Water and Environment Journal.

Print ISSN 1747-6585

Water harvesting from fog using building envelopes: part I

Luisa Caldas1, Annalisa Andaloro 1,2
, Giuseppe Calafiore3, Keiko Munechika3 & Stefano Cabrini4
1
Department of Architecture, College of Environmental Design, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA; 2European Research Academy (EURAC)
Institute for Renewable Energy, Bolzano, Italy; 3aBeam Technologies Inc, Berkeley, CA, USA; and 4The Molecular Foundry, Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA

Keywords Abstract
atmosphere; climate change; drinking water;
engineering design; housing/homes; integrated New sources of clean water are currently being researched and implemented, to
water management. face global water shortage. Techniques such as desalination or cloud seeding can
have a high yield but present problems such as excessive energy consumption or
Correspondence consistent environmental impacts. Fog harvesting stands out for being consider-
Luisa Caldas, Department of Architecture,
ably simpler and inexpensive compared to the previous. In the last decades
College of Environmental Design, University of
researchers have developed detailed studies and numerical models, supported by
California, Berkeley, CA 94720-1800, USA.
Email: [email protected] a number of successful examples located mainly in arid or seasonally arid climates.
This study surveys existing methods to collect water from fog, such as drop coales-
doi:10.1111/wej.12335 cence on vertically placed meshes, chemical absorption and desorption and radia-
tive condensers. Yields from different collectors are compared and some
considerations on influencing climatic factors are discussed, suggesting that radia-
tive systems may be applied on building envelopes as collection devices. A follow-
up paper will present experimental results on applying radiative collection systems
in buildings.

Introduction extraction of natural gas from underground cavities (Gleick

et al. 2014). The water used for agriculture, industrial and
Water shortage has become critical due to growth of world
domestic uses, comes mainly from rivers, which are renew-
population and issues like climate change, hydraulic fractur-
able water sources that can be easily recharged by actuation
ing, increased demand in agriculture and pollution of water of the natural hydrologic cycle of evaporation and precipita-
sources caused by rapid and uncontrolled industrial devel- tion. Nevertheless, global climate changes are menacing the
opment (Gleick et al. 2014). Several studies have demon- stability of such reservoirs, as precipitation cycles are less
strated that different regions of the world are already stable and predictable (Rockstro €m et al. 2014).
experiencing the first symptoms of water scarcity (Postel As an example, such precipitation anomalies tend to be
2000). correlated in the long range for different time lags com-
Water shortage has become a fundamental issue in the prised between 4 months and 28 years in the Sahel territory
last few decades. Water is a critical component for key (Efstathiou & Varotsos 2012). On the other hand, observed
human activities, from agriculture and farming to industrial changes in the magnitude and frequency of hydrological
processes and energy production. The constant increase in cycle variations naturally question the historic assumption
water consumption makes this problem a priority that gov- on hydroclimatic frequency analysis adding further uncer-
ernments are forced to face at the global scale (Postel 2000). tainty to water resource availability over the years (Milly
The scarcity of available water is further enhanced as a con- et al. 2008). Nonrenewable sources such as groundwater
sequence of the Water-Energy-Food Nexus, which repre- reservoirs are also increasingly being exploited due to grow-
sents the close interconnections among the production of ing needs of the global population. From the 1950s, with-
these critical resources for every human activity (Gleick et al. drawal amounts from both renewable and nonrenewable
2014). In fact, modern food production processes are based sources have constantly risen to meet increasing demands
on the assumption that the amount of accessible water and (Postel 2000). This increase is also related to a steady growth
energy is unlimited. Also, the energy production industry is in food production registered over the last 50 years, which
based on the unconstrained availability of water masses for in turn recalls for an analogous trend in water demand
the production of electricity and hydraulic fracturing for the (Krapivin et al. 2017). In this framework, investigating the

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Water harvesting from fog L. Caldas et al.

