Chapter Two

Transformer
2.1 Introduction
Transformer is a static electromagnetic machine (i.e., it has no moving parts) that
transfers electrical energy from one electrical circuit to another electrical circuit
through the medium of magnetic field and without a change in the frequency.
The electric circuit which receives energy from the supply mains is called primary
winding and the other circuit which delivers electrical energy to the load is called
secondary winding.

Fig 2.1 single phase transformer

If the secondary winding has more turns than the primary winding, then the
secondary voltage is higher than the primary voltage and the transformer is called a
step-up transformer. When the secondary winding has less turns than the primary
windings, then the secondary voltage is lower than the primary voltage and the
transformer is called step down transformer.
Transformers are commonly used for
 Changing the voltage and current levels in a given electrical system,
 Establishing electrical isolation,
 Impedance matching, and
 Measuring instruments.
Isolating transformers are used to electrically isolate electric circuits from each
other or to block dc signals while maintaining ac continuity between the circuits,
and to eliminate electromagnetic noise in many types of circuits.
Transformers are used extensively only in ac power systems. AC electrical power
can be generated at one central location, its voltage stepped up for transmission
over long distances at very low losses and its voltage stepped down again for final
use.
If we take the same arrangement and apply an alternating voltage to one coil, it
will induce an alternating e.m.f. in the other coil; this is called the transformer
effect. The coil or winding to which the supply is connected is called the primary
and the winding from which the induced voltage is taken is called the secondary.

Fig.2.2 Transformer windings

The relationship between the voltage, current and number of turns for each
winding is as follows:
𝑉𝑃 𝑁𝑃 𝐼𝑆
= =
𝑉𝑆 𝑁𝑆 𝐼𝑃
Where: 𝑉𝑃 = primary voltage; 𝐼𝑃 = primary current; 𝑁𝑃 = primary turns; 𝑉𝑆 =
secondary voltage; 𝐼𝑆 = secondary current, and 𝑁𝑆 = secondary turns.
Example 2.1
A single-phase transformer has 796 turns on the primary and 365 turns on the
secondary winding. If the primary voltage and the primary current are 240V and
10A respectively. Calculate the current of the secondary winding and the turns
ratio of the transformer and give a conclusion about the transformer type.
 𝑉𝑃 𝑁𝑃
=
𝑉𝑆 𝑁𝑆
𝑉𝑃 ∗ 𝑁𝑆 240 ∗ 365
𝑉𝑠 = = = 110 𝑉
𝑁𝑃 796

𝑉𝑃 𝐼𝑆
Also =
𝑉𝑆 𝐼𝑃

𝑉𝑃 ∗ 𝐼𝑃 10 ∗ 240
𝐼𝑆 = = = 21.81 𝐴
𝑉𝑆 110
𝑉𝑃 𝑁𝑃 𝐼𝑆
= = =𝑎
𝑉𝑆 𝑁𝑆 𝐼𝑃
796 21.82𝐴
𝑎= = = 2.18
365 10𝐴
Note the larger secondary current. The secondary winding would need to have a
larger conductor size than the primary winding to carry this current. If the
transformer were of the step-up type the secondary current would be smaller.

2.2. Transformer principle

A transformer normally consists of a pair of windings the set of windings
connected to the source side of the transformer are called primary windings, and
those connected to the load are named secondary windings. They are linked by a
magnetic circuit or core. When an alternating voltage is applied to the primary
windings, a current will flow which sets up an alternating magneto-motive force
(m.m.f). Hence an alternating flux is developed in the core, which in turn induces
electromagnetic force (e.m.f) in both windings. In the secondary winding the
induced e.m.f. is the secondary open-circuit voltage. If a load is connected to the
secondary winding which permits the flow of secondary current.
 Fig 2.3: Schematic diagram of a transformer winding
 The product of number of turns (N) of the coil and the magnetic flux (φ)
linking the coil is called flux linkages i.e. Flux linkages = 𝑁Φ.
 The primary winding P is connected to an alternating voltage source,
therefore, an alternating current Im starts flowing through N1 turns.
 The alternating mmf sets up an alternating flux  which is confined to the
high permeability iron path.
 The alternating flux induces voltage E1 in the primary P and E2 in secondary
S.
 If a load is connected across the secondary, load current starts flowing.
Principle of electromagnetic induction states that:
 When the primary coil is connected to an alternating voltage (Vp) source,
Alternating current (Ip) starts to flow through the primary winding (Np).
The resulting MMf = NpIp, produces an alternating flux (𝜙) in the core.
This alternating flux induces emf in the primary (Ep) and in the
secondary (Es) windings.
The following points may be noted carefully:
 The transformer action is based on the laws of electromagnetic induction.
 There is no electrical connection between the primary and secondary. The
a.c. power is transferred from primary to secondary through magnetic
flux.
 There is no change in frequency i.e., output power has the same
frequency as the input power.
  The losses that occur in a transformer are:
(a) Core losses—eddy current and hysteresis losses
(b) Copper losses—in the resistance of the windings
In practice, these losses are very small so that output power is nearly equal to the
input primary power. In other words, a transformer has very high efficiency.
2.3. EMF equation
In electrical transformer, ones alternating electrical source is applied to the primary
winding and due to this, magnetizing current flowing through the primary winding
which produces alternating flux in the core of transformer. This flux links with
both primary and secondary windings. As this flux is alternating in nature, there
must be a rate of change of flux. According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction if any coil or conductor links with any changing flux, there must be an
induced emf in it.

