFIER
Enter a Component name for the heat pipe. The prefix is HP.

GLOBAL FEATURES | 723

 NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the two Node names for the nodes connected by the heat pipe. Note that the ports
p1 and p2 correspond respectively to the evaporator and condenser sides of the heat
pipe.

COMPONENT PARAMETERS
Select an option from the Model list for the expression of the total thermal resistance R:

• when Total resistance is selected, set a value or expression for the Total thermal
resistance, R.
• when Multiple inputs (default) is selected, the total thermal resistance is the sum of
the thermal resistances due to conduction in the wall and the wick of the heat pipe,
on the evaporator and condenser sides, and further settings are required.

When Input quantity is set to Thermal resistances, enter values or expressions for the
Thermal resistance, evaporator wall, Rwall,e, the Thermal resistance, evaporator wick,
Rwick,e, the Thermal resistance, condenser wick, Rwick,c, and the Thermal resistance,
condenser wall, Rwall,c.

In the network representation of heat transfer in the heat pipe, these thermal
resistances are connected in a serial way, and the total thermal resistance R is thus
defined as:

R = R wall, e + R wick, e + R wick, c + R wall, c

The thermal resistances due to transport of vapor in the channel and transport of liquid
in the porous wick are neglected in this network representation, see Theory for the
Heat Pipe Component for details.

Alternatively, set Input quantity to Configuration and thermal properties to calculate the
thermal resistances from the geometric dimensions and thermal properties of the wick
and wall of the heat pipe. This option is available for a flat or cylindrical heat pipe.
Further settings display underneath to define the geometric configuration. You can
refer to the Sketch section to get an illustration of the configuration.

Cylindrical
Set values or expressions for the geometric dimensions used to calculate the wick and
wall thermal resistances on the evaporator and condenser sides: Outer radius, ro, Wall
thickness, dwall, Wick thickness, dwick, Evaporator length, Le, and Condenser length, Lc.

724 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Flat
Set values or expressions for the geometric dimensions used to calculate the wick and
wall thermal resistances on the evaporator and condenser sides: Depth, D, Height, H,
Wall thickness, dwall, Wick thickness, dwick, Evaporator length, Le, and Condenser length,
Lc.

HEAT CONDUCTION, WALL

The thermal conductivity ks of the wall should be set in this section when Input
quantity is set to Configuration and thermal properties in the Component Parameters
section.

Select any material from the Material list to define the Thermal conductivity k From
material. Alternatively, choose among Copper and Aluminum for a predefined material.
For User defined enter a value or expression.

HEAT CONDUCTION, WICK

The thermal conductivity keff of the wick should be set in this section when Input
quantity is set to Configuration and thermal properties in the Component Parameters
section.

The wick is a porous medium. When Input quantity is set to Structure model, its
effective thermal conductivity is expressed as a function of its porosity and the thermal
conductivities of the immobile solid and the liquid parts.

Select any material from the Material list to define the Thermal conductivity, liquid kl
From material. Alternatively, choose among Water and Mercury for a predefined
material. For User defined enter a value or expression.

Select any material from the Material list to define the Thermal conductivity, immobile
kw From material. Alternatively, choose among Copper and Aluminum for a predefined
material. For User defined enter a value or expression.

Then, set a value or expression for the Porosity, ε, and select an option from the
Structure list to calculate the effective conductivity. See Theory for the Heat Pipe
Component for details.

Alternatively, set Input quantity to User defined to set directly the Effective thermal
conductivity of the wick, keff.

GLOBAL FEATURES | 725

 Operating Maximum Power
Finally, select the Specify operating maximum power check box to curb the heat pipe
when the operating maximum power Pmax is known. Set a value or expression for
Pmax.

INITIAL VALUES
Set user defined values or expressions for the Initial temperature at node 1, T1,init, and
the Initial temperature at node 2, T2,init, to be used at initialization, in particular to
evaluate the material properties of the heat pipe.

RESULTS
Select appropriate options in the Add the following to default results in order to include
the following global variables (space-independent) in the default plots:

• Heat rate
• Temperature at node 1
• Temperature at node 2

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Lumped Thermal System>Heat Pipe

Ribbon
Physics tab with Lumped Thermal System selected:

Global>Heat Pipe

Heat Rate
This feature models a node (one-port component) of the thermal system, at which the
heat rate is prescribed.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the Node name for the heat rate node.

NODE PARAMETERS
Select an option from the Specify list: Heat rate (default), Convective heat rate, Nucleate
boiling heat rate, or Joule heating.

726 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Heat Rate
Enter a value or expression for P0 to prescribe it as the heat rate at the selected node
of the thermal system.

Convective Heat Rate

The heat rate P is defined in function of the difference between the node temperature
T and a specified external temperature, Text, by mean of a convective thermal
resistance, Rconv:

T ext – T
P = ---------------------
R conv

Set the Area A of the surface of the convective heat flux and define the Heat transfer
coefficient h used to express the convective thermal resistance as:

1
R conv = --------
hA

The default option is to enter a User defined value for the Heat transfer coefficient h.

In addition, the following options are also available to control the type of convective
heat rate to model: External natural convection, Internal natural convection, External
forced convection, or Internal forced convection.

For all options except User defined, select a Fluid: Air (default), Transformer oil, Water,
Moist air, or From material.

When From material is selected, choose a material available from the Materials list.

Depending of the selected option, different parameters are needed. You can refer to
the Sketch section to get an illustration of the configuration.

See the Fluid feature for more details on the settings related to each correlation.

Finally the external conditions should be set.

Set the Absolute pressure, pA. For User Defined, enter a value or expression. Else, select
an Ambient absolute pressure defined in an Ambient Properties node under Definitions.
The pressure is used to evaluate the Fluid material properties and this setting is not
available for the Transformer oil and Water options.

In addition, enter an External temperature, Text. For User defined, enter a value or
expression. Else, select an Ambient temperature defined in an Ambient Properties node
under Definitions.

GLOBAL FEATURES | 727

 Finally, when the Fluid is Moist air, also set the External relative humidity, φ w, ext , and
the Surface relative humidity, φ w, s , used to evaluate the material properties.

• The detailed definition of the predefined heat transfer coefficients is

given in Convective Heat Transfer Correlations.
• For a thorough introduction about how to calculate heat transfer
coefficients, see Incropera and DeWitt in Ref. 21.

Nucleate Boiling Heat Rate

The heat rate P is defined as follows:

P = Aq 0

where A is surface area, and q0 is computed with the Rohsenow’s correlation, that
evaluates the heat flux due to nucleate boiling on a surface immersed in a liquid pool.
See Nucleate Pool Boiling Correlation for details about the correlation. Set the Area A
of the surface of the nucleate boiling heat flux, and select materials from the Fluid and
Surface lists. When a predefined material (Water, Benzene, n-Pentane, or Ethanol) is used
for the fluid, no additional parameters are required, because the liquid and vapor
properties are predefined (at saturation temperature) and the Rohsenow’s correlation
parameters Csf and s are available for different surface materials. Else, see Nucleate
Boiling Heat Flux (Heat Flux feature) for details about the settings.

Joule Heating
The heat rate P is defined as follows to model resistive heating at the node:

2
P = Re I

where Re is the electrical resistance and I is the electric current.

Set values or expressions for the Electric current, I, and the Electrical resistance, Re.

INITIAL VALUES
Set a user defined value or expression for the Initial temperature, Tinit, to be used at
initialization, in particular to evaluate the heat transfer coefficient.

728 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

RESULTS
Select appropriate options in the Add the following to default results in order to include
the following global variables (space-independent) in the default plots:

• Heat rate
• Temperature

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Lumped Thermal System>Nodes>Heat Rate

Ribbon
Physics tab with Lumped Thermal System selected:

Global>Nodes>Heat Rate

Heat Rate Source

This feature models a two-port source component of the thermal system. It connects
two nodes, by creating a difference in the heat rates of its two connecting ports. It
models a heat source or sink in a domain.

It adds equations for the heat rates Pp1 and Pp2 and the temperatures Tp1 and Tp2 at
the connecting ports p1 and p2 of the component, and defines the heat rate P.

IDENTIFIER
Enter a Component name for the heat rate source. The prefix is P.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the two Node names for the nodes connected by the heat rate source.

COMPONENT PARAMETERS
Set a value or expression for the heat rate Psrc.

INITIAL VALUES
Set user defined values or expressions for the Initial temperature at node 1, T1,init, and
the Initial temperature at node 2, T2,init.

GLOBAL FEATURES | 729

 RESULTS
Select appropriate options in the Add the following to default results in order to include
the following global variables (space-independent) in the default plots:

• Heat rate
• Temperature at node 1
• Temperature at node 2

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Lumped Thermal System>Heat Rate Source

Ribbon
Physics tab with Lumped Thermal System selected:

Global>Heat Rate Source

Nucleate Boiling Heat Rate

This feature models a two-port source component of the thermal system. It connects
two nodes, by creating a difference in the heat rates of its two connecting ports. It
models a heat sink due to nucleate boiling.

It adds equations for the heat rates Pp1 and Pp2 and the temperatures Tp1 and Tp2 at
the connecting ports p1 and p2 of the component, and defines the heat rate Psrc.

IDENTIFIER
Enter a Component name for the nucleate boiling heat rate. The prefix is NBP.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the two Node names for the nodes connected by the nucleate boiling heat rate.

COMPONENT PARAMETERS
The heat rate Psrc is defined as follows:

P src = Aq 0

where A is surface area, and q0 is computed with the Rohsenow’s correlation, that
evaluates the heat flux due to nucleate boiling on a surface immersed in a liquid pool.
See Nucleate Pool Boiling Correlation for details about the correlation. Set the Area A
of the surface of the nucleate boiling heat flux, and select materials from the Fluid and

730 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Surface lists. When a predefined material (Water, Benzene, n-Pentane, or Ethanol) is used
for the fluid, no additional parameters are required, because the liquid and vapor
properties are predefined (at saturation temperature) and the Rohsenow’s correlation
parameters Csf and s are available for different surface materials. Else, see Nucleate
Boiling Heat Flux (Heat Flux feature) for details about the settings.

INITIAL VALUES
Set user defined values or expressions for the Initial temperature at node 1, T1,init, and
the Initial temperature at node 2, T2,init.

RESULTS
Select appropriate options in the Add the following to default results in order to include
the following global variables (space-independent) in the default plots:

• Heat rate
• Temperature at node 1
• Temperature at node 2

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Lumped Thermal System>Nucleate Boiling Heat Rate

Ribbon
Physics tab with Lumped Thermal System selected:

Global>Nucleate Boiling Heat Rate

Radiative Heat Rate

This feature models a node (one-port component) of the thermal system, at which a
heat rate due to surface-to-ambient radiation is prescribed.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the Node name for the radiative heat rate node.

NODE PARAMETERS
The heat rate P due to radiation on a diffuse-gray surface from the ambient
surrounding is:

GLOBAL FEATURES | 731

 4 4
P = εσA ( T amb – T )

where σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, ε is the emissivity of the surface, A is the

area of the surface, Tamb is the ambient temperature, and T is the surface temperature.

In the thermal system, the corresponding heat rate applied on the selected node can
be expressed in function of the difference between the ambient temperature, Tamb and
the node temperature, T, by mean of the radiative thermal resistance, Rrad:

T amb – T
P = ------------------------
R rad

where

1
R rad = -------------------------------------------------------------------------
2 2
-
εσA ( T amb + T ) ( T amb + T )

First, set the surface Area A. Then, select any material from the Material list to define
the Surface emissivity ε From material. For User defined enter a value or expression.

Finally, set the Ambient temperature, Tamb. For User defined, enter a value or
expression. Else, select an Ambient temperature defined in an Ambient Properties node
under Definitions.

INITIAL VALUES
Set a user defined value or expression for the Initial temperature, Tinit, to be used at
initialization, in particular to evaluate the surface emissivity.

RESULTS
Select appropriate options in the Add the following to default results in order to include
the following global variables (space-independent) in the default plots:

• Heat rate
• Temperature

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Lumped Thermal System>Nodes>Radiative Heat Rate

Ribbon
Physics tab with Lumped Thermal System selected:

732 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Global>Nodes>Radiative Heat Rate

Radiative Thermal Resistor

This feature models a two-port passive component of the thermal system. It connects
two nodes, by creating a difference in the temperatures of its two connecting ports. It
models heat loss by surface-to-surface radiation in a domain.

It adds equations for the heat rates Pp1 and Pp2 and the temperatures Tp1 and Tp2 at
the connecting ports p1 and p2 of the component, and defines the following relation
between the heat rate P and the temperature difference ΔT:

ΔT
P = – --------
R

where R (SI unit: K/W) is the radiative thermal resistance, which is defined to take
into account radiative heat transfer between two opaque diffuse gray surfaces in an
enclosure.

See Theory for the Radiative Thermal Resistor Component for more details on the
underlying theory.

IDENTIFIER
Enter a Component name for the radiative thermal resistor. The prefix is RR.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the two Node names for the nodes connected by the radiative thermal resistor.

COMPONENT PARAMETERS
Select a Radiation type for the surfaces. By default, Blackbody radiation is assumed,
which sets ε1=ε2=1 in the expression of the radiative thermal resistance R. When the
Radiation type is Graybody radiation, select any material from the Material lists to define
the Surface emissivity ε1and Surface emissivity ε2 From material. For User defined enter
values or expressions.

Select a Surface configuration from the following options:

• User defined (default): specify the View factor, F12, and the Area of surface 1, A1, used
in the expression of the radiative thermal resistance.
• Large (infinite) parallel planes: specify the Area of surface 1, A1, used in the expression
of the radiative thermal resistance. In this configuration, F12=1.

GLOBAL FEATURES | 733

 • Long (infinite) concentric cylinders: specify the Height of the cylinders, H, the Radius
of the Inner cylinder, r1, and the Radius of the Outer cylinder, r2, used in the
expression of the radiative thermal resistance. In this configuration, F12=1.
• Concentric spheres: specify the Radius of the Inner sphere, r1 and the Radius of the
Outer sphere, r2, used in the expression of the radiative thermal resistance. In this
configuration, F12=1.

INITIAL VALUES
Set user defined values or expressions for the Initial temperature at node 1, T1,init, and
the Initial temperature at node 2, T2,init, to be used at initialization, in particular to
evaluate the surface emissivities.

RESULTS
Select appropriate options in the Add the following to default results in order to include
the following global variables (space-independent) in the default plots:

• Heat rate
• Temperature at node 1
• Temperature at node 2

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Lumped Thermal System>Radiative Thermal Resistor

Ribbon
Physics tab with Lumped Thermal System selected:

Global>Radiative Thermal Resistor

Subsystem Definition
This feature is used to define subsystems, which can be inserted as components into
the main system using a Subsystem Instance node. Create the subsystem by adding
subnodes to the Subsystem Definition node.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Define the number of connecting nodes by adding more nodes or deleting existing
nodes and set the Node names at which the subsystem connects to the main system or

734 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

to other subsystems. The order in which the Node names are defined is the order in
which they are referenced by a Subsystem Instance node.

The components constituting the subsystem should be connected only to the

subsystem’s nodes and to themselves.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Lumped Thermal System>Subsystems>Subsystem Definition

Ribbon
Physics tab with Lumped Thermal System selected:

Global>Subsystems>Subsystem Definition

Subsystem Instance
This feature represents an instance of a subsystem defined by a Subsystem Definition
feature.

IDENTIFIER
Enter a Component name for the subsystem instance. The prefix is X.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Select the Name of subsystem link from the list of defined subsystems in the model and
set the Node names at which the subsystem instance connects to the main system or to
another subsystem.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Lumped Thermal System>Subsystems>Subsystem Instance

Ribbon
Physics tab with Lumped Thermal System selected:

Global>Subsystems>Subsystem Instance

GLOBAL FEATURES | 735

 Temperature
This feature models a node (one-port component) of the thermal system, used to
prescribe the temperature.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the Node name for the temperature node.

NODE PARAMETERS
Set a value or expression for the Temperature, T0.

RESULTS
Select appropriate options in the Add the following to default results in order to include
the following global variables (space-independent) in the default plots:

• Heat rate
• Temperature

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Lumped Thermal System>Nodes>Temperature

Ribbon
Physics tab with Lumped Thermal System selected:

Global>Nodes>Temperature

Thermal Capacitor
This feature models a two-port passive component of the thermal system. It connects
two nodes, by creating a difference in the temperatures of its two connecting ports. It
models heat storage in a domain.

It adds equations for the heat rates Pp1 and Pp2 and the temperatures Tp1 and Tp2 at
the connecting ports p1 and p2 of the component, and defines the following relation
between the heat rate P and the temperature difference ΔT:

∂ΔT
P = – C ----------- (6-20)
∂t

where C (SI unit: J/K) is the thermal capacitance, defined as

736 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

 C = VρC p = mC p

with V the volume (SI unit: m3), ρ the density (SI unit: kg/m3), Cp the heat capacity
at constant volume (SI unit: J/(kg·K)), and m the mass (SI unit: kg).

For a steady-state problem the temperature difference does not change with time and
P=0.

See Theory for the Thermal Capacitor and Thermal Mass Components for more
details on the underlying theory.

IDENTIFIER
Enter a Component name for the thermal capacitor. The prefix is C.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the two Node names for the nodes connected by the thermal capacitor.

COMPONENT PARAMETERS
The thermal capacitance used in Equation 6-20 should be set in this section.

Depending on the option selected in the Specify list, different settings are required:

• With Thermal capacitance (default), set directly a value or expression for C.

• With Density and heat capacity, set values or expressions for the Volume, V, the
Density, ρ, and the Heat capacity at constant volume, Cp. Select any material from the
Material list to define the properties From material. For User defined enter values or
expressions.
• With Mass and heat capacity, set values or expressions for the Mass, M, and the Heat
capacity at constant volume, Cp. Select any material from the Material list to define
Cp From material. For User defined enter a value or expression.

INITIAL VALUES
Set user defined values or expressions for the Initial temperature at node 1, T1,init, and
the Initial temperature at node 2, T2,init, to be used at initialization, in particular to
evaluate the heat storage term.

RESULTS
Select appropriate options in the Add the following to default results in order to include
the following global variables (space-independent) in the default plots:

• Heat rate

GLOBAL FEATURES | 737

 • Temperature at node 1
• Temperature at node 2

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Lumped Thermal System>Thermal Capacitor

Ribbon
Physics tab with Lumped Thermal System selected:

Global>Thermal Capacitor

Thermal Mass
This feature models a node (one-port component) of the thermal system, at which a
heat rate P is prescribed to take into account heat storage:

∂T
P = – C ------- (6-21)
∂t

where C (SI unit: J/K) is the thermal capacitance, defined as

C = VρC p = mC p

with V the volume (SI unit: m3), ρ the density (SI unit: kg/m3), Cp the heat capacity
at constant volume (SI unit: J/(kg·K)), and m the mass (SI unit: kg).

This component is similar to the Thermal Capacitor two-port component, at the

difference that the thermal mass has a virtual fixed temperature node.

For a steady-state problem the temperature does not change with time and P=0.

See Theory for the Thermal Capacitor and Thermal Mass Components for more
details on the underlying theory.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the Node name for the thermal mass node.

NODE PARAMETERS
The thermal capacitance used in Equation 6-21 should be set in this section.

738 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Depending on the option selected in the Specify list, different settings are required:

• With Thermal capacitance (default), set directly a value or expression for C.

• With Density and heat capacity, set values or expressions for the Volume, V, the
Density, ρ, and the Heat capacity at constant volume, Cp. Select any material from the
Material list to define the properties From material. For User defined enter values or
expressions.
• With Mass and heat capacity, set values or expressions for the Mass, M, and the Heat
capacity at constant volume, Cp. Select any material from the Material list to define
Cp From material. For User defined enter a value or expression.

INITIAL VALUES
Set a user defined value or expression for the Initial temperature, Tinit, to be used at
initialization, in particular to evaluate the heat storage term.

RESULTS
Select appropriate options in the Add the following to default results in order to include
the following global variables (space-independent) in the default plots:

• Heat rate
• Temperature

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Lumped Thermal System>Nodes>Thermal Mass

Ribbon
Physics tab with Lumped Thermal System selected:

Global>Nodes>Thermal Mass

Thermoelectric Module
This feature models a two-port source component of the thermal system, used to take
into account Peltier effect and Joule heating in a thermoelectric module. It connects
two nodes, by creating a difference in the heat rates of its two connecting ports.

It adds equations for the heat rates Pp1 and Pp2 and the temperatures Tp1 and Tp2 at
the connecting ports p1 and p2 of the component, and defines the heat rate P as the
sum of the heat rates Pp1 and Pp2.

GLOBAL FEATURES | 739

 The heat rate applied at each port takes into account the sum of Peltier (cooling or
heating) effect, half of the Joule heating, the resistive heating due to conduction in the
thermocouples (p-type and n-type semiconductors), and heat storage for
time-dependent modeling:

• p1 side:
2
R e I ΔT ∂T p1
P p1 = SIT p1 + ------------ – -------- – C 1 ------------- (6-22)
2 R ∂t

• p2 side:

2
Re I ΔT ∂T p2
P p2 = – S IT p2 + ------------ + -------- – C 2 ------------- (6-23)
2 R ∂t

where

• S (SI unit: V/K) is the Seebeck coefficient of the thermocouples

• I (SI unit: A) is the electric current operating in the module
• Re (SI unit: Ω) is the electrical resistance of the thermocouples
• ΔT (SI unit: K) is the temperature difference between the two sides of the module
• R (SI unit: K/W) is the thermal resistance of the thermocouples
• C1 and C2 (SI unit: J/K) are the thermal capacitances on each side of the module

For a steady-state problem the temperature does not change with time and the heat
storage terms disappear.

When summing Equation 6-22 and Equation 6-23 to obtain the total heat rate
through the thermoelectric module, the terms for heat dissipation by conduction
cancel each other. Note that the material properties are evaluated at the average
temperature of the two ports temperatures.

See Theory for the Thermoelectric Module Component for details.

For a thermoelectric cooler, the ports p1 and p2 correspond respectively to the cold
and hot sides of the module, and the cold side is the side where the heat should be
removed.

In addition, the total heat rate through the thermoelectric module may be expressed
from performance parameters:

• p1 side:

740 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

 Q max
P p1 = –  Q max – Δ T ------------------ (6-24)
 ΔT max

• p2 side:

Q max 2
P p2 = Q max – Δ T ------------------ + R e I (6-25)
ΔT max

where

• Qmax (SI unit: W) is the maximum removed heat on the cold side
• ΔT (SI unit: K) is the temperature difference between the two sides of the module
• ΔTmax (SI unit: K) is the maximum temperature difference across the module
• Re (SI unit: Ω) is the electrical resistance of the thermocouples
• I (SI unit: A) is the electric current operating in the module

This alternative formulation may be chosen if the material and geometric properties of
the module are not available. See Performance Graphs for Thermoelectric Coolers for
details.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

By default the Temperature is User defined and the average of the two port
temperatures, Tave = 0.5*(Tp1+Tp2), is set.

IDENTIFIER
Enter a Component name for the thermoelectric module. The prefix is TEM.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the two Node names for the nodes connected by the thermoelectric module. Note
that for a thermoelectric cooler, the ports p1 and p2 correspond respectively to the
cold and hot sides of the module.

GLOBAL FEATURES | 741

 COMPONENT PARAMETERS
Depending on the available data for the specification of the thermoelectric module and
on its operation mode (cooling or heating), different sets of user inputs may be
entered:

• Set Specify to Performance parameters, TEC linearized model to use performance

graphs (Equation 6-24 and Equation 6-25) to characterize the module. Then, set
values or expressions for the operating Electric current, I, and set the other
parameters in the Performance Parameters section.
• Set Specify to Performance parameters, general model to apply user defined heat rates
on each side of the module. Set values or expressions for the Heat rate, node 1 and
the Heat rate, node 2. In this formulation, the nodes 1 and 2 may refer to any side
of the module, and the heat rate expressions may depend on the temperature
difference and on the current intensity, among other variables. The temperature
difference can be accessed through the lts.TEM1.DT variable, when the component
name is TEM1, in a physics interface with tag lts.
• Set Specify to Thermal and geometric properties to use Equation 6-22 and
Equation 6-23 to characterize the module. Set values or expressions for the
operating Electric current, I, and the Number of thermocouples, N (composed each
of one p-type and one n-type semiconductors) in the thermoelectric module. Then
the material and geometric properties should be set in the P-Type Semiconductor
Parameters, N-Type Semiconductor Parameters, and Ceramic Plate Parameters
section that display underneath.

PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS
This section is available when Specify is set to Performance parameters, TEC linearized
model in the Component Parameters section.