Fig. 1. Map with locations that have reported successful projects of production of fresh water from fog, in arid or seasonally arid regions (Klemm
et al. 2012).

potential for water recovery from alternative sources to rain, and drinkable water at low cost (Schemenauer 2010). The
rivers and groundwater is crucial to allow for more a sustain- interest in the field is enhanced by the number of such instal-
able and reasonable management of existing natural water lations present in various areas of the world, where fog col-
resources. In fact, hydrological cycle alteration are expected lectors represent the only source of water for locals during
to generate significant modification in water resources spa- several months of the year (Schemenauer et al. 2005).
tial distribution over the years, including but not limited to Successful fog harvesting projects developed in various
drinking water (Krapivin et al. 2017). The exploration of alter- locations worldwide, have proved that it is possible to
native sources of potable water has led to the development retrieve water from fog in geographic regions where pre-
of various innovative techniques, such as desalination cipitations are rare (Klemm et al. 2012). Many examples of
(Karagiannis & Soldatos 2008) or cloud seeding (Boucher fog harvesting collectors produced significant amounts of
2015). The former consists in the treatment of seawater to potable water, compared to the original availability in
remove soluble salts. The latter is a complex technique that the specific site and per capita average consumptions
forces an artificial alteration of the natural hydrologic cycle. (Schemenauer et al. 2005). Most of the existing devices are
This is carried out through the use of chemical substances located in arid and seasonally arid climates, such as Saudi
(i.e. dry ice or silver iodide aerosols), which are injected in Arabia (Gandhidasan & Abualhamayel 2005, 2012; Sharan
the air above the level of the clouds to trigger the precipita- et al. 2007; Suau 2010; Rivera 2011; Hiatt et al. 2012;
tion of rain. Both of these techniques are not universally Fessehaye et al. 2014), Chile (Gandhidasan & Abualhamayel
applicable. Desalination is a valid option only in coastal coun- 2005, 2012; Sharan et al. 2007; Suau 2010; Rivera 2011;
tries, and requires a considerable amount of energy for plant Hiatt et al. 2012; Fessehaye et al. 2014) and California
operation and significant initial investments (Karagiannis & deserts (Gandhidasan & Abualhamayel 2005, 2012; Sharan
Soldatos 2008). Cloud seeding is an expensive and contro- et al. 2007; Suau 2010; Rivera 2011; Hiatt et al. 2012;
versial technique, which raises concerns for human health Fessehaye et al. 2014), while very few of them have so far
related to the use of silver iodide (Quadros & Marr 2010). In demonstrated interesting collection capabilities in colder
addition, not all environmental and climate scientific climates, such as Corsica Island (Muselli et al. 2002) and
communities agree on the proven efficiency of this method. Sweden (Nilsson 1996). The locations of such projects are
Furthermore, both of these techniques have high environ- reported in Fig. 1.
mental impacts (Wahlgren 2001), so more environmentally This paper reviews a collection of fog harvesting systems
friendly systems are still being sought. that were tested on real scale projects in different locations
Among all the available water harvesting technologies, of the world. These include, but are not limited to, South
fog harvesting has grown in importance in the last years, as America, Middle East countries, South Africa and India.
a way to provide drinkable water to rural communities Countries located in the Northern hemisphere do not pres-
(Olivier & de Rautenbach 2002; Schemenauer et al. 2005; ent many examples of such projects, despite the fact that
Klemm et al. 2012). This water source is more sustainable water shortage has become a significant issue there too, in
compared to those mentioned above, and can produce safe the recent years.

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L. Caldas et al. Water harvesting from fog

Fig. 2. Currently used apparatus for fog capturing (a) design of a mesh collector system and piping (Gandhidasan & Abualhamayel 2007; Hiatt et al.
2012), (b) functioning scheme of a chemical fog collector (left: night collection, right: daytime release) (Abualhamayel & Gandhidasan 1997) and (c)
scheme of a flat fog condenser (Muselli et al. 2002).