Faraday’s and lenz’s laws of induction

According to Faraday’s law of induction, whenever a flux passes through a turn of
a coil, a voltage (i.e., an electromotive force [e.m.f]) is induced, in each turn of that
coil, that is directly proportional to the rate of change in the flux with respect to
time. Therefore, induced voltage can be found from
𝑑Φ
𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 =
𝑑𝑡
Where Φ is the flux that passes through the turn. If such a coil has N turns and the
same flux passes through all of them, the resulting induced voltage between the
two terminals of the coil becomes
𝑑Φ
𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑁
𝑑𝑡
However, according to Lenz’s law of induction, if the coil ends were connected
together, the voltage built-up would produce a current that would create a new flux
opposing the original flux change.
 𝑑Φ
𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = −
𝑑𝑡
And
𝑑Φ
𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = −𝑁
𝑑𝑡
The negative sign simply reminds us that the induced current opposes the changing
magnetic field that caused the induced current. The negative sign has no other
meaning.
Furthermore, because the induced voltage equals the rate of change of flux
linkages, an applied sinusoidal voltage has to produce a sinusoidally changing flux.
Thus, the flux as a function of time is given as
Φ = Φm 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
Where
Φm is maximum flux value, ω is 2πf, and f is the frequency
Then the induced voltage is given as
𝑑Φ 𝑑
𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = −𝑁 = −𝑁 (Φm 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
eind = −NΦm 𝜔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
R. M. S value =
√2
−NΦm 2πf 2π
Then E= =− NΦm f = 4.44Nf Φm
√2 √2

E
Φm =
4.44Nf
Voltage Transformation Ratio(a)
 From emf Eqs. we get
𝐸1 𝑁1 𝑉1 𝐼2
= = = =𝑎
𝐸2 𝑁2 𝑉2 𝐼1
 The ratio of the primary voltage to the secondary voltage or primary turns to the
secondary turns is called Transformation ratio (Turns ratio) (𝑎)of a transformer.
 If N2> N1 i.e., 𝑎 <1, then transformer is step-up transformer.
 If N2< N1 i.e., 𝑎 >1, then transformer is step-down transformer.
 Example: A single phase transformer has 350 primary and 1050 secondary
turns. The net cross-sectional area of the core is 55 cm2. If the primary
winding be connected to a 400 V, 50 Hz single phase supply, calculate (i)
the maximum value of flux density in the core and (ii) the voltage induced in
the secondary winding.
Solution
𝑉1 = 400𝑉 𝐸1 , 𝑁1 = 350, 𝑁2 = 1050, 𝐴 = 55 𝑐𝑚2 = 55 × 10−4 𝑚2 , 𝑓 = 50𝐻𝑧
 Induced emf in the primary is given by
𝐸1 = 4.44𝑓𝛷𝑚 𝑁1 = 4.44𝑓𝐵𝑚 𝐴𝑁1
 Maximum value of flux density in the core,

