Riyadh Najed Schools

American Diploma Program

Chemistry Supplement Material

Name: Grade: 11 Section: Semester: 2

Unit 4: Bonding
When Bonds Break
Investigation 3: pgs. 66-107
 Introduction

A woman is found dead in her small apartment. The previous night had been cold and the gas
oven had been left open, presumably to heat the small room. The cause of death seems obvious –
accidental death due to carbon monoxide poisoning.

Carbon monoxide (CO) is a molecule made of one carbon atom (C) and
one oxygen atom (O).
It is produced during an incomplete combustion reaction. (Combustion is the burning of a
carbon-based fuel like coal or natural gas in the presence of oxygen. Incomplete combustion
occurs when there is not enough oxygen present.)
Carbon monoxide poisoning can occur when the gas, often released by car exhaust or a faulty
gas heater, becomes trapped in a small space reducing the available oxygen. Symptoms of carbon
monoxide poisoning include headache, dizziness, flushed skin, vomiting, chest pain, and
confusion. In the US each year, approximately 500 people die from accidental carbon monoxide
poisoning and 20,000 visit the emergency room with symptoms.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a molecule made of one carbon and two
oxygen atoms. (It differs from carbon monoxide by one oxygen
atom.) Carbon dioxide is produced during combustion, but it is
also made by your cells during cellular respiration. You breathe
carbon dioxide out every time you exhale, and it is a natural component of your respiratory
system. Suffocation by carbon dioxide gas is rare.

A sample of the woman’s blood has been sent to the lab for testing. Carbon dioxide should
naturally be found in the woman’s blood. High levels of carbon monoxide should not*. Hopefully
the results will return shortly to confirm the cause of death.

*
Blood carbon monoxide levels in adults should be less than 2.3% as very small amounts of CO are naturally present
in the air. Heavy smokers may have blood CO levels of 8 to 9%. Fatal blood CO levels are greater than 35%.

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 What’s in a Letter? Lab
The formulas for carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide differ by one letter – one oxygen atom.

Water and hydrogen peroxide also differ by one oxygen atom. Water is a molecule made of two
hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. Hydrogen peroxide is a molecule made of two hydrogen
atoms and two oxygen atoms.

So how much difference does one letter (one atom) make?

Materials: 6% hydrogen peroxide, water, potato, yeast, potassium iodide, liquid soap, 2 test
tubes, test tube rack, plastic tray, gloves

Caution: Hydrogen peroxide should be kept away from skin and eyes. Follow your teacher’s
directions for use and clean-up.

Procedure:
1. Wear gloves and goggles.
2. Add 10 mL of water to one test tube and 10 mL of hydrogen peroxide to the other. Set
both in the test tube rack.
3. Add a small chunk of potato to each test tube. Observe*. Record your observations.
(Note: Do not dispose of the potato down the sink.)
4. Clean out your test tubes and refill with 10 mL of water and 10 mL of hydrogen
peroxide.
5. Add a scoop of yeast to each test tube. Observe*. Record your observations.
6. Clean out your test tubes and refill with 10 mL of water and 10 mL of hydrogen
peroxide.
7. Place your test tube rack over the plastic tray provided. Add a squirt of soap and
potassium iodide (KI) to each test tub. Observe*. Record your observations.
8. Clean out your test tubes.

*You may wish to feel the side of the test tube for a change in temperature. Just avoid skin
contact with chemicals.

2
Data:
Observations
water (H2O) hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
When you add potato to a
test tube of….

When you add yeast to a

test tube of …

When you add soap and

potassium iodide (KI) to a
test tube of…

Questions:
1. Which was more reactive – water or hydrogen peroxide?

2. Based on this experiment with water and hydrogen peroxide, would you expect carbon
monoxide and carbon dioxide to react the same way when combined with other molecules?
Explain.

3
 Case File 1
Police Report
Reason for call: Description of Scene:

Neighbor could smell natural gas Strong smell of natural gas. (Gas was shut off before
and knocked on the apartment entry.) The oven door was open. Deceased was found
door. When there was no answer, face-down on the bed. The bed was still made. The
the neighbor called 911 and the deceased was wearing pajamas.
gas company.

Other Notes:

- Neighbor says the deceased lived alone.

- Thermostat was on and heater set to 20oC.
- Apartment is clean. No sign of forced entry or robbery. Door locks automatically, so no key
is needed to lock the door when leaving the apartment. Secondary chain lock was not set.

Description of deceased: Apartment Map:

Anabelle Smith (age 26)

Hair: brown
Eyes: brown
Height: 165 cm
Weight: 59 kg

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 Case Notes 1

1. Write down anything that you want to remember

from the Case File.

Answer the following questions:

2. Why were police called to the apartment?

3. Where was the deceased found?

4. What evidence of carbon monoxide poisoning was

found?

5. Is there anything suspicious about the crime scene?

6. What additional information would you like to have?

5
 Why Does Carbon Monoxide Kill?

Watch a CNN video about carbon monoxide poisoning at:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wKIrbq2pWvw

When you breathe in, oxygen passes from your lungs to your blood. The oxygen bonds to
hemoglobin molecules in the red blood cells. The red blood cells carry the oxygen to the rest of
the body’s cells.

1. How does oxygen move from the lungs to the body’s cells?

At the body cells, oxygen is dropped off and carbon dioxide is picked up. Carbon dioxide can
also bind to hemoglobin but does so at a different location on the molecule than the oxygen.

2. How does carbon dioxide move from the body’s cells to the lungs?

Carbon monoxide binds to the same location on the hemoglobin as oxygen. Hemoglobin,
however, has a much greater affinity for carbon monoxide than oxygen, so once carbon
monoxide binds to hemoglobin, the hemoglobin won’t let go. This makes it impossible for the
blood cell to collect oxygen. Without oxygen, body cells die.

3. How does carbon monoxide stop red blood cells from transporting oxygen?

Molecules like carbon monoxide, oxygen, and hemoglobin behave as they do in part because of
the atoms they are made of and in part because of how those atoms are bonded together. Let’s
build these three molecules.
14 15 16 17 18
4. Review: Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Complete the table.
Electron Electron Electron Electron Electron
config.? config.? config.? config.? config.?

Valence #? Valence #? Valence #? Valence #? Valence #?

Lewis dot? Lewis dot? Lewis dot? Lewis dot? Lewis dot?

6
5. Build 5 oxygen atoms.
a. Oxygen has 6 valence electrons.
b. Place 6 beads on a fuzzy stick.
c. Lightly twist the ends of the fuzzy stick to make a circle.

6. Build 2 carbon atoms. Carbon has ____ valence electrons.

7. Carbon and oxygen have high electronegativities, so they both have a tendency to gain
electrons. Both also have high first ionization energies, so they are unlikely to lose electrons.
Therefore, when carbon and oxygen are together or oxygen and oxygen are together, they bond
by sharing electrons

8. Show this with your fuzzy sticks. Bind together two

oxygen atoms by having them share four electrons. How
many electrons does each atom now have available?

Every 2 electrons shared is called a bond. This molecule has

two bonds or a double bond.

9. See if you can find a way to bond together carbon

and oxygen to form carbon monoxide (CO). After
sharing electrons, both atoms will have 8 electrons
available. Show your teacher. If correct, draw your
results in the box.

How many bonds are in this molecule?