Set the Maximum heat rate, cold side, Qmax, the Maximum temperature difference,
ΔTmax, and the Electrical resistance, Re, used for the expression of the heat rates on
each side, following Equation 6-24 and Equation 6-25.

P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR PARAMETERS

This section is available when Specify is set to Thermal and geometric properties in the
Component Parameters section. The material and geometric properties of the p-type
semiconductors should be set in this section.

First, set the Seebeck coefficient, Sp.

742 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

Electrical and Thermal Resistances
Either specify directly the Electrical resistance, Re,p and Thermal resistance, Rp or
specify the Electrical conductivity, σe,p and Thermal conductivity, kp to calculate the
corresponding resistances.

Thermal Capacitance
Either specify directly the Thermal capacitance, Cp or specify the Density, ρp and Heat
capacity at constant pressure, Cp,p to calculate the corresponding thermal capacitance.
For a steady-state problem, heat storage is null and these inputs are ignored.

Geometry Parameters
The Section area, Ap and Length, Lp of the p-type semiconductors are needed when
either the resistances are expressed from the conductivities or the capacitance is
expressed from the density and heat capacity at constant pressure.

Material
Select any material from the Material list to define some material properties From
material. For User defined enter values or expressions for these properties.

N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR PARAMETERS

This section is available when Specify is set to Thermal and geometric properties in the
Component Parameters section. The material and geometric properties of the n-type
semiconductors should be set in this section. See P-Type Semiconductor Parameters
section for details.

CERAMIC PLATE PARAMETERS

This section is available when Specify is set to Thermal and geometric properties in the
Component Parameters section. The material and geometric properties of the ceramic
plates should be set in this section.

Thermal Capacitance
Either specify directly the Thermal capacitance, Cc or specify the Density, ρc and Heat
capacity at constant pressure, Cp,c to calculate the corresponding thermal capacitance.
For a steady-state problem, heat storage is null and these inputs are ignored.

Geometry Parameters
The Section area, Ac and Thickness, dc of the ceramic plates are needed when the
capacitance is expressed from the density and heat capacity at constant pressure.

GLOBAL FEATURES | 743

 Material
Select any material from the Material list to define some material properties From
material. For User defined enter values or expressions for these properties.

INITIAL VALUES
Set user defined values or expressions for the Initial temperature at node 1, T1,init, and
the Initial temperature at node 2, T2,init, to be used at initialization, in particular to
evaluate the material properties, the performance parameters of the thermoelectric
module, and the heat storage term.

RESULTS
Select appropriate options in the Add the following to default results in order to include
the following global variables (space-independent) in the default plots:

• Heat rate
• Temperature at node 1
• Temperature at node 2

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Lumped Thermal System>Thermoelectric Module

Ribbon
Physics tab with Lumped Thermal System selected:

Global>Thermoelectric Module

744 | CHAPTER 6: THE HEAT TRANSFER FEATURES

 7

The Moisture Transport Features

The Moisture Transport Interface has domain, boundary, and pair nodes available.
These nodes, listed in alphabetical order in this section, are available from the
Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), from the Physics context menu (Mac or
Linux users), or by right-clicking to access the context menu (all users).

In this section:

• Domain Features
• Boundary Features
• Global Features

745
 Domain Features
The Moisture Transport interface has the following domain nodes available:

• Building Material • Moist Air (Moisture Transport

• Hygroscopic Porous Medium Interface)

• Initial Values • Moisture Source

• Liquid Water (Hygroscopic Porous • Porous Matrix (Hygroscopic Porous

Medium) Medium)

• Moist Air (Hygroscopic Porous • Turbulent Mixing

Medium)

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

Building Material
Use this node to model moisture transfer in a building material through vapor
diffusion and capillary moisture flows. The moisture content variation is expressed
through the transfer of relative humidity

∂φ w
ξ ---------- + ∇ ⋅ g w = G (7-1)
∂t

g w = – ( ξD w ∇φ w + δ p ∇( φ w p sat ) ) (7-2)

∂w ( φ w )
ξ = --------------------
∂φ w

with the following material properties, fields, and source:

• ξ (SI unit: kg/m3) is the moisture storage capacity.

• δp (SI unit: s) is the vapor permeability.
• φ w (dimensionless) is the relative humidity.
• psat (SI unit: Pa) is the vapor saturation pressure.

746 | CHAPTER 7: THE MOISTURE TRANSPORT FEATURES

• T (SI unit: K) is the temperature.
• Dw (SI unit: m2/s) is the moisture diffusivity.
• G (SI unit: kg/(m3⋅s)) is the moisture source (or sink). See the Moisture Source
node.

For a steady-state problem, the relative humidity does not change with time and the
first term disappears.

The transfer equation above, specifically designed for building materials under various
assumptions, should be used carefully for some other type of porous media.

MODEL INPUT
This section has fields and values that are inputs to expressions that define material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

The default Temperature Τ and Absolute pressure pA are User defined. When additional
physics interfaces are added to the model, the temperature and absolute pressure
variables defined by these physics interfaces can also be selected from the list. For
example, if a Heat Transfer in Building Materials interface is added, you can select
Temperature (ht) from the list. If a Laminar Flow interface is added, you can select
Absolute pressure (spf) from the list.

If the node was added automatically after selecting the Heat and Moisture Transport
predefined multiphysics interface, the temperature of the Heat and Moisture
multiphysics node is used by default and the input field is not editable. To edit the
Temperature field, click Make All Model Inputs Editable ( ).

BUILDING MATERIAL
This section sets the material properties for moisture diffusivity, moisture storage, and
vapor diffusion.

The default Moisture diffusivity Dw is taken From material. For User defined, set a value
to characterize the liquid transport in function of the moisture content.

The default Moisture storage function w ( φ w ) is taken From material. For User defined,
set a value to characterize the relationship between the amount of accumulated water
and the relative humidity in the material.

DOMAIN FEATURES | 747

 Two options are available for the specification of the material properties for vapor
diffusion:

• Vapor permeability (default) to define the vapor permeability δp directly. The default
is taken From material. For User defined, set a value.
• Vapor resistance factor μ to define the vapor permeability δp as:

δ
δ p = ---
μ

where δ (SI unit: s) is the vapor permeability of still air. The default Vapor resistance
factor is taken From material. For User defined, set a value.

The Moisture Transport in Porous Media Interface

The Heat and Moisture Transport Interfaces

Heat and Moisture

Theory for Moisture Transport in Building Materials

See Building Material Library in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual for a description of materials containing the thermal and
hygroscopic properties required by the Building Material node.

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

Heat and Moisture Transport in a Semi-Infinite Wall: Application

Library path Heat_Transfer_Module/Verification_Examples/
semi_infinite_wall

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Moisture Transport in Air>Building Material
Moisture Transport in Building Materials>Building Material
Moisture Transport in Porous Media>Building Material

748 | CHAPTER 7: THE MOISTURE TRANSPORT FEATURES

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Moisture Transport in Air, Moisture Transport in Building
Materials, or Moisture Transport in Porous Media selected:

Domains>Building Material

Hygroscopic Porous Medium

Use this node to model moisture transport in a porous medium filled with two phases
in equilibrium: liquid water and moist air. The moisture transport occurs through
vapor diffusion and convection in moist air, and convection and capillary flow in the
liquid phase.

The variation of the total moisture content is expressed through the sum of the
transport of vapor in moist air and liquid water. See Theory for Moisture Transport in
Porous Media for details.

The liquid saturation, sl, which describes the amount of liquid water within the pores,
is defined from the specification of a moisture storage function w ( φ w ) , which specifies
the total moisture content (left hand side of the equation below) as a function of the
relative humidity φ w :

εp sl ρl + εp ρ ωv ( 1 – sl ) = w ( φw )
g

where εp (dimensionless) is the porosity.

When there is no variation of the total pressure and under specific temperature
conditions, the Building Material node may be used instead. See Theory for Moisture
Transport in Building Materials for details.

MODEL INPUT
This section has fields and values that are inputs to expressions that define material
properties in the Liquid Water, Moist Air, and Porous Matrix subnodes.

The default Temperature Τ and Absolute pressure pA are User defined. When additional
physics interfaces are added to the model, the temperature and absolute pressure
variables defined by these physics interfaces can also be selected from the list. For
example, if a Heat Transfer in Moist Porous Media interface is added, you can select
Temperature (ht) from the list. If a Laminar Flow interface is added, you can select
Absolute pressure (spf) from the list.

DOMAIN FEATURES | 749

 If the node was added automatically after selecting the Heat and Moisture Transport
predefined multiphysics interface, the temperature of the Heat and Moisture
multiphysics node is used by default and the input field is not editable. To edit the
Temperature field, click Make All Model Inputs Editable ( ).

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

Select a coordinate system from the Coordinate system list for the interpretation of
directions in anisotropic material properties. The default is the Global coordinate
system, and the list contains any additional coordinate system (except boundary
coordinate systems) added under the Definitions node.

The Hygroscopic Porous Medium node and its subnodes inherit these coordinate system
settings. In particular, the Moist air velocity field (in Moist Air (Hygroscopic Porous
Medium) subnode), the Permeability (in Porous Matrix (Hygroscopic Porous
Medium) subnode), and the Capillary liquid flux density (in Hygroscopic Porous
Medium node) should be set according to the coordinate system selected in this
section.

See Coordinate Systems in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for more
details.

MOISTURE TRANSPORT PROPERTIES

The Moisture storage function w ( φ w ) should be set to characterize the relationship
between the amount of accumulated water and the relative humidity in the material.
The default Moisture storage function is taken From material. For User defined, enter
another value or expression.

Then, the following options are available for the capillary flux:

• When Capillary model is set to Kelvin’s law (default), a Darcy’s Law based on the
capillary pressure is used, and the capillary pressure itself is expressed from the
relative humidity by using Kelvin’s law, using the assumption that the liquid and gas
phases are in equilibrium in the porous medium.
• When Capillary model is set to Diffusion model, the capillary flux is expressed from the
gradient of the moisture content, and the Moisture diffusivity Dw, should be
specified.
• For User defined, set a value for the Capillary liquid flux density, glc, to characterize
the liquid transport in function of the moisture content.

750 | CHAPTER 7: THE MOISTURE TRANSPORT FEATURES

When a Porous Material node is defined on the domains where the Hygroscopic Porous
Medium feature is active, the Moisture storage function and the Moisture diffusivity can
be set in the Homogenized Properties section of the Porous Material node.

See Porous Material in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

The moist air properties can be specified in the Moist Air (Hygroscopic
Porous Medium) subnode.

The properties for liquid water convective transport can be specified in

the Liquid Water (Hygroscopic Porous Medium) subnode.

The solid matrix porosity and permeability can be specified in the Porous
Matrix (Hygroscopic Porous Medium) subnode.

• The Moisture Transport in Porous Media Interface

• The Heat and Moisture Transport Interfaces
• Heat and Moisture
• Theory for Moisture Transport in Porous Media

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Moisture Transport in Air>Hygroscopic Porous Medium
Moisture Transport in Building Materials>Hygroscopic Porous Medium
Moisture Transport in Porous Media>Hygroscopic Porous Medium

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Moisture Transport in Air, Moisture Transport in Building
Materials, or Moisture Transport in Porous Media selected:

Domains>Hygroscopic Porous Medium

DOMAIN FEATURES | 751

 Initial Values
This node adds an initial value for the relative humidity that can serve as an initial
condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear solver. In
addition to the default Initial Values node always present in the interface, you can add
more Initial Values nodes if needed.

INITIAL VALUES
For User defined, enter a value or expression for the initial value of the Relative humidity
φ w . The default value is 0.5. Else, select an Ambient relative humidity defined in an
Ambient Properties node under Definitions.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Moisture Transport in Air>Initial Values
Moisture Transport in Building Materials>Initial Values
Moisture Transport in Porous Media>Initial Values

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Moisture Transport in Air, Moisture Transport in Building
Materials, or Moisture Transport in Porous Media selected:

Domains>Initial Values

Liquid Water (Hygroscopic Porous Medium)

This subnode defines the properties for the transport of the liquid water phase in a
porous medium filled with two phases in equilibrium: liquid water and moist air. The
moisture transport occurs through vapor diffusion and convection in moist air, and
convection and capillary flow in the liquid phase.

LIQUID WATER PROPERTIES

This section contains settings for the definition of convective transport of liquid water.
See Hygroscopic Porous Medium for the definition of capillary transport.

Set the Relative liquid water permeability, κrl (dimensionless), that multiplies the porous
medium permeability in the Darcy’s Law to account for the presence of the liquid
phase.

752 | CHAPTER 7: THE MOISTURE TRANSPORT FEATURES

The convective flux of liquid water is always computed with Darcy’s Law.

The liquid water properties are based on the temperature set in the
corresponding model input in the Hygroscopic Porous Medium parent
node.

The capillary transport and storage properties can be specified in the

Hygroscopic Porous Medium parent node.

The liquid saturation, sl, is defined from the moisture storage function
specified in the Hygroscopic Porous Medium parent node.

The moist air properties can be specified in the Moist Air (Hygroscopic
Porous Medium) subnode.

The solid matrix porosity and permeability can be specified in the Porous
Matrix (Hygroscopic Porous Medium) subnode.

The Moisture Transport in Porous Media Interface

The Heat and Moisture Transport Interfaces

Heat and Moisture

Theory for Moisture Transport in Porous Media

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Moisture Transport in Air>Hygroscopic Porous Medium>Liquid Water
Moisture Transport in Building Materials>Hygroscopic Porous Medium>Liquid Water
Moisture Transport in Porous Media>Hygroscopic Porous Medium>Liquid Water

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Hygroscopic Porous Medium selected in the model tree:

Attributes>Liquid Water

DOMAIN FEATURES | 753

 Moist Air (Hygroscopic Porous Medium)
This subnode defines the properties for the transport of the moist air phase in a porous
medium filled with two phases in equilibrium: liquid water and moist air. The moisture
transport occurs through vapor diffusion and convection in moist air, and convection
and capillary flow in the liquid phase.

MOIST AIR PROPERTIES

This section contains settings for the definition of convective and diffusive vapor
transport in the moist air phase.

First, set the Diffusion Coefficient, D (SI unit: m2/s), for the binary diffusion of vapor
in air in a free medium. The default value 2.6·10−5 m²/s is valid at T = 298 K and
pA = 1 atm. You may set a temperature or pressure-dependent diffusion coefficient
through the use of the variables mt.T and mt.pA.

Specify the Effective diffusivity model used to account for the porosity and the tortuosity
of the porous medium in the diffusion coefficient, Deff (SI unit: m2/s). The available
options are Millington and Quirk model (the default), Bruggeman model, Tortuosity
model, and No correction.

For the Tortuosity model option, enter a value for the Tortuosity factor, τ
(dimensionless). The default is 1.

Then, set the Moist air velocity field, ug, that should be interpreted as the Darcy
velocity, that is, the volume flow rate per unit cross sectional area. For User defined
enter values or expressions for the components based on space dimensions. Or select
an existing velocity field in the component (for example, Velocity field (br) from a
Brinkman Equations interface).

When setting temperature or pressure-dependent properties, the

corresponding model inputs should be specified in the Hygroscopic
Porous Medium parent node.

The capillary transport and storage properties can be specified in the

Hygroscopic Porous Medium parent node.

The liquid water properties can be specified in the Liquid Water

(Hygroscopic Porous Medium) subnode.

The solid matrix porosity and permeability can be specified in the Porous
Matrix (Hygroscopic Porous Medium) subnode.

754 | CHAPTER 7: THE MOISTURE TRANSPORT FEATURES

 The Moisture Transport in Porous Media Interface

The Heat and Moisture Transport Interfaces

Heat and Moisture

Theory for Moisture Transport in Porous Media

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Moisture Transport in Air>Hygroscopic Porous Medium>Moist Air
Moisture Transport in Building Materials>Hygroscopic Porous Medium>Moist Air
Moisture Transport in Porous Media>Hygroscopic Porous Medium>Moist Air

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Hygroscopic Porous Medium selected in the model tree:

Attributes>Moist Air

Moist Air (Moisture Transport Interface)

Use this node to model moisture transfer in moist air through vapor diffusion and
convection.

For small vapor concentration conditions, the density of moist air is supposed not to
change with variations of moisture content, and a diluted species formulation is used.
In this case, the moisture content variation is expressed through the transport of vapor
concentration cv:

∂c v
M v -------- + M v u ⋅ ∇c v + ∇ ⋅ g w = G (7-3)
∂t

g w = – M v D ∇c v

c v = φ w c sat

with the following material properties, fields, and source:

DOMAIN FEATURES | 755

 • Μv (SI unit: kg/mol) is the molar mass of water vapor.
• φ w (dimensionless) is the relative humidity.
• csat (SI unit: mol/m3) is the vapor saturation concentration.
• D (SI unit: m2/s) is the vapor diffusion coefficient in air.
• u (SI unit: m/s) is the air velocity field.
• G (SI unit: kg/(m3⋅s)) is the moisture source (or sink). See Moisture Source node.
For larger vapor concentration conditions, the variation of moist air density are
modeled, and a concentrated species formulation is used. In this case, the moisture
content variation is expressed through the transport of vapor mass fraction ωv:

∂ω v
ρ g ---------- + ρ g u ⋅ ∇ω v + ∇ ⋅ g w = G (7-4)
∂t

g w = – ρ g D ∇ω v

Mv cv
ω v = --------------
ρg

c v = φ w c sat

where ρg is the moist air density (SI unit: kg/m3).

For a steady-state problem, the relative humidity does not change with time and the
first term in Equation 7-3 and Equation 7-4 disappears.

MODEL INPUT
This section has fields and values that are inputs to expressions used in Equation 7-3
and Equation 7-4. The temperature is used for the definition of the saturation
conditions, whereas the velocity field is used in the convection term.

The default Temperature Τ and Velocity field u are User defined. When additional
physics interfaces are added to the model, the temperature and velocity field variables
defined by these physics interfaces can also be selected from the list. For example, if a
Heat Transfer in Building Materials interface is added, you can select Temperature (ht)
from the list. If a Laminar Flow interface is added, you can select Velocity field (spf) from
the list.

If the node was added automatically after selecting the Heat and Moisture Transport
predefined multiphysics interface, the temperature of the Heat and Moisture

756 | CHAPTER 7: THE MOISTURE TRANSPORT FEATURES

multiphysics node is used by default and the input field is not editable. To edit the
Temperature field, click Make All Model Inputs Editable ( ).

DIFFUSION
Set a value for the Diffusion coefficient, D. The default value 2.6e-5 m²/s is valid at
T=298 K and pA=1 atm. You may set a temperature or pressure-dependent diffusion
coefficient through the use of the variables mt.T and mt.pA.

The Moisture Transport in Air Interface

The Heat and Moisture Transport Interfaces

Heat and Moisture

Theory for Moisture Transport in Air

See Turbulent Mixing to account for eddy diffusivity in moisture

convection by turbulent flows.

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

Condensation Detection in an Electronic Device with Transport and

Diffusion: Application Library path Heat_Transfer_Module/
Power_Electronics_and_Electronic_Cooling/
condensation_electronic_device_transport_diffusion

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Moisture Transport in Air>Moist Air
Moisture Transport in Building Materials>Moist Air
Moisture Transport in Porous Media>Moist Air

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Moisture Transport in Air, Moisture Transport in Building
Materials, or Moisture Transport in Porous Media selected:

DOMAIN FEATURES | 757

 Domains>Moist Air

Moisture Source
This node describes moisture generation within the domain. You express addition and
removal of moisture content with positive and negative values, respectively. Add one
or more nodes as needed — all moisture sources within a domain contribute with each
other.

The Moisture Source node adds a source term G to the right-hand side of the moisture
transport equation:

G = G0

MOISTURE SOURCE
Enter a value or expression for the Moisture Source G0 per unit volume.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Moisture Transport in Air>Moisture Source
Moisture Transport in Building Materials>Moisture Source
Moisture Transport in Porous Media>Moisture Source

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Moisture Transport in Air, Moisture Transport in Building
Materials, or Moisture Transport in Porous Media selected:

Domains>Moisture Source

Porous Matrix (Hygroscopic Porous Medium)

This subnode defines the properties of a porous medium filled with two phases in
equilibrium: liquid water and moist air. The moisture transport occurs through vapor
diffusion and convection in moist air, and convection and capillary flow in the liquid
phase.

POROUS MATRIX PROPERTIES

First, set the Porosity, εp (a dimensionless number between 0 and 1), that uses by
default the value From material. For User defined the default is 0.

758 | CHAPTER 7: THE MOISTURE TRANSPORT FEATURES

Then, set the Permeability, κ (SI unit: m2), to specify the capacity of the porous
material to transmit flow. For User defined select Isotropic to define a scalar value or
Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full to define a tensor value and enter another value or
expression in the field or matrix.

When a Porous Material node is defined on the domains where the Hygroscopic Porous
Medium feature is active, the Porosity and the Permeability can be set in the Homogenized
Properties section of the Porous Material node.

When setting temperature or pressure-dependent properties, the

corresponding model inputs can be specified in the Hygroscopic Porous
Medium parent node.

The capillary transport and storage properties of the porous material can
be specified in the Hygroscopic Porous Medium parent node.

The properties for convective liquid transport can be specified in the

Liquid Water (Hygroscopic Porous Medium) subnode.

The moist air properties can be specified in the Moist Air (Hygroscopic
Porous Medium) subnode.

The Moisture Transport in Porous Media Interface

The Heat and Moisture Transport Interfaces

Heat and Moisture

Theory for Moisture Transport in Porous Media

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Moisture Transport in Air>Hygroscopic Porous Medium>Porous Matrix
Moisture Transport in Building Materials>Hygroscopic Porous Medium>Porous Matrix
Moisture Transport in Porous Media>Hygroscopic Porous Medium>Porous Matrix

DOMAIN FEATURES | 759

 Ribbon
Physics Tab with Hygroscopic Porous Medium selected in the model tree:

Attributes>Porous Matrix

Turbulent Mixing
This subnode should be used to account for the turbulent mixing caused by the eddy
diffusivity in moisture convection, for example when the specified velocity field
corresponds to a RANS solution.

The Turbulent Mixing node adds the following contribution to the diffusion coefficient
D of Equation 7-3 and Equation 7-4 of Moist Air (Moisture Transport Interface)
node:

νT
D T = ----------
Sc T

where νT is the turbulent kinematic viscosity (SI unit: m2/s) and ScT is the turbulent
Schmidt number (dimensionless).

TURBULENT MIXING PARAMETERS

Enter a value or expression for the Turbulent kinematic viscosity νT and the Turbulent
Schmidt number ScT. If a turbulent fluid flow interface is active, the Turbulent kinematic
viscosity can be taken directly from this interface.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Moisture Transport in Air>Moist Air>Turbulent Mixing
Moisture Transport in Building Materials>Moist Air>Turbulent Mixing
Moisture Transport in Porous Media>Moist Air>Turbulent Mixing

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Moist Air selected in the model tree:

Domains>Turbulent Mixing

760 | CHAPTER 7: THE MOISTURE TRANSPORT FEATURES

Boundary Features
The Moisture Transport interface has the following boundary nodes available:

• Continuity • Open Boundary

• Inflow • Outflow
• Insulation • Periodic Condition
• Moist Surface • Symmetry
• Moisture Content • Thin Moisture Barrier
• Moisture Flux • Wet Surface

For axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial

symmetry boundaries into account and automatically adds an Axial
Symmetry node that is valid on the axial symmetry boundaries only.

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

Continuity
This node can be added to pairs. It prescribes that the moisture content is continuous
across the pair. Continuity is only suitable for pairs where the boundaries match.
Depending on the domain conditions active in the adjacent domains, the constraint is
applied either on relative humidity, vapor concentration or vapor mass fraction on
boundary pairs. For continuous temperature and pressure conditions, all these
constraints are equivalent.

PAIR SELECTION
Choose the pair on which to apply this condition. A pair has to be created first. See
Identity and Contact Pairs in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for more
details.

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 761

 CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options.

The Discontinuous Galerkin constraints option ensures continuity of the diffusive flux.
This option may work better than the Classical constraints one when the meshes of the
source and destination boundaries do not coincide.

Alternatively, select the Classical constraints option. Select the Use weak constraints
check box to replace the standard constraints with a weak implementation.