400
𝐵𝑚 = −4
= 0.93𝑇(𝑤𝑏/𝑚2 )
4.44 × 50 × 55 × 10 × 350

 For an ideal transformer,

𝐸1 𝑁1
=
𝐸2 𝑁2
𝑁2 1050
𝐸2 = 𝐸1 × = 400 × = 1200𝑉
𝑁1 350
Exercise 1
The required no-load voltage ratio in a single phase 50𝐻𝑧, core type transformer is
6600⁄500. Find the number of turns in each winding, if the flux is to be 0.06𝑊𝑏
Exercise 2
The primary voltage of an iron core single-phase transformer 220𝑉. The number of
primary and secondary turns of the transformer are 200 and 50 respectively.
Calculate voltage of the secondary coil.
Exercise 3
The number of primary turns of a 30 𝐾𝑉𝐴, 2200⁄220 𝑉, 50𝐻𝑧 single-phase
transformer is 100. Find the (i) turns ratio (ii) mutual flux in the core, and (iii) full
load primary and secondary currents.
2.4 Transformer Losses
 There are mainly two kinds of losses in a transformer, namely
 Core loss or iron loss and
 ohmic loss or copper loss
Core loss: due to alternating flux.
Core losses are caused by the alternating flux in the core of the transformer as this
loss occurs in the core it is known as the core loss.
The core loss Pc occurring in the transformer iron, consists of two components,
hysteresis loss Ph and eddy current loss Pe i.e.
Pc = Ph + Pe
 Hysteresis loss
The core of transformer is subjected to an alternating magnetizing force, and for
each cycle of emf, a hysteresis loop is traced out. Power is dissipated in the form of
heat known as hysteresis loss.
The hysteresis and eddy current losses in the core can be expressed by
𝑥
𝑃ℎ = 𝐾ℎ 𝐵𝑚 𝑓𝑣
2 2 2
𝑃𝑒 = 𝐾𝑒 𝐵𝑚 𝑓 𝑡
Where Kh = hysteresis constant, depends on the core material.
Ke = eddy current constant depends on the thickness of laminations
Bm = maximum flux density
f = frequency of supply
t= thickness of the core
v= volume of the core
 The value of the exponent x (called Steinmetz’s constant) varies from 1.5 to 2.5
depending upon the magnetic properties of the core material. Therefore, the
total core loss is
Pc = KhfvB1.6m + Kef2B2mt2
Ohmic Loss: due to winding resistances and rms currents
 When a transformer is loaded, ohmic loss (I2R) occurs in both the primary and
secondary winding resistances.
These losses are occur due to ohmic resistance of the transformer windings. If I1
and I2 are the primary and secondary current and R1 and R2 are the primary and
secondary resistances then the copper loss in the windings will be 𝐼12 𝑅1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼22 𝑅2
respectively.
Therefore, the total copper loss will be:
𝑃𝑐 = 𝐼12 𝑅1 + 𝐼22 𝑅2
2.5. Equivalent circuit of transformer
It is simply the circuit representation of the equation describing the performance of
the device. The simplified equivalent circuit of a transformer is drawn by
representing all the parameters of the transformer either on the secondary side or
on the primary side.
Equivalent circuit of transformer should have to model the transformer copper and
core losses the leakage flux and the magnetizing flux.

The equivalent circuit diagram of transformer is given below:-

 Fig.2.4: Equivalent circuit of transformer

Where,
𝑉1 , 𝑉2 = 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠
𝐸1 , 𝐸2 = 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠
𝑋0 = 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝐼𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐼𝑤 = 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑅1, 𝑅2 = 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠
𝐼0 = 𝑁𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛

Ideal Transformer: Ideal transformer is a transformer, which is assumed to

satisfy the following criteria:
 Zero leakage flux: Flux produced by the primary and secondary current are
confined(kept or narrowed) within the core
 The winding have no resistances: no copper losses exist; induced voltages
are equal to applied voltages.
 The core has infinite permeability: Reluctance of the core is zero; negligible
current is required to establish magnetic flux
 Loss-less magnetic core: No hysteresis or eddy currents losses
2.5.1 Equivalent Circuit of Transformer Referred to Primary and secondary
side
The complete equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary is:

Fig.2.5 Equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary side

𝐼2
𝑅2′ = 𝑎2 𝑅2 𝑥2′ = 𝑎2 𝑥2 𝐼2′ =
𝑎

𝑍𝐿′ = 𝑎2 𝑍𝐿 𝑉2′ = 𝑎𝑉2 𝐸1 = 𝑎𝐸2

The equivalent resistance referred to primary side is given as
𝑅𝑒1 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2′ = 𝑅1 + 𝑎2 𝑅2
The equivalent reactance referred to primary side is given as
𝑋𝑒1 = 𝑋1 + 𝑋2′ = 𝑋1 + 𝑎2 𝑋2
This can be simplified as,
At last, the circuit is simplified by omitting I0 altogether as shown below

The complete equivalent circuit of transformer referred to secondary is:

Fig.2.6 Equivalent circuit of transformer referred to secondary side

𝑉1 𝑅1 𝑋1
𝑉1′ = 𝑅1′ = 𝐼1′ = 𝑎𝐼1 𝑥1′ = I′e = 𝑎𝐼𝑒
𝑎 𝑎2 𝑎2
𝑅𝑐 ′ 𝑋𝑀 𝐸1
𝐼𝑐′ = 𝑎𝐼𝑐 ′
𝐼𝑚 = 𝑎𝐼𝑚 𝑅𝑐′ = 𝑥𝑀 = 𝐸1′ =
𝑎2 𝑎2 𝑎
The equivalent resistance referred to secondary side is given as
𝑅1
𝑅𝑒2 = 𝑅2 + 𝑅1′ = R 2 +
𝑎2

The equivalent reactance referred to secondary side is given as

𝑋1
𝑋𝑒2 = 𝑋2 + 𝑋1′ = X2 +
𝑎2
 Approximate Equivalent Circuit of Transformer
Since Io is very small compared to I1, it is less than 5% of full load primary current,
Io changes the voltage drop insignificantly. Hence, it is good approximation to
ignore the excitation circuit in approximate equivalent circuit of transformer.
All quantities have been referred to the same side of the transformer, and the ideal
transformer may be omitted from the equivalent circuit.