10. Build carbon dioxide. This has one central carbon

and two oxygen atoms – one on each side. After
sharing electrons, both atoms will have 8 electrons
available. Show your teacher. If correct, draw your
results in the box.

How many bonds are in this molecule?

11. Compare molecular oxygen and carbon monoxide. What similarities do you see? What
differences do you see?

12. Why do you think carbon dioxide cannot bind to the same place in hemoglobin as oxygen
and carbon monoxide?

7
Case File 2

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9
10
11
 Case Notes 2

7. Write down anything that you want to remember

from the Case File.

Answer the following questions:

8. What, if anything, seems out-of-place in the
apartment?

9. Describe any evidence that supports the claim that

accidental carbon monoxide poisoning is the cause of
death.

10. Describe any evidence that supports the claim

that accidental carbon monoxide poisoning is not the
cause of death.

11. What evidence would you like more information

about? Why?

12
 Types of Bonds

How a molecule behaves depends not just on the types of atoms it contains but also how those
atoms are held or bonded together. The types of bonds they form is predicted by the
electronegativities and ionization energies of the atoms.

Electronegativity Values A greater

electronegativity
means that an atom is
more likely to gain
valence electrons than
an atom with a lower
electronegativity.

Do metals or
nonmetals generally
have greater
electronegativities?

A lower first
First Ionization Energy ionization energy
means that it will
take less energy for
an atom to lose a
valence electron
compared to an
atom with a higher
first ionization
energy.
Do metals or
nonmetals generally
have lower first
ionization energies?

Atoms bond together to become more energetically stable.

They are most stable when they have a complete valence electron shell.

13
COVALENT BONDS:
Find carbon and oxygen on the Electronegativity Value chart. Do they have high or low
electronegativity values?

Find carbon and oxygen on the First Ionization Energy graph. Do they have high or low first
ionization energies?

Based on these trends, both carbon and oxygen would be expected to (gain/ lose) valence
electrons. Neither are likely to (gain/ lose) valence electrons.

Because both have a tendency to gain valence electrons and neither is likely to lose valence
electrons, as a compromise, these two atoms build a complete valence shell by sharing electrons
between them. This is called a covalent bond. Covalent bonds generally occur between two
nonmetals.

IONIC BONDS:
Find sodium and chlorine on the Electronegativity Value chart. Do they have high or low
electronegativity values?

Find sodium and chlorine on the First Ionization Energy graph. Do they have high or low first
ionization energies?

Based on these trends, sodium would be predicted to (gain/ lose) valence electrons. Chlorine
would be predicted to (gain/ lose) valence electrons.

When together, chlorine steals an electron from sodium. This gives both atoms a full valence
electron shell. The addition and subtraction of electrons changes the atoms into ions.

Because positive and negative charges attract, the positive metal ion and negative nonmetal ion
are attracted to each other by their opposite charges. This is called an ionic bond. Ionic bonds
generally form between metals and nonmetals.

14
METALLIC BONDS:
Find nickel and copper on the Electronegativity Value chart. Do they have high or low
electronegativity values?

Find nickel and copper on the First Ionization Energy graph. Do they have high or low first
ionization energies?

Based on these trends, both nickel and copper would be expected to (gain/ lose) valence
electrons. Neither are likely to (gain/ lose) valence electrons.

Metals do not require much energy to lose electrons, but they do not have a tendency to collect
more electrons. In a metal, valence electrons are therefore free to move between any of the metal
atoms forming a “sea” of electrons.

A metallic bond forms from the attraction of positive metal ions and their negative sea of
electrons. Only two metals can form a metallic bond.

15
 When Bonds Break: Types of Bonds Notes

Type of Bond General Description Between…

Covalent

Ionic

Metallic

Bond type is not “all or nothing.” A metal and a nonmetal could form a bond that has properties
somewhere between an ionic and covalent bond. A metalloid and a nonmetal could be more ionic
or more covalent. But for simplicity, we’ll use the rules above.

16
 Types of Bonds Practice

Atom Metal or Atom Metal or Predicted Bond

Nonmetal? Nonmetal? Type
1. Sodium (Na) Fluorine (F)
2. Calcium (Ca) Chlorine (Cl)
3. Oxygen (O) Oxygen (O)
4. Nickel (Ni) Tin (Sn)
5. Oxygen (O) Carbon (C)
6. Iodine (I) Oxygen (O)
7. Hydrogen (H) Nitrogen (N)
8. Iron (Fe) Oxygen (O)

9. Two atoms have high electronegativities. They also have high first ionization energies. These
two atoms are likely to form a(n) ____________________ bond. In this type of bond…

10. One atom has a low electronegativity and low first ionization energy. The other atom has a
high electronegativity and high low first ionization energy. These two atoms are likely to form
a(n) ____________________ bond. In this type of bond…

11. Two atoms have low electronegativities and low first ionization energy. These two atoms are
likely to form a(n) ____________________ bond. In this type of bond…

12. What type of bond would you find in carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), and
molecular oxygen (O2)?

17
 Case File 3
Letters/ papers found in bedside table

18
19
 Case Notes 3

1. Write down anything that you want to remember from

the Case File.

Answer the following questions:

2. What conclusions can you draw from this evidence?

3. Write a story based on the evidence so far that

describes what you think happened.

20
 Drawing Lewis Dots for Covalent Bonds Notes
The molecules of respiration, diatomic oxygen and carbon dioxide, are covalently bonded
molecules. So is carbon monoxide. Let’s take a closer look at how they form their bonds.
Example I: Fluorine gas (F2)
1. Draw the Lewis dot structures for fluorine.
F
2. Find the number of bonds that can form.
a) Fluorine has ___ valence electrons. It needs ___ valence
electrons for a complete valence shell.
b) The total number of valence electrons present in both fluorine
atoms is _______________.
c) The total number of valence electrons needed so that both atoms
will have a full valance shell is _______________.

!"#$%& () *+,%-.% %,%./&(-0 1223234!"#$%& () *+,%-.% %,%./&(-0 567879:

Number of bonds =
;

d) Use the equation. The number of bonds needed is ___________.

4. Draw the correct number of bonds between the atoms. Each bond is
made of 2 electrons.
F F
5. Draw in additional electrons so that each atom in the molecule
has a full valence shell. F F
6. This can be changed to a structural formula by replacing the
dots for bonds with lines. F F

The number of valence electrons each atom needs for a full valence shell is
usually 8. Exceptions include hydrogen (2), beryllium (4), and boron (6).

21
Example II: Sulfur monoxide (SO)
1. Draw the Lewis dot structures for sulfur and oxygen.
S O

2. Find the number of bonds that can form

a) Sulfur has ___ valence electrons. For a full valence shell, sulfur
needs a total of ___ valence electrons.
b) Oxygen has __ valence electrons. For a full valence shell,
oxygen needs a total of ___ valence electrons.
c) The total number of valence electrons present in both atoms is
_______________.
d) The total number of valence electrons needed for a full valence
shell for both atoms is _______________.
e) The number of bonds needed is ________________.