ADVANCED
Select the Disconnect pair check box to disable the continuity condition.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Moisture Transport in Air>Pairs>Continuity
Moisture Transport in Building Materials>Pairs>Continuity
Moisture Transport in Porous Media>Pairs>Continuity

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Moisture Transport in Air, Moisture Transport in Building
Materials, or Moisture Transport in Porous Media selected:

Pairs>Continuity

Inflow
Use this node to model inflow of moisture through a virtual domain, at inlet
boundaries of moist air domains. The upstream moisture conditions (either vapor
concentration custr, or vapor mass fraction ωustr, or relative humidity φ w, ustr and
temperature Tustr) are known at the outer boundary of the virtual domain. The inflow
condition is often similar to a moisture content condition. However using this
condition the upstream vapor concentration is not strictly enforced at the inlet. The
higher the flow rate, the smallest difference between the inlet and upstream moisture
content. In case of moisture sources or moisture constraints close to the inlet
boundary, the inflow condition induces a moisture profile that approaches to the
moisture profile that would be obtained by computing the solution in the virtual
domain upstream the inlet.

762 | CHAPTER 7: THE MOISTURE TRANSPORT FEATURES

This boundary condition estimates the moisture flux through the inlet boundary from
a Danckwerts condition on the concentration:

– n ⋅ g w = M v ( c v – c ustr )u ⋅ n

When the Concentrated species option is selected in the Mixture type for moist air list,
this condition is rewritten as:

– n ⋅ g w = ρ g ( ω v – ω ustr )u ⋅ n

to be expressed in function of the mass fraction ωv, with

M v c ustr
ω ustr = ---------------------
ρg

This node can be applied on the exterior boundaries of a computational domain in

which a Moist Air (Moisture Transport Interface) node is active.

UPSTREAM PROPERTIES
When Specify is set to Relative humidity in the Specify list, set both the Upstream
temperature Tustr and the Upstream relative humidity φ w, ustr from which the
upstream vapor concentration can be defined:

c ustr = φ w, ustr c sat ( T ustr )

For User Defined, enter values or expressions. Else, select any available input (like
Ambient temperature defined in an Ambient Properties node under Definitions).

Alternatively, choose Vapor concentration in the Specify list, and set directly a value or
expression for the Upstream vapor concentration custr.

Finally, choose Vapor mass fraction in the Specify list to set a value or expression for the
Upstream vapor mass fraction ωustr.

Evaporative Cooling of Water: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Phase_Change/evaporative_cooling

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Moisture Transport in Air>Flow Conditions>Inflow
Moisture Transport in Building Materials>Flow Conditions>Inflow

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 763

 Moisture Transport in Porous Media>Flow Conditions>Inflow

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Moisture Transport in Air, Moisture Transport in Building
Materials, or Moisture Transport in Porous Media selected:

Boundaries>Inflow

Insulation
This node is the default boundary condition for the Moisture Transport interface. This
boundary condition means that there is no moisture flux across the boundary:

–n ⋅ gw = 0

and hence specifies where the domain is insulated. Intuitively, this equation says that
the relative humidity gradient across the boundary is zero. For this to be true, the
relative humidity on one side of the boundary must equal the relative humidity on the
other side. Because there is no relative humidity difference across the boundary,
moisture cannot transfer across it. It can be applied on exterior boundaries only.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Moisture Transport in Air>Insulation
Moisture Transport in Building Materials>Insulation
Moisture Transport in Porous Media>Insulation

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Moisture Transport in Air, Moisture Transport in Building
Materials, or Moisture Transport in Porous Media selected:

Boundaries>Insulation

Moist Surface
This node should be used to model evaporation from and condensation to a solid
surface partially covered with liquid water. It adds the evaporation flux to the boundary
conditions of Equation 7-3 and Equation 7-4 of Moist Air (Moisture Transport
Interface) node, and computes the corresponding latent heat source to be added in the
heat transfer equation. In addition, it computes the liquid water concentration
accumulated on the surface, during evaporation and condensation processes.

764 | CHAPTER 7: THE MOISTURE TRANSPORT FEATURES

It can be applied on the exterior boundaries of a domain where the Moist Air
(Moisture Transport Interface) node is active.

In time-dependent studies, the evaporation flux gevap (SI unit: kg/(m2⋅s)) is defined
as:


 M K ( c sat – c v ) if c v > c sat or c l > 0
g evap =  v
 0 otherwise


where Mv is the molar mass of water vapor (SI unit: kg/mol), K is the evaporation rate
factor (SI unit: m/s), csat is the saturation concentration of vapor (SI unit: mol/m3),
cv is the vapor concentration (SI unit: mol/m3), and cl is the liquid water
concentration on surface (SI unit: mol/m2).

The liquid water concentration on surface is computed by solving the following

equation:

∂c l
M v ------- = – g evap
∂t

with the initial condition:

c l ( 0 ) = c l, init

In stationary studies, the initial liquid concentration is used in the definition of the
evaporation flux:


 M K ( c sat – c v ) if c v > c sat or c l, init > 0
g evap =  v
 0 otherwise


The latent heat source qevap (SI unit: W/m2) is obtained by multiplying the
evaporation flux by the latent heat of evaporation Lv (SI unit: J/kg):

q evap = L v g evap

With these definitions, gevap is negative when condensation occurs, and positive
during evaporation. Whereas the condensation process does not depend on the liquid
concentration on the surface, the evaporation process only happens when the (initial
or time-dependent) liquid concentration on surface is positive.

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 765

 MOIST SURFACE SETTINGS
Enter values or expressions for the Evaporation rate factor K and the Initial liquid water
concentration on moist surface cl,init.

See Wet Surface node for the modeling of evaporation and condensation
on a solid surface completely covered with liquid water.

When a Heat and Moisture multiphysics coupling node is active, the

resulting latent heat source is automatically added as a boundary heat
source into the heat transfer equation.

Condensation Detection in an Electronic Device with Transport and

Diffusion: Application Library path Heat_Transfer_Module/
Power_Electronics_and_Electronic_Cooling/
condensation_electronic_device_transport_diffusion

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Moisture Transport in Air>Moist Surface
Moisture Transport in Building Materials>Moist Surface
Moisture Transport in Porous Media>Moist Surface

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Moisture Transport in Air, Moisture Transport in Building
Materials, or Moisture Transport in Porous Media selected:

Boundaries>Moist Surface

Moisture Content
Use this node to specify the moisture conditions (relative humidity and temperature,
vapor concentration, or vapor mass fraction) on exterior boundaries.

PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair on which to apply this
condition. A pair has to be created first. See Identity and Contact Pairs in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for more details.

766 | CHAPTER 7: THE MOISTURE TRANSPORT FEATURES

MOISTURE CONTENT
When Specify is set to Relative humidity, the equation for this condition is

c v = φ w, 0 c sat ( T 0 )

where φ w, 0 and T0 are the prescribed relative humidity and temperature on the
boundary. For User Defined, enter values or expressions. Else, select any available input
(like Ambient temperature defined in an Ambient Properties node under Definitions). If
the Concentrated species formulation is used, the vapor mass fraction is then defined as:

M v φ w, 0 c sat ( T 0 )
ω v = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
pA
M v φ w, 0 c sat ( T 0 ) + M a  -------- – φ w, 0 c sat ( T 0 )
RT

Alternatively, choose Vapor concentration in the Specify list and set directly the Vapor
concentration c0. If the Concentrated species formulation is used, the vapor mass
fraction is then defined as:

c0
ω v = -------------------------------------------------------
pA
M v c 0 + M a  -------- – c 0
 RT 

Finally, choose Vapor mass fraction in the Specify list to set directly ω0. If the Diluted
species formulation is used, the vapor concentration is then defined as:

Ma ω0 pA
c v = ------------------------------------------------- ⋅ --------
M v ( 1 – ω 0 ) + M a ω 0 RT

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options. Select the Use weak constraints check box to replace the standard
constraints with a weak implementation.

The Discontinuous Galerkin constraints option ensures continuity of the diffusive flux.

Heat and Moisture Transport in a Semi-Infinite Wall: Application

Library path Heat_Transfer_Module/Verification_Examples/
semi_infinite_wall

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 767

 LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Moisture Transport in Air>Moisture Content
Moisture Transport in Building Materials>Moisture Content
Moisture Transport in Porous Media>Moisture Content
Moisture Transport in Air>Pairs>Moisture Content
Moisture Transport in Building Materials>Pairs>Moisture Content
Moisture Transport in Porous Media>Pairs>Moisture Content

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Moisture Transport in Air, Moisture Transport in Building
Materials, or Moisture Transport in Porous Media selected:

Boundaries>Moisture Content
Pairs>Moisture Content

Moisture Flux
Use this node to add moisture flux across exterior boundaries, with the option to
account for latent heat source due to evaporation. A positive moisture flux adds
moisture to the domain.

MOISTURE FLUX
Select the Flux type from the list: General moisture flux (the default), Convective
moisture flux, concentrations difference, or Convective moisture flux, pressures difference.

General Moisture Flux

It adds g0 to the total flux across the selected boundaries. Enter a positive value for g0
to represent a moisture flux that enters the domain.

Convective Moisture Flux, Concentrations Difference

Several options are available to specify the Moisture transfer coefficient hm.

• The default option is to enter a User defined value for hm.

• With the From heat and moisture transport analogy option, the heat transfer
coefficient h to be multiplied by the analogy factor to obtain the moisture transfer
coefficient hm should be specified. It can be User defined (in this case the Absolute
pressure, pA, the External temperature, Text, and the External relative humidity,
φ w, ext should be specified) or selected from a list of heat transfer coefficients

768 | CHAPTER 7: THE MOISTURE TRANSPORT FEATURES

 defined in Heat Flux features applied on the same boundary (in this case the external
conditions defined in the corresponding Heat Flux feature are used).
• For the External natural convection, Internal natural convection, External forced
convection, and Internal forced convection options, the geometry and velocity
parameters used in the correlation are the same as for the Heat Flux feature. Then
the external conditions should be specified. First, set the Absolute pressure, pA. For
User Defined, enter a value or expression. Else, select an Ambient absolute pressure
defined in an Ambient Properties node under Definitions. In addition, enter an
External temperature, Text. For User defined, enter a value or expression. Else, select
an Ambient temperature defined in an Ambient Properties node under Definitions.
Finally, set the External relative humidity, φ w, ext . Note that the relative humidity at
the boundary is provided by the physics interface.

For all options except User defined, select the Specify the exponent in the analogy factor
check box to set the variable n in Equation 4-191.

Convective Moisture Flux, Pressures Difference

Enter a value for the Moisture transfer coefficient βp. In addition, two options are
available to specify the external conditions:

• If Relative humidity is selected (the default), set the External relative humidity,
φ w, ext and the External temperature, Text (used for the computation of the vapor
saturation pressure). For User defined, enter values or expressions. Else, select an
Ambient relative humidity and an Ambient temperature defined in an Ambient
Properties node under Definitions. Convective moisture flux is defined by
g0 = βp( φ w, ext psat(Text) − φ w psat(T)).
• If Partial vapor pressure is selected, enter an External partial vapor pressure, pv,ext.
Convective moisture flux is defined by g0 = βp(pv,ext − φ w psat(T)).

EVAPORATION
Select the Contributes to evaporation flux check box to define the moisture flux as an
evaporation flux, and to contribute to the total latent heat source mt.q_evaptot.

Condensation Risk in a Wood-Frame Wall: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Buildings_and_Constructions/wood_frame_wall

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 769

 LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Moisture Transport in Air>Moisture Flux
Moisture Transport in Building Materials>Moisture Flux
Moisture Transport in Porous Media>Moisture Flux

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Moisture Transport in Air, Moisture Transport in Building
Materials, or Moisture Transport in Porous Media selected:

Boundaries>Moisture Flux

Open Boundary
Use this condition to define a boundary as the limit between a moist air domain of the
geometry and the rest of the same moist air domain that is not represented in the
geometry.

This node can be applied on the exterior boundaries of a computational domain in

which a Moist Air (Moisture Transport Interface) node is active.

At the open boundary both inflow and outflow conditions are supported.

For an outgoing moist airflow across the boundary, it applies a zero diffusive flux
condition:

– n ⋅ g w = 0, n⋅u≥0 (7-5)

For an incoming flow of velocity field u across the boundary, it accounts by default for
the moisture flux induced by the flow rate through a Danckwerts condition on the
vapor concentration:

– n ⋅ g w = M v ( c v – c ustr )u ⋅ n, n⋅u<0

When the Concentrated species option is selected in the Mixture type for moist air list,
this condition is rewritten as:

– n ⋅ g w = ρ g ( ω v – ω ustr )u ⋅ n, n⋅u<0

to be expressed in function of the mass fraction ωv, with

770 | CHAPTER 7: THE MOISTURE TRANSPORT FEATURES

 M v c ustr
ω ustr = ---------------------
ρg

Alternatively the open boundary condition can set a constraint on the vapor
concentration or mass fraction for an incoming flow, depending on the option is
selected in the Mixture type for moist air list:

c v = c ustr, n⋅u<0 (7-6)

ω v = ω ustr, n⋅u<0 (7-7)

Both types of conditions are based on the knowledge of the upstream moisture content
(from the vapor concentration, the vapor mass fraction, or the relative humidity and
the temperature) at the outer boundary of the virtual domain, but the concentration
and mass fraction ones should be preferred to account for the feedback of the model
moisture sources and moisture constraints on the inlet moisture profile.

UPSTREAM PROPERTIES
When Specify is set to Relative humidity in the Specify list, set both the Upstream
temperature Tustr and the Upstream relative humidity φ w, ustr from which the
upstream vapor concentration can be defined:

c ustr = φ w, ustr c sat ( T ustr )

For User Defined, enter values or expressions. Else, select any available input (like
Ambient temperature defined in an Ambient Properties node under Definitions).

Alternatively, choose Vapor concentration in the Specify list, and set directly a value or
expression for the Upstream vapor concentration custr.

Finally, choose Vapor mass fraction in the Specify list to set a value or expression for the
Upstream vapor mass fraction ωustr.

INFLOW CONDITION
Unfold this section to change the inflow condition:

• The Flux (Danckwerts) condition (default) prescribes the flux defined from the
upstream vapor concentration (or mass fraction) and the fluid velocity at the
boundary. Using this condition, the moisture condition is not strictly enforced at

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 771

 the inlet. Instead a flux is set on this boundary. The higher the flow rate, the smallest
difference between the inlet and upstream vapor concentration (or mass fraction).
• The Discontinuous Galerkin constraints option enforces the upstream vapor
concentration (for Diluted species option) or the upstream vapor mass fraction (for
Concentrated species option) on the boundary.

Evaporative Cooling of Water: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Phase_Change/evaporative_cooling

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Moisture Transport in Air>Flow Conditions>Open Boundary
Moisture Transport in Building Materials>Flow Conditions>Open Boundary
Moisture Transport in Porous Media>Flow Conditions>Open Boundary

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Moisture Transport in Air, Moisture Transport in Building
Materials, or Moisture Transport in Porous Media selected:

Boundaries>Open Boundary

Outflow
This node provides a boundary condition at outlets where the vapor is transported out
of the air domain. It is assumed that convection is the dominating transport
mechanism across outflow boundaries, and therefore that diffusive transport can be
ignored, that is:

– n ⋅ D ∇( M v φ w c sat ) = 0

This node can be applied on the exterior boundaries of a computational domain in

which a Moist Air (Moisture Transport Interface) node or an Hygroscopic Porous
Medium node is active.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Moisture Transport in Air>Flow Conditions>Outflow
Moisture Transport in Building Materials>Flow Conditions>Outflow

772 | CHAPTER 7: THE MOISTURE TRANSPORT FEATURES

Moisture Transport in Porous Media>Flow Conditions>Outflow

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Moisture Transport in Air, Moisture Transport in Building
Materials, or Moisture Transport in Porous Media selected:

Boundaries>Outflow

Periodic Condition
Use this node to prescribe periodic conditions on moisture. Depending on the domain
condition active in the adjacent domain, the constraint is applied either on relative
humidity, vapor concentration or vapor mass fraction on boundary pairs. For periodic
temperature and pressure conditions, all these constraints are equivalent.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
The software automatically identifies the boundaries as either source boundaries or
destination boundaries. The selection for the destination can be changed by
right-clicking the Periodic Condition node to add a Destination Selection subnode.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options.

The Discontinuous Galerkin constraints option ensures continuity of the diffusive flux.
This option may work better than the Classical constraints one when the meshes of the
source and destination boundaries do not coincide.

Alternatively, select the Classical constraints option. Select the Use weak constraints
check box to replace the standard constraints with a weak implementation.

ORIENTATION OF SOURCE
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options.

See Orientation of Source and Destination in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual.

MAPPING BETWEEN SOURCE AND DESTINATION

To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options.

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 773

 See Mapping Between Source and Destination in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Moisture Transport in Air>Periodic Condition
Moisture Transport in Building Materials>Periodic Condition
Moisture Transport in Porous Media>Periodic Condition

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Moisture Transport in Air, Moisture Transport in Building
Materials, or Moisture Transport in Porous Media selected:

Boundaries>Periodic Condition

Symmetry
This node provides a boundary condition for symmetry boundaries. This boundary
condition is similar to an Insulation condition, and it means that there is no moisture
flux across the boundary. It can be applied on exterior boundaries only.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Moisture Transport in Air>Symmetry
Moisture Transport in Building Materials>Symmetry
Moisture Transport in Porous Media>Symmetry

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Moisture Transport in Air, Moisture Transport in Building
Materials, or Moisture Transport in Porous Media selected:

Boundaries>Symmetry

Thin Moisture Barrier

Use this node to model a discontinuous moisture content across interior boundaries.
By default it models a vapor barrier, with the moisture transfer coefficient β accounting
for vapor diffusion only. A more general moisture barrier can be defined through the
specification of a user-defined moisture transfer coefficient.

774 | CHAPTER 7: THE MOISTURE TRANSPORT FEATURES

The upside and downside moisture fluxes are defined by β ( φ w, d – φ w, u ) and
β ( φ w, u – φ w, d ) , respectively.

MODEL INPUT
This section has fields and values that are inputs to expressions that define material
properties for vapor permeability, vapor resistance factor, and saturation pressure of
water vapor. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

THIN MOISTURE BARRIER

Two options are available to define the moisture flux:

• If Vapor barrier material properties is selected (the default), the moisture transfer
coefficient β is defined as

δp sat δ p p sat δp sat

β = -------------- = ----------------- = --------------
μd s ds sd

where δ is the vapor permeability of still air (SI unit: s), psat is the saturation pressure
of water vapor (SI unit: Pa), μ is the vapor resistance factor (dimensionless), δp is the
vapor permeability (SI unit: s), sd is the vapor diffusion equivalent air layer thickness
(SI unit: m), and ds is the layer thickness (SI unit: m).
Depending on the option selected in Specify — Vapor resistance factor (the default),
Vapor permeability, or Vapor diffusion equivalent air layer thickness, enter values or
expressions for the needed properties, or use properties From material.
• If Moisture transfer coefficient is selected, enter a value or expression for the Moisture
transfer coefficient β.

See Building Material Library in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual for a description of materials containing the thermal and
hygroscopic properties required by the Thin Moisture Barrier node.

Condensation Risk in a Wood-Frame Wall: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Buildings_and_Constructions/wood_frame_wall

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 775

 LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Moisture Transport in Air>Thin Moisture Barrier
Moisture Transport in Building Materials>Thin Moisture Barrier
Moisture Transport in Porous Media>Thin Moisture Barrier

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Moisture Transport in Air, Moisture Transport in Building
Materials, or Moisture Transport in Porous Media selected:

Boundaries>Thin Moisture Barrier

Wet Surface
This node should be used to model evaporation from and condensation to a solid
surface completely covered with liquid water. It adds the evaporation flux to the
boundary conditions of Equation 7-3 or Equation 7-4 of Moist Air (Moisture
Transport Interface) node, and computes the corresponding latent heat source to be
added in the heat transfer equation.

It can be applied on the exterior boundaries of a domain where the Moist Air
(Moisture Transport Interface) node is active.

The evaporation flux gevap (SI unit: kg/(m2⋅s)) is defined as:

g evap = M v K ( c sat – c v )

where Mv is the molar mass of water vapor (SI unit: kg/mol), K is the evaporation rate
factor (SI unit: m/s), csat is the saturation concentration of vapor (SI unit: mol/m3),
and cv is the vapor concentration (SI unit: mol/m3).

The latent heat source qevap (SI unit: W/m2) is obtained by multiplying the
evaporation flux by the latent heat of evaporation Lv (SI unit: J/kg):

q evap = L v g evap

776 | CHAPTER 7: THE MOISTURE TRANSPORT FEATURES

WET SURFACE SETTINGS
Enter a value or expression for the Evaporation rate factor K.

See Moist Surface node for the computation of the amount of liquid
water accumulated on a solid surface partially covered with liquid water,
due to evaporation and condensation.

When a Heat and Moisture multiphysics coupling node is active, the

resulting latent heat source is automatically added as a boundary heat
source into the heat transfer equation.

Evaporative Cooling of Water: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Phase_Change/evaporative_cooling

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Moisture Transport in Air>Wet Surface
Moisture Transport in Building Materials>Wet Surface
Moisture Transport in Porous Media>Wet Surface

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Moisture Transport in Air, Moisture Transport in Building
Materials, or Moisture Transport in Porous Media selected:

Boundaries>Wet Surface

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 777

 Global Features
The Moisture Transport interface has the following global node available:

• Gravity

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

Gravity
This global feature is automatically added when the Account for gravity in liquid velocity
check box is selected at the interface level in the Physical Model section. It defines the
gravity forces from the Acceleration of gravity value, g, for the computation of the
liquid water flux, gl:

κ rl κ
g l = – ----------- ( ∇p A – ρ l g )ρ l + g lc
μl

See Hygroscopic Porous Medium for details about the other terms in the equation
above.

ACCELERATION OF GRAVITY
The Acceleration of gravity (SI unit m/s) should be set to a global quantity. It is set by
default to -gconstez in 2D axisymmetric and 3D models, and -gconstey in 2D models.

778 | CHAPTER 7: THE MOISTURE TRANSPORT FEATURES

 8

Multiphysics Interfaces

The Heat Transfer Module includes predefined multiphysics interfaces for

conjugate heat transfer, radiative heat transfer, thermoelectric effect, coupled heat
transfer and moisture transport, and moisture flow modeling.

Some of these interfaces couple an interface of the Heat Transfer Module with an
interface of another module (the CFD Module or AC/DC Module).

The multiphysics interfaces are found under the Heat Transfer branch ( ), and
their availability depends on the COMSOL products available.

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each

product, visit www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

The multiphysics interfaces add Domain Multiphysics Couplings and Boundary

Multiphysics Couplings. They predefine the couplings through specific settings in
the multiphysics couplings and in the constituent interfaces to facilitate easy set up
of models. These settings are detailed in the following sections:

• The Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer Interfaces

• The Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface

779
 • The Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media Interface
• The Heat Transfer with Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media Interface
• The Heat Transfer with Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media Interface
• The Thermoelectric Effect Interface
• The Heat and Moisture Transport Interfaces
• The Moisture Flow Interfaces
• The Heat and Moisture Flow Interfaces

A brief description of other multiphysics interfaces coupling an interface of the Heat

Transfer Module with other interfaces is given in the following sections:

• The Joule Heating Interface

• The Laser Heating Interface
• The Induction Heating Interface
• The Microwave Heating Interface

Links to thorough information about these interfaces are given in the corresponding
sections.

Also:

• See The Thermal Stress, Solid Interface and The Joule Heating and Thermal
Expansion Interface in the Structural Mechanics Module User’s Guide for other
multiphysics interfaces having The Heat Transfer in Solids Interface as a constituent
interface. These two multiphysics interfaces (found under the Structural Mechanics
branch ( )) add in particular the Thermal Expansion multiphysics coupling.
• See each constituent interface documentation for more details about the common
settings (in The Heat Transfer Module Interfaces for the Heat Transfer Module
interfaces, and in the other modules documentation for the other interfaces).
• See The Heat Transfer Features and The Moisture Transport Features for details
about the features available with the Heat Transfer Module constituent interfaces.
• See Multiphysics Couplings for details about the multiphysics couplings added with
the Heat Transfer Module predefined multiphysics interfaces.

The predefined interfaces are found under the branches of the Model Wizard or Add
Physics windows. They add the constituent interfaces and the Multiphysics node
containing one or more multiphysics couplings.

780 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

In the figure below, the predefined interface Conjugate Heat Transfer, Laminar Flow is
found under the Heat Transfer branch. It adds the Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids
and Laminar Flow constituent interfaces, and the Multiphysics node containing the
Nonisothermal Flow multiphysics coupling.

| 781
 T he No ni s o the rmal Fl ow an d
Conjugate Heat Transfer Interfaces
In this section:

• Advantages of Using the Multiphysics Interfaces

• The Nonisothermal Flow, Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow Interfaces
• The Conjugate Heat Transfer, Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow Interfaces
• Settings for Physics Interfaces and Coupling Features
• Coupling Feature
• Physics Interface Features
• Preset Studies
See The Laminar Flow Interface, The Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus Interface, The
Turbulent Flow, L-VEL Interface, The Turbulent Flow, k-ε Interface, and The
Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε Interface in the CFD Module User’s Guide for a
description of the laminar and turbulent single-phase flow interfaces.

See Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow in the CFD
Module User’s Guide for a description of the nodes associated to these interfaces.

Advantages of Using the Multiphysics Interfaces

The Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer interfaces combine the heat
equation with either laminar flow or turbulent flow and use either a Fluid, Porous
Medium, or Moist Air domain model. The advantage of using the multiphysics interfaces
is that predefined couplings are available in both directions. In particular, physics
interfaces use the same definition of the density, which can therefore be a function of
both pressure and temperature. Solving this coupled system of equations usually

782 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

requires numerical stabilization accounting for the couplings, which the predefined
multiphysics interfaces also set up.

When the flow Compressibility is set to Incompressible flow, the

Nonisothermal Flow coupling follows the Boussinesq approximation and
evaluates the thermal material properties at the reference temperature
define in the heat transfer interface. Hence, the Phase Change Material
domain model — which requires the temperature dependency of the heat
capacity — should be added under Fluid only with the Weakly compressible
flow and Compressible flow (Ma<0.3) options.

When the Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer interfaces

couple a turbulent flow with a Phase Change Material domain model, it
must be noted that only the geometry boundaries are considered for the
definition of the wall functions and of the wall distance. For example, at
the moving melting front between the solid and the liquid phase, no wall
functions are used by the k-ε and k-ω turbulence models.

See also Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow Coupling for more information.

The Nonisothermal Flow, Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow

Interfaces
When a multiphysics interface is added from the Fluid Flow>Nonisothermal Flow branch
of the Model Wizard or Add Physics windows, one of the Single-Phase Flow interfaces
(laminar or turbulent flow) and Heat Transfer are added to the Model Builder.

In addition, the Multiphysics node is added, which includes the multiphysics coupling
feature Nonisothermal Flow.

The Multiphysics Branch in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual.

• The Laminar Flow interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface with
a Laminar Flow interface.

THE NONISOTHERMAL FLOW AND CONJUGATE HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACES | 783

 • The Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in
Fluids interface with a Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, L-VEL interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Fluids
interface with a Turbulent Flow, L-VEL interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, k-ε interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface
with a Turbulent Flow, k-ε interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, k-ω interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface
with a Turbulent Flow, k-ω interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Fluids
interface with a Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, SST interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface
with a Turbulent Flow, SST interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, Spalart-Allmaras interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in
Fluids interface with a Turbulent Flow, Spalart-Allmaras interface.

The Conjugate Heat Transfer, Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow

Interfaces
When a multiphysics interface is added from the Heat Transfer>Conjugate Heat Transfer
branch of the Model Wizard or Add Physics windows, Heat Transfer and one of the
Single-Phase Flow interfaces (laminar or turbulent flow) are added to the Model Builder.

In addition, the Multiphysics node is added, which includes the multiphysics coupling
feature Nonisothermal Flow.

The Multiphysics Branch in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual.

• The Laminar Flow interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer interface with a Laminar
Flow interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in
Solids and Fluids interface with a Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, L-VEL interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Solids and
Fluids interface with a Turbulent Flow, L-VEL interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, k-ε interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Solids and
Fluids interface with a Turbulent Flow, k-ε interface.

784 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

• The Turbulent Flow, k-ω interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Solids and
Fluids interface with a Turbulent Flow, k-ω interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Solids
and Fluids interface with a Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, SST interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Solids and
Fluids interface with a Turbulent Flow, SST interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, Spalart-Allmaras interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in
Solids and Fluids interface with a Turbulent Flow, Spalart-Allmaras interface.

Settings for Physics Interfaces and Coupling Features

When physics interfaces are added using the predefined couplings, specific settings are
included with the physics interfaces and the coupling features.

However, if physics interfaces are added one at a time, followed by the coupling
features, these modified settings may not be automatically included.

For example, if single Heat Transfer in Fluids and Laminar Flow interfaces are added,
COMSOL Multiphysics adds an empty Multiphysics node. When you right-click this
node, you can add the Nonisothermal Flow coupling feature, but the modified settings
are not included. To get all the modified settings presented below automatically, you
may instead right-click the component node, select Multiphysics Couplings, and add the
Nonisothermal Flow coupling feature.

TABLE 8-1: MODIFIED SETTINGS FOR THE NONISOTHERMAL FLOW INTERFACES

PHYSICS OR COUPLING INTERFACE MODIFIED SETTINGS (IF ANY)

Heat Transfer in Solids Discretization order from temperature Lagrange

shape function is 1.
A Fluid feature is added with a empty default
editable selection. The Absolute pressure, pA
(Model Input section) and the Velocity field, u
(Heat Convection section) are automatically set
to the variables from the Nonisothermal Flow
multiphysics coupling feature.
Heat Transfer in Fluids The Absolute pressure, pA (Model Input section)
and the Velocity field, u (Heat Convection
section) are automatically set to the variables
from the Nonisothermal Flow multiphysics
coupling feature.

THE NONISOTHERMAL FLOW AND CONJUGATE HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACES | 785

 TABLE 8-1: MODIFIED SETTINGS FOR THE NONISOTHERMAL FLOW INTERFACES

PHYSICS OR COUPLING INTERFACE MODIFIED SETTINGS (IF ANY)

Laminar Flow / Turbulent Flow In the Fluid Properties default feature, the
Density, ρ is automatically set to the variable
from the Nonisothermal Flow multiphysics
coupling feature.
The Compressibility option of the fluid flow
interface is set to Weakly Compressible.
Nonisothermal Flow The Fluid flow and Heat transfer interfaces are
preselected.

Note that these settings may be overridden if another predefined

coupling is added.

Coupling Feature
See Nonisothermal Flow for a description of the multiphysics coupling.

Use the online help in COMSOL Multiphysics to locate and search all the
documentation. All these links also work directly in COMSOL
Multiphysics when using the Help system.

Physics Interface Features

Physics nodes are available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics
context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all
users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using.

HEAT TRANSFER IN FLUIDS (NONISOTHERMAL FLOW)

The available physics features for The Heat Transfer in Fluids Interface are listed in
Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer Interface. Also see Fluid for details about that
feature.

786 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

HEAT TRANSFER IN SOLIDS AND FLUIDS (CONJUGATE HEAT TRANSFER)
The available physics features for The Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids Interface are
listed in Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer Interface. Also see Solid and Fluid for
details about these features.

LAMINAR FLOW
The available physics features for The Laminar Flow Interface are listed in the section
Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow in the CFD Module
User’s Guide.

TURBULENT FLOW, ALGEBRAIC YPLUS

See the CFD Module User’s Guide for a description of the available physics features
for The Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus Interface, listed in the sections Domain,
Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow in the CFD Module User’s
Guide.

TURBULENT FLOW, L-VEL

See the CFD Module User’s Guide for a description of the available physics features
for The Turbulent Flow, L-VEL Interface, listed in the sections Domain, Boundary,
Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow in the CFD Module User’s Guide.

T U R B U L E N T F L O W , k-ε
See the CFD Module User’s Guide for a description of the available physics features
for The Turbulent Flow, k-ε Interface, listed in the sections Domain, Boundary, Pair,
and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow in the CFD Module User’s Guide.

T U R B U L E N T F L O W , L O W R E k-ε
See the CFD Module User’s Guide for a description of the available physics features
for The Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε Interface, listed in the sections Domain,
Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow in the CFD Module User’s
Guide.

Preset Studies
The Stationary, One-Way NITF and Time Dependent, One-Way NITF preset studies
are available with the Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer interfaces.
They solve for the fluid flow and heat transfer variables in two separated steps,
Stationary for the former preset study, and Time Dependent for the latter.

THE NONISOTHERMAL FLOW AND CONJUGATE HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACES | 787

 For a fully coupled approach, use the Stationary, Time Dependent, Stationary with
Initialization or Time Dependent with Initialization studies.

See Studies and Solvers in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for more
details.

788 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

The Heat Transfer with
Surface-to-Surface Radiation
Interface
In this section:

• The Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation Multiphysics Interface

• Physics Interface Features
• Coupling Feature

The Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation Multiphysics

Interface
When the predefined Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation interface ( ) is
added (found under the Heat Transfer branch ( ) of the Model Wizard or Add Physics
windows), it combines the Heat Transfer in Solids and the Surface-to-Surface
Radiation interfaces to model heat transfer by conduction, convection, and radiation
in transparent media.

Stationary, time-domain, and frequency-domain modeling are supported in all space

dimensions.

ON THE CONSTITUENT PHYSICS INTERFACES

As a predefined multiphysics coupling, Heat Transfer in Solids and Surface-to-Surface
Radiation interfaces are added to the Model Builder. In addition, a Multiphysics node is
added, which automatically includes the Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation
multiphysics coupling feature.

The Heat Transfer in Solids interface provides features for modeling heat transfer by
conduction, convection, and radiation in optically thick media. A Solid model is active
by default on all domains. All functionality to include other heat transfer models, like
Fluid, is also available.

The Surface-to-Surface Radiation interface provides features to account for thermal

radiation as an energy transfer between boundaries and external heat sources where the
medium does not participate in the radiation (radiation in transparent media).

THE HEAT TRANSFER WITH SURFACE-TO-SURFACE RADIATION INTERFACE | 789

 AS AN ADD-ON MULTIPHYSICS COUPLING
The Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation multiphysics coupling is also
available when there is at least one of each of the following interfaces with the specified
model activated:

• Any version of the Heat Transfer interface, with any model

• The Surface-to-Surface Radiation interface

SETTINGS FOR THE PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURES

When physics interfaces are added using the predefined couplings, specific settings are
included with the physics interfaces and the coupling feature.
TABLE 8-2: MODIFIED SETTINGS FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER WITH SURFACE-TO-SURFACE RADIATION
INTERFACE

PHYSICS OR COUPLING INTERFACE MODIFIED SETTINGS (IF ANY)

Surface-to-Surface Radiation In the Model Input section of the Diffuse Surface

default feature, the Temperature, T, is
automatically set to the variable from the Heat
Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation
multiphysics coupling feature.
Heat Transfer in Solids In 2D and 1D axisymmetric components, in the
Physical Model section of the interface, the
Thickness, dz, is automatically set to the variable
from the Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface
Radiation multiphysics coupling feature.
In1D components, in the Physical Model section
of the interface, the Cross sectional area, Ac and
the Cross sectional perimeter, Pc, are
automatically set to the variables from the Heat
Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation
multiphysics coupling feature.
Heat Transfer with The Heat Transfer and Surface-to-Surface
Surface-to-Surface Radiation Radiation interfaces are preselected

Note that these settings may be overridden if another predefined

coupling is added.

790 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

Physics Interface Features

HEAT TRANSFER IN SOLIDS

The available physics features for The Heat Transfer in Solids Interface are listed in
Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer Interface.

SURFACE-TO-SURFACE RADIATION
The available physics features for The Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface are listed
in Feature Nodes for the Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface.

Coupling Feature
See Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation for details about the multiphysics
coupling feature.

THE HEAT TRANSFER WITH SURFACE-TO-SURFACE RADIATION INTERFACE | 791

 The Heat Transfer with Radiation in
Participating Media Interface
In this section:

• The Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media Multiphysics Interface

• Physics Interface Features
• Coupling Feature

The Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media

Multiphysics Interface
When the predefined Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media interface ( )
is added (found under the Heat Transfer branch ( ) of the Model Wizard or Add
Physics windows), it combines the Heat Transfer in Solids and the Radiation in
Participating Media interfaces to model heat transfer by conduction, convection, and
radiation, including in participating (semitransparent) media.

Stationary, time-domain, and frequency-domain modeling are supported in all space

dimensions.

ON THE CONSTITUENT PHYSICS INTERFACES

As a predefined multiphysics coupling, Heat Transfer in Solids and Radiation in
Participating Media interfaces are added to the Model Builder. In addition, a
Multiphysics node is added, which automatically includes the Heat Transfer with
Radiation in Participating Media multiphysics coupling feature.

The Heat Transfer in Solids interface provides features for modeling heat transfer by
conduction, convection, and radiation in optically thick media. A Solid model is active
by default on all domains. All functionality to include other heat transfer models, like
Fluid, is also available.

The Radiation in participating media interface provides features to account for

absorbed, emitted, and scattered radiation in a semitransparent medium. The radiative
intensity equations defined in participating media domains are approximated with
either the Discrete Ordinates Method or the P1 Approximation. It also computes the
heating due to the propagation of rays. A Participating Medium model is active by
default on all domains, and an Opaque Surface node is active on all boundaries. In

792 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

addition, when Discrete ordinates method is selected, Continuity on Interior Boundary is
also added.

AS AN ADD-ON MULTIPHYSICS COUPLING

The Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media multiphysics coupling is also
available when there is at least one of each of the following interfaces with the specified
model activated:

• Any version of the Heat Transfer interface, with any model

• The Radiation in participating Media interface, with Participating Medium model

SETTINGS FOR THE PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURES

When physics interfaces are added using the predefined couplings, specific settings are
included with the physics interfaces and the coupling feature.
TABLE 8-3: MODIFIED SETTINGS FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER WITH RADIATION IN PARTICIPATING MEDIA
INTERFACE

PHYSICS OR COUPLING INTERFACE MODIFIED SETTINGS (IF ANY)

Radiation in Participating Media In the Model Input section of the Participating

Medium default feature, the Temperature, T, is
automatically set to the variable from the Heat
Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media
multiphysics coupling feature.
Heat Transfer with Radiation in The Heat Transfer and Radiation in Participating
Participating Media Media interfaces are preselected

Note that these settings may be overridden if another predefined

coupling is added.

Physics Interface Features

HEAT TRANSFER IN SOLIDS

The available physics features for The Heat Transfer in Solids Interface are listed in
Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer Interface.

RADIATION IN PARTICIPATING MEDIA

The available physics features for The Radiation in Participating Media Interface are
listed in Feature Nodes for the Radiation in Participating Media Interface.

THE HEAT TRANSFER WITH RADIATION IN PARTICIPATING MEDIA INTERFACE | 793

 Coupling Feature
See Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media for details about the
multiphysics coupling feature.

794 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

The Heat Transfer with Radiation in
Absorbing-Scattering Media Interface
In this section:

• The Heat Transfer with Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media Multiphysics

Interface
• Physics Interface Features
• Coupling Feature

The Heat Transfer with Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media

Multiphysics Interface
When the predefined Heat Transfer with Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media
interface ( ) is added (found under the Heat Transfer branch ( ) of the Model
Wizard or Add Physics windows), it combines the Heat Transfer in Solids and the
Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media interfaces to model heat transfer by
conduction, convection, and radiation, including in participating (semitransparent)
media considered to be non-emitting.

Stationary, time-domain, and frequency-domain modeling are supported in all space

dimensions.

ON THE CONSTITUENT PHYSICS INTERFACES

As a predefined multiphysics coupling, Heat Transfer in Solids and Radiation in
Absorbing-Scattering Media interfaces are added to the Model Builder. In addition, a
Multiphysics node is added, which automatically includes the Heat Transfer with
Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media multiphysics coupling feature.

The Heat Transfer in Solids interface provides features for modeling heat transfer by
conduction, convection, and radiation in optically thick media. A Solid model is active
by default on all domains. All functionality to include other heat transfer models, like
Fluid, is also available.

The Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media interface provides features to account

for absorbed and scattered radiation in a semitransparent medium. Radiative emission
is not considered. The radiative intensity equations defined in participating media
domains are approximated with either the Discrete Ordinates Method or the P1

THE HEAT TRANSFER WITH RADIATION IN ABSORBING-SCATTERING MEDIA INTERFACE | 795

 Approximation. It also computes the heating due to the propagation of rays. An
Absorbing-Scattering Medium model is active by default on all domains, and an Opaque
Surface node is active on all boundaries. In addition, when Discrete ordinates method is
selected, Continuity on Interior Boundary is also added.

AS AN ADD-ON MULTIPHYSICS COUPLING

The Heat Transfer with Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media multiphysics coupling is
also available when there is at least one of each of the following interfaces with the
specified model activated:

• Any version of the Heat Transfer interface, with any model

• The Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media interface, with an
Absorbing-Scattering Medium model

SETTINGS FOR THE PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURES

When physics interfaces are added using the predefined couplings, specific settings are
included with the physics interfaces and the coupling feature.
TABLE 8-4: MODIFIED SETTINGS FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER WITH RADIATION IN ABSORBING-SCATTERING
MEDIA INTERFACE

PHYSICS OR COUPLING INTERFACE MODIFIED SETTINGS (IF ANY)

Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering In the Model Input section of the

Media Absorbing-Scattering Medium default feature,
the Temperature, T, is automatically set to the
variable from the Heat Transfer with Radiation
in Absorbing-Scattering Media multiphysics
coupling feature.
Heat Transfer with Radiation in The Heat Transfer and Radiation in
Absorbing-Scattering Media Absorbing-Scattering Media interfaces are
preselected.

Note that these settings may be overridden if another predefined

coupling is added.

Physics Interface Features

HEAT TRANSFER IN SOLIDS

The available physics features for The Heat Transfer in Solids Interface are listed in
Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer Interface.

796 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

RADIATION IN ABSORBING-SCATTERING MEDIA
The available physics features for The Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media
Interface are listed in Feature Nodes for the Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media
Interface.

Coupling Feature
See Heat Transfer with Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media for details about the
multiphysics coupling feature.

THE HEAT TRANSFER WITH RADIATION IN ABSORBING-SCATTERING MEDIA INTERFACE | 797

 The Heat Transfer with Radiative
Beam in Absorbing Media Interface
In this section:

• The Heat Transfer with Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media Multiphysics Interface
• Physics Interface Features
• Coupling Feature

The Heat Transfer with Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media

Multiphysics Interface
When the predefined Heat Transfer with Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media
interface ( ) is added (found under the Heat Transfer branch ( ) of the Model
Wizard or Add Physics windows), it combines the Heat Transfer in Solids and the
Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media interfaces to model heat transfer by conduction,
convection, and radiation in absorbing (semitransparent) media.

Stationary, time-domain, and frequency-domain modeling are supported in all space

dimensions.

ON THE CONSTITUENT PHYSICS INTERFACES

As a predefined multiphysics coupling, Heat Transfer in Solids and Radiative Beam in
Absorbing Media interfaces are added to the Model Builder. In addition, a Multiphysics
node is added, which automatically includes the Heat Transfer with Radiative Beam in
Absorbing Media multiphysics coupling feature.

The Heat Transfer in Solids interface provides features for modeling heat transfer by
conduction, convection, and radiation in optically thick media. A Solid model is active
by default on all domains. All functionality to include other heat transfer models, like
Fluid, is also available.

The Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media interface provides features to model the
attenuation of an incident light within a semitransparent material due to absorption.
The beam intensity is determined using the Beer-Lambert Law. As the beam is
absorbed it deposits energy which acts as a heat source. An Absorbing Medium model is
active by default on all domains, and a Transparent Surface node is active on all
boundaries.

798 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

AS AN ADD-ON MULTIPHYSICS COUPLING
The Heat Transfer with Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media multiphysics coupling is also
available when there is at least one of each of the following interfaces with the specified
model activated:

• Any version of the Heat Transfer interface, with any model

• The Radiative Beam in absorbing Media interface, with an Absorbing Medium model

SETTINGS FOR THE PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURES

When physics interfaces are added using the predefined couplings, specific settings are
included with the physics interfaces and the coupling feature.
TABLE 8-5: MODIFIED SETTINGS FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER WITH RADIATION IN ABSORBING MEDIA INTERFACE

PHYSICS OR COUPLING INTERFACE MODIFIED SETTINGS (IF ANY)

Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media In the Model Input section of the Absorbing
medium default feature, the Temperature, T, is
automatically set to the variable from the Heat
Transfer with Radiative Beam in Absorbing
Media multiphysics coupling feature.
Heat Transfer with Radiative Beam The Heat Transfer and Radiative Beam in
in Absorbing Media Absorbing Media interfaces are preselected

Note that these settings may be overridden if another predefined

coupling is added.

Physics Interface Features

HEAT TRANSFER IN SOLIDS

The available physics features for The Heat Transfer in Solids Interface are listed in
Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer Interface.

RADIATIVE BEAM IN ABSORBING MEDIA

The available physics features for The Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media
Interface are listed in Settings for the Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media Interface.

Coupling Feature
See Heat Transfer with Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media for details about the
multiphysics coupling feature.

THE HEAT TRANSFER WITH RADIATIVE BEAM IN ABSORBING MEDIA INTERFACE | 799
 The Thermoelectric Effect Interface
In this section:

• About The Thermoelectric Effect Interface

• Settings for Physics Interfaces and Coupling Features
• Coupling Feature

About The Thermoelectric Effect Interface

When the predefined Thermoelectric Effect interface ( ) is added (found under the
Heat Transfer branch ( ) of the Model Wizard or Add Physics windows), it combines
the Electric Currents and the Heat Transfer in Solids interfaces for modeling
Peltier-Seebeck-Thomson effects in domains and on boundaries. In addition, the
Electromagnetic Heating and the Thermoelectric Effect multiphysics couplings are added
automatically.

The multiphysics couplings add the thermoelectric effect, the electromagnetic power
dissipation, and the electromagnetic material properties, which can depend on the
temperature.

Depending on the product license, stationary, time-domain, and frequency-domain

modeling are supported in all space dimensions. In addition, combinations of
frequency-domain modeling for the Electric Currents interface and stationary
modeling for the Heat Transfer in Solids interface, called frequency-stationary and
frequency-transient modeling, are supported.

ON THE CONSTITUENT PHYSICS INTERFACES

As a predefined multiphysics coupling, the Electric Currents and Heat Transfer in Solids
interfaces are added to the Model Builder. In addition, a Multiphysics node is added,
which includes the Thermoelectric Effect and Electromagnetic Heating multiphysics
coupling features. Additional features describing the thermal and electrical effects on
boundaries need to be active in each interface to account for the effect also on
boundaries.

The Electric Currents interface calculates the electric field, current, and potential
distributions in conducting media under conditions where inductive effects are
negligible; that is, when the skin depth is much larger than the studied device.
Depending on the licensed products, time and frequency domain formulations that

800 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

account for capacitive effects are also provided. The Electric Currents interface solves
a current conservation equation based on Ohm’s law using the scalar electric potential
as the dependent variable. An Electric Shielding feature may be added to compute the
thermoelectric effect also on boundaries.

The Heat Transfer in Solids interface provides features for modeling heat transfer by
conduction, convection, and radiation. A Solid model is active by default on all
domains. All functionality for including other domain types, like a fluid domain, is also
available. The temperature equation defined in solid domains corresponds to the
differential form of the Fourier’s law that may contain additional contributions like
heat sources. The thermoelectric effect in domains is added through a contribution to
the conductive flux. A Thin Layer feature may be added to account for the
thermoelectric effect also on boundaries.

AS AN ADD-ON MULTIPHYSICS COUPLING

The Thermoelectric Effect multiphysics coupling is also available when there is any
version of the Heat Transfer or Heat Transfer in Shells interface and one of the
compatible AC/DC interface:

• Electric Currents and Electric Currents, Shell

• Magnetic Fields, Magnetic Field Formulation, and Magnetic and Electric Fields
• Rotating Machinery, Magnetic

Settings for Physics Interfaces and Coupling Features

When physics interfaces are added using the predefined couplings — for example,
Thermoelectric Effect — specific settings are included with the physics interfaces and the
coupling features.

However, if physics interfaces are added one at a time, followed by the coupling
features, these modified settings are not automatically included.

For example, if single Electric Currents and Heat Transfer in Solids interfaces are added,
COMSOL Multiphysics adds an empty Multiphysics node. You can choose from the
following available coupling features: Thermoelectric Effect and Electromagnetic Heating,
but the modified settings are not included.

Coupling features are available from the context menu (right-click the
Multiphysics node) or from the Physics toolbar, Multiphysics menu.

THE THERMOELECTRIC EFFECT INTERFACE | 801

 TABLE 8-6: MODIFIED SETTINGS FOR A THERMOELECTRIC EFFECT INTERFACE

PHYSICS INTERFACE MODIFIED SETTINGS

Electric Currents No changes.

Heat Transfer in Solids No changes.
Thermoelectric Effect The Domain Selection is the same as that of the
participating physics interfaces.
The Boundary Selection is the same as the exterior
and interior boundaries of the Domain Selection of the
participating physics interfaces. But both a thermal and
an electrical model need to be active on the
boundaries for the coupling to be applicable. Add for
example a Thin Layer node under the Heat Transfer
interface and an Electric Shielding node under the
Electric Currents interface to make it applicable.
The corresponding Electric Currents and Heat
Transfer in Solids interfaces are preselected in the
Coupled Interfaces section of the Thermoelectric
Effect node’s Settings window.
Electromagnetic Heating The Domain Selection is the same as that of the
participating physics interfaces.
The Boundary Selection contains all the boundaries of
the participating interfaces.
The corresponding Electric Currents and Heat
Transfer in Solids interfaces are preselected in the
Coupled Interfaces section of the Thermoelectric
Effect node’s Settings window.