We propose to bring the concept of water harvesting A review of systems currently used for
from fog into the urban environment, through the exploita- fog harvesting
tion of building envelopes as potential collecting surfaces. In
The three most diffused techniques to harvest water from
this paper, the feasibility of this concept is investigated
fog are (Fig. 2): (1) drop coalescence on vertically placed
through a literature review, to outline strengths and weak-
meshes (Olivier & de Rautenbach 2002; Schemenauer et al.
nesses of existing technologies, and to identify potential for
2005; Suau 2010; Holmes et al. 2015); (2) devices that
integration in building envelopes. Afterwards, the authors
include chemical absorption and desorption processes (Gad
propose a set of experimental results in a separate paper,
et al. 2001); (3) promoting condensation on cold surfaces
highlighting crucial aspects in designing an enhanced water
during the night (Muselli et al. 2002).
collecting yield surface. Although fog collection is an inter-
Mesh collectors can be divided into two main groups:
esting source of water that deserves investigation, authors
standard fog collectors (SFCs) and large fog collectors
want to stress that this study addresses only the technical
(LFCs), according to the surface area of the considered mesh
part of fog collection mechanisms, being aware of the com-
(Klemm et al. 2012). The typical size of SFCs is generally 1 3
plex health related issues that may arise from the use of 1 m, whereas LFCs can reach larger width in size and are usu-
atmosphere collected water (Ritchie et al. 2006; Lye 2009; ally rectangular, with longer horizontal dimensions, due to
Liu et al. 2012; Schoen et al. 2017) aerodynamics. Condensed drops are pulled by gravitational
Integrating fog harvesting systems in the urban environ- force towards plastic gutters that collect the water and
ment could support part of water needs in office, institu- direct it to a tank located on the ground (Fig. 2a). The tank
tional and commercial buildings, where end water uses are can also be located at a higher level for maintenance or
less significant than in the case of residential use (Mayer hygiene purposes (Gandhidasan & Abualhamayel 2007,
et al. 1999; Dziegielewski et al. 2000). This work proposes an 2012).
innovative development of the fog harvesting technologies The most widely used fog collecting mesh is polypropyl-
used in rural environments to be applied in cities and offer a ene Raschel mesh (Klemm et al. 2012). When Raschel mesh
sustainable alternative for the supply of water rather than was not available on the local market, other types of mesh
traditional sources, avoiding also the environmental risks have been successfully used, as shown in Fig. 3. In fact,
connected to the use of cloud seeding and desalination. In building such systems with locally available products has
addition to these advantages, water production would also been a key element for the sustainability of this technique
be local, allowing for consistent savings in the infrastructural in rural communities and developing countries (Olivier
system use. 2004).

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Water harvesting from fog L. Caldas et al.

Fig. 3. Different examples of mesh types for fog collection. From left to right: Raschel’s mesh (www.marienberg.cl); stainless and polymer mesh
(www.meshconcepts.co.za); three-dimensional net structure mesh made of polymers (www.itv-denkendorf.de) (Klemm et al. 2012). [Colour figure can
be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

