Cells: The Building Blocks of Life

Historical Background
Hooke
 Term “cell” first used by Robert Hooke (1665, England)
 He looked at cork plant samples through an early compound microscope
 The empty cork chambers he called cells
 Also made great discoveries in physics, chemistry, astronomy and architecture
Leeuwenhoek
 Dutch, mid 1600’s
 Father of Microbiology
 Perfected early microscopes and their use
 Discovered single-celled organisms
 First to make many observations at the cellular level: bacteria, muscle fibers, blood
flow etc…
Germans
 1838 – Schleiden: all plants are made of cells
 1839 – Schwann: all animals are made of cells
 1858 – Virchow: new cells can only emerge from two (2) previous cells dividing
 All of these discoveries lead to the Cell Theory

Cell Theory
Cell Theory basically states three things:
1. All living things are composed of cells (some unicellular, some multi-cellular)
2. Cells are the basic unit of structure and function in living things (different cell types
look and function differently)
3. New cells are produced from existing cells (different types of cell division)
Prior to the invention of the very first microscope, everything that could not be seen by the
naked eye was unexplainable.
In 1665, English physicist Robert Hooke used of the first light microscopes to look at thin
slices of plant tissues. One of these, a slice of cork, especially caught his eye. Under the
microscope, cork seemed to be made of thousands of tiny chambers. Hooke called this
chambers-cells because they reminded him of a monastery's tiny rooms, which were also
known as cells.
Until 1676, Anton van Leeuwenhoek published his observations on tiny living organisms
which he named animalcules. It was believed that Leeuwenhoek was the first to observe
under his microscope the structure of a red blood cell of different animals as well as a sperm
cell.
One of the leading botanists in his time, Robert Brown in 1831 was able to compare diverse
kinds of plant specimens under the microscope. He markedly indicated that there is a
common thing about them-they are all composed of cells, and inside the cell is a dark dense
spot which he termed as the nucleus.
A few years later, German botanist Matthias Schleiden (1838) concluded that all plant parts
are made of cells. Theodor Schwann (1839), also a botanist and a close friend of Schleiden,
stated that all animal tissues are composed of cells, too.
In 1858 Rudolf Virchow concluded that all cells come from pre-existing cells
Cells of Multicellular Organisms
(Animal Cells, Plant Cells)
Cells
 All living things are made of cells
 Multicellular organisms are made of different types of cells.
 Different types of cells look different and do different things.
 Specialized cells group together to form a tissue and to perform a specific function.
Plant Cells
-plant cells have a cell membrane and a more regular shape due to a stiff cell wall. They have
chloroplasts with chlorophyll to help plants make their own food.
Animal Cells
- The cells of humans and other animal have a cell membrane, but they do not have a stiff cell
wall. They cannot make their own food and do not have chloroplasts. However, there is a
greater variety to their shapes.
What are organelles?
Organelles are the cell structures that perform these specific functions. In many ways
organelles are like machines in a factory, each with a specific role. The cell has three
fundamental parts: the cytoplasm where the main metabolic life activities take place, the cell
membrane which surrounds the cytoplasm, and the nucleus where the genetic material is
stored.
To further understand the cell as a dynamic miniature factory, compare the given cell
structures to the parts of a big city.
• Arch - Cell Membrane and Cell Wall Municipal hall - Nucleus
• Dump site - Lysosome and Peroxisome Road and channel - Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Vehicles – Vacuole Land - Cytoplasm
• Factories - Ribosomes Power line - Mitochondria and Chloroplast
 Cell Structures and Functions
Manufacturing
Nucleus -DNA synthesis, RNA synthesis, assembly of ribosomes
Ribosomes -Protein synthesis
Rough ER - Synthesis of membrane lipids and proteins, secretory proteins, and
hydrolytic enzymes; formation of transport vesicles.
Smooth ER -Lipid synthesis, detoxification in liver cells
Golgi apparatus - Modification and transport of macromolecules; formation of lysosomes
and transport vesicles
Breakdown
Lysosomes - Digestion of ingested food, bacteria, and a cell's damaged organelles and
macromolecules for recycling
Vacuoles - Digestion; storage of chemicals; cell enlargement; water balance
Peroxisomes - Diverse metabolic processes, with breakdown of H2O2 by product
Energy Processing
Mitochondria - Conversion of chemical energy of food to chemical energy of Adenosine
Triphosphate (ATP)
Chloroplasts - Conversion of light energy to chemical energy of sugars
Structural Support, Movement, and Communication
Cytoplasm - Jelly like substance that holds the cell organelles in place
Cytoskeleton - Structural support; movement; road for transportation
Centrioles - Helpers in cell division
Cell Membrane - Separates cell from outside; controls what enters and leaves the cell;
recognizes signals from other cells
Cell Wall - Nonliving permeable wall that surrounds the cell membrane; encloses and
supports the cell
 Eukaryotic cells: Plant and animal cells with a nucleus and membrane-enclosed
organelles
 Prokaryotic cells: Unicellular organisms without a nucleus or membrane-enclosed
organelles (may not need oxygen)
 All cells have a cell membrane, cytoplasm, and genetic material
  Both plant and animal cells have mitochondria