Coupling Features
See Thermoelectric Effect and Electromagnetic Heating for a description of the
multiphysics couplings.

Use the online help in COMSOL Multiphysics to locate and search all the
documentation. All these links also work directly in COMSOL
Multiphysics when using the Help system.

802 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

Physics Interface Features
Physics nodes are available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics
context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all
users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

HEAT TRANSFER IN SOLIDS

The available physics features for The Heat Transfer in Solids Interface are listed in
Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer Interface.

ELECTRIC CURRENTS
The available physics features for The Electric Currents Interface are listed in Domain,
Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Electric Currents Interface in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

THE THERMOELECTRIC EFFECT INTERFACE | 803

 T he He a t a nd Moi st u re Tran sp ort
Interfaces
In this section:

• The Heat and Moisture Transport Multiphysics Interfaces

• The Moist Air Version of the Heat and Moisture Transport Multiphysics Interface
• The Moist Porous Media Version of the Heat and Moisture Transport Multiphysics
Interface
• The Building Materials Version of the Heat and Moisture Transport Multiphysics
Interface
• Physics Interface Features
• Coupling Feature

The Heat and Moisture Transport Multiphysics Interfaces

The versions of the Heat and Moisture Transport multiphysics interface are:

• The Moist Air Version of the Heat and Moisture Transport Multiphysics Interface
• The Moist Porous Media Version of the Heat and Moisture Transport Multiphysics
Interface
• The Building Materials Version of the Heat and Moisture Transport Multiphysics
Interface

LATENT HEAT SOURCES

The latent heat sources are obtained by multiplying the evaporation fluxes by the latent
heat of evaporation Lv, and are automatically added to the heat transfer equation:

• On boundaries, where the Wet Surface or Moist Surface features are applied, when
the Include latent heat source on surfaces check box is selected.
• In domains, where the Hygroscopic Porous Medium is active.

DIFFUSIVE FLUX OF THERMAL ENTHALPY

The diffusive flux of thermal enthalpy related to the rate of change of vapor in air is
automatically handled in domains where the Moist Air or Hygroscopic Porous Medium
features are applied.

804 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

The Moist Air Version of the Heat and Moisture Transport
Multiphysics Interface
When the Moist Air version of the predefined Heat and Moisture Transport ( ) interface
is added (found under the Heat Transfer branch ( ) of the Model Wizard or Add
Physics windows), it combines the Heat Transfer in Moist Air and the Moisture
Transport in Air interfaces to model coupled heat and moisture transport in moist air,
by modeling moisture transport by vapor diffusion and convection, and heat transfer
by conduction and convection with moisture-dependent thermodynamics properties.

Stationary, time-domain, and frequency-domain modeling are supported in all space

dimensions.

ON THE CONSTITUENT PHYSICS INTERFACES

As a predefined multiphysics coupling, Heat Transfer in Moist Air and Moisture Transport
in Air interfaces are added to the Model Builder. In addition, a Multiphysics node is
added, which automatically includes the Heat and Moisture multiphysics coupling
feature.

The Heat Transfer in Moist Air interface provides features for modeling heat transfer
by conduction, convection, and radiation. The Moist Air model, active by default in all
domains, provides in addition the functionality for moisture content dependency of
thermodynamics properties.

The Moisture Transport in Air interface provides features for modeling moisture
transfer by vapor convection and diffusion. A Moist Air model is active by default on all
domains.

AS AN ADD-ON MULTIPHYSICS COUPLING

The Heat and Moisture multiphysics coupling is also available when there is at least one
of each of the following interfaces with the specified model activated:

• Any version of the Heat Transfer interface, with Moist Air model
• Any version of the Moisture Transport interface, with Moist Air model

THE HEAT AND MOISTURE TRANSPORT INTERFACES | 805

 SETTINGS FOR THE PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURES
When physics interfaces are added using the predefined couplings, specific settings are
included with the physics interfaces and the coupling feature.
TABLE 8-7: MODIFIED SETTINGS FOR THE MOIST AIR VERSION OF THE HEAT AND MOISTURE TRANSPORT
INTERFACE

PHYSICS OR COUPLING INTERFACE MODIFIED SETTINGS (IF ANY)

Heat Transfer in Moist Air In the Thermodynamics, Moist Air section of the
Moist Air default feature, the Input quantity is
set to Relative humidity, and the Relative
humidity, φ w , the Relative humidity,
temperature condition, T φ , and the Relative
w
humidity, absolute pressure condition, p φ , are
w
automatically set to the variables from the Heat
and Moisture multiphysics coupling feature.
Moisture Transport in Air In the Model Input section of the Moist Air
default feature, the Temperature, T, is
automatically set to the variable from the Heat
and Moisture multiphysics coupling feature.
Heat and Moisture The Heat Transfer and Moisture Transport
interfaces are preselected

Note that these settings may be overridden if another predefined

coupling is added.

The Moist Porous Media Version of the Heat and Moisture Transport
Multiphysics Interface
When the Moist Porous Media version of the predefined Heat and Moisture Transport
interface ( ) is added (found under the Heat Transfer branch ( ) of the Model
Wizard or Add Physics windows), it combines the Heat Transfer in Moist Porous Media
and the Moisture Transport in Porous Media interfaces to model coupled heat and
moisture transport in porous media filled with moist air and liquid water, by taking
into account heat and moisture storage, latent heat effects, and liquid and gas transport
of moisture.

Stationary, time-domain, and frequency-domain modeling are supported in all space

dimensions.

806 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

ON THE CONSTITUENT PHYSICS INTERFACES
As a predefined multiphysics coupling, the Heat Transfer in Moist Porous Media and
Moisture Transport in Porous Media interfaces are added to the Model Builder. In
addition, a Multiphysics node is added, which automatically includes the Heat and
Moisture multiphysics coupling feature.

The Heat Transfer in Moist Porous Media interface provides features for modeling
heat transfer by conduction, convection, and radiation. The Moist Porous Medium
model, active by default in all domains, provides in addition the functionality for
moisture content dependency of thermodynamics properties and latent heat effects.

The Moisture Transport in Porous Media interface provides features for modeling
moisture transfer by liquid transport (capillary and convective flow), and vapor
convection and diffusion. An Hygroscopic Porous Medium model is active by default on
all domains.

AS AN ADD-ON MULTIPHYSICS COUPLING

The Heat and Moisture multiphysics coupling is also available when there is at least one
of each of the following interfaces with the specified model activated:

• Any version of the Heat Transfer interface, with Moist Porous Medium model
• Any version of the Moisture Transport interface, with Hygroscopic Porous Medium
model

THE HEAT AND MOISTURE TRANSPORT INTERFACES | 807

 SETTINGS FOR THE PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURES
When physics interfaces are added using the predefined couplings, specific settings are
included with the physics interfaces and the coupling feature.
TABLE 8-8: MODIFIED SETTINGS FOR THE MOIST POROUS MEDIA VERSION OF THE HEAT AND MOISTURE
TRANSPORT INTERFACE

PHYSICS OR COUPLING INTERFACE MODIFIED SETTINGS (IF ANY)

Heat Transfer in Moist Porous In the Thermodynamics, Moist Air section of the
Media Moist Air default subfeature of Moist Porous
Medium, the Input quantity is set to Relative
humidity, and the Relative humidity, φ w , the
Relative humidity, temperature condition, T φ ,
w
and the Relative humidity, absolute pressure
condition, p φ , are automatically set to the
w
variables from the Heat and Moisture
multiphysics coupling feature.
In the Liquid Water Properties section of the
Liquid Water default subfeature of Moist Porous
Medium, the Liquid water saturation, sl, and the
Velocity field, liquid water, ul, are automatically
set to the variables from the Heat and Moisture
multiphysics coupling feature.
Moisture Transport in Porous Media In the Model Input section of the Hygroscopic
Porous Medium default feature, the
Temperature, T, is automatically set to the
variable from the Heat and Moisture
multiphysics coupling feature.
Heat and Moisture The Heat Transfer and Moisture Transport
interfaces are preselected

Note that these settings may be overridden if another predefined

coupling is added.

The Building Materials Version of the Heat and Moisture Transport

Multiphysics Interface
When the Building Materials version of the predefined Heat and Moisture Transport
interface ( ) is added (found under the Heat Transfer branch ( ) of the Model
Wizard or Add Physics windows), it combines the Heat Transfer in Building Materials
and the Moisture Transport in Building Materials interfaces to model coupled heat and

808 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

moisture transport in building materials, by taking into account heat and moisture
storage, latent heat effects, and liquid and diffusive transport of moisture.

Stationary, time-domain, and frequency-domain modeling are supported in all space

dimensions.

ON THE CONSTITUENT PHYSICS INTERFACES

As a predefined multiphysics coupling, Heat Transfer in Building Materials and Moisture
Transport in Building Materials interfaces are added to the Model Builder. In addition,
a Multiphysics node is added, which automatically includes the Heat and Moisture
multiphysics coupling feature.

The Heat Transfer in Building Materials interface provides features for modeling heat
transfer by conduction, convection, and radiation. The Building Material model, active
by default in all domains, provides in addition the functionality for moisture content
dependency of thermodynamics properties and latent heat effects.

The Moisture Transport in Building Materials interface provides features for modeling
moisture transfer by liquid transport (capillary flow) and vapor diffusion. A Building
Material model is active by default on all domains.

AS AN ADD-ON MULTIPHYSICS COUPLING

The Heat and Moisture multiphysics coupling is also available when there is at least one
of each of the following interfaces with the specified model activated:

• Any version of the Heat Transfer interface, with Building Material model
• Any version of the Moisture Transport interface, with Building Material model

See Building Material Library in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual for a description of materials containing the thermal and
hygroscopic properties to be used with the Building Materials version of
the Heat and Moisture Transport multiphysics interface.

THE HEAT AND MOISTURE TRANSPORT INTERFACES | 809

 SETTINGS FOR THE PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURES
When physics interfaces are added using the predefined couplings, specific settings are
included with the physics interfaces and the coupling feature.
TABLE 8-9: MODIFIED SETTINGS FOR THE BUILDING MATERIALS VERSION OF THE HEAT AND MOISTURE
TRANSPORT INTERFACE

PHYSICS OR COUPLING INTERFACE MODIFIED SETTINGS (IF ANY)

Heat Transfer in Building Materials In the Model Input section of the Building
Material default feature, the Relative humidity,
φ w , is automatically set to the variable from the
Heat and Moisture multiphysics coupling feature.
Moisture Transport in Building In the Model Input section of the Building
Materials Material default feature, the Temperature, T, is
automatically set to the variable from the Heat
and Moisture multiphysics coupling feature.
Heat and Moisture The Heat Transfer and Moisture Transport
interfaces are preselected

Note that these settings may be overridden if another predefined

coupling is added.

Physics Interface Features

HEAT TRANSFER
The available physics features for the Heat Transfer interface are listed in Feature
Nodes for the Heat Transfer Interface.

MOISTURE TRANSPORT
The available physics features for the Moisture Transport interface are listed in Feature
Nodes for the Moisture Transport Interface.

Coupling Feature
See Heat and Moisture for details about the multiphysics coupling feature.

810 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

The Moisture Flow Interfaces
In this section:

• The Moisture Flow, Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow Multiphysics Interfaces
• Physics Interface Features for the Laminar and Turbulent Flow Versions
• The Moisture Flow, Brinkman Equations Multiphysics Interface
• Physics Interface Features for the Brinkman Equations Version
• Preset Studies
• Coupling Feature

The Moisture Flow, Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow Multiphysics

Interfaces
These versions of the Moisture Flow interface model moisture transport in air by vapor
diffusion and convection.

When a Moisture Flow ( ) multiphysics interface is added from the Chemical Species
Transport>Moisture Flow branch of the Model Wizard or Add Physics windows, one of
the Single-Phase Flow interfaces (laminar or turbulent flow) and a Moisture Transport
in air interface are added to the Model Builder.

In addition, the Multiphysics node is added, which includes the Moisture Flow
multiphysics coupling feature.

The Multiphysics Branch in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual.

• The Laminar Flow interface ( ) combines a Moisture Transport in Air interface

with a Laminar Flow interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus interface ( ) combines a Moisture Transport
in Air interface with a Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, L-VEL interface ( ) combines a Moisture Transport in Air
interface with a Turbulent Flow, L-VEL interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, k-ε interface ( ) combines a Moisture Transport in Air
interface with a Turbulent Flow, k-ε interface.

THE MOISTURE FLOW INTERFACES | 811

 • The Turbulent Flow, k-ω interface ( ) combines a Moisture Transport in Air
interface with a Turbulent Flow, k-ω interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε interface ( ) combines a Moisture Transport in
Air interface with a Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, SST interface ( ) combines a Moisture Transport in Air
interface with a Turbulent Flow, SST interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, Spalart-Allmaras interface ( ) combines a Moisture
Transport in Air interface with a Turbulent Flow, Spalart-Allmaras interface.

Stationary and time-domain modeling are supported in all space dimensions.

SETTINGS FOR THE PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURES

When physics interfaces are added using the predefined couplings, specific settings are
included with the physics interfaces and the coupling feature.
TABLE 8-10: MODIFIED SETTINGS FOR THE MOISTURE FLOW INTERFACES, LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW
VERSIONS

PHYSICS OR COUPLING INTERFACE MODIFIED SETTINGS (IF ANY)

Moisture Transport in Air In the Model Input section of the Moist Air
default domain feature, the Absolute pressure,
pA, and the Velocity field, u, are automatically
set to the variables from the Moisture Flow
multiphysics coupling feature.
Laminar Flow / Turbulent Flow In the Fluid Properties default domain feature,
the Density, ρ, and the Dynamic viscosity, μ, are
automatically set to the moist air variables from
the Moisture Flow multiphysics coupling feature.
Moisture Flow The Fluid flow and Moisture Transport interfaces
are preselected

Note that these settings may be overridden if another predefined

coupling is added.

ON THE CONSTITUENT PHYSICS INTERFACES

The Moisture Transport in Air interface provides features for modeling moisture
transfer by vapor convection and diffusion. A Moist Air model is active by default on all
domains.

812 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

The Laminar Flow interface solves the Navier-Stokes equations for conservation of
momentum and the continuity equation for conservation of mass. A Fluid model is
active by default on all domains.

The different versions of the Turbulent Flow interface solve the Reynolds averaged
Navier-Stokes equations for conservation of momentum and the continuity equation
for conservation of mass. A Fluid Properties model is active by default on all domains.
Turbulence effects are modeled in different ways:

• The Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus interface uses an enhanced viscosity model
based on the local wall distance. The physics interface therefore includes a wall
distance equation.
• The Turbulent Flow, L-VEL interface uses an enhanced viscosity model based on
the local wall distance. The physics interface therefore includes a wall distance
equation.
• The Turbulent Flow, k-ε interface uses the standard two-equation k-ε model with
realizability constraints. Flow close to walls is modeled using wall functions.
• The Turbulent Flow, k-ω interface uses the Wilcox revised two-equation k-ω model
with realizability constraints. Flow close to walls is modeled using wall functions.
• The Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε interface uses the AKN two-equation k-ε model
with realizability constraints. The AKN model is a so-called low-Reynolds number
model, which means that it resolves the flow all the way down to the wall. The AKN
model depends on the distance to the closest wall. The physics interface therefore
includes a wall distance equation.

AS AN ADD-ON MULTIPHYSICS COUPLING

The Moisture Flow multiphysics coupling is also available when there is at least one of
each of the following interfaces with the specified model activated:

• A Laminar Flow or any version of the Turbulent Flow interface, with Fluid model
• Any version of the Moisture Transport interface, with Moist Air model

THE MOISTURE FLOW INTERFACES | 813

 Physics Interface Features for the Laminar and Turbulent Flow
Versions

MOISTURE TRANSPORT IN AIR

The available physics features for The Moisture Transport in Air Interface are listed in
Feature Nodes for the Moisture Transport Interface in the Heat Transfer Module
User’s Guide.

LAMINAR FLOW
The available physics features for The Laminar Flow Interface are listed in the section
Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow in the CFD Module
User’s Guide.

TURBULENT FLOW, ALGEBRAIC YPLUS

The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus Interface are
listed in the section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow
in the CFD Module User’s Guide.

TURBULENT FLOW, L-VEL

The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, L-VEL Interface are listed in
the section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow in the
CFD Module User’s Guide.

T U R B U L E N T F L O W , k-ε
The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, k-ε Interface are listed in the
section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow in the CFD
Module User’s Guide.

T U R B U L E N T F L O W , k-ω
The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, k-ω Interface are listed in the
section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow in the CFD
Module User’s Guide.

T U R B U L E N T F L O W , L O W R E k-ε
The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε Interface are listed
in the section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow in the
CFD Module User’s Guide.

814 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

The Moisture Flow, Brinkman Equations Multiphysics Interface
This version of the Moisture Flow interface models moisture transport in the gas phase
of a moist porous medium, by vapor diffusion and convection. When a Moisture Flow,
Brinkman Equations ( ) multiphysics interface is added from the Chemical Species
Transport>Moisture Flow branch of the Model Wizard or Add Physics windows, a
Brinkman Equations interface and a Moisture Transport in Porous Media interface are
added to the Model Builder.

In addition, the Multiphysics node is added, which includes the Moisture Flow
multiphysics coupling feature.

The Multiphysics Branch in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual.

Stationary and time-domain modeling are supported in all space dimensions.

SETTINGS FOR THE PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURES

When physics interfaces are added using the predefined couplings, specific settings are
included with the physics interfaces and the coupling feature.
TABLE 8-11: MODIFIED SETTINGS FOR THE MOISTURE FLOW, BRINKMAN EQUATIONS INTERFACE

PHYSICS OR COUPLING INTERFACE MODIFIED SETTINGS (IF ANY)

Moisture Transport in Porous Media In the Hygroscopic Porous Medium default

domain feature, the Absolute pressure, pA
(Model Input section) and the Velocity field, ug
(Moist Air Properties section) are automatically
set to the variables from the Moisture Flow
multiphysics coupling feature.
Brinkman Equations In the Fluid and Matrix Properties default
domain feature, the Density, ρ, and the Dynamic
viscosity, μ, are automatically set to the moist
air variables from the Moisture Flow multiphysics
coupling feature.
Moisture Flow The Fluid flow and Moisture Transport interfaces
are preselected

Note that these settings may be overridden if another predefined

coupling is added.

THE MOISTURE FLOW INTERFACES | 815

 ON THE CONSTITUENT PHYSICS INTERFACES
The Moisture Transport in Porous Media interface provides features for modeling
moisture transport in media filled with moist air and liquid water, with a
time-dependent liquid saturation. Transport is done by vapor convection and diffusion
in the gas phase, and convection and capillarity in the liquid water phase. An
Hygroscopic Porous Medium model is active by default on all domains.

The Brinkman Equations interface computes the fluid velocity and pressure fields of a
single-phase flow in porous media in the laminar flow regime. A Fluid and Matrix
Properties model is active by default on all domains.

Physics Interface Features for the Brinkman Equations Version

MOISTURE TRANSPORT IN POROUS MEDIA

The available physics features for The Moisture Transport in Porous Media
Interface are listed in Feature Nodes for the Moisture Transport Interface in the Heat
Transfer Module User’s Guide.

BRINKMAN EQUATIONS
The available physics features for The Brinkman Equations Interface are listed in the
section Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Brinkman Equations
Interface in the CFD Module User’s Guide.

Preset Studies
The Stationary, One-Way MF and Time Dependent, One-Way MF preset studies are
available with the Moisture Flow interfaces. They solve for the fluid flow and moisture
transport variables in two separated steps, Stationary for the former preset study, and
Time Dependent for the latter.

For a fully-coupled approach, use the Stationary, Time Dependent, Stationary with
Initialization, or Time Dependent with Initialization studies.

See Studies and Solvers in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for more
details.

Coupling Feature
See Moisture Flow for details about the multiphysics coupling feature.

816 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

The Heat and Moisture Flow
Interfaces
In this section:

• The Heat and Moisture Flow, Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow Multiphysics
Interfaces
• Physics Interface Features for the Laminar and Turbulent Flow Versions
• The Heat and Moisture Flow, Brinkman Equations Interface
• Physics Interface Features for the Brinkman Equations Version
• Coupling Features

The Heat and Moisture Flow, Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow
Multiphysics Interfaces
The Heat and Moisture Flow interfaces model heat and moisture transport in air by
laminar or turbulent flows.

When a Heat and Moisture Flow ( ) multiphysics interface is added from the Heat
Transfer>Heat and Moisture Transport>Heat and Moisture Flow branch of the Model
Wizard or Add Physics windows, one of the Single-Phase Flow interfaces (laminar or
turbulent flow), a Heat Transfer in Moist Air interface, and a Moisture Transport in
air interface are added to the Model Builder.

In addition, the Multiphysics node is added, which includes the Moisture Flow, Heat and
Moisture, and Nonisothermal Flow multiphysics coupling features.

The Multiphysics Branch in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual.

• The Laminar Flow interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Moist Air interface,
a Moisture Transport in Air interface, and a Laminar Flow interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in
Moist Air interface, a Moisture Transport in Air interface, and a Turbulent Flow,
Algebraic yPlus interface.

THE HEAT AND MOISTURE FLOW INTERFACES | 817

 • The Turbulent Flow, L-VEL interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Moist Air
interface, a Moisture Transport in Air interface, and a Turbulent Flow, L-VEL
interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, k-ε interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Moist Air
interface, a Moisture Transport in Air interface, and a Turbulent Flow, k-ε interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, Realizable k-ε interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in
Moist Air interface, a Moisture Transport in Air interface, and a Turbulent Flow,
Realizable k-ε interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, k-ω interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Moist Air
interface, a Moisture Transport in Air interface, and a Turbulent Flow, k-ω interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, SST interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Moist Air
interface, a Moisture Transport in Air interface, and a Turbulent Flow, SST
interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Moist
Air interface, a Moisture Transport in Air interface, and a Turbulent Flow, Low Re
k-ε interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, Spalart-Allmaras interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in
Moist Air interface, a Moisture Transport in Air interface, and a Turbulent Flow,
Spalart-Allmaras interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, v2-f interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Moist Air
interface, a Moisture Transport in Air interface, and a Turbulent Flow, v2-f
interface.

Stationary and time-domain modeling are supported in all space dimensions.

818 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

SETTINGS FOR THE PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURES
When physics interfaces are added using the predefined couplings, specific settings are
included with the physics interfaces and the coupling feature.
TABLE 8-12: MODIFIED SETTINGS FOR THE HEAT AND MOISTURE FLOW INTERFACES, LAMINAR AND
TURBULENT FLOW VERSIONS

PHYSICS OR COUPLING INTERFACE MODIFIED SETTINGS (IF ANY)

Heat Transfer in Moist Air In the Model Input section of the Moist Air
default domain feature, the Absolute pressure,
pA, and the Velocity field, u, are automatically
set to the variables from the Nonisothermal
Flow multiphysics coupling feature. The
Concentration, c, is automatically set to the
variable from the Heat and Moisture
multiphysics coupling feature.
In the Thermodynamics, Moist Air section of the
Moist Air default feature, the Input quantity is
set to Relative humidity. The Relative humidity,
φ w , the Relative humidity, temperature
condition, T φ , and the Relative humidity,
w
absolute pressure condition, p φ , are
w
automatically set to the variables from the Heat
and Moisture multiphysics coupling feature.
The latent heat sources are automatically
handled on boundaries where Wet Surface or
Moist Surface features are applied.
Moisture Transport in Air In the Model Input section of the Moist Air
default domain feature, the Absolute pressure,
pA, and the Velocity field, u, are automatically
set to the variables from the Moisture Flow
multiphysics coupling feature. The Temperature,
T, is automatically set to the variable from the
Heat and Moisture multiphysics coupling feature.
Laminar Flow / Turbulent Flow In the Fluid Properties default domain feature,
the Density, ρ, and the Dynamic viscosity, μ, are
automatically set to the variables from the
Moisture Flow multiphysics coupling feature.
Moisture Flow The Fluid flow and Moisture Transport interfaces
are preselected.
Heat and Moisture The Heat Transfer and Moisture Transport
interfaces are preselected.
Nonisothermal Flow The Fluid flow and Heat Transfer interfaces are
preselected.