!"#$%& () *+,%-.% %,%./&(-0 -%%<%<4!"#$%& () *+,%-.% %,%./&(-0 =&%0%-/

Number of bonds =
;

3. Draw the correct number of bonds between the atoms. Each bond is made
of 2 electrons. S O
5. Draw in additional electrons so that each atom in the molecule has a
full valence shell. S O
6. This can be changed to a structural formula by replacing the dots
for bonds with lines. S O

22
Example III: Water (H2O)
1. Draw the Lewis dot structures for the atoms.
H O H

2. Find the number of bonds that can form

a) Hydrogen has ___ valence electron. For a full valence shell,
hydrogen needs 2 valence electrons.
b) Oxygen has __ valence electrons. For a full valence shell,
oxygen needs ___valence electrons.
c) The total number of valence electrons present in all three atoms
is _______________.
c) The total number of valence electrons needed for a full valence
shell for all three atoms is _______________.
d) The number of bonds needed is ______________.

3. Draw the correct number of bonds between the atoms. Each bond is made
of 2 electrons. The central atom will be the element with the H O H
lowest electronegativity.

4. Draw in additional electrons so that each atom in the molecule has a

full valence shell. H O H
5. This can be changed to a structural formula by replacing the dots
for bonds with lines. H O H

Try these with a partner. Draw the structural formula of each.

1. Boron trifluoride (BF3) 2. Methane (CH4)
(Boron has a full valence shell with 6 electrons.)

23
 Practice

Try each of these on your own.

1. CF4 2. Cl2

3. O2 4. N2

You have received blood test results from the lab. This shows:
Blood CO: 2.8%
Blood pH: 7.2
The test also shows negative results for alcohol, benzodiazepine, cannabis, opiates, cocaine, MDMA,
and methamphetamine.
Not sure what this means? Do some research.

24
 Naming Covalent Molecules Notes
The formula, CO, can be used interchangeably for the name carbon monoxide. The formula,
CO2, can be used instead of writing out carbon dioxide. How do you name other inorganic
covalent compounds?
Inorganic covalent compounds use prefixes to describe the
Covalent Bonds
number of atoms present in the molecule.
Prefixes
1 – Mono
2 – Di
3 – Tri
4 – Tetra
5 – Penta
6 – Hexa
7 – Hepta
8 – Octa

Example 1: N2O3
Common nonmetal -ides
Carbon - Carbide
Nitrogen - Nitride
Oxygen - Oxide
Sulfur - Sulfide
Example 2: PN Phosphorus- Phosphide
Iodine - Iodide
Fluorine - Fluoride
Chlorine - Chloride
Bromine – Bromide
Hydrogen- Hydride

Try these:
Write the name. Write the formula.
1. NO 5. carbon disulfide

2. SF6 6. carbon tetrachloride

3. I2O4 7. phosphorus pentabromide
4. SO3 8. silicon tetrachloride

25
When Bonds Break: Case File 4
Photos saved to memory card

26
 Case Notes 4

1. Write down anything that you want to remember

from the Case File.

Answer the following questions:

2. Look back at Case Notes 3. Does this evidence
support or contradict your theory? Explain how the
evidence supports your theory or re-write your theory
based on the current evidence.

27
 Covalent Bonds Practice WS
I. Name or write the formula for each of the following:

1. IBr ___________________________ 5. N2S3 ____________________________

2. PCl3 ___________________________ 6. SeF6 ____________________________

3. phosphorus triiodide ______________ 7. sulfur hexachloride ________________

4. diphosphorus pentoxide ___________ 8. antimony tribromide _______________

II. Write the Lewis Dot structures for each molecule.

9. carbon tetrafluoride 10. silicon dioxide

11. nitrogen trihydride 12. boron trichloride

(Hydrogen has a full valence shell with 2 (Boron has a full valence shell with 6 electrons.)
electrons.)

28
 Polar Covalent Bonds Notes

The autopsy results showed that the carbon monoxide level in Ms. Smith’s blood was < 2.8%.
Carbon monoxide was not the cause of death.

The glass of liquid on the night stand has attracted your attention. You assume the liquid is water
as it is clear, has no smell, and does not seem to evaporate quickly. However, there could be
something dissolved in the water. Some covalent molecules dissolve in water. Others, do not.
The difference is in a molecule’s polarity.

If two atoms have the same electronegativity, they

form a covalent bond where they share their electrons
equally.

This is a nonpolar covalent bond.

If two atoms in a covalent bond do not have the same

electronegativity, one has a greater interest in gaining
electrons than the other.

The electrons will be shared unequally.

Because of unequal sharing, the less electronegative

atom will have a partial positive charge. The more
electronegative atom will have a partial negative
charge. (! means “partial”.)

When one side of the molecule has a partial positive

charge and the other side has a partial negative charge,
this is a polar covalent bond.

29
Go to: https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/molecule-polarity/latest/molecule-polarity_en.html
(PhET Molecule Polarity)

Part I: Select “Two Atoms.”

- Mark the boxes for “Partial Charges” and “Electron Density”.
- Compare the electron density as you change the relative electronegativity between the atoms.
How does the electron density relate to the partial charge?

Atom A Atom B Electron Density Partial Charges Polar or Nonpolar?

Less Less Same around both None
atoms
Less More

More Less

More More

1. Summarize: When two atoms have very different electronegativity values, the atom with a
higher electronegativity will have a partial ___________________ charge because…

2. Change Atom A to “Less” and Atom B to “More”. Turn “on” the Electric Field. Rotate the
molecule. How does the molecule line up within the electric field?

3. Change both atoms to “More.” Rotate the molecule. Is the molecule affected by the electric
field? Why or why not?

Part II: Select “Three Atoms”

- Check the boxes for “Molecular Dipole” and “Partial Charges.”
- Move the A atom so that it is in a line with the B and C atoms.
This is now a linear molecule.

- If there is a molecular dipole, the molecule is polar. Remember, a polar molecule has
different partial charges on opposite sides of the molecule.

30
 Atom Atom Atom Label Partial Charges Label Molecular Dipole Polar or
A B C Nonpolar?
Less Less Less

Less More Less

More Less More

More More Less

Notice that the atoms in the molecule can have partial charges, and not be polar. If the atoms are
symmetrical around a central point, these molecules are non-polar.

Practice: Are these molecules polar or nonpolar? Why?

1. 2.

Determine whether these linear molecules have polar covalent or nonpolar covalent bonds by
calculating the difference in electronegativity between atoms.

Electronegativity
difference is < 0.5
and both atoms are
nonmetals
- Nonpolar covalent
- No partial charges

Electronegativity
difference is 0.5 to 2
and both atoms are
nonmetals
- Polar covalent
- Partial charges

3. Carbon disulfide 4. Carbon monoxide 5. Sulfur monoxide

31
Part III:
- Move the A atom so that the molecule forms a “V” shape.
Atom A Atom B Atom C Label Partial Label Molecular Polar or
Charges Dipole Nonpolar?

Less More Less

More Less More

More Less Less

1. How does the shape of the molecule affect its polarity?

2. This V-shape is like the shape of a water molecule.

- Determine the electronegativities of oxygen and hydrogen.
- Is the molecule polar or nonpolar?

32
3. Use the molecular shape and electronegativity values for the atoms to determine whether each
molecule would be polar or nonpolar.

Formula Shape Draw Structure* and Label Label as Polar or

with Electronegativity Values Nonpolar. Explain.
NH3

CO2

CH4

SO2

* A dotted line can be used to show that an atom is forward or backward of the rest of the
molecule in 3-D space.