1. The first step in the simplification process is to move the shunt magnetization
branch from the middle of the T circuit to either the primary or secondary terminal,
as shown in Fig below. This step neglects the voltage drop across the primary or
secondary winding caused by the exciting current. The voltage drop caused by the
load component of the current is still included, of course.

Fig.2.7 Approximate Equivalent Circuit referred to (a) primary (b) secondary.

2. The primary and secondary winding resistances are combined to give either the
equivalent resistance referred to the primary side or the equivalent resistance
referred to the secondary side.
3. Similarly, the primary and secondary winding reactance are combined to obtain
either the equivalent reactance referred to the primary side or the equivalent
reactance referred to the secondary side.
4. The next step in deriving the approximate equivalent circuit is the deletion of the
shunt magnetizing branch completely. Thus, the transformer equivalent circuit
reduces to a simple equivalent series impedance referred to either primary or
secondary.
 Fig.2.8 Simplified Approximate Equivalent Circuit

The important points for transferring parameters are

𝑅1
 𝑅1 in the primary becomes when referred to the secondary,
𝑎2
 𝑅2 in the secondary becomes 𝑎2 𝑅2 when referred to the primary,
𝑋1
 𝑋1 in the primary becomes when referred to the secondary, and
𝑎2
 𝑋2 in the secondary becomes 𝑎2 𝑋2 when referred to the primary,
Example: The number of primary and secondary turns of a single phase
transformer are 300 and 30, respectively. The secondary coil is connected with a
load impedance of 4Ω. Calculate the (i) turns ratio, (ii) load impedance referred to
the primary, and (iii) primary current if the primary coil voltage is 220 V.
Solution
𝑁1 300
𝑎= = = 10
𝑁2 30
𝑍𝐿′ = 𝑎2 𝑍𝐿 = 102 × 4 = 400Ω
𝑉1 220
𝐼1 = = = 0.05𝐴
𝑍𝐿′ 400
Exercise: A load impedance of 8Ω is connected to the secondary coil of a
400⁄200 turns single-phase transformer. Determine the (i) turns ratio, (ii) load
impedance referred to primary and (iii) primary current if the primary coil voltage
is 120 V.
2.6. Voltage Regulation

The voltage regulation of a transformer is the change in the magnitude of

secondary terminal voltage from no load to full load when the primary voltage is
constant. The voltage regulation determines the ability of the transformer to
provide the constant voltage for variable loads. It is usually expressed as a
percentage of the full-load value as
𝑉2(𝑁𝐿) − 𝑉2(𝐹𝐿)
% 𝑉𝑅 = × 100
𝑉2(𝐹𝐿)
𝐸2 − 𝑉2
𝑉𝑅 =
𝐸2
Where, E2 – secondary terminal voltage at no load 𝑉2(𝑁𝐿) = 𝐸2

V2 – secondary terminal voltage at full load

2.7. Efficiency
Due to the losses describe above the output power of a transformer is always less
than the input power.
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝜂= × 100%
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑃𝑜
𝜂= × 100%
𝑃𝑖𝑛
𝑃𝑜 = 𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃𝑜 + 𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝜃2 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2
𝜂= 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑃𝑙(𝑐𝑢) + 𝑃𝑙(𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛)
𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 +𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠
2.8. Auto Transformer
A transformer, having only one winding a part of which acts as a primary winding
and the other as secondary is called an autotransformer. When the primary and
secondary voltage are derived from the same winding, the transformer is called an
autotransformer. In this type of transformer, a single coil is wound on to a steel
core, the primary and secondary windings being part of one winding.
The autotransformer has a low cost, better regulation and low losses. The
autotransformer is not used for interconnecting the high voltage and low voltage
system. It is used in the places where slight variation is required. When 400000V
(400kV) has to be transformed (stepped down) to 132kV, huge transformers are
required.

 The advantages of autotransformer decreases as the ratio of transformation

increases. Therefore, an autotransformer has advantages only for low values
of transformation ratio.

Figure. Autotransformers: (a) step-down; (b) step-up.