THE HEAT AND MOISTURE FLOW INTERFACES | 819

 Note that these settings may be overridden if another predefined
coupling is added.

ON THE CONSTITUENT PHYSICS INTERFACES

The Heat Transfer in Moist Air interface provides features for modeling heat transfer
by conduction, convection, and radiation. A Moist Air model is active by default on all
domains.

The Moisture Transport in Air interface provides features for modeling moisture
transport by vapor convection and diffusion. A Moist Air model is active by default on
all domains.

The Laminar Flow interface solves the Navier-Stokes equations for conservation of
momentum and the continuity equation for conservation of mass. A Fluid Properties
model is active by default on all domains.

The different versions of the Turbulent Flow interface solve the Reynolds averaged
Navier-Stokes equations for conservation of momentum, the heat transfer equation,
and the continuity equation for conservation of mass. A Fluid Properties model is active
by default on all domains. Turbulence effects are modeled in different ways:

• The Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus interface uses an enhanced viscosity model
based on the local wall distance. The physics interface therefore includes a wall
distance equation.
• The Turbulent Flow, L-VEL interface uses an enhanced viscosity model based on
the local wall distance. The physics interface therefore includes a wall distance
equation.
• The Turbulent Flow, k-ε interface uses the standard two-equation k-ε model with
realizability constraints. Flow close to walls is modeled using wall functions.
• The Turbulent Flow, k-ω interface uses the Wilcox revised two-equation k-ω model
with realizability constraints. Flow close to walls is modeled using wall functions.
• The Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε interface uses the AKN two-equation k-ε model
with realizability constraints. The AKN model is a so-called low-Reynolds number
model, which means that it resolves the flow all the way down to the wall. The AKN
model depends on the distance to the closest wall. The physics interface therefore
includes a wall distance equation.

820 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

Physics Interface Features for the Laminar and Turbulent Flow
Versions

HEAT TRANSFER IN MOIST AIR

The available physics features for The Heat Transfer in Moist Air Interface are listed in
Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer Interface. Also see Moist Air (Heat Transfer
Interface) for details about that feature.

MOISTURE TRANSPORT IN AIR

The available physics features for The Moisture Transport in Air Interface are listed in
Settings for the Moisture Transport Interface. Also see Moist Air (Moisture Transport
Interface) for details about that feature.

LAMINAR FLOW
The available physics features for The Laminar Flow Interface are listed in the section
Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow in the CFD Module
User’s Guide.

TURBULENT FLOW, ALGEBRAIC YPLUS

The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus Interface are
listed in the section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow
in the CFD Module User’s Guide.

TURBULENT FLOW, L-VEL

The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, L-VEL Interface are listed in
the section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow in the
CFD Module User’s Guide.

T U R B U L E N T F L O W , k-ε
The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, k-ε Interface are listed in the
section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow in the CFD
Module User’s Guide.

T U R B U L E N T F L O W , k-ω
The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, k-ω Interface are listed in the
section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow in the CFD
Module User’s Guide.

THE HEAT AND MOISTURE FLOW INTERFACES | 821

 T U R B U L E N T F L O W , L O W R E k-ε
The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε Interface are listed
in the section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow in the
CFD Module User’s Guide.

The Heat and Moisture Flow, Brinkman Equations Interface

The Heat and Moisture Flow, Brinkman Equations interface models heat and moisture
transport in porous media filled with liquid water air moist air.

When a Heat and Moisture Flow, Brinkman Equations ( ) multiphysics interface is

added from the Heat Transfer>Heat and Moisture Transport>Heat and Moisture Flow
branch of the Model Wizard or Add Physics windows, a Brinkman Equations interface,
a Heat Transfer in Moist Porous Media interface, and a Moisture Transport in Porous
Media interface are added to the Model Builder.

In addition, the Multiphysics node is added, which includes the Moisture Flow, Heat and
Moisture, and Nonisothermal Flow multiphysics coupling features.

The Multiphysics Branch in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual.

Stationary and time-domain modeling are supported in all space dimensions.

822 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

SETTINGS FOR THE PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURES
When physics interfaces are added using the predefined couplings, specific settings are
included with the physics interfaces and the coupling feature.
TABLE 8-13: MODIFIED SETTINGS FOR THE HEAT AND MOISTURE FLOW, BRINKMAN EQUATIONS INTERFACE

PHYSICS OR COUPLING INTERFACE MODIFIED SETTINGS (IF ANY)

Heat Transfer in Moist Porous In the Moist Air default subfeature of Moist
Media Porous Medium, the Absolute pressure, pA
(Model Input section) and the Velocity field, ug
(Heat Convection section) are automatically set
to the variables from the Nonisothermal Flow
multiphysics coupling feature. In the
Thermodynamics, Moist Air section, the Input
quantity is set to Relative humidity, and the
Relative humidity, φ w , the Relative humidity,
temperature condition, T φ , and the Relative
w
humidity, absolute pressure condition, p φ , are
w
automatically set to the variables from the Heat
and Moisture multiphysics coupling feature.
In the Liquid Water Properties section of the
Liquid Water default subfeature of Moist Porous
Medium, the Liquid water saturation, sl, and the
Velocity field, liquid water, ul, are automatically
set to the variables from the Heat and Moisture
multiphysics coupling feature.
The latent heat sources are automatically
handled on boundaries where Wet Surface or
Moist Surface features are applied.
Moisture Transport in Porous Media In the Hygroscopic Porous Medium default
domain feature, the Absolute pressure, pA
(Model Input section) and the Velocity field, ug
(Moist Air Properties section) are automatically
set to the variables from the Moisture Flow
multiphysics coupling feature. In the Model Input
section, the Temperature, T, is automatically set
to the variable from the Heat and Moisture
multiphysics coupling feature.

THE HEAT AND MOISTURE FLOW INTERFACES | 823

 TABLE 8-13: MODIFIED SETTINGS FOR THE HEAT AND MOISTURE FLOW, BRINKMAN EQUATIONS INTERFACE

PHYSICS OR COUPLING INTERFACE MODIFIED SETTINGS (IF ANY)

Brinkman Equations In the Fluid and Matrix Properties default

domain feature, the Temperature, T, and the
Density, ρ, are set to the variables from the
Nonisothermal Flow multiphysics coupling
feature, and the Dynamic viscosity, μ, is set to
the variable from the Moisture Flow multiphysics
coupling feature. Note that the density and
viscosity are those of the moist air phase.
Moisture Flow The Fluid flow and Moisture Transport interfaces
are preselected.
Heat and Moisture The Heat Transfer and Moisture Transport
interfaces are preselected.
Nonisothermal Flow The Fluid flow and Heat Transfer interfaces are
preselected.

Note that these settings may be overridden if another predefined

coupling is added.

ON THE CONSTITUENT PHYSICS INTERFACES

The Heat Transfer in Moist Porous Media interface provides features for modeling
heat transfer by conduction, convection, and radiation. The Moist Porous Medium
model, active by default in all domains, provides in addition the functionality for
moisture content dependency of thermodynamics properties and latent heat effects.

The Moisture Transport in Porous Media interface provides features for modeling
moisture transfer by liquid transport (capillary and convective flow), and vapor
convection and diffusion. An Hygroscopic Porous Medium model is active by default on
all domains.

The Brinkman Equations interface computes the fluid velocity and pressure fields of a
single-phase flow in porous media in the laminar flow regime. A Fluid and Matrix
Properties model is active by default on all domains.

824 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

Physics Interface Features for the Brinkman Equations Version

HEAT TRANSFER IN MOIST POROUS MEDIA

The available physics features for The Heat Transfer in Moist Porous Media Interface
are listed in Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer Interface. Also see Moist Porous
Medium for details about that feature.

MOISTURE TRANSPORT IN POROUS MEDIA

The available physics features for The Moisture Transport in Porous Media
Interface are listed in Feature Nodes for the Moisture Transport Interface in the Heat
Transfer Module User’s Guide.

BRINKMAN EQUATIONS
The available physics features for The Brinkman Equations Interface are listed in the
section Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Brinkman Equations
Interface in the CFD Module User’s Guide.

Coupling Features
See Moisture Flow, Heat and Moisture, and Nonisothermal Flow for details about the
multiphysics coupling features.

THE HEAT AND MOISTURE FLOW INTERFACES | 825

 The Joule Heating Interface
In this section:

• The Joule Heating Interface

• Coupling Feature

The Joule Heating Interface

The Joule Heating interface ( ) is used to model resistive heating and, depending on
additional licensed products, dielectric heating in devices where inductive effects are
negligible; that is, when the skin depth is much larger than the studied device. This
multiphysics interface adds an Electric Currents interface and a Heat Transfer in Solids
interface. The multiphysics couplings add the electromagnetic power dissipation as a
heat source, and the electromagnetic material properties can depend on the
temperature.

See The Joule Heating Interface in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for
more details about this multiphysics interface.

Coupling Feature
See Electromagnetic Heating for a description of the multiphysics coupling.

826 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

The Laser Heating Interface
In this section:

• The Laser Heating Interface

• Coupling Feature

The Laser Heating Interface

The Laser Heating interface ( ) is used to model electromagnetic heating for systems
and devices where the electric field amplitude varies slowly on a wavelength scale. This
multiphysics interface adds an Electromagnetic Waves, Beam Envelopes interface and
a Heat Transfer in Solids interface. The multiphysics couplings add the
electromagnetic losses from the electromagnetic waves as a heat source, and the
electromagnetic material properties can depend on the temperature. The modeling
approach is based on the assumption that the electromagnetic cycle time is short
compared to the thermal time scale.

See The Laser Heating Interface in the Wave Optics Module User’s Guide for more
details about this multiphysics interface.

Coupling Feature
See Electromagnetic Heating for a description of the multiphysics coupling.

THE LASER HEATING INTERFACE | 827

 The Induction Heating Interface
In this section:

• The Induction Heating Interface

• Coupling Feature

The Induction Heating Interface

The Induction Heating interface ( ) is used to model induction heating and eddy
current heating. This multiphysics interface adds a Magnetic Fields interface and a
Heat Transfer in Solids interface. The multiphysics couplings add the electromagnetic
power dissipation as a heat source, and the electromagnetic material properties can
depend on the temperature.

See The Induction Heating Interface in the AC/DC Module User’s Guide for more
details about this multiphysics interface.

Coupling Feature
See Electromagnetic Heating for a description of the multiphysics coupling.

828 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

The Microwave Heating Interface
In this section:

• The Microwave Heating Interface

• Coupling Feature

The Microwave Heating Interface

The Microwave Heating interface ( ) is used to model electromagnetic heating for
systems and devices that are on a scale ranging from 1/10 of a wavelength up to,
depending on available computer memory, about 10 wavelengths. This multiphysics
interface adds an Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain interface and a Heat
Transfer in Solids interface. The multiphysics couplings add the electromagnetic losses
from the electromagnetic waves as a heat source, and the electromagnetic material
properties can depend on the temperature. The modeling approach is based on the
assumption that the electromagnetic cycle time is short compared to the thermal time
scale.

See The Microwave Heating Interface in the RF Module User’s Guide for more details
about this multiphysics interface.

Coupling Feature
See Electromagnetic Heating for a description of the multiphysics coupling.

THE MICROWAVE HEATING INTERFACE | 829

830 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES
 9

Multiphysics Couplings

The Heat Transfer Module has multiphysics couplings available under certain
conditions.

When a predefined multiphysics interface is added from the Model Wizard or Add
Physics windows, it adds the constituent interfaces and the Multiphysics node, which
automatically includes one or more multiphysics couplings.

If the constituent physics interfaces are added one at a time, then it adds an empty
Multiphysics node. When you right-click this node, you can choose from the
available multiphysics couplings.

The Multiphysics Branch in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual.

The default settings of the couplings depend on the way the Multiphysics node was
created.

In this chapter, the following multiphysics couplings are described:

• Domain Multiphysics Couplings

• Boundary Multiphysics Couplings

831
 See The Heat Transfer Module Interfaces for details about the Heat Transfer Module
interfaces.

See Multiphysics Interfaces for details about the predefined multiphysics interfaces of
the Heat Transfer Module.

832 | CHAPTER 9: MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS

Domain Multiphysics Couplings
The Heat Transfer Module has the following domain multiphysics couplings available:

• Electromagnetic Heating • Moisture Flow

• Heat and Moisture • Nonisothermal Flow
• Heat Transfer with Radiation in • Thermal Expansion
Participating Media • Thermoelectric Effect
• Heat Transfer with Radiation in
Absorbing-Scattering Media
• Heat Transfer with Radiative Beam
in Absorbing Media

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

Electromagnetic Heating
Use the Electromagnetic Heating multiphysics coupling ( ) to account for
electromagnetic volumetric and surface losses in the heat equation.

See Electromagnetic Heating in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for a

description of this multiphysics coupling in the context of Joule heating and laser
heating modeling.

See Electromagnetic Heating in the AC/DC Module User’s Guide for a description
of this multiphysics coupling in the context of induction heating modeling.

See Electromagnetic Heating in the RF Module User’s Guide for a description of this
multiphysics coupling in the context of microwave heating modeling.

• Hepatic Tumor Ablation: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Medical_Technology/tumor_ablation
• Contact Switch: Application Library path Heat_Transfer_Module/
Thermal_Contact_and_Friction/contact_switch

DOMAIN MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS | 833

 LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Multiphysics>Electromagnetic Heating

when any of the following interface is added together with Heat Transfer in Solids (or
another version of the Heat Transfer interface):

Electric Currents
Electric Currents, Shells
Magnetic Field Formulation
Magnetic Fields
Magnetic and Electric Fields
Rotating Machinery, Magnetic

Heat and Moisture

Use this multiphysics coupling ( ) to model coupled heat and moisture transfer in
the following media:

• In building materials, by taking into account heat and moisture storage, latent heat
effects, and transport of heat and moisture. This coupling is available when a
Building Material feature of the Heat Transfer interface and a Building Material feature
of the Moisture Transport interface are active on the same domain. It can be applied
to the computation of different moisture variations phenomena in building
components, such as drying of initial construction moisture, condensation due to
migration of moisture from outside to inside in summer, and moisture accumulation
by interstitial condensation due to diffusion in the winter. The thermodynamics
properties of the building material depend both on the dry solid properties and on
the moisture content, and the evaporation of liquid water adds a latent heat source
in the diffusion equation for temperature. Reversely, the variations of moisture
content due to liquid transport (capillary flow) and vapor diffusion are temperature
dependent.
• In moist air, by modeling moisture transport by vapor diffusion and convection, and
heat transfer by conduction and convection. The thermodynamics properties of
moist air depend on the moisture content, whereas the temperature is used to define
the saturation conditions for vapor concentration. This coupling is available when a

834 | CHAPTER 9: MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS

 Moist Air feature of the Heat Transfer interface and a Moist Air feature of the
Moisture Transport interface are active on the same domain.
• In moist porous media, by taking into account heat and moisture storage, latent
heat effects, and transport of heat and moisture. This coupling is available when a
Moist Porous Medium feature of the Heat Transfer interface and an Hygroscopic
Porous Medium feature of the Moisture Transport interface are active on the same
domain. It can be applied to the computation of different moisture variations
phenomena in porous media filled with moist air and liquid water.

The Heat and Moisture coupling synchronizes the features from the Heat Transfer and
Moisture Transport interfaces:

• It defines the relative humidity φ w (with corresponding reference temperature and

pressure) in order to set the corresponding inputs in the Moist Air feature of the Heat
Transfer interface.
• It defines the temperature T in order to set the model inputs in the features of the
Moisture Transport interface.
• In building materials domains, it defines the moisture storage function w and the
vapor permeability δp (or vapor resistance factor μ) in order to set the corresponding
inputs in the Building Material feature of the Heat Transfer interface.
• In moist air domains, it computes the latent heat source due to evaporation and
condensation fluxes on surfaces, and adds it in the heat transfer equation.
• In porous media domains, it defines the liquid water saturation sl and velocity field
ul in order to set the corresponding inputs in the Liquid Water feature of the Heat
Transfer interface.
• In porous media domains, it computes the latent heat source due to evaporation and
condensation, and adds it in the heat transfer equation, in the Moist Porous Medium
feature of the Heat Interface.
• In porous media domains, it computes the diffusive flux of thermal enthalpy due to
the rate of change of vapor and air in the mixture, which is used in the Moist Air
subfeture of the Moist Porous Medium feature of the Heat Interface.
• In porous media domains, it computes the capillary flux of liquid water, which is
used in the Liquid Water subfeature of the Moist Porous Medium feature of the Heat
Interface.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

DOMAIN MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS | 835

 The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is ham1.

DOMAIN SELECTION
When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual (the default)
from the Selection list to choose specific domains to define the domains with heat and
moisture transport, or select All domains as needed.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section defines the physics involved in the multiphysics coupling.

Select the Heat transfer interface associated to the temperature dependent variable and
the Moisture transport interface associated to the relative humidity variable.

You can also select None from either list to uncouple the node from a physics interface.
If the physics interface is removed from the Model Builder — for example, Heat Transfer
in Building Materials is deleted — then the Heat transfer list defaults to None as there is
nothing to couple to.

LATENT HEAT
The multiphysics coupling adds the following latent heat source qevap on surfaces due
to evaporation and condensation:

q evap = L v g evap

where gevap is the evaporative flux and Lv is the latent heat of evaporation.

To neglect the latent heat effects in the heat transfer equation, clear the Include latent
heat source on surfaces check box.

Evaporative Cooling of Water: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Phase_Change/evaporative_cooling

836 | CHAPTER 9: MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Multiphysics>Heat and Moisture

when a heat transfer interface with Building Material feature is active together with a
moisture transport interface with Building Material feature; or when a heat transfer
interface with Moist Air feature is active together with a moisture transport interface
with Moist Air feature; or when a heat transfer interface with Moist Porous Medium
feature is active together with a moisture transport interface with Hygroscopic Porous
Medium feature.

Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media

Use the Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media multiphysics coupling ( )
to account for heat transfer by conduction, convection, and radiation in
semitransparent (participating) media. The radiative intensity equations are
approximated either by the Discrete Ordinates Method or the P1 Approximation,
depending on the Radiation discretization method selected in the Participating Media
Settings section of the coupled Radiation in Participating Media interface.

It adds the radiative heat source term Q (SI unit: W/m3) to the heat transfer equation,
defined by:

Q = κ ( G – 4πI b ( T ) )

where

• κ is the absorption coefficient (SI unit: m–1).

• G is the incident radiation (SI unit: W/m2).
• Ib(T) is the blackbody radiative intensity (SI unit: W/(m2·sr)), defined as
2 4
nr σ T
I b ( T ) = --------------------
π

• nr is the refractive index (dimensionless).

• σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (SI unit: W/(m2·K4)).
• T is the temperature (SI unit: K)

It also adds the radiative heat flux on boundaries, depending on the selected
discretization method. See Opaque Surface (Radiation in Participating Media and

DOMAIN MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS | 837

 Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media Interfaces) for the definition of the radiative
heat flux.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is htrpm1.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section defines the physics involved in the Heat Transfer with Radiation in
Participating Media multiphysics coupling.

Select the Heat transfer interface associated to the temperature dependent variable.
Select the Radiation in participating media interface associated to the radiative intensity
variable (with Discrete Ordinates Method) or the incident radiation variable (P1
approximation).

In 1D, 1D-axi, and 2D, when the Heat Transfer with Radiation in
Participating Media multiphysics coupling is active while solving, it disables
all the out of plane features (Out-of-Plane Heat Flux, Out-of-Plane
Radiation, Thickness, Cross Section) from the heat transfer interface that
is selected in the multiphysics coupling. This is noticed through a warning
node displayed under Compile Equations. The radiation interfaces assume
an infinite medium in the out-of-plane direction, they are thus not
compatible with these features.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Multiphysics>Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media

when a Heat Transfer interface or a Slip Flow interface with any domain feature is
added together with the Radiation in Participating Media interface with Radiation in
Participating Media feature.

838 | CHAPTER 9: MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS

Heat Transfer with Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media
Use the Heat Transfer with Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media multiphysics
coupling ( ) to account for heat transfer by conduction, convection, and radiation in
semitransparent (participating) media considered to be non-emitting. The radiative
intensity equations are approximated either by the Discrete Ordinates Method or the
P1 Approximation, depending on the Radiation discretization method selected in the
Participating Media Settings section of the coupled Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering
Media interface.

It adds the radiative heat source term Q (SI unit: W/m3) to the heat transfer equation,
defined by:

Q = κG

where

• κ is the absorption coefficient (SI unit: m–1).

• G is the incident radiation (SI unit: W/m2).
It also adds the radiative heat flux on boundaries, depending on the selected
discretization method. See Opaque Surface (Radiation in Participating Media and
Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media Interfaces) for the definition of the radiative
heat flux.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is htrasm1.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section defines the physics involved in the Heat Transfer with Radiation in
Absorbing-Scattering Media multiphysics coupling.

Select the Heat transfer interface associated to the temperature dependent variable.
Select the Radiation in absorbing-scattering media interface associated to the radiative

DOMAIN MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS | 839

 intensity variable (with Discrete Ordinates Method) or the incident radiation variable
(P1 approximation).

In 1D, 1D-axi, and 2D, when the Heat Transfer with Radiation in
Absorbing-Scattering Media multiphysics coupling is active while solving, it
disables all the out of plane features (Out-of-Plane Heat Flux,
Out-of-Plane Radiation, Thickness, Cross Section) from the heat transfer
interface that is selected in the multiphysics coupling. This is noticed
through a warning node displayed under Compile Equations. The radiation
interfaces assume an infinite medium in the out-of-plane direction, they
are thus not compatible with these features.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Multiphysics>Heat Transfer with Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media

when a heat transfer interface with any domain feature is added together with the
Radiation in Absorbing-Scattering Media interface with Absorbing-Scattering Medium
feature.

Heat Transfer with Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media

Use the Heat Transfer with Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media multiphysics
coupling ( ) to model heat transfer by conduction, convection, and radiation in
absorbing (semitransparent) media. The attenuation of an incident beam intensity
within a semitransparent material due to absorption is determined using the
Beer-Lambert Law. As the beam is absorbed it deposits energy which acts as a heat
source.

It adds the radiative heat source term Q (SI unit: W/m3) to the heat transfer equation,
defined by:

Q =
 κIi
i

where

• κ is the absorption coefficient (SI unit: m–1).

• Ii is the ith beam intensity (SI unit: W/m2), solution of the Beer-Lambert equation.

840 | CHAPTER 9: MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is htrbam1.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section defines the physics involved in the Heat Transfer with Radiative Beam in
Absorbing Media multiphysics coupling.

Select the Heat transfer in solids interface associated to the temperature dependent
variable. Select the Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media interface associated to the
radiative beam intensity variable.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Multiphysics>Heat Transfer with Radiative Beam in Absorbing Media

when a heat transfer interface with any domain feature is added together with the
Radiation in Absorbing Media interface with Absorbing Medium feature.

Moisture Flow
Use the Moisture Flow multiphysics coupling ( ) to simulate fluid flows in free and
porous media, where the fluid properties (density, viscosity) depend on moisture
content. Models can also include moisture transport in building materials. The physics
interface supports low Mach numbers (typically less than 0.3).

The Moisture Flow interface solves for conservation of vapor concentration, mass and
momentum in air. It synchronizes the features from the Moisture Transport and Fluid

DOMAIN MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS | 841

 Flow interfaces when a turbulent flow regime is defined. It also complements the Wall,
Screen and Interior Fan features from the flow interface to account for moisture effects.

When considering an hygroscopic porous medium filled with moist air

and liquid water, the coupling between the Moisture Transport and Fluid
Flow interfaces applies on the moist air phase only. This means that the
synchronized fluid properties (density, viscosity) are the moist air
properties, and that the porosity set in the Fluid Flow interface should
account for the presence of the liquid water phase in the porous medium.
This can be done by multiplying the dry material porosity by (1-mt.sl),
where the mt.sl variable is the liquid water saturation defined in the
Moisture Transport interface.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is mf1.

DOMAIN SELECTION
When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual (the default)
from the Selection list to choose specific domains to define the moisture flow, or select
All domains as needed.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section defines the physics involved in the multiphysics coupling. The Fluid flow
and Moisture Transport lists include all applicable physics interfaces.

842 | CHAPTER 9: MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS

The default values depend on how this coupling node is created.

• If it is added from the Physics ribbon (Windows users), Physics contextual toolbar
(Mac and Linux users), or context menu (all users), then the first physics interface
of each type in the component is selected as the default.
• If it is added automatically when a multiphysics interface is chosen in the Model
Wizard or Add Physics window, then the two participating physics interfaces are
selected.

You can also select None from either list to uncouple the node from a physics interface.
If the physics interface is removed from the Model Builder — for example, Moisture
Transport in Air is deleted — then the Moisture Transport list defaults to None as there
is nothing to couple to.