33
 Intermolecular Forces

One side of a water molecule (the oxygen side) has a partial negative charge. One side of a water
molecule (the hydrogen side) has a partial positive charge. Water is a polar molecule.

Polar molecules are attracted to each other because of their dipole-dipole attraction.

Because one side of the molecule is positive and one side is negative, and because
positive and negative charges attract, two polar molecules will attract each other.

Water bonds with other water molecules because of a specific kind of dipole-dipole
attraction called a hydrogen bond.

Part I:
1. Add a starch packing peanut and a polystyrene packing peanut to a glass of water. What
happens?

2. You teacher will add a starch packing peanut and a polystyrene packing peanut to acetone in
the fume hood. What happens?

3. Make a claim. Why do you think the starch and polystyrene acted differently in the different
liquids?

Part II: Comparing two polar molecules.

Water Isopropyl Alcohol

1. Describe the differences between the two molecules.

34
 Water Isopropyl Alcohol
2. Place one drop of each substance on a penny. Draw and describe what you see.

3. See how many drops of each substance can “fit” on the penny before it spills over the side.
Describe your results.

4. Place one drop of each substance on the back of your hand. After a few seconds, which area
feels colder? This means this substance is evaporating faster.

5. Use the permanent marker to draw pictures on two small strips of paper. (The marker ink is
nonpolar.) Drop the paper in the beakers of isopropyl alcohol and water. What happens to the
ink?

6. Which of the two molecules formed stronger dipole-dipole bonds with others of the same
type? What evidence from your experiments backs your claim?

7. Consider the two molecules. Why is it harder to form a hydrogen bond between two isopropyl
alcohol molecules than two water molecules?

8. Think back to the packing peanuts. What does this experiment tell us about the polarity of
acetone, polystyrene, and starch?

35
While dipole-dipole bonds (including hydrogen bonds) hold together polar covalent molecules,
nonpolar covalent molecules must also have forces to hold them together in liquid or solid form.

These are held together by London dispersion forces.

We know that electrons are constantly moving in
the electron cloud of an atom.

Sometimes the electrons happen to become

unevenly distributed. When this happens, the side of
the atom with more electrons gets a temporary
negative charge and the other side a positive charge.

If two atoms are very close together, the partial

charges on one atom can cause partial charges on
the nearby atom by attracting (or repelling) its
electrons.

For this brief moment, the two atoms are bound

together by London dispersion forces.

Then the electrons move again creating new,

temporary partial charges.

The larger the molecule, the more possible interactions between the atoms of neighboring
molecules. Even though dispersion forces are weaker than dipole-dipole bonds, very large
nonpolar molecules can stick together at multiple places requiring a lot of energy to separate.

Complete the Venn diagram comparing dipole-dipole and dispersion forces. (At least 2 answers
per box.)

36
 Like Dissolves Like Practice

Answer these questions using what you know about polar and nonpolar molecules.
1. Some mechanics wash off grease using gasoline instead of water. Why do you think gasoline
works better? (Don’t do this. It is dangerous.)

2. Soft drinks contain carbon dioxide to create the “fizz.” The carbon dioxide will
eventually leave the water? Why doesn’t it stay dissolved?

3. Would you expect water or methane to evaporate faster? Why?

The Shape of Molecules (VSEPR)

Even though the distributions of partial positive and negative charges are the same, the second
molecule is polar while the first is nonpolar. The shape makes a big difference. How do we
know what 3-D shape a molecule will take?

37
 Case File 5

The following are molecules with covalent bonds that are also common poisons. Which could be
hidden in the cup of water on the bedside table?

Methanol: Methanol, or wood alcohol, looks exactly the same as ethanol, or grain alcohol, used in
alcoholic beverages. It is clear with a strong alcoholic smell. A lethal dose of pure methanol (0.4-0.8
mL per kg of body weight) causes death by slowing down the central nervous system. A toxic dose can
result in blindness and other neurological impairments as the methanol is broken down by the liver into
formaldehyde and formic acid. Symptoms of intoxication appear between 40 minutes to 72 hours after
ingestion. Methanol is commonly found in anti-freeze and fuel.
Formula Lewis Dot 3-D Shape Polar or nonpolar? Explain
your thinking.
H3C-OH

Dimethyl mercury: Dimethyl mercury is a strong neurotoxin, as little as 0.1 mL can cause
symptoms of mercury poisoning. The clear liquid is described as having a slightly sweet smell.
Poisoning symptoms such as poor balance and vision problems may not occur for several months after
exposure. In 1997, a professor spilled a small amount of dimethyl mercury on her gloved hand.
Poisoning symptoms occurred 4 months after exposure and her death 8 months after exposure.

Formula Lewis Dot 3-D Shape Polar or nonpolar? Explain

your thinking.
C2H6Hg

Diarsenic trioxide: Diarsenic trioxide is a tasteless white solid that smells slightly of garlic. Within 30
minutes of a toxic dose (1-4 mg per kg of body weight), the victim may experience extreme stomach
pain and nausea as the arsenic irritates the stomach causing internal bleeding. Death can occur in a few
hours or after several days. Chronic arsenic poisoning from repeated small doses of arsenic causes fatigue
and anemia. Several weeks after the initial symptoms, white lines (Mees’ lines) may be visible on the
fingernails and victims may feel painful sensations on their fingers and toes. Chronic exposure also may
cause reddening of the skin.
Diarsenic trioxide can be found in nature and is generally used to manufacture other arsenic-containing
compounds for insecticides and herbicides.
Formula 3-D Shape Polar or Nonpolar?
As2O3 The bonds between As and O have both Explain your thinking.
ionic and covalent properties. As a solid,
it has 3 possible forms one of which is
this cube-like structure.

Which, if any, of these poisons would you want to test for in the deceased? Explain your
reasoning.

38
 Types of Bonds and Physical Properties

Bond type affects the physical and chemical properties of substance.

Ionic Lattice Covalent Network Covalent Molecular

table salt (NaCl) diamonds (C), graphite (C), sugar (C6H12O6), water (H2O),
silica (SiO2) lauric acid (C12H24O2)
Ions of metals and non-metals Covalent bonds connect all of Covalent bonds connect
are joined by strong attractive the atoms throughout the atoms in a molecule.
forces. (Positive ions are structure. Molecules are connected
attracted to negative ions.) together by dipole-dipole or
The strong covalent bonds dispersion forces.
These strong attractive forces give covalent network
give ionic substances high structures high melting The weak bonds between
melting points. points. molecules give covalent
molecular substances
The regular arrangement of The regular arrangement of relatively low melting points.
ions gives them a crystal atoms gives them a crystal
shape. shape. Polar covalent molecules will
dissolve in water. Nonpolar
Many ionic compounds will A covalent network solid will covalent will not.
dissolve in water. In water, not dissolve in water.
the ionic substance breaks
into ions.

Answer the questions with possible bond types:

1. The atoms in the molecules are joined by covalent bonds, but the molecules are connected by
dipole-dipole or dispersion forces.

2. The substance has a low melting point.

3. A solid will dissolve in water.

4. The whole substance is connected by covalent bonds.

39
 Physical Properties and Bond Type Lab

Conduct the following experiments to explore some of the differences in physical properties of
compounds with different intraparticle bonds. You can then experiment with some of the
substances found at the crime scene.