• Winding a-c - N1 turns - primary winding

• winding b-c - N2 turns - secondary winding
• Input current is I1
• Output current is I2
• Portion a-b of the wdg has N1 - N2 turns and
V1 - V2 voltage.
• The current through the common portion of
the winding is I2 - I1.
Step-down autotransformer:
The input voltage V1 is connected to the complete winding (a-c) and the load RL is
connected across a portion of the winding, that is, (b-c).The voltage V2 is related
to V1 as in the conventional two-winding transformer, that is,
V1 − V2 N1 − N2
=
V2 N2
(N1 − N2 )V2 = (V1 − V2 )N2
V2 N1 − V2 N2 = V1 N2 − V2 N2
𝑉2 𝑁1 = 𝑉1 𝑁2
𝑁1 𝑉1
= =𝑎
𝑁2 𝑉2
𝑁𝑏𝑐
𝑉2 = 𝑉1 ×
𝑁𝑎𝑐
Where 𝑁𝑏𝑐 and 𝑁𝑎𝑐 are the number of turns on the respective windings. The ratio
of voltage transformation in an autotransformer is the same as that for an ordinary
transformer, namely,
𝑁𝑎𝑐 𝑉1 𝐼2
𝑎= = =
𝑁𝑏𝑐 𝑉2 𝐼1
with 𝑎>1 for step-down.
When a voltage V1 is applied to the primary of the autotransformer, the induced
voltages are related by

𝐸1 𝐸𝑎𝑐 𝑁𝑎𝑐
= = =𝑎
𝐸2 𝐸𝑏𝑐 𝑁𝑏𝑐

Step-up autotransformer:
The input voltage V1 is connected to the portion of winding (b-c) and the load is
connected across a the winding (a-c).The voltage V2 is related to V1 as in the
conventional two-winding transformer, that is,
 𝑁𝑎𝑐
𝑉2 = 𝑉1 ×
𝑁𝑏𝑐
Where 𝑁𝑎𝑐 and 𝑁𝑏𝑐 are the number of turns on the respective windings.
𝑁𝑏𝑐 𝑉1 𝐼2
𝑎= = =
𝑁𝑎𝑐 𝑉2 𝐼1
with 𝑎<1 for step-up.
When a voltage V1 is applied to the primary of the autotransformer, the induced
voltages are related by

𝐸1 𝐸𝑏𝑐 𝑁𝑏𝑐
= = =𝑎
𝐸2 𝐸𝑎𝑐 𝑁𝑎𝑐

Disadvantage of autotransformers:

• There is a direct connection between the primary and secondary. Therefore,

the output is no longer isolated from the input.
• It is not safe for stepping down a high voltage to a low voltage.

Key Differences between Autotransformer and Transformer

1. An autotransformer has only one winding which acts both as a primary and the
secondary whereas the conventional transformer has a two separate windings, i.e.,
the primary and the secondary winding.
2. The auto-transformer works on the principle of self-induction where as the
conventional transformer works on the principle of mutual induction
3. The autotransformer is smaller, whereas the conventional transformer is larger.
4. The voltage regulation and efficiency of an auto-transformer is much better than
the conventional transformer
5. The efficiency of an auto-transformer is more, whereas the efficiency of
conventional transformer is less
6. Since autotransformer has only one winding. Thus, less conductor is required for
winding as compared to the conventional transformer.
7. The primary and secondary windings of the autotransformer are not electrically
insulated whereas the windings of the conventional transformer are electrically
insulated from each other.
8. The leakage flux and resistance of an autotransformer are low because it has only
one winding whereas it is high in the conventional transformer.
9. The losses in the autotransformer are less as compared to the conventional
transformer.
10. Output voltage of an autotransformer is variable and whereas conventional
transformers has constant output voltage.

Similarities: The autotransformer and the conventional transformer both work on

the principle of electromagnetic induction.

Symbol of autotransformer is:

2.9. Parallel Operation of Transformer

The Transformer is said to be in Parallel Operation when their primary windings
are connected to a common voltage supply, and the secondary windings are
connected to a common load. The connection diagram of the parallel operation of a
transformer is shown in the figure below.

The parallel operation of a transformer has some advantages likes it increases the
efficiency of the system, makes the system more flexible and reliable. However, it
increases the short-circuit current of the transformers.
Conditions for parallel operation of Transformers
The two main necessary conditions are
 Polarities of the transformers must be same.
 Turn Ratio of the transformer should be equal.

Reasons for Parallel Operation:

 It is impractical and uneconomical to have a single large transformer for
heavy and large loads.
 If the transformers are connected in parallel, so there will be scope in future,
for expansion of a substation to supply a load beyond the capacity of the
transformer already installed.
 If there will be any breakdown of a transformer in a system of transformers
connected in parallel, there will be no interruption of power supply, for
essential services.
 If any of the transformer from the system is taken out of service for its
maintenance and inspection, the continuity of the supply will not get
disturbed.
Example 1:
A transformer has 600 turns on the primary and 3000 turns on the secondary side.
If the input voltage to the primary is 220 V, determine
a) The transformation ratio of the transformer
b) The secondary output voltage of the transformer