MOISTURE TRANSPORT AT WALLS

This section is available for free and porous media flows, when the Mixture type for
moist air is set to Concentrated species in the moisture transport interface.

By selecting the Account for Stefan velocity at walls check box, you add a velocity
contribution to the fluid flow due to the vapor flux at walls.

When prescribing a vapor flux gw at boundaries in the moisture transport interface,

using the Moisture Content, Moisture Flux, Wet Surface, or Moist Surface features,
the Moisture Flow coupling node computes the Stefan velocity uStefan and applies it in
the Wall features of the fluid flow interface, at the corresponding boundaries.

The Stefan velocity is defined as

ρ g u Stefan = n ⋅ g w

where ρg is the moist air density.

At low temperature conditions, the vapor content in moist air stays relatively small,
even for high relative humidity, and the Stefan flow may be neglected. By default, the
check box is not selected.

MOISTURE TRANSPORT TURBULENCE MODEL

This section is available for free media flow, when the fluid flow interface uses a
turbulence model. In this case, the diffusive moisture flux is defined as

g w = – M v ( D + D T ) ∇c v

DOMAIN MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS | 843

 to account for the turbulent mixing caused by the eddy diffusivity in moisture
convection, with the turbulent diffusivity defined as

νT
D T = ----------
Sc T

where νT is defined by the flow interface, and the turbulent Schmidt number ScT
depends on the Moisture transport turbulence model.

Select an option from the Moisture transport turbulence model list: Kays-Crawford (the
default) or User-defined turbulent Schmidt number.

For User-defined turbulent Schmidt number, enter a Turbulent Schmidt number ScT
(dimensionless). The turbulent kinematic viscosityνT is taken directly from the fluid
flow interface.

For Kays-Crawford, see Kays-Crawford Model for Turbulent Diffusivity for details
about the definition of ScT.

The Turbulence model type used by the fluid flow interface can be displayed by selecting
the Show or Hide Physics Property Settings button at the right of the Fluid flow list.

When an interface is selected from the Moisture Transport list, some of its
model inputs are forced with values from the Moisture Flow node. In
addition, it defines how the turbulence has to be accounted for,
depending on the Fluid flow interface’s turbulence settings. Therefore,
each moisture transport or fluid flow interface should be used in at most
one Moisture Flow node. In cases where multiple fluid flow interfaces are
used, an equal number of moisture transport interfaces and Moisture Flow
nodes are needed to define proper multiphysics couplings.

If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then
in order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the physics
interface again from the Fluid flow or Moisture Transport lists. This
behavior is applicable to all multiphysics coupling nodes that would
normally default to the once present interface. See Multiphysics
Modeling Workflow in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

844 | CHAPTER 9: MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS

 Evaporative Cooling of Water: Application Library path
Heat_Transfer_Module/Phase_Change/evaporative_cooling

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Multiphysics>Moisture Flow

• when any version of a Single-Phase Flow (or Brinkman Equations, Free and Porous
Media Flow) interface with Fluid Properties feature is active together with a Moisture
Transport interface with Moist Air feature.
• when any version of a Single-Phase Flow (or Brinkman Equations, Free and Porous
Media Flow, Darcy’s Law) interface with Fluid and Matrix Properties feature is active
together with a Moisture Transport interface with Hygroscopic Porous Medium feature.

Nonisothermal Flow
Use the Nonisothermal Flow multiphysics coupling ( ) to simulate fluid flows where
the fluid properties depend on temperature. Models can also include heat transfer in
solids or in porous media as well as surface-to-surface radiation and radiation in
participating media, with the Heat Transfer Module. The physics interface supports
low Mach numbers (typically less than 0.3).

The Nonisothermal Flow, Laminar Flow interface solves for conservation of energy,
mass and momentum in fluids and porous media and for conservation of energy in
solids.

It defines p and u variables in order to set the Absolute pressure in the Model Input
section and the Velocity field in the Heat Convection section of the Fluid feature and
subfeature, in the Heat Transfer interface. In addition, it provides all the fluids
quantities that may be needed by the Heat Transfer interface (for example, viscosity,
turbulence parameters).

In the Fluid Flow interface, it sets the Temperature in the Model Input section and
defines the Density in the Fluid Properties section of the Fluid Properties and Fluid and
Matrix Properties features.

It synchronizes also the definition of the reference temperature to be used for

incompressible flows, and the features from the Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow interfaces

DOMAIN MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS | 845

 when a turbulent flow regime is defined. It also complements the Screen and Interior
Fan feature from the flow interface to account for thermal effects.

In addition, it also accounts for the multiphysics stabilization terms, for the heat
transfer changes in the turbulent regime (for example, thermal wall functions), for
work due to pressure forces and viscous dissipation, and for natural convection,
including a Boussinesq approximation.

The Nonisothermal Flow coupling node triggers pseudo time stepping

when Use pseudo time stepping for stationary equation form in the Fluid
Flow interface is set to Automatic from physics.

The multiphysics stabilizations (streamline diffusion and crosswind

diffusion) are controlled by the Fluid Flow interface. For example, the
multiphysics streamline diffusion can be disabled in a Laminar Flow physics
node, in the Stabilization section. The stabilization selected in the Heat
Transfer physics interface has no effect if the multiphysics coupling
stabilization is active but remains active if not. However, the isotropic
diffusion is not a multiphysics stabilization and is controlled by each
physics interface.

Finally, when one of the physics interfaces or the multiphysics coupling is

not solved in a study step, then the stabilization of each solved physics is
used instead of the coupled stabilization, and the solver suggestions are
uncoupled.

The pressure, velocity, and temperature variables of the Nonisothermal

Flow coupling node are set to the Common Model Input values of the
Default Model Inputs node on its complementary selection, that is, all
domains except those from the Selection list. It allows to couple multiple
fluid flow interfaces with a single heat transfer interface. See Default
Model Inputs in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for
details.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

846 | CHAPTER 9: MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is nitf1.

DOMAIN SELECTION
The Nonisothermal Flow coupling node selection is locked to the union of

• the intersection of the Fluid or Moist Air features’ selection with the Fluid Properties
feature’s selection
• the intersection of the Porous Medium feature’s selection with the Fluid and Matrix
Properties feature’s selection

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section defines the physics involved in the multiphysics coupling. The Fluid flow
and Heat transfer lists include all applicable physics interfaces.

The default values depend on how this coupling node is created.

• If it is added from the Physics ribbon (Windows users), Physics contextual toolbar
(Mac and Linux users), or context menu (all users), then the first physics interface
of each type in the component is selected as the default.
• If it is added automatically when a multiphysics interface is chosen in the Model
Wizard or Add Physics window, then the two participating physics interfaces are
selected.

You can also select None from either list to uncouple the node from a physics interface.
If the physics interface is removed from the Model Builder — for example, Heat Transfer
in Fluids is deleted — then the Heat transfer list defaults to None as there is nothing to
couple to.

HEAT TRANSFER TURBULENCE MODEL

This section is available when the fluid flow interface uses a turbulence model. Select
an option from the Heat transport turbulence model list: Kays-Crawford (the default),
Extended Kays-Crawford, or User-defined turbulent Prandtl number.

For Extended Kays-Crawford, enter a Reynolds number at infinity Reinf (dimensionless).

DOMAIN MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS | 847

 For User-defined turbulent Prandtl number, enter a Turbulent Prandtl number prT
(dimensionless).

When the flow interface uses a RANS turbulence model, the conductive heat flux is
defined as

q = – ( k + k T ) ∇T

with the turbulent thermal conductivity defined as

μT Cp
k T = --------------
Pr T

where μT is defined by the flow interface, and PrT depends on the Heat transport
turbulence model. See Turbulent Conductivity for details.

The Turbulence model type used by the fluid flow interface can be displayed by selecting
the Show or Hide Physics Property Settings button at the right of the Fluid flow list.

MATERIAL PROPERTIES

Boussinesq Approximation
When the Compressibility setting in the fluid flow interface is set to Incompressible,
select the Boussinesq approximation check box in order to use material data evaluated
at the reference temperature and reference pressure. If gravity is included in the
physics, it is linearized with respect to temperature.

Density
Select an option from the Specify density list: From heat transfer interface (the default),
From fluid flow interface, Custom, linearized density, or Custom:

• For From heat transfer interface: define the Density ρ in the Thermodynamics, Fluid
section of the Fluid node, in the Heat Transfer coupled interface. Depending on the
Fluid type option in this node, the density may bet taken from material, set directly,
or computed by using the ideal gas law. The same value is automatically set in the
Fluid Properties section of the Fluid Properties node, in the Fluid Flow coupled
interface.
• For From fluid flow interface: define the Density ρ in the Fluid Properties section of
the Fluid Properties node, in the Fluid Flow coupled interface. The same value is
automatically set in the Thermodynamics, Fluid section of the Fluid node, in the Heat
Transfer coupled interface.

848 | CHAPTER 9: MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS

• For Custom, linearized density, enter the Reference density ρref (SI unit: kg/m3) and
the Coefficient of thermal expansion αp(SI unit:1/K), or select From material, or
select a variable in the list if available. Regardless how the properties are defined they
should be constant. If material properties are not constant you should consider
using any of the other options to define the density. Also, if Custom, linearized
density is used for incompressible flow, the density ρ is evaluated to ρref. In this case
αp is not used unless Boussinesq approximation is selected. The same value is
automatically set in the Fluid Properties section of the Fluid Properties node, in the
Fluid Flow coupled interface, and in the Thermodynamics, Fluid section of the Fluid
node, in the Heat Transfer coupled interface.
• For Custom, enter a Density ρ (SI unit: kg/m3), or select a density in the list if
available. The same value is automatically set in the Fluid Properties section of the
Fluid Properties node, in the Fluid Flow coupled interface, and in the
Thermodynamics, Fluid section of the Fluid node, in the Heat Transfer coupled
interface.

See Fluid Properties and Fluid in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for
details.

When the coupled Heat Transfer interface is also coupled to a Phase Transport
interface via the Nonisothermal Mixture Model multiphysics coupling, Specify density
should be set to From fluid flow interface. See Nonisothermal Mixture Model in the
CFD Module User’s Guide for details.

The density definition in the Nonisothermal Flow node ensures that the same definition
of the density is used on the fluid flow and heat transfer interfaces. When the fluid flow
compressibility setting is set to Incompressible then the thermal conductivity and the
heat capacity are evaluated at the Reference temperature defined in the fluid flow
interface. When Include gravity is selected and the Compressibility is set to
Incompressible flow in the fluid interface properties, the gravity forces are defined using
the coefficient of thermal expansion. Along with the fact that the material properties
are evaluated for a constant temperature and pressure, this gravity force definition
corresponds to Boussinesq approximation. Unless the density is defined as Custom,
linearized density the coefficient of thermal expansion is evaluated from the fluid
density.

DOMAIN MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS | 849

 Reference Temperature
Select an option from the Specify reference temperature list — From heat transfer
interface, From fluid flow interface (the default), or User defined:

• For From heat transfer interface, set the Reference temperature Tref (SI unit: K) in
the Physical Model section of the interface selected in the Heat transfer list of the
Coupled Interfaces section. The Reference temperature input in the Fluid flow interface
is synchronized to the same value or expression, and is not editable.
• For From fluid flow interface, set the Reference temperature Tref (SI unit: K) in the
Physical Model section of the interface selected in the Fluid flow list of the Coupled
Interfaces section. The Reference temperature input in the Heat transfer interface is
synchronized to the same value or expression, and is not editable.
• For User defined, set a value or expression. The Reference temperature inputs in the
Physical Model sections of the Heat transfer and Fluid flow interfaces are synchronized
to the same value or expression, and are not editable.

When the coupled Heat Transfer interface is also coupled to a Phase Transport
interface via the Nonisothermal Mixture Model multiphysics coupling, Specify reference
temperature should be set to From fluid flow interface. See Nonisothermal Mixture
Model in the CFD Module User’s Guide for details.

FLOW HEATING
The Include viscous dissipation check box is selected by default to account for the heat
source corresponding to viscous heating. Because it may induce an extra
computational cost it should be only selected in application where such effect is
expected. If no information on this is available, selecting the option ensures that the
energy balance for the heat and the flow equation is respected.

When an interface is selected from the Heat transfer list, some of its model
inputs are forced with values from the Nonisothermal Flow node. In
addition, it defines how the turbulence has to be accounted for,
depending on the Fluid flow interface’s turbulence settings.

Therefore, each fluid flow interface should be used in at most one

Nonisothermal Flow node. In cases where multiple fluid flow interfaces are
used, they can be coupled with a single heat transfer interface, using an
equal number of Nonisothermal Flow nodes to define proper multiphysics
couplings. In the Heat transfer interface, the inputs for pressure and
velocity are then taken from the first Nonisothermal Flow node.

850 | CHAPTER 9: MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS

 If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then
in order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the physics
interface again from the Fluid flow or Heat transfer lists. This behavior is
applicable to all multiphysics coupling nodes that would normally default
to the once present interface. See Multiphysics Modeling Workflow in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Heat Sink: Application Library path Heat_Transfer_Module/

Tutorials,_Forced_and_Natural_Convection/heat_sink

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Multiphysics>Nonisothermal Flow

when any of the following interface is added together with Heat Transfer in Solids (or
another version of the Heat Transfer Interface):

Single-Phase Flow (any version)

Porous Media and Subsurface Flow, Brinkman Equations

Thermal Expansion
Use the Thermal Expansion multiphysics coupling ( ) to add an internal thermal
strain caused by changes in temperature and account for the corresponding mechanical
losses in the heat balance.

See Thermal Expansion in the Structural Mechanics Module User’s Guide for more
details about this multiphysics coupling.

Heating Circuit: Application Library path Heat_Transfer_Module/

Power_Electronics_and_Electronic_Cooling/heating_circuit

Thermoelectric Effect
Use the Thermoelectric Effect multiphysics coupling ( ) to account for a Peltier heat
source or sink in domains and on boundaries where electrical and thermal models are
defined.

DOMAIN MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS | 851

 In domains, a PJ contribution is added to the heat flux q in the equation for heat
transfer in solids:

∂T
ρC p +∇⋅q = Q
∂t

The term Je = −σS∇T is also added to the current density, which is then defined as:

J = – σ ( ∇V + S∇T )

The contribution to the heat flux affects all boundary conditions where
the conductive flux, −k∇T, is involved. In particular the thermal
insulation condition becomes (−k∇T + PJ) ⋅ n = 0 (instead of
(−k∇T) ⋅ n = 0 when thermoelectric effect is not active). See

On boundaries, a PsJ contribution is added to the heat flux q in the equation for heat
transfer in shells:

∂T
ρC p + ∇t ⋅ q = Q
∂t

The term Je,s = −σsSs∇tT is also added to the current density, which is then defined
as:

J = –σs ( ∇t V + Ss ∇t T )

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is tee.

DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains where thermoelectric effect should be
applied. Only domains where both electrical and thermal models are active can be
selected.

852 | CHAPTER 9: MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS

BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries where thermoelectric effect should be
applied. Only boundaries where both electrical and thermal models are active can be
selected.

For the thermal model, you can choose from

• any version of the Heat Transfer interface with a Thin Layer, a Thin Film, or a Fracture
feature active on the boundaries.
• any version of the Heat Transfer in Shells interface.

For the electrical model, you can choose from

• any version of the Electric Currents interface with an Electric Shielding feature active
on the boundaries.
• any version of the Electric Currents, Shells interface.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section defines the physics involved in the thermoelectric effect multiphysics
coupling.

Select the Heat Transfer interface associated to the temperature dependent variable.
Select the Electromagnetic interface associated to the electric potential dependent
variable.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

Temperature
This section is available when material properties are temperature-dependent. By
default, the temperature of the coupled heat transfer interface is used and the section
is not editable. To edit the Temperature field, click Make All Model Inputs Editable ( ).
The available options are User defined (default), Common model input (the minput.T
variable, set to 293.15 K by default) and all temperature variables from the physics
interfaces included in the model. To edit the minput.T variable, click the Go to Source
button ( ), and in the Default Model Inputs node under Global Definitions, set a value
for the Temperature in the Expression for remaining selection section.

DOMAIN MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS | 853

 COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION
Select a coordinate system from the Coordinate system list for the interpretation of
directions in anisotropic material properties. The default is the Global coordinate
system, and the list contains any additional coordinate system (except boundary
coordinate systems) added under the Definitions node.

See Coordinate Systems in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for more
details.

THERMOELECTRIC PROPERTIES
The Seebeck coefficients S and Ss (SI unit: V/K) in the domain and on the boundaries
should be set.

Thermoelectric Leg: Application Library path Heat_Transfer_Module/

Verification_Examples/thermoelectric_leg

Theory for the Thermoelectric Effect Interface

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Multiphysics>Thermoelectric Effect

when any of the following interface is added together with Heat Transfer in Solids (or
another version of the Heat Transfer Interface):

Electric Currents
Magnetic Field Formulation
Magnetic Fields
Magnetic and Electric Fields
Rotating Machinery, Magnetic

854 | CHAPTER 9: MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS

Boundary Multiphysics Couplings
The Heat Transfer Module has the following boundary multiphysics coupling
available:

• Electromagnetic Heating, Layered • Layered Thermal Expansion

Shell • Marangoni Effect
• Heat Transfer with • Thermoelectric Effect, Layered Shell
Surface-to-Surface Radiation

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

Electromagnetic Heating, Layered Shell

Use the Electromagnetic Heating, Layered Shell multiphysics coupling ( ) to account
for electromagnetic surface losses as a heat source in the heat equation, in layered
materials represented by boundaries.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
Select the boundaries on which to define the electromagnetic heat source. The Restrict
to layered boundaries check box makes the node applicable only if a layered material is
defined on the boundary.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section defines the physics involved in the electromagnetic heating multiphysics
coupling.

Select the Electromagnetic interface associated to the electric potential dependent

variable.

Select the Heat Transfer interface associated to the temperature dependent variable.

SHELL PROPERTIES
You can limit the coupling to individually selected layers by clearing the Use all layers
check box. For a given Layered Material Link or Layered Material Stack, you get access
to a list of check boxes for the selection of the individual layers.

BOUNDARY MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS | 855

 You can visualize the selected layered materials and layers in each layered material by
clicking the Layer cross section preview and Layer 3D preview buttons.

• See Layer and Interface Selection Tools.

• You can provide material parameters with a through-thickness variation
by explicitly or implicitly using expressions containing the extra
dimension coordinate as described in Using the Extra Dimension
Coordinates.

The desired selection for the node may correspond to boundaries with
different layered materials.

See Layered Material, Layered Material Link, Layered Material Stack,

Layered Material Link (Subnode), and Single-Layer Materials in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for details on the definition
of layered materials.

See Electromagnetic Heating in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual for a description of the corresponding multiphysics coupling in
domains, in the context of Joule heating and laser heating modeling.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Multiphysics>Electromagnetic Heating, Layered Shell

when any version of the Heat Transfer interface with the Thin Layer, Thin Film, or
Fracture node, or any version of the Heat Transfer in Shells interface with the Solid,
Fluid, Porous Medium node, is added together with the Electric Currents, Layered Shell
interface.

Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation

Use the Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation multiphysics coupling ( ) to
account for heat transfer by radiation on boundaries, when the surrounding medium
does not participate in the radiation (transparent medium).

856 | CHAPTER 9: MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS

The radiosity equation defined on boundaries where surface-to-surface radiation is
enabled corresponds to the radiosity method equation.

The following radiative heat source is added to the heat transfer equation on
boundaries:

q = ε ( G – eb ( T ) )

on the side of the boundary where the radiation is defined, where ε is the surface
emissivity, G is the irradiation, and eb(T) is the blackbody hemispherical total emissive
power. Where the radiation is defined on both sides, the radiative heat source is defined
on both sides too.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is htrad1.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section defines the physics involved in the Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface
Radiation multiphysics coupling.

Select the Heat transfer interface associated to the temperature dependent variable.
Select the Surface-to-surface radiation interface associated to the radiosity variable.

In 1D, 1D-axi, and 2D, when the Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface
Radiation multiphysics coupling is active while solving, it disables all the
out of plane features (Out-of-Plane Heat Flux, Out-of-Plane Radiation,
Thickness, Cross Section) from the heat transfer interface that is selected
in the multiphysics coupling. This is noticed through a warning node
displayed under Compile Equations. The radiation interfaces assume an
infinite medium in the out-of-plane direction, they are thus not
compatible with these features.

BOUNDARY MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS | 857

 HEAT TRANSFER WITH SURFACE-TO-SURFACE RADIATION
Set the default opacities of the domains surrounding the boundaries where radiation is
modeled.

If Default domain opacities is From heat transfer interface, the opacity depends on the
domain feature:

• The Solid, Porous Medium, Biological Tissue, Building Material, and Shape Memory Alloy
nodes define opaque domains.
• The Fluid and Isothermal Domain nodes define transparent domains.

Note that when a Heat Transfer in Shells interface is selected under Heat transfer in the
Coupled Interfaces section, no domain node is available. Therefore, the default opacity
set in the Surface-to-Surface Radiation interface is used: all surrounding domains are
considered as transparent.

If Default domain opacities is Transparent, all domains are considered transparent by

default.

With either option the default opacity may be overriden on each domain
with the Opacity (Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface) boundary
node.

The opacity setting is used when the Emitted radiation direction is defined
by Opacity controlled in surface-to-surface boundary features (Diffuse
Mirror (Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface), Diffuse Surface
(Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface), Prescribed Radiosity
(Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface), and Opaque Surface
(Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface)): surface-to-surface radiation
propagates in non-opaque domains. Alternatively the Emitted radiation
direction can be defined using the normal orientation or on both sides of
boundaries. In this case this setting is ignored. Note that on boundaries
where the Semitransparent Surface (Surface-to-Surface Radiation
Interface) is applied, the Emitted radiation direction is Both sides, and this
setting is always ignored.

858 | CHAPTER 9: MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Multiphysics>Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation

when a Heat Transfer interface, a Heat Transfer in Shells interface, a Slip Flow
interface, or a High Mach Number Flow interface is added together with the
Surface-to-Surface Radiation interface.

Layered Thermal Expansion

Use the Layered Thermal Expansion multiphysics coupling ( ) to add an internal
thermal strain caused by changes in temperature and account for the corresponding
mechanical losses in the heat balance in layered materials represented by boundaries.

See Layered Thermal Expansion in the Structural Mechanics Module User’s Guide
for more details about this multiphysics coupling.

Marangoni Effect
The Marangoni Effect multiphysics coupling ( ) accounts for Marangoni convection.
Marangoni convection occurs when the surface tension of a fluid-fluid interface
(generally liquid-air) depends on the concentration of a species or on the temperature
distribution. In the case of temperature dependence, the Marangoni effect is also called
thermo-capillary convection. It is of primary importance in the fields of welding,
crystal growth, and electron beam melting of metals.

The Marangoni effect is a shear stress that depends on the tangential and normal
variations of surface tension with temperature gradient. It has the following
contribution described by forces induced on the fluid/fluid interface:

T 2
– pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I n = σ ( ∇ t ⋅ n )n – ∇ t σ
3

where σ is the surface tension coefficient (N/m). The first term on the right-hand-side
accounts for the normal forces related to curvature effects, while the second term
stands for tangential forces. Note that this formulation is intended for laminar flow
regimes only.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

BOUNDARY MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS | 859

 The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is mar1.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section defines the physics involved in the multiphysics coupling. The Fluid flow
and Heat transfer lists include all applicable physics interfaces.

The default values depend on how this coupling node is created.

• If it is added from the Physics ribbon (Windows users), Physics contextual toolbar
(Mac and Linux users), or context menu (all users), then the first physics interface
of each type in the component is selected as the default.
• If it is added automatically when a multiphysics interface is chosen in the Model
Wizard or Add Physics window, then the two participating physics interfaces are
selected.

You can also select None from either list to uncouple the node from a physics interface.
If the physics interface is removed from the Model Builder — for example, Heat Transfer
in Fluids is deleted — then the Heat transfer list defaults to None as there is nothing to
couple to.

If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then
in order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the physics
interface again from the Fluid flow or Heat transfer lists. This is applicable
to all multiphysics coupling nodes that would normally default to the
once present interface. See Multiphysics Modeling Workflow in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

SURFACE TENSION
Select a Surface tension coefficient type: Library coefficient, liquid/gas interface, or User
defined (the default).

• For Library coefficient, liquid/gas interface choose an option from the Library surface
tension coefficient list.
• For User defined enter a Surface tension coefficient σ (SI unit: N/m).

860 | CHAPTER 9: MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS

CONTACT ANGLE
The attachment angle between the fluid/fluid interface and the adjacent walls can be
specified in this section.