I. Knowns
1. On your data table, describe the appearance of the four known substances.

2. Use aluminum foil to make 4 small spoons.

3. Light the candle. Place a small amount of sodium chloride in one

spoon. Place a hot mitt over your hand and hold the spoon over the
flame. Let the sample heat for around 30 seconds. Repeat with the
other substances. (If the solid melts, record “low melting point”. If it
does not, record “high melting point”.)

4. Add a very small amount of each substance to a well in the well

plate. Drop 10 drops of water in each well. Observe whether the substance is soluble (dissolves)
in water.

5. Use the conductivity tester to test whether the substances that dissolved in water can conduct
electricity. Wash the conductivity tester between samples.

Known 1 2 3 4
Substances Sodium chloride Graphite Sucrose Lauric Acid
(NaCl) (C) (C12H22O11) (C12H24O2)
Type of Bond Ionic Covalent Covalent Covalent
Network Molecular Molecular
(Polar) (Nonpolar)
Description

Melting Point
(low/ high)
Dissolves in
water?
(yes/ no)
Conducts
electricity in
water?
(yes/ no)

40
II. Unknowns
Repeat the procedures with the two unknown substances.

Unknown A B
Substances Solid from sugar Solid waxy substance
bowl on table on bedside table

Description

Melting point
(low/ high)
Dissolves in
water?
(yes/ no)
Conducts
electricity in
water?
(yes/ no)

1. What conclusions can you draw from your tests?

41
 Drawing Lewis Dots for Ionic Bonds

Part I: Review Covalent Molecules

Use your notes to complete the following.
Formula Lewis Dot Electron Lone Predict and Molecular Polar/
and regions pairs draw the 3-D geometry Nonpolar
Name around around shape. name
central central
atom atom

O3
Ozone

Phosphorus
tribromide

Part II: Ionic Compounds

A metal and a nonmetal atom form an ionic bond. The nonmetal is so much more
electronegative than the metal that it removes an electron from the metal forming a positive and
negative ion. The positive and negative ions attract each other forming an ionic bond.

42
Part II: Ionic Lewis Dots
Like with covalent bonds, Lewis dot structures can be used to show how these atoms bond

Example 1: Lithium and chlorine

1. Draw the Lewis dot structures for each atom.

2. Move electrons from the metal to the nonmetal to fill the outer
shell of electrons.
3. Record the ions. (Positive and negative charges attract.)

4. Write the formula.

Example 2: Sodium and nitrogen

1. Draw the Lewis dot structures for each atom.

2. Move electrons from the metal to the nonmetal to fill the outer
shell of electrons.

3. Record the ions.

4. Write the formula.

Try this 1: Magnesium and oxygen Try this 2: Potassium and sulfur
1. Draw the Lewis dot 1. Draw the Lewis dot
structures for each atom. structures for each atom.

2. Move electrons from 2. Move electrons from

the metal to the nonmetal the metal to the
to fill the outer shell of nonmetal to fill the outer
electrons. shell of electrons.

3. Record the ions. 3. Record the ions.

4. Write the formula. 4. Write the formula.

43
Part III. Naming Ionic Compounds
Naming ionic compounds is easier than covalent compounds. You do not need prefixes to
describe the number of ions.

Common nonmetal -ides

Carbon - Carbide
Nitrogen - Nitride
Oxygen - Oxide
Sulfur - Sulfide
Phosphorus- Phosphide
Iodine - Iodide
Fluorine - Fluoride
Chlorine - Chloride
Bromine - Bromide

Practice naming these compounds.

1. K2S 2. Cs2O

3. Na3P 4. AuCl3

Use the Lewis dot structures to figure out the formula. Then name the compound.
5. Potassium and nitrogen 7. Cesium and chlorine

6. Magnesium and nitrogen 8. Strontium and sulfur

44
Case File 6: Autopsy and Interviews

45
 Interviews
Statement:
I didn’t see Annie very often. Sometimes I would bump into
her on my way to. So, we weren’t close friends. She didn’t
confide in me.
A man came by two weeks ago or so. He knocked loudly,
but she wouldn’t answer. I know she was home. He was middle
aged. Had brown hair. I only saw him once.
Last weekend I heard loud noises from her apartment. Some
sort of argument. I thought I heard something break. I ignored Name: Aziza Gamal
it. People deserve their privacy.
I called the police Monday morning. I was leaving for work Age: 42
and could smell gas coming from the apartment. I knocked and
knocked in case Annie was asleep inside, but nobody answered Relationship: Lives next
and the door was locked. door to the deceased

Statement:
I believe Ms. Smith had been working for Ehrlinger Lights
for about 8 months. She sat in the main office to let in
deliveries. Mr. Ehrlinger doesn’t like anyone snooping around
the warehouse.
Robert took over the business when his father died a year
ago. I will say, I did not think we would make it. We were
barely hanging on by a thread before Robert took over. Most
people get their lighting from Home Depot or Ikea, not a shop
like ours. And, for the first time in years, we are making a good Name: Jessica Goldsmith
profit. I keep the books and people will pay ridiculous amounts
for a basic lamp. I even got a raise. First raise in 10 years. Age: 52
Victoria, Mrs. Ehrlinger, is very protective of Robert. She is
Relationship: Office
so proud of how he has turned this place around. She also likes
manager at Ehrlinger Lights
to spend the money. You’ll hear her bragging. You should see
and Lamps
that woman’s jewelry.
Thinking back, a few weeks ago, Ms. Smith started to look ill. She called in sick on several
occasions. Once I had to ask her to go home; she looked so ill. She started wearing a ballcap to
work that was hardly professional.
I was very sad to hear of her death. We weren’t close, but it is still sad. Ms. Smith was a
connoisseur of tea, as am I. We would stop for a tea break each morning. She liked hers very
sweet. I prefer just a splash of milk.

46
Statement:
I hired Ms. Smith to let in deliveries. Mrs. Goldsmith and I
are often with customers or otherwise busy. Deliveries can
come at random times. The lighting business is unpredictable.
I’ve been married to my wife, Victoria, for 10 years. She is
not involved in the day-to-day operations of the company. After
work, I generally go to the park for a jog and then head home
for dinner. Some nights I have to work late. So, on average, I’d
say I get home around 7 pm on most work days. It is easier to Name: Robert Ehrlinger
get work done when the office is empty.
I can get Ms. Smith’s address from our records, but I’m sure Age: 37
you already have that. That’s where she was found, right? I
have, of course, never been to her home. She is – was – an Relationship: Employer at
employee, not a friend. Ehrlinger Lights and Lamps

I need to get back to work. If you have additional questions, please e-mail them to me and
I’ll get back to you when I have time. I really don’t understand why you are spending so much
time on an accidental death. That’s what the newspaper reported – “accidental death due to
carbon monoxide poisoning.” Reminds me to buy a carbon monoxide detector for our home.
Or several. Our house is rather large.