Solution:
𝑁1 600 𝑁1 𝑉1 𝑁2 3000
a) 𝑎 = = = 0.2 b) = ⟾ 𝑉2 = × 𝑉1 = × 220 = 1100 𝑉
𝑁2 3000 𝑁2 𝑉2 𝑁1 600

Example 2:
A 200 KVA, 6600/400 V, 50Hz single phase transformer has 80 turns on the
secondary side. Calculate
a) The primary and secondary currents
b) The number of turns of the primary

Solution:
Ignoring losses, the input apparent power equals the output power
𝑆𝑖𝑛 200𝐾𝑉𝐴
a) 𝑆𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉1 𝐼1 = 200 𝐾𝑉𝐴 → 𝐼1 = = = 30.3𝐴
𝑉1 6600
200𝐾𝑉𝐴
𝑆0 = 𝑉2 𝐼2 = 200𝐾𝑉𝐴 → 𝐼2 = = 500𝐴
400
𝑁1 𝑉1 𝑉1 6600
b) = → 𝑁1 = × 𝑁2 = × 80 = 1320 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠
𝑁2 𝑉2 𝑉2 400

Example 3:
A single-phase transformer has the following parameters,
𝑅1 = 0.3Ω 𝑋1 = 2Ω R 2 = 1.5Ω X2 = 4Ω 𝑅𝑐 = 6𝐾Ω
Xm = 150Ω N1 = 400 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑁2 = 800 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 & 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑍𝐿 = 20Ω
a) Draw the complete equivalent circuit without approximation.
b) Draw the approximate equivalent circuit referred to the primary ignoring the
excitation component.
Solution
a)

b)

This can be further simplified as,

𝑁1 400
𝑎= = = 0.5
𝑁2 800

𝑅2′ = 𝑎2 𝑅2 = 0.52 × 1.5Ω = 0.375Ω

𝑋2′ = 𝑎2 𝑋2 = 0.52 × 4Ω = 1Ω
ZL′ = a2 ZL = 0.52 × 20Ω = 5Ω
Lastly

𝑅𝑒𝑞1 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2′ = 0.3Ω + 0.375Ω

= 0.675Ω
𝑋𝑒𝑞1 = 𝑋1 + 𝑋2′ = 2Ω + 1Ω
= 3Ω
Example 4:
A 20 KVA 2000/200 V single-phase transformer has a primary and secondary
resistance of 2.1Ω and 0.026Ω respectively. If the total iron loss is 200W,
determine the efficiency of the transformer at full load with a load power factor 0.5
lagging.
Solution:
𝑃𝑜
𝜂= × 100% 𝑆 = 20 𝐾𝑉𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑝𝑓 = 0.5
𝑃𝑖𝑛
𝑃𝑜 = 𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑝𝑓 = 𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑝𝑓 = 20,000 × 0.5 = 10𝐾𝑊
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃𝑜 + 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑃𝑜 + 𝑃𝐿(𝑖𝑟) + 𝑃𝐿(𝑐𝑢) 𝑃𝐿(𝑖𝑟) = 200𝑊
𝑃𝐿(𝑐𝑢) = 𝐼12 𝑅1 + 𝐼22 𝑅2
Now we have to find 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑆 = 𝑉1 𝐼1 = 𝑉2 𝐼2
𝑆 20000 𝑆 20000
𝐼1 = = = 10 𝐴 and 𝐼2 = = = 91 𝐴
𝑉1 2000 𝑉2 220

𝑃𝐿(𝑐𝑢) = 𝐼12 𝑅1 + 𝐼22 𝑅2 = 425 𝑊

𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃𝑜 + 𝑃𝐿(𝑖𝑟) + 𝑃𝐿(𝑐𝑢) = 10,625 𝑊
𝑃𝑜 10000
Therefore, 𝜂 = × 100% = × 100% = 94%
𝑃𝑖𝑛 10625

Example5:
A 23kVA, 2300/230 V, 60 Hz, step-down transformer has the following resistance
and leakage-reactance values: 𝑅1 = 4Ω, 𝑅2 = 0.04Ω, 𝑋1 = 12Ω and 𝑋2 = 0.12Ω.
The transformer is operating at 75% of its rated load. If the power factor of the
load is 0.866 leading, determine the efficiency of the transformer.
Solution:
Since the transformer is operating at 75% of its rated load, the effective value of
the secondary winding current is
23000
𝐼2 = = 100 𝐴 × 0.75 = 75𝐴
230
The load current at a leading power factor of 0.866, in phasor form, is
𝐼2 = 75∠300 𝐴
The secondary winding impedance is 𝑍2 = 𝑅2 + 𝑗𝑋2 = 0.04 + 𝑗0.12 Ω
The induced emf in the secondary winding is
 𝐸2 = 𝑉2 + 𝐼2 𝑍2 = 230 + (75∠300 )(0.04 + 𝑗0.12) = 228.287∠2.330 𝑉
2300
Since 𝑎 = = 10
230
Then 𝐸1 = 𝑎𝐸2 = 10 × 228.287∠2.330 𝑉 = 2282.87∠2.330 𝑉
𝐼2
𝐼1 = = 7.5 ∠300 𝐴
𝑎
The primary winding impedance is 𝑍1 = 𝑅1 + 𝑗𝑋1 = 4 + 𝑗12 Ω
Then 𝑉1 = 𝐸1 + 𝐼1 𝑍1 = 2282.87∠2.330 𝑉 + (7.5 ∠300 )(4 + 𝑗12 )
𝑉1 = 2269.578∠4.70 𝑉
𝑃𝑜 = 𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 = (230)(75∠300 )(0.866) = 14,938.5 𝑊
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉1 𝐼1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 = (2269.578∠4.70 )(7.5∠−300 )(0.90408) = 15,489.86985 𝑊
𝑃𝑜 14,938.5
η= = × 100% = 96.44%
𝑃𝑖𝑛 15,489.87