Work is currently being performed on the possible optimi- most common additives applied to the foils to enhance emis-
zation of mesh yield through the application of lubricant sivity are titanium dioxide (TiO2) and barium sulfate (BaSO4).
coatings to the fibers, exploring the fact that hydrophobicity High emissivity values imply that those surfaces are able to
makes condensation phenomena more intense (Yu et al. cool down relatively quickly during the night. To enhance
2012; Lalia et al. 2013; Smith et al. 2013) or just by means of the system cooling and condensing capabilities, it is also
geometric optimization of the mesh fibers (Park et al. 2013). possible to build such systems according to predominant
However, these efforts are still undergoing laboratory devel- wind directions, to avoid that evaporative phenomena affect
opment and testing, and more work needs to be performed the condenser yield (Beysens et al. 2003). This kind of con-
to assess their full potential as products. denser can be easily built exploiting existing tilted roofs
Figure 2(b) shows a different type of system to harvest surfaces in rural areas, as suggested by Sharan et al. (2007).
water, called a chemical collector, which is based on We present a comparison of the main technical features
absorption and desorption mechanisms of a desiccant characterizing the existing fog harvesting systems, to help
placed in a specifically engineered structure (Gandhidasan & determining which features are most advantageous for fog
Abualhamayel 1996). The device has a rectangular cross- harvesting integration in building envelopes. Declared yields
section and is mainly made of a heat-insulating layer (bot- for a number of existing collectors are reported in Table 1.
tom) and a glass cover (top) that are separated by an air gap Data also includes geographic locations and relative humid-
of 45 cm. The device functioning is based on the combina- ity ranges measured during the monitoring period. Relative
tion of two phases: water is collected during night and solar Humidity (RH%) range values were retrieved from the pub-
radiation during daytime is used to distillate the absorbed lished references. When this data was not included in the
water (Abualhamayel & Gandhidasan 1997). A thin layer of publication, the reference year weather file was considered
desiccant is flown on the glass surface during night, which (data accessed from Energy PlusV C simulation software). This

forms an absorbent film to enhance fog capturing. Calcium is the case of collectors [5], [6] and [10].
chloride is generally used as an absorbent because of its low Mesh fog collectors, both SFC and LFC, perform better
toxicity, reduced cost, high thermal conductivity and robust- than the other systems. Radiative condenser [10] has an
ness to thermal degradation. The system is tilted so when extremely reduced yield. On the contrary, condenser [9]
water condenses on the glass cover it drips on one side and shows one among the highest water collection. However, as
can be collected. During the day, water is flown back inside all of the fog collectors included in this analysis were located
the system (Fig. 2b). As a result of the solar radiation and in different geographic areas and operated under different
temperature differential between glass and insulating mate- climatic conditions, it is not possible to rely on declared
rial, water in the air gap evaporates and condenses on the yields to infer what is the most efficient fog collection
inner face of the glass (Gad et al. 2001). system.
Another category of simple fog collectors are radiative The yield of a fog harvesting system is affected by several
condensers (Fig. 2c), which exploit high emissivity properties climatic factors, such as wind direction and speed, relative
of the surface material to foster quick cooling of the dew humidity and temperature (Fessehaye et al. 2014; Holmes
collecting surface during the night (Muselli et al. 2002). The et al. 2015). These are likely to affect all types of the pre-
collecting surface can be made of different foil materials, as sented collectors, but wind is particularly relevant in the
long as the materials used have high infrared emissivity. The case of SFC and LFC, as it affects the flow of humid air

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Table 1 Summary of collectors considered in the study, with indication of location, RH value ranges and yield per square metre
Yield
Collector type Collector name Location Coordinates RH ranges [%] [L/sqm/day]
Mesh 1 - LFC Abha, Asir 18.218 N, 42.508 E 90–100 Suau (2010) 4
Saudi Arabia
2 - SFC Abha, Asir 18.218 N, 42.508 E 90–100 C
aceres et al. (2007) 6
Saudi Arabia
3 - SFC Abha, Asir 18.218 N, 42.508 E 90–100 Beysens et al. (2003) 3.2
Saudi Arabia
4 - SFC Coloso 23.458 S, 70.288 W 80–100 Gad et al. (2001) 3.2
Chile
5 - SFC Big Sur, California 36.238 N, 121.758 W 80–90a 3
6 - LFC Lepelfontein, South Africa 31.058 S, 17.508 E 60–90a 4.6
Chemical 7 - Chemical Dharan 26.328 N, 50.138 E 90–100 Abualhamayel & 1.6
condenser absorption Saudi Arabia Gandhidasan (1997),
Muselli et al. (2008),
Olivier & de Rautenbach
(2004), Gandhidasan &
Abualhamayel (2005),
Caceres et al. (2007) and
Fessehaye et al. (2014)
8 - Chemical Egypt (not spec.) – 40–50 Batisha (2015) 1.5
absorption
Radiative 9 - Condenser Kothara Kutch, India 23.138 N, 68.938 E 90–100 Muselli et al. (2002) 6
condenser 10 - Condenser Corsica island, France 41.928 N, 8.738 E 60–90a 0.38
a
Weather data file.