Statement:
I don’t really know why you are interviewing me. I don’t
have much to do company operations or employees. But I’m so
proud of how Robert has turned this company around. So many
international clients recently. It’s amazing.
Mrs. Goldsmith has been with the company forever. She
tells me everything that goes on at the office. I’m sure she
would have mentioned Ms. Smith if she had been important.
Sometimes Mrs. Goldsmith and I meet for a cup of tea, and she
tells me the company gossip. Like two years ago, when the Name: Victoria Ehrlinger
company foreman was caught growing rare exotic orchids in
the back room using company lighting. Age: 37
Robert has been very stressed recently. I hate to see him like
that. He said not to worry about it, though. So I won’t. Relationship: Spouse of
Robert Ehrlinger
My earring? Oh, I love earrings, really big earrings. For my last birthday, Robert got me a
pair with rubies on white gold. So sweet! But I’m allergic to nickel, which was in the white
gold, and it made my skin red. I told him I’ll buy my own from now on.

47
 When Bonds Break: Case Notes 6

3. Write down anything that you want to remember from

the Case File.

Answer the following questions:

2. Does the autopsy support your current theory of the
crime? Explain.

3. Does any information from the interviews connect to

the crime? If so, what?

48
 Writing Ionic Formulas with Oxidation Numbers

1 2 13 14
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Atoms are in their most stable state if
Electron Electron Electron Electron they have a full valence shell of
config.? config.? config.? config.? electrons.
1s22s22p2 Metals generally have low ionization
energies and low electronegativities.
Valence #? Valence #? Valence #? Valence #?
4 This means they can more easily
___________ electrons than
Lewis dot? Lewis dot? Lewis dot? Lewis dot?
____________ electrons.
How many electrons will each metal
(and carbon) need to lose to have a full
Ion charge? Ion charge? Ion charge? Ion charge? valence shell of electrons? This is its
4+ ion charge or oxidation number.

14 15 16 17 18
Nonmetals generally have high Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
ionization energies and high Electron Electron Electron Electron Electron
electronegativities. config.? config.? config.? config.? config.?

This means they can more 1s22s22p2

easily __________ electrons Valence #? Valence #? Valence #? Valence #? Valence #?
than ___________ electrons. 4
How many electrons will each Lewis dot? Lewis dot? Lewis dot? Lewis dot? Lewis dot?
metal gain to have a full
valence shell?
For the main group elements,
all of the elements in a group Ion charge? Ion charge? Ion charge? Ion charge? Ion charge?
will have the same oxidation 4-
number.

1. What do you notice about the ion charges of carbon?

2. Why don’t the elements in Group 18 (Noble Gases) form ions?

49
Remember that, for the main group elements, all of the metals or non-metals in the group have
the same number of valence electrons. Atoms gain or lose valence electrons to have a complete
valence shell, which is energetically more favorable. The oxidation number is the charge of the
ion left when the atom gains or loses electrons.

3. Consider Lithium oxide:

Oxidation number of lithium: 1+
Oxidation number of oxygen: 2-

You would need 2 lithium atoms (1+ x 2) to cancel out the 2- charge from oxygen. So, the
formula is ____________.

4. Magnesium oxide:

Oxidation number of magnesium:

Oxidation number of oxygen: 2-

You would need ___ magnesium atom to cancel out the 2- charge from oxygen. So, the formula
is ____________.

50
The oxidation numbers provide a shortcut.

Lithium Magnesium Rubidium Barium

oxide oxide nitride sulfide
-
1. Write the
oxidation
numbers as
superscripts.
2. Erase the +/-
charges.
3. Swap the
numbers to the
other atom.
Change from
superscripts to
subscripts.
4. Reduce, if .
possible, and
drop any 1s.

Many transition metals can have more than one oxidation number. For clarity, these will be
written as Roman numerals in the compound’s name. For example, mercury (I) has and oxidation
number of 1+. Mercury (II) has an oxidation number of 2+.

Titanium Titanium Cadmium Zirconium Zirconium

(III) (IV) (II) (III) (IV)
oxide oxide fluoride chloride chloride
-
1. Write the
oxidation
numbers.
2. Erase the
+/-charges.
3. Swap the
numbers.
4. Reduce .

51
 Oxidation Numbers Matter
Ionic bonds between two different elements generally form between a metal and nonmetal.

Many transition metals have more than one oxidation number. Roman numerals are used in these
compounds’ names to identify the oxidation number. In copper (I) chloride, the copper has an
oxidation number of 1+. In copper (II) chloride, copper has an oxidation number of 2+.

Part I: Observe the samples of copper (I) chloride and copper (II) chloride.
a) Describe the samples below.

b) Write the formula for each compound:

copper (I) chloride __________________ copper (II) chloride ___________________

Part II: Do oxidation numbers matter?

Gaviscon is an over-the-counter medicine used to reduce heartburn symptoms. It contains a
thickening agent, the polymer sodium alginate, that is produced by seaweed. It reacts differently
in different salt solutions. (A salt is an ionic compound made of a metal and nonmetal. This
includes, but is not limited to NaCl, or table salt.) Many ionic salts dissolve in water because the
compounds split into ions – the positive ion is attracted to water’s partial negative charge and the
negative ion is attracted to water’s partial positive charge.

Materials: (per class) beakers with salt solutions each with a plastic pipette and graduated
cylinder for measurement; (per lab table) 50 mL beaker partially filled with Gaviscon, pipette, 3
test tubes

Procedure:
1. Label your test tubes with the numbers 1 and 2.
2. You will test 2 solutions at a time. Use the chart below to record the number of the test tube
the solution has been placed in.
___Sodium chloride ___Lithium chloride ___Copper (I) chloride __ Unknown
___Calcium chloride ___Barium chloride ___Copper (II) chloride

3. Fill the test tubes with 20 mL of solutions. (Each test tube will have one solution.)
4. Drop one or two drops of Gaviscon into each liquid from a height of 2-3 cm above the liquid
surface. Observe. Record your observations.
5. Forcefully squirt a full pipette of Gaviscon into each liquid from less than 1 cm above the
surface of the liquid. Observe. Record your observations.
6. Wash and rinse the test tubes.
7. Repeat steps 2 – 6 until all of the solutions have been tested.

52
 1. What were the two different results you observed after adding the Gaviscon?

2. What pattern did you find between your results and the oxidation numbers of the ions?

3. What did the test tell you about the unknown compound in the sugar jar?

53
Part III: More Practice
Draw the Lewis dot structures to show the ionic bonding in:
1. Sodium oxide 2. Strontium phosphide

Use oxidation numbers to write the chemical formula for these ionic compounds.
3. Cesium chloride 4. Rubidium sulfide

5. Calcium nitride 6. Potassium iodide

Write the name of the ionic compound.

7. K2O 8. NaBr

9. CaCl2 10. Li3N

54
 Polyatomic Ions

Sometimes covalently bonded compounds have an overall

charge. Sulfate, for example, is a covalent compound of
sulfur and oxygen. Sulfur can have more than 8 valence
electrons due to its 3d orbital. But this stable configuration
also requires 2 more electrons than would be expected.
Therefore, sulfate has a 2- charge. Sulfate (and other
negative polyatomic ions) can bind to positive ions in the same way that simple atom ions are
bound together.

Materials: puzzle page, scissors, glue or tape

Procedure:
1. Create the compounds listed below using the puzzle pieces you have been given.
2. Glue your compound on your own paper.
3. Attempt to write the formula for each compound.