Example 6:
The secondary winding of a transformer has a terminal voltage of
𝑉𝑠 (𝑡) = 282.8 sin 377 V. The turn ratio of the transformer is 100:200. If the
secondary current of the transformer is 𝐼𝑠 (𝑡) = 7.07 sin (377t − 36.870 )A, what
is the primary current of this transformer? What are its voltage regulation and
efficiency? The impedances of this transformer referred to the primary side are
𝑅𝑒𝑞1 = 0.20Ω 𝑅𝑐 =300Ω
𝑋𝑒𝑞1 =0.750Ω 𝑋𝑚 = 80Ω
Solution:
The approximate equivalent circuit of transformer referred to the primary side is
The secondary voltage and current are given as
282.8
𝑉𝑠 = ∠00 𝑉 = 200∠00
√2
7.07
𝐼𝑠 = ∠ − 36.870 𝐴 = 5∠ − 36.870 𝐴
√2
The secondary voltage referred to the primary side is
𝑉𝑠′ = 𝑎𝑉𝑠 = 100∠00 𝑉
Then primary voltage is given by
𝑉𝑝 = 𝑉𝑠′ + 𝐼𝑝 (𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑝 + 𝑗𝑋𝑒𝑞𝑝 ) = 𝑎𝑉𝑠 + 𝐼𝑠′ (𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑝 + 𝑗𝑋𝑒𝑞𝑝 )
𝐼𝑠
But, 𝐼𝑠′ = = 10∠ − 36.870
𝑎

𝑉𝑝 = 100∠00 + 10∠ − 36.870 (0.2Ω + 𝑗0.75Ω) = 106.2∠2.60 𝑉

The excitation current of this transformer is
106.2∠2.60 𝑉
𝐼𝑒𝑥 = 𝐼𝑐 + 𝐼𝑚 = = 0.354∠2.60 + 1.328∠ − 87.40
300Ω
𝐼𝑒𝑥 = 1.37∠ − 72.5 𝐴
Therefore, the total primary current of this transformer is
𝐼𝑝 = 𝐼𝑠′ + 𝐼𝑒𝑥 = 10∠ − 36.870 + 1.37∠ − 72.50 = 11.1∠ − 410 𝐴
The voltage regulation of the transformer at this load is
𝑉𝑃 − 𝑎𝑉𝑠 106.2 − 100
𝑉𝑅 = × 100% = × 100% = 6.2%
𝑎𝑉𝑠 100
The input power to this transformer is
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑝 𝐼𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = (106.2 𝑉)(11.1 𝐴)𝑐𝑜𝑠43.60 = 854 𝑊
The output power from this transformer is
𝑃0 = 𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = (200)(5)𝑐𝑜𝑠(36.87)0 = 800 𝑊
Therefore, the transformer’s efficiency is
 𝑃𝑜 800
η= × 100% = × 100% = 93.7%
𝑃𝑖𝑛 854
Example 7:
A single-phase, 10-kVA, 440/110-V, two- winding transformer is connected as an
autotransformer to supply a load at 550 V from a 440 V supply as shown below.
Calculate the following.
a) KVA rating as an autotransformer
b) Apparent power transferred by conduction
c) Apparent power transferred by electromagnetic induction
Solution:
The single –phase, a two-winding transformer is reconnected as an autotransformer
as shown in Fig. below. The current ratings of the windings are given by

10,000
𝐼𝑎𝑏 = = 90.9 𝐴
110
10,000
𝐼𝑏𝑐 = = 22.7 𝐴
440

At full load , the primary and

secondary currents are

𝐼2 = 90.9 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 = 113.6 𝐴

Therefore, the KVA rating of the autotransformer is

𝐾𝑉𝐴1 = (440)(113.6) = 50 𝐾𝑉𝐴

𝐾𝑉𝐴2 = (550)(90.9) = 50 𝐾𝑉𝐴

Transformer Tests

The performance of a transformer can be calculated on the basis of its equivalent ckt which
contains four main parameters. These are:
 The equivalent resistance Ro1 as referred to primary (secondary Ro2)
 The equivalent leakage reactance Xo1 and Xo2
 The core loss conductance Go (resistance Ro)
 The magnetizing susceptance Bo (reactance Xo)

The above parameters can be easily determined by the two tests.