through the mesh, which needs to be maximized to achieve excludes condensing foil replacement, which is generally
the declared collection yield (Rivera & Lopez-Garcia 2015). It necessary every 16 months.
can also have an influence in the case of radiative condens- Maintenance requirements and risk of premature failure
ers (Muselli et al. 2002). Radiation intensity is an additional are important issues to consider when designing fog collec-
parameter that affects daytime functioning of chemical con- tors. This especially applies to the possibility of integrating
densers (Gandhidasan & Abualhamayel 2007). such components in a façade, where circumscribed
malfunctioning can still globally affect the building. Mesh
collectors have shown maintenance-related issues in areas
Fog harvesting integration on building characterized by strong winds that can cause the mesh
envelope to break, calling for immediate and total replacement
(Abualhamayel & Gandhidasan 1997). However, some stud-
The integration of fog harvesting as an additional function of
ies have developed numerical models that can help design-
the building envelope is innovative, as existing systems
ing collectors that are more resistant to wind loads, which
are located in open air field in most of the analyzed cases
benefit from a more efficient use of the mesh mechanical
(Gandhidasan & Abualhamayel 2007). The cost of building
properties (Gad et al. 2001). Chemical condensers are very
such systems is an aspect that may have an influence over complex systems, where the failure of a single component
design choices. SFC and LFC are extremely affordable, is likely to affect the functioning of the whole device. No
around 150$in the case of SFC. This amount is related to the particular failure mechanisms have been reported but
cost of materials for an entire SFC setup (Gandhidasan & authors believe that the presence of desiccants and narrow
Abualhamayel 2007). This is not surprising taking into gutters for water collection could eventually suffer from
account the quantity and type of materials involved, and the clogging after a long operation time. Radiative condensers
simplicity of the supporting structure. Chemical condensers reported foil breakage because of high wind loads, similar
are more complex and involve the construction of a frame to to what happens in the case of meshes (Sharan et al. 2007).
include all the constituting elements. Unfortunately, no data However, the cost of foil replacement is higher than mesh
about the actual cost are provided by authors. Radiative con- cost.
densers have a declared unitary cost of 70 $/sqm (Caceres Despite the sparse nature of available data, the number of
et al. 2007). However, this value is quoted for a specific serv- successful projects on fog harvesting shows promise for the
ice lifetime span of 50 years for the supporting structure, but implementation of analogous systems in cities. In fact, the

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Water harvesting from fog L. Caldas et al.

exploitation of envelope surfaces, both in the case of exist- Batisha, A.F. (2015) Feasibility and Sustainability of Fog
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Springer, The Netherlands.
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Acknowledgement Water Harvesting Potential and Quality in the Asir Region,
The authors would like to thank authors of the fog collectors Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Pure Appl. Geophys., 169,
picture shown in the paper, for providing authorization in 1019–1036. doi:10.1007/s00024-011-0341-z.
Gleick, P.H., Chalecki, E.L. and Wong, A. (2014) The World’ s
reusing them for our review work.
Water. Island Press, Washington, DC.
Hiatt, C., Fernandez, D. and Potter, C. (2012) Measurements of
To submit a comment on this article please go to
Fog Water Deposition on the California Central Coast. Atmos.
http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/wej. For further information please
see the Author Guidelines at wileyonlinelibrary.com Clim. Sci., 02, 525–531. doi:10.4236/acs.2012.24047.
Holmes, R., Rivera, J.D.D. and de la Jara, E. (2015) Large Fog
Collectors: New Strategies for Collection Efficiency and
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