Example: calcium nitrate

Formula: Ca (NO3)2

1 calcium ion 2 nitrate ions

Build the following:

1. magnesium phosphate 5. ammonium nitride
2. lithium hydroxide 6. calcium sulfate
3. lithium sulfate 7. ammonium phosphate
4. beryllium thiosulfate 8. beryllium nitrite

55
The same crisscross shortcut can be used to write the formulas with polyatomic ions.
Common polyatomic cations:
- Ammonium NH4+

Common polyatomic anions:

- Carbonate CO3 2- - Nitrite NO2 1-
- Hydroxide OH 1- - Nitrate NO3 1-
- Sulfate SO4 2- - Phosphate PO4 3-
- Sulfite SO3 2-

I. Try these:

1. sodium sulfate

2. nickel (I) nitrite

3. ammonium sulfate

4. ammonium sulfide (The -ide ending tells us the negative ion is sulfur. You can determine its
oxidation number from your periodic table.)

5. ammonium nitride

56
 Case File 7: Common Ionic Poisons

A researcher in your department has put together this list of common poisonous salts. Answer the
questions in your Science Notebook.

Sodium cyanide
Sodium cyanide is a white salt that dissolves in water. A toxic dose will cause extreme
fluctuations in blood pressure and heart rate. The victim’s skin may develop a bluish tinge but
mucus membranes will appear bright red. A lethal dose occurs when 5 mg per kg of body weight
are ingested. Cyanide works like carbon monoxide blocking the place on the hemoglobin where
oxygen would bind. Death from suffocation can occur within hours or days.
Sodium cyanide is used in pesticides, electroplating, and in mining. It quickly reacts with
an acid (or more slowly with water) to form hydrogen cyanide, a deadly gas that affects the ability
of blood to transport oxygen. Some people can smell hydrogen cyanide’s bitter almond odor, but
not everyone can.

a) Cyanide is a polyatomic ion (CN1-). Write the formula for sodium cyanide.

b) What are the symptoms of cyanide poisoning?

c) Do you think this poison could have caused Ms. Smith’s death? Explain.

Lead (II) acetate

Lead acetate is a white powder that is soluble in water. It has a sweet taste; so much so, it
was used in ancient Rome as a sweetener. Symptoms of lead poisoning can include stomach pain,
nausea and vomiting. High doses can cause muscle weakness that ends with paralysis, a loss of
appetite, and dizziness. Death from a lethal dose of 700 mg per kg of body weight can occur in 1
or 2 days.
Lead acetate is still used in hair dyes.

a) Acetate is a polyatomic ion (C2H3O21-). Write the formula for lead (II) acetate.

b) What are the symptoms of severe lead poisoning?

c) Do you think this poison could have caused Ms. Smith’s death? Explain.

Mercury (II) chloride

Mercury (II) chloride is a white crystalline powder that dissolves in water. Though today
it is mainly used in the production of the plastic PVC, inn the past it was used as a medicine for
syphilis, in the development of photographs, and to preserve biological specimens.
High doses of mercury (II) chloride can cause chest pain, stomach pain and nausea, and
problems urinating due to impaired kidney function. A victim’s throat may appear darker in
color than normal. Death after a lethal dose of 5-50 mg per kg of body weight may take several
days.

57
a) Write the formula for mercury (II) chloride.

b) What are the symptoms of severe mercury poisoning?

c) Do you think this poison could have caused Ms. Smith’s death? Explain.

Thallium (I) sulfate

Thallium salts have been used in hair-loss products, rat poison, insecticides, and in the
manufacture of photocells. Initial poisoning symptoms include abdominal pain, vomiting, and
diarrhea. Over time, neurological issues develop such as poor motor skills and burning sensations
in the hands and feet. One or two weeks after a near toxic dose, hair loss will occur. Four weeks
after other symptoms, white lines called Mees’ lines may be visible across the fingernails.
Thallium is colorless, odorless, tasteless, and slow-acting. Death may not occur for a week
or several weeks after a toxic dose of 30 to 40 mg per kg of body weight. Poisoning symptoms are
very similar to symptoms of many other illnesses. Thallium confuses the body because it resembles
potassium both in size and oxidation number. Cells allow thallium easy entry through the sodium-
potassium pumps in their cell membranes. But thallium is not chemically identical to potassium
and, once inside the cell, it interferes with chemical bonds and disrupts cell metabolism.

a) Sulfate is a polyatomic ion (SO42-). Write the formula for thallium (I) sulfate.

b) What are the symptoms of severe thallium poisoning?

c) Do you think this poison could have caused Ms. Smith’s death? Explain.

Cadmium (II) sulfate

Cadmium sulfate is a white crystal that dissolves in water. It is used as a fungicide and as
a reagent in fluorescent screens and vacuum tubes. Cadmium is similar enough to zinc and
calcium that it can replace these ions in the body to toxic affect. Once cadmium is in the body, it
can’t be removed.
Repeated low doses of ionic cadmium cause liver and kidney damage, anemia (low blood
iron), and loss of one’s sense of smell. At very high doses, poisoning symptoms can occur in 15
to 30 minutes. These symptoms include difficulty breathing and chest pain, stomach pain and
nausea, a burning sensation, and muscle cramps. Death may occur after several days.

a) Sulfate is a polyatomic ion (SO42-). Write the formula for cadmium (II) sulfate.

b) What are the symptoms of severe cadmium poisoning?

c) Do you think this poison could have caused Ms. Smith’s death? Explain.

58
 Metallic Bonds Notes

A large earring was found underneath the table. You don’t know if this
belonged to Annabelle Smith or someone else who was in the apartment.
The earring is a silver color and the clasp was open. There are fingerprints
on the metal, but they are too smudged to be of use.

Metallic Bonds:
When metal atoms come together, the valence electrons become mobile. They can leave their
starting atom and flow throughout the whole molecule of metals. The metals themselves, having
effectively lost an electron, become positive ions. The metallic bond is the attraction between the
positive ions and negative electrons.

The same metallic bonds hold together pure metal elements and metal alloys (mixtures of more
than one element).

The free-flowing electrons give a metal several of its characteristic properties: the ability to
conduct heat and electricity, malleability, ductility, and even its shine.

You would like to know the identities of the metal or metals in the earring. You have melted
down the earring and removed two metals based on their differing melting points. The one with
the lower melting point is gold in color. The other is a metallic grey or silver.

59
 Making an Alloy Lab

In an alloy, two or more metallic elements are combined together to make a mixture that has
different properties than the component metals. For example, an alloy of gold and another metal
is less likely to be scratched or bent out of shape than pure 24 carat gold.

Common alloys:
- Brass – copper/ zinc - White gold – gold/ nickel, palladium, or manganese
- Bronze – copper/ tin - Pewter – copper/ tin/ bismuth/ antimony

Mixed Bonding Worksheet

I. Fill in the missing information on the table.

Formula Type of Bond Name

1. 3. Sodium nitride

CsCl 4. 8.

CO2 5. 9.

2. 6. Calcium chloride

N2 O 7. 10.

II. Write the formula for each of the following. Common Polyatomic Ions
11. Calcium hydroxide ____________________________ Acetate C2H3O21-
Ammonium NH41+
Carbonate CO32-
12. Sodium sulfite________________________________
Chlorate ClO31-
Chlorite ClO21-
13. Arsenic pentafluoride__________________________ Hydroxide OH1-
Hypochlorite ClO1-
Phosphate PO43-
14. Strontium hypochlorite__________________________
Sulfate SO42-
Sulfite SO32-
15. Boron carbonate______________________________

16. Silver (I) phosphate ___________________________

60
III. Name the following.

17. Ca(ClO)2_________________________ 21. NiO____________________________

18. Na2SO4___________________________22. MnF2____________________________

19. BaCO3___________________________ 23. KrF2_____________________________

20. NO2_____________________________ 24. Ag2O____________________________

61
 Activity Series

I. Developing an activity series

Different metals have different physical and chemical properties. See how the following metals
react in a solution of copper sulfate.