 Open ckt test

 Short ckt test
a. Open ckt test

One winding of the transformer is left open while the other is excited by applying the rated voltage.
The frequency of the applied voltage must be the rated frequency of the transformer. Although it
does not matter which side of the transformer is excited, it is safer to conduct the test on the low-
voltage side. Another justification for performing the test on the low-voltage side is the availability
of the low-voltage source in any test facility. Figure 2.11 shows the connection diagram for the
open-circuit test with ammeter, voltmeter, and wattmeter inserted on the low-voltage side.

Fig 2.11.A two-winding transformer wired with instruments for open-circuit test

b. Short circuit Test

This test is designed to determine the winding resistances and leakage reactances. The short-circuit
test is conducted by placing a short circuit across one winding and exciting the other from an
alternating-voltage source of the frequency at which the transformer is rated. Since the short circuit
constrains the power output to be zero, the power input to the transformer is low. The low power
input at the rated current implies that the applied voltage is a small fraction of the rated voltage.
Therefore, extreme care must be exercised in performing this test. In this case, the wattmeter
records the copper loss at full load.

Figure 2.12 a two-winding transformer wired for short-circuit test.

2.6. THREE PHASE TRANSFORMOR

Transformer power levels range from low-power applications, such as consumer electronics power
supplies to very high power applications, such as power distribution systems. For higher power
applications, three-phase transforms are commonly used. The typical construction of a three-phase
transformer is shown in Figure. The detailed analysis of this circuit is not straightforward since
there are numerous combinations of flux paths linking various windings. For this reason, the three-
phase transformer will be modeled as three independent single-phase transformers herein.
Fig 2.16 Three phase transformer

For practical calculations, it is reasonable to model the three-phase transformer as three ideal
transformers as shown in Figure 2.17. Since these transformers are ideal, the secondary voltages
are related to the primary voltages by the turn‘s ratio:
Fig 2.17Three phase transformer ideal model

Considering the individual transformers of Figure 2.17 and that both delta and wye connections
are possible for the primary and secondary windings, there are four possible combinations of
transformer connections. The most straightforward combinations are the wye-to-wye connection
and the delta-to-delta connections shown in Figures 2.20 (S) and (B) respectively. In these cases,
the line to-line voltages on the secondary side are directly proportional to those on the primary
side through the turn‘s ratio. Therefore, the following relationship holds for both connections.

Possible Transformer connection

 Star-star or wye-wye connection
 Delta-Delta connection (∆-∆)
 Star-Delta connection (Y-∆)
 Delta-Star connection (∆-Y))
 Open delta connection (V-V)
 Scott transformer
Three-phase circuits are the most economical for a.c. power transmission and distribution. As a
consequence, three-phase transformers are the most widely used in power systems. A three phase
transformer may be a single unit (all windings wound around the same core, immersed in one tank)
or it may be made up of three single-phase units. In practice the choice between one or another
type is governed mainly by economic reasons, transportation, future expansion, reliability, etc. See
references.
The basic types of polarity connections (Y and Δ) of three-phase circuits are illustrated in Figs.
2.18 and 2.19. Except for the open-delta connection which would be used mainly as a stopgap
solution, a three-phase transformer may have its primary and secondary windings connected in
any combination of the basic connections shown in Figs. 2.18 and 2.19.

Figure 2.18 Y Connection

Figure 2.19 Δ Connection

In Figures 2.20 (A) and (B), the ideal transforms are schematically rotated by 120o from each other
to represent a 120o electrical displacement in the voltages. The voltage labels on the individual
coils correspond to the labels in Figure 2.17. An equation similar to (4) can be derived to relate the
primary and secondary currents if desired.

Fig 2.20 (A) Wye-Wye connection

Fig 2.20(B) Delta-Delta connections

The delta-to-wye connection is shown in Figure 2.20 (C). From the ideal transformer equations, it
can be determined that
In this analysis A-B-C sequence is assumed. If a source does not have this sequence the input lines
can be relabeled so that it does. With this sequence, (5) is equivalent to

As can be seen, the secondary line-to-line voltage leads the primary by 30o. A factor of 3 is also
inserted in the magnitude calculation as well. The wye-to-delta connection is shown in Figure 6.

Fig 2.20 (C) Delta- Wye connections

Fig 2.20 (D) Wye - Delta connections

Fig 2.21 Scott-Transformer connection
35