Select an option from the Specify contact angle list — Directly (the default) or Through
Young’s equation.

• For Directly enter a Contact angle θw (SI unit: rad). The default is π/2 radians.
• For Through Young’s equation enter values or expressions for Phase 1-Solid surface
energy density γs1 (SI unit: J/m2) and Phase 2-Solid surface energy density γs2 (SI
unit: J/m2).

Marangoni Effect: Application Library path Heat_Transfer_Module/

Tutorials,_Forced_and_Natural_Convection/marangoni_effect

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Multiphysics>Marangoni Effect

when any of the following interface is added together with Heat Transfer in Fluids (or
another version of the Heat Transfer Interface):

Single-Phase Flow (any version)

Porous Media and Subsurface Flow, Brinkman Equations

Thermoelectric Effect, Layered Shell

Use the Thermoelectric Effect, Layered Shell multiphysics coupling ( ) to account for
a Peltier heat source or sink in layered materials represented by boundaries where
electrical and thermal models are defined.

In the equation for heat transfer in shells, a qs = PsJ contribution is added to the heat
flux q:

∂T
ρC p + ∇t ⋅ q = Q
∂t

The term Je,s = −σsSs∇tT is also added to the current density, which is then defined
as:

BOUNDARY MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS | 861

 J = –σs ( ∇t V + Ss ∇t T )

BOUNDARY SELECTION
Select the boundaries on which to define the electromagnetic heat source. The Restrict
to layered boundaries check box makes the node applicable only if a layered material is
defined on the boundary.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section defines the physics involved in the electromagnetic heating multiphysics
coupling.

Select the Electromagnetic interface associated to the electric potential dependent

variable.

Select the Heat Transfer interface associated to the temperature dependent variable.

SHELL PROPERTIES
You can limit the coupling to individually selected layers by clearing the Use all layers
check box. For a given Layered Material Link or Layered Material Stack, you get access
to a list of check boxes for the selection of the individual layers.

You can visualize the selected layered materials and layers in each layered material by
clicking the Layer cross section preview and Layer 3D preview buttons.

• See Layer and Interface Selection Tools.

• You can provide material parameters with a through-thickness variation
by explicitly or implicitly using expressions containing the extra
dimension coordinate as described in Using the Extra Dimension
Coordinates.

The desired selection for the node may correspond to boundaries with
different layered materials.

See Layered Material, Layered Material Link, Layered Material Stack,

Layered Material Link (Subnode), and Single-Layer Materials in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for details on the definition
of layered materials.

862 | CHAPTER 9: MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS

 See Electromagnetic Heating in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual for a description of the corresponding multiphysics coupling in
domains, in the context of Joule heating and laser heating modeling.

THERMOELECTRIC PROPERTIES
The Seebeck coefficient Ss (SI unit: V/K) on the boundaries should be set. By default,
it is taken From layered material. For User defined, it should be specified.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Multiphysics>Thermoelectric Effect, Layered Shell

when any version of the Heat Transfer interface with the Thin Layer, Thin Film, or
Fracture node, or any version of the Heat Transfer in Shells interface with the Solid,
Fluid, Porous Medium node, is added together with the Electric Currents, Layered Shell
interface.

BOUNDARY MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS | 863

864 | CHAPTER 9: MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS
I n d e x
A absolute pressure 51, 206, 463, 468, 490, highly conductive layers 228
498, 510, 518, 531, 569, 575, 645, 711, inflow (moisture transport) 763
727, 769, 853 initial values (heat transfer in thin
absorbing medium 93 shells interface) 589
absorbing medium (node) 444 insulation/continuity (heat transfer in
absorbing-scattering medium 93 thin shells interface) 697
absorbing-scattering medium (node) 445 isothermal domain 488
acceleration of gravity 48, 325 isothermal domain interface 594
activation energy 47, 189, 483, 538 lumped system connector 598, 665
apparent heat capacity 204 marangoni effect 861
Application Libraries window 38 moist air 491
application library examples moist air (moisture transport) 757
ambient settings 142 moist surface 766
bioheat 451 moisture content 767
bioheat transfer interface 396 moisture flow 845
biological tissue 454, 541 moisture flux 769
boundary heat source 552 nonisothermal flow 851
boundary thermoelectric effect 854 opaque 497
building material 748 opaque surface 605
conductive thermal resistor 710 open boundary 608
continuity 553 open boundary (moisture transport)
continuity on interior boundary 555 772
convectively enhanced conductivity optically thick participating medium
460 498
diffuse surface 565 outflow 609
electromagnetic heating 833 out-of-plane heat flux 500
external radiation source 717 out-of-plane radiation 502
external terminal 722 periodic condition 609, 613
fluid 466 phase change material 516
heat and moisture 836 point heat source 702
heat flux 576 radiation in participating media 425
heat flux (heat transfer in thin shells in- radiation in participating media (rpm
terface) 677 interface) 508
heat source 476 solid 536
heat transfer in porous media 388 symmetry 634
heat transfer in thin shells 399 temperature (heat transfer in thin

INDEX| 865
 shells interface) 695 terface) 440
temperature (heat transfer interface) building material (node) 93
636 heat transfer interface 394–395, 454,
thermal contact 319, 641 837
thermal expansion 851 moisture transport interface 746, 837
thin layer 652 bulk velocity 325
thin moisture barrier 775
C change thickness (node) 93
translational motion 546
characteristic length 325
wet surface 777
Charron’s relation 318, 640
arterial blood temperature 54, 450
coefficient of thermal expansion 56, 167,
average gas particle diameter 47
326, 526
average particle diameter 47, 192
common settings 31
axisymmetric geometries 268, 418, 420,
concentration 46, 181, 468, 490
621
conduction, definition 170
azimuth 59, 268
conductive heat flux variable 70
azimuthal sectors 268
conductive heat flux vector 87
B beam orientation 47, 555, 584, 656 conductive thermal resistor (node) 706
bioheat (node) 93, 450 conjugate heat transfer (multiphysics in-
bioheat transfer interface 363, 396 terface) 784
theory 187 conjugate heat transfer (settings) 387
biological tissue (node) 93, 396, 451 consistent stabilization (settings) 372,
black walls 605 381, 383
blackbody radiation 582, 617 consistent stabilization method 97
blackbody radiation intensity 49, 271, constraints, Galerkin 512, 636
503, 837 continuity (moisture transport interface)
boundary conditions 761
heat equation, and 87 continuity (node) 553–554
heat transfer coefficients, and 323 heat transfer in shells 688
boundary flux variables (heat transfer in- continuity on interior boundary (node)
terface) 73 426, 430, 554
boundary heat source (node) 550, 552 convection, definition 170
boundary heat source variable 76 convection, natural and forced 324
boundary interface nodes 654 convective heat flux variable 74
boundary multiphysics nodes 779, 855 convective heat flux variable, cflux 71
boundary nodes 548, 761 convective thermal resistor (node) 710
Boussinesq approximation 298 convectively enhanced conductivity
Brinell hardness 49, 317 (node) 459
building material (moisture transport in- Cooper-Mikic-Yovanovich (CMY) corre-

866 | I N D E X
 lation 316, 639 dry solid density 208, 457
cross sectional area 46, 372, 382 dry solid specific heat capacity 208, 457
cross sectional perimeter 52, 372, 382 dry solid thermal conductivity 208, 457
cross-section (node) 93, 461
E edge nodes 675
crosswind diffusion
effective thermal conductivity 50, 194,
definition 97
199, 201, 208, 455, 494, 541
heat transfer, and 97
effective volumetric heat capacity 56,
crosswind diffusion, consistent stabiliza-
193, 198, 208, 536
tion method 97
electric currents interface 803
D Dalton’s law 181 electromagnetic heat source 52
damage integral analysis discretization electromagnetic heat source (multiphys-
(settings) 373 ics coupling) 827
Darcy number 47, 192 electromagnetic heating (multiphysics
density, blood 58, 451 coupling) 802, 826, 828–829, 833
dependent variables (settings) 374, 381 Electromagnetic heating, layered shell
deposited beam power (node) 95, 555 (multiphysics coupling) 855
diffuse gray radiation model 416 elevation 268
diffuse mirror (node) 557 emailing COMSOL 39
diffuse spectral radiation model 416 emission, radiation and 271
diffuse surface (node) 558 energy rates 349
diffuse-gray surfaces 256, 259 evaluating view factors 265
diffuse-spectral surface 262 external radiation source (node) 712
Dirac pulse 205 External temperature 95
direct area integration, axisymmetric ge- external temperature (node) 565
ometry and 268 external terminal (node) 722
discontinuous Galerkin constraints 512,
F Favre average 297
636
film thickness 230
discrete ordinates method (DOM) 276,
fluid
426, 430, 447, 505
htlsh interface 643
discretization (settings) 373, 381, 383,
node (porous medium) 467
396, 398–399, 403, 409, 436
fluid (node) 93, 462
dispersion tensor 47, 541
Fourier’s law 463, 469, 518, 535
dispersivities, porous media 57, 541
fracture (node) 566
documentation 36
frames, conversions between 351
domain flux variables 69
frames, moving 91
domain heat source variables 76
frequency factor 46, 189, 483, 538
domain multiphysics nodes 779, 833
G Galerkin constraints, heat transfer 512,
domain nodes 442, 746

INDEX| 867
 636 heat transfer in shells, edge condition
gap conductance 49, 317, 637 681
geothermal heating (node) 93, 472 heat source, interface (node)
global nodes 706 heat transfer in shells 654, 660
Grashof number 48, 325 heat sources
gravity 48, 325 defining as heat rate 474
gray walls 604 line and point 684
graybody radiation 261, 582, 617 local thermal non-equilibrium 390
gray-diffuse parallel plate model 318 thin layer 579
guidelines, solving surface-to-surface ra- heat transfer coefficients
diation problems 114 theory 324
heat transfer in building materials inter-
H harmonic perturbation (node)
face 363
heat transfer interface 571
heat transfer in films interface 364, 402
heat and moisture (multiphysics cou-
heat transfer in fluids (node) 386–387
pling) 810, 825, 834
heat transfer in fluids interface 363, 386,
heat and moisture flow (multiphysics in-
793, 797, 799, 810
terface) 817, 822
theory 177
heat and moisture transport (multiphys-
heat transfer in fractures interface 364,
ics interface) 393–395, 805–806, 808
407
heat balance 171
heat transfer in moist porous media in-
heat capacity at constant pressure 46,
terface 363, 393
167
theory 200
heat flux (node)
heat transfer in packed beds interface
fracture subnode 678
391
heat transfer in shells interface 675
heat transfer in porous media interface
heat transfer interface 572
363, 387–388
thin film subnode 678
theory 193
thin layer subnode 678
heat transfer in shells interface 364, 397
heat flux, interface (node)
heat transfer in shells interfaces 364
heat transfer in shells 657
heat transfer in solids (node) 387
heat flux, theory 346
heat transfer in solids and fluids interface
heat pipe (node) 723
387
heat rate 474, 573, 575, 616, 641
heat transfer in solids interface 363, 385,
heat rate (node) 726
791, 793, 796, 799, 803, 810
heat rate source (node) 729
theory 176
heat source (node) 93, 579
heat transfer interface 363, 394–395
heat transfer 473
heat transfer interfaces 363
heat transfer in shells interface 577

868 | I N D E X
Heat Transfer Module 66 transport interface) 439
heat transfer with radiation in absorbing hygroscopic porous medium (node) 837,
media (multiphysics interface) 798 845
heat transfer with radiation in absorb-
I immobile fluids (node) 93, 477
ing-scattering media (multiphysics
incident intensity (node) 426, 430–431,
coupling) 839
582
heat transfer with radiation in absorb-
inconsistent stabilization (settings) 373,
ing-scattering media (node) 839
381, 383
heat transfer with radiation in participat-
inconsistent stabilization methods 98
ing media (multiphysics coupling)
induction heating (multiphysics interface)
837
828
heat transfer with radiation in participat-
infinite elements (node) 93
ing media (node) 837
inflow (node) 586, 762
heat transfer with radiation in participat-
initial values
ing medium (multiphysics coupling)
node (htlsh interface) 587
794, 797
initial values (node) 385–386, 388–389,
heat transfer with radiation in participat-
391, 393–396, 398, 403, 408
ing medium (multiphysics interface)
heat transfer in shells interface 587
792, 795
heat transfer interface 479
heat transfer with radiative beam in ab-
moisture transport interface 752
sorbing media (multiphysics cou-
radiation in participating media inter-
pling) 799, 840
face 481
heat transfer with radiative beam in ab-
radiative beam in absorbing media in-
sorbing media (node) 840
terface 480
heat transfer with surface-to-surface ra-
surface-to-surface radiation interface
diation (multiphysics coupling) 791,
590
856
insulation (node) 764
heat transfer with surface-to-surface ra-
insulation/continuity (node) 398, 403, 408
diation (multiphysics interface) 789
internal boundary heat flux variables 74
heat transfer with surface-to-surface ra-
internal energy 47, 346
diation (node) 856
internet resources 36
heat transfer with surface-to-surface ra-
inward heat flux 87
diation interface 363
irreversible transformation (node) 93,
heat transfer, and streamline diffusion 97
483
Heaviside function 205
isothermal domain (node) 375, 486
hemicubes, axisymmetric geometry and
isothermal domain (settings) 372, 375–
268
376
hygroscopic porous medium (moisture
isothermal domain interface (node) 376,

INDEX| 869
 591 859
isotropic diffusion 98, 383 mean effective thermal conductivity 535
mean effective thermal diffusivity 536
J Joule heating (multiphysics interface) 826
mechanisms of heat transfer 170
K Karman constant 302
metabolic heat source 53, 451
Kays-Crawford models 301
microwave heating (multiphysics inter-
knowledge base, COMSOL 39
face) 829
L laminar flow interface 783, 811, 817 Mikic elastic correlation 317, 639
laser heating (multiphysics interface) 827 moist air 471, 646
latent heat of evaporation 51, 209, 455 moist air (moisture transport interface)
latitude 268, 714 438
layer opacity (node) 595 moist air (node) 93, 489, 837
layer thickness 47, 221–222, 226 moist porous medium (node) 393, 492,
Layered thermal expansion 859 837
Legendre coefficient 46, 281, 285, 449, moist surface (node) 764
507 moisture content 55, 180, 471, 491, 646
line and point heat source variables 77 moisture content (node) 766
line heat source (node) 596 moisture diffusivity 47, 292, 294, 747
heat transfer interface 684 moisture flow (multiphysics coupling)
line heat source on axis (node) 596 816, 825, 841
heat transfer 596 moisture flow (multiphysics interface)
line heat source variable 77 811, 815
local thermal non-equilibrium (multi- moisture flow interface
physics interface) 388 theory 303
local thermal non-equilibrium interface moisture flux (node) 768
389 moisture source (node)
theory 195 moisture transport interface 758
local thermal nonequilibrium interface moisture storage capacity 59, 294, 746
363 moisture storage function 55
longitude 268, 715 moisture transfer coefficient 56
lumped system connector (node) 598 moisture transport in air interface 369,
heat transfer in shells interface 686 438, 814, 816, 821
lumped thermal nonequilbrium bounda- moisture transport in building materials
ry (node) 597 interface 370, 439–440
lumped thermal system interface 412 moisture transport in porous media in-
lumped thermal system, interface (node) terface 370
heat transfer in shells 663 moisture transport interface 837
moisture transport interfaces 370
M Marangoni effect (multiphysics coupling)

870 | I N D E X
 moving frames 91 outflow (node) 608
moving mesh, heat transfer, and 206, 516 out-of-plane flux variables 72
MPH-files 38 out-of-plane heat flux (node) 499
multiphysics couplings out-of-plane heat transfer
electromagnetic heating (node) 833 theory 320
Electromagnetic heating, layered shell thin shells theory 225
(node) 855 out-of-plane inward heat flux variable 72
heat and moisture (node) 834 out-of-plane radiation (node) 501
Marangoni effect (node) 859 out-of-plane thickness 47, 221–222, 226,
moisture flow (node) 841 230, 380, 659
nonisothermal flow (node) 845
P P1 approximation 280, 426, 430, 447, 505
thermal expansion (node) 851
pair thermal contact (node) 637
thermoelectric effect (node) 851
participating media, radiative heat trans-
mutual irradiation 48, 260
fer 270
N natural and forced convection 324 Pellet-fluid interface, node 511
nodes, common settings 31 Peltier effect 308, 851, 861
nonisothermal flow (multiphysics cou- Pennes’ approximation 187, 451
pling) 100, 786, 825, 845 performance index 52, 426, 431
nonisothermal flow (multiphysics inter- perfusion rate, blood 59, 450
face) 783 periodic condition (moisture transport
nonisothermal flow interface interface) 773
theory 296 periodic condition (node) 609
normal conductive heat flux variable 73 rpm interface 610
normal convective heat flux variable 73 phase change interface (node) 611
normal total energy flux variable 73 phase change interface, exterior (node)
normal total enthalpy flux variable 73 614
nucleate boiling heat rate (node) 730 phase change material (node) 93, 512
Nusselt number 51, 197, 324, 460, 511, phase transitions 512
524 physical model (settings) 371, 380, 382,
386, 388, 390, 392–393
O opaque (node) 496
physics interfaces, common settings 31
opaque surface (node) 426, 430, 599, 602
point heat flux (node)
open boundary (moisture transport in-
thin rod subnode 700
terface) 770
point heat source (node)
open boundary (node) 607
heat transfer 701
optically thick participating medium
point heat source on axis (node) 702
(node) 497
point heat source variable 77
outflow (moisture transport interface)
point nodes 700
772

INDEX| 871
 points radiative transfer equation 271
heat flux 700 radiogenic heating per mass 53, 472
surface-to-ambient radiation 703 radiosity 50, 249, 251, 260, 264, 557–558,
temperature 705 599, 617, 628, 634, 713
porous matrix radiosity expressions 617
node (porous medium) 509, 516 radiosity method 253, 259
porous medium ratio of specific heats 56, 464, 469–470,
htlsh interface 566 514–515
porous medium (moisture transport in- Rayleigh number 53, 325
terface) 746 reflectivity 58, 249–250, 274
porous medium (node) 93, 388–389, 391, refractive index 51, 253, 255, 272, 274,
407 287, 426, 431, 498
Prandtl number 52, 197, 301, 325 relative humidity 58, 180, 209, 288, 291,
prescribed radiosity (node) 617 294, 455, 471, 491, 646, 746, 756
pressure work (node) 526 Reynolds number 53, 325, 847
extended Kays-Crawford 301
R radiation
Rodriguez formula 273
axisymmetric geometries, and 268,
418, 420, 621 S scattering, radiation and 271
participating media 270 sectors, azimuthal 268
radiation branch (settings) 415 Seebeck coefficient 54, 309, 854, 863
radiation group (node) 621 Seebeck effect 308
radiation in participating media (node) Semi-transparent surface 95
rpm interface 503 semi-transparent surface (node) 628
radiation in participating media interface sensible enthalpy 169
424 Settings for the Heat Transfer in Shells
theory 270 Interface 377
radiation intensity, blackbody 49, 271, shape memory alloy (node) 93, 529
503, 837 shell thickness 221–222, 226, 230
radiation, definition 170 solar position 268, 713
radiative conductance 49, 318, 639, 672 solid (node) 93, 385, 397, 533
radiative heat flux variable 74 htlsh interface 647
radiative heat source (node) 731 solver settings 107
radiative heat, theory 249 solving surface-to-surface radiation
Radiative Intensity Source 93 problems 114
radiative out-of-plane heat flux variable source terms, bioheat 450
72 specific heat capacity
radiative source (node) 527 biological tissue 453
radiative thermal resistor (node) 733 blood 46

872 | I N D E X
 damaged tissue 46, 486, 540 symmetry (moisture transport interface)
definition 167 774
fluid 46, 462 symmetry (node)
fracture 571 ht interface 634
phase change 514–515 rpm interface 635
porous media 200
T technical support, COMSOL 39
solids 530, 533
temperature (node)
thin rod 699
heat transfer in shells interface 694
specific heat, blood 450
heat transfer interface 635
specific surface area 54, 196, 525
thin rod subnode 705
spectral band 46, 254, 496, 557, 595, 599,
temperature, interface (node)
617, 628, 713
heat transfer in shells 668, 670, 673
stabilization techniques
temperature, LTS interface (node) 736
crosswind diffusion 97, 372, 381, 383,
theory
436
bioheat transfer interface 187
isotropic diffusion 373, 381, 383, 436
conjugate heat transfer multiphysics
streamline diffusion 372, 381, 383, 436
interface 296
standard settings 31
convective heat transfer correlations
stationary study 363
323
Subsurface Flow Module 473, 479
heat flux and balance 346
subsystem definition (node) 734
heat transfer coefficients 324
subsystem instance (node) 735
heat transfer in fluids interface 177
sun position 717
heat transfer in moist porous media in-
surface emissivity 56, 260, 501, 557, 582–
terface 200
583, 604, 619, 632, 640, 665, 672, 690,
heat transfer in porous media interface
703
193
surface reflectivity 58
heat transfer in solids interface 176
Surface-to-ambient radiation 95
isothermal domain feature 212
surface-to-ambient radiation (node) 632
local thermal non-equilibrium inter-
fracture subnode 689
face 195
thin film subnode 689
material and spatial frames 350
thin layer subnode 689
moist air fluid type 180
thin rod subnode 703
moisture flow interface 303
surface-to-ambient radiation, interface
nonisothermal flow 296
(node) 665
out-of-plane heat transfer 320
surface-to-surface radiation interface
radiation in participating media inter-
415
face 270
theory 249
radiative heat transfer in transparent

INDEX| 873
 media 249 out-of-plane 47, 544, 659, 662, 668, 677,
surface tension coefficients 345 683
surface-to-surface radiation interface shell 47
249 thin film 47
thermal contact 315 thin layer 47
thermoelectric effect interface 308 thickness (node)
thin rod feature 232 heat transfer interface 544
thermal capacitor (node) 736 thin conductive layers, definition 226
thermal conductivity 50, 170 thin film (node) 643
thermal conductivity components, thin thin layer (node) 647
shells 219 thin layer, general 217
thermal conductivity supplement 46, 208, thin moisture barrier (node) 774
457 thin rod (node) 698
thermal conductivity, frames and 353 Thomson effect 308
thermal conductivity, mean effective 535 time zone 268, 715
thermal contact (node) 637 time-dependent study 363
theory 315 total boundaries area 46
thermal damage (node) 537 total energy flux variable 71
thermal diffusivity 56, 326, 536 total enthalpy flux variable, thflux 71
thermal dispersion (node) 541 total heat flux variable 70
thermal expansion (multiphysics cou- total internal energy 47
pling) 851 total normal heat flux variable 73
thermal expansion coefficient 56, 167 total out-of-plane heat flux variable 72
thermal friction 318 translational motion (node) 545
thermal insulation 87 transparent media refractive index 51
thermal insulation (node) 385–386, 388– turbulence modeling constant 46, 307
389, 391, 393–396, 642, 696 turbulent conjugate heat transfer
thermal mass (node) 738 theory 297
thermoelastic damping (node) 543 turbulent flow, algebraic yPlus interface
thermoelectric effect (multiphysics cou- 784, 811, 817
pling) 802, 851 turbulent flow, k-e interface 784, 811, 818
thermoelectric effect (multiphysics inter- turbulent flow, k-omega interface 784,
face) 800 812, 818
thermoelectric effect interface turbulent flow, low Re k-e interface 784,
theory 308 812, 818
Thermoelectric effect, layered shell 861 turbulent flow, L-VEL interface 784, 811,
thermoelectric module (node) 739 818
thickness 371, 382 turbulent flow, Spalart-Allmaras inter-

874 | I N D E X
 face 784, 812, 818
turbulent flow, SST interface 784, 812,
818
turbulent heat flux variable 70
turbulent mixing (node)
moisture transport interface 760
turbulent nonisothermal flow interfaces
theory 297
turbulent Prandtl number 52, 301, 848
turbulent Schmidt number 844

V Vapor diffusion coefficient in air 47

vapor diffusion coefficient in air 288, 291,
756
vapor mass fraction 56, 471, 490, 646
vapor permeability 56, 209, 294, 455, 746
vapor permeability of still air 56
vapor resistance factor 57
vapor saturation concentration 47, 288,
291, 756
vapor saturation pressure 209, 294, 455,
746
Vickers correlation coefficient 316, 639
Vickers size index 316, 639
view factors 48, 265, 558, 712
viscous dissipation (node) 546
volume reference temperature 96
volumetric heat capacity 56, 536

W water content 208, 457

websites, COMSOL 39
wet surface (node) 776

Y Young’s modulus 47

Z zenith 57, 268

INDEX| 875
876 | I N D E X