Materials: zinc strip, lead strip, aluminum strip, tin strip, magnesium ribbon, 0.2M copper sulfate
solution, steel wool, 4 test tubes, test tube rack

Procedure:
1. Pour 5 mL of copper sulfate in each test tube.
2. Clean the metal samples with steel wool.
3. Add one metal to each test tube. Observe the test tubes. Look for signs of a chemical reaction
such as bubbles, color change, temperature change, a solid precipitate, or the solid disintegrating.
4. Rank the metals in order from most reactive to least reactive.
5. Clean up as directed by teacher.

Data:
Most reactive Least reactive

Questions:
1. What changes did you observe in the most reactive metal that made you label it “most
reactive”?

2. The blue liquid was copper sulfate. When the copper sulfate was combined with magnesium,
the sulfate ion moved from the copper ion to magnesium. The solid precipitate that you see
forming on the metal is copper.

CuSO4 + Mg à Cu + MgSO4

Where do you think copper would fit on your list of most reactive to least reactive metals? Why?

62
 When Bonds Break: Using the Activity Series

Some atoms are more reactive than others due to their ionization energies. Activity Series
The less energy it would take to lose an electron, the more likely the atom
will form an ionic bond with another atom. The Activity Series orders Most Reactive
common metals from most reactive to least reactive. Li
K
Read the story to introduce the activity series. Ca
Ms. Sulfate arrives at a party with Mr. Copper. Then, she notices the Na
Mg
much more handsome and charming Mr. Tin from across the room
Al
Ti
CuSO4 + Sn Mn
Zn
Cr
Find copper and tin on the Activity Series. Which is more reactive? Fe
Cd
Mr. Copper no longer holds Ms. Sulfate’s interest. She dumps him for Co
Mr. Tin. Ni
Sn
SnSO4 + Cu Pb
H
Sb
This relationship can be summarized as: Cu
CuSO4 + Sn à SnSO4 + Cu Hg
Ag
Pt
While waiting for Mr. Tin at the punch bowl, Ms. Sulfate catches
Au
sight of the ever-so-dreamy Mr. Aluminum. Least Reactive

SnSO4 + Al à

Find tin and aluminum on the Activity Series. Which is more reactive?

Mr. Tin no longer holds Ms. Sulfate’s interest. She dumps him for Mr.
Aluminum.

Al2(SO4)3 + Sn

This relationship can be summarized as:

SnSO4 + Al à Al2(SO4)3 + Sn

Is there any hope for Mr. Copper, left heartbroken on the dance floor?

63
 In walks Ms. Nitrate walk with her pal Mr. Silver.

AgNO3 + Cu

Will Ms. Nitrate stay with Mr. Silver or run off with Mr. Copper? Find silver and copper on
the Activity Series to find out.

Cu(NO3)2 + Ag

Mr. Silver is reduced to tears as he watches Ms. Nitrate and Mr. Copper walk off into the
sunset. Write the equation to describe their relationship:

Practice using the Activity Series: Decide whether each of these reactions will occur based on
the position of the metals on the Activity Series. If no reaction will occur, write “No Reaction”.
If a reaction will occur, write in the possible products.

Examples:
a. ZnCl2 + Au à ZnCl2 + Au
Zinc is much more reactive than gold, so chlorine will not change partners. No reaction
occurs.

b. MgCl2 + Ca à CaCl2 + Mg
Calcium is more reactive than magnesium so chlorine will change partners.
The atoms form ions to form an ionic bond: Mg2+, Cl1-, Ca2+. Magnesium leaves chlorine
and calcium joins.
Ca2+ Cl1- + Mg à CaCl2 + Mg

1. Hg(OH)2 + Ag à Oxidation numbers

for transition metals:
2. Fe(NO3)3 + Mn à
Ag 1+
Mn 2+
3. Al(CO3)3 + Ni à
Ni 2+

4. TiF3 + Na à

5. How could you use an activity series to identify the metals in the earring?

64
 Reviewing Bonds

I. Write the name or formula. You will first need to determine if the bond in ionic or covalent.
1. KBr 5. OF2

2. Tetrasulfur dinitride 6. Potassium sulfide

3. CaSO4 7. Barium hydroxide

4. NaNO3 8. Potassium sulfate

II. Use the Lewis dot structure to write the formula. You will first need to determine if the bond
in ionic or covalent.
9. Nitrogen triiodide 10. Barium iodide

III. Determine the shape of each molecule.

Formula Lewis Electron Lone Draw the Molecular Polar or
and Name Dot regions pairs 3-D Shape. geometry Nonpolar
around around molecule?
central central
atom atom
11.

Nitrogen
trifluoride
12.
*BeH2

* Beryllium only needs 4 valence electrons.

65
IV. Check bond type associated with each substance or property.

(Nonpolar)
Molecular

Molecular
Covalent

Covalent

Covalent
Network
Metallic

(Polar)
Ionic
13. Positive metal and negative nonmetal ions
are attracted to each other.
14. Positive metal ions are held together by an
attraction to the “sea of electrons” that moves
between the ions.
15. Nonmetals share electrons to form strong
bonds.
16. All of the nonmetal atoms in the substance
are held together by covalent bonds.
17. Atoms in a molecule are held together by
covalent bonds. Molecules in a substance are
held together by weaker bonds.
18. These substances generally have a low
melting temperature.
19. These substances will not dissolve in water.
20. When these substances are dissolved in
water, they form solutions that conduct
electricity.

66
 Testing the Earring

You are assuming the earring found in the apartment is made of a Activity Series
common metal used in jewelry. One metal in the alloy is gold in color
and one is silver. Most Reactive
- Gold colored metals: copper, gold Li
K
- Silver colored metals: silver, zinc, nickel, palladium,
Ca
titanium, platinum Na
Mg
You have tested the metal samples with metal salt solutions to see if you Al
can determine their identity. Use the data below and activity series Ti
provided. Mn
Zn
Cr
Data: Fe
Cd
Silver Sodium Copper Iron
Co
nitrate chloride sulfate sulfate
Ni
gold- reaction no-reaction no-reaction no-reaction
Sn
colored
Pb
metal
H
silver- reaction no-reaction reaction no-reaction Sb
colored Cu
metal Hg
Ag
Pt
Au
Questions: Least Reactive
1. What is the identity of the gold-colored metal? How do you know?

2. What is the identity of the silver-colored metal? How do you know?

3. How does this information help you with the case?

67
 When Bonds Break: Conclusions

1. What poisoned Annabelle? What evidence do you

have to support this claim?

2. Who poisoned Annabelle? How did he or she do it?

What evidence do you have to support this claim?

3. Why do you think the poisoner killed Annabelle?

What evidence do you have to support this claim?

68
 Activity: Coloring and Labeling the Periodic Table
Atomic Structure Unit © It’s Not Rocket Science 2017 16