Pathology - diseases Histology - tissues Cytology – cells Herpetology -

reptile

Biotechnology - manipulation of living matter, including genetic modification, synthetic biology

Entomology – insects Taxonomy - classification of organisms Mycology - fungi

Physiology - functioning of living organisms and the organs and parts of living organisms

Ecology - environment and interaction Agrostology - grasses especially their classification and
evolution

Dendrology - characteristics of trees, shrubs and other woody plants Ornithology - study of birds

Genetics - study of genes, genetic variation and heredity Evolution - change in heritable
characteristics

Phytogeography - geographical distribution of plants

Longest cell in the human body – neuron/ nerve cell

 Cell Types and Cell Modifications
Generally Accepted Characteristics of All Living Things
*They reproduce (parents and offspring)
*They grow and develop (life cycles)
*They obtain and use energy (eat or make their own food)
*They respond to their environment and are made of one or more units called ...CELLS
Levels of Organization
Cells- the basic building block
Tissues- cells that work together to perform a function
Organs- Tissues that work together to perform a function
Organ System- organs that work together
Types of Tissues
Our body is composed of four basic types of tissues:
1. Epithelium occurs- as sheets of tightly packed cells that cover body surfaces and line
internal organs and cavities.
2. Connective tissue- helps protect, support, and bind organs and other tissues.
3. Muscular tissue- helps cause movement and change in the shape of some body parts.
4. Nervous tissue- senses stimuli and transmits signals called nerve impulses.
Types of Epithelial Tissue
Epithical Tissues structure to which the tissue is found
Squamous Epithelial Tissue

Simple Squamous Epithelial Tissue Air sacs of the lung; blood vessels; heart

Stratified Squamous Epithelial Tissue Skin; vagina; esophagus; mouth

Cuboidal Epithelial Tissue Kidney tubules, glands; surface of ovary

Columnar Epithelial Tissue

Simple Columnar Epithelial Tissue (This type of epithelial tissue is usually lin
microvilli, a type of cell modification that
increasing the surface area for absorption.) D
tract; gall bladder; excretory ducts of some gland
Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelial Tissue Tissue (This type of tissue is usually lined with
type of cell modification that sweeps the
Bronchi; trachea; uterine tubes; some portion
uterus.

Types of Connective Tissues

Connective tissues Description Structure through which

tissue is found

Loose Areolar Connective Tissue Soft and pliable tissue that acts as Skin; organs; glands; blood
packing and binding material peripheral nerves
throughout the body
Fibrous Connective Tissue Linkage of muscles and bones Tendons and ligamen
Adipose Tissue Stores fat as food reserve, pads and Parts with fat storage
insulates the body, protects the skin
and other organs, and stores energy
Cartilage Consists of chondrocytes that form a Ends of bones; respiratory
strong but flexible skeletal material sutures; ear; nose; epiglo
intervertebral discs

Supportive Tissue Consists of osteoblast that form a Bones

matrix of collagen fibers embedded
in calcium salts
Vascular Tissue Consists of a liquid extracellular Blood
matrix called plasma and formed
elements; functions to transport
substances from one part of the body
to another and in immunity

Types of Muscular Tissues

Muscular tissue Description Structures through which the
found
 Smooth Muscle Not striated; involuntary muscle Walls of the digestive tract;
respiratory passages; urinary a
genital organs; blood vessels
Skeletal Muscle Striated; voluntary muscle Muscles attached to the bones

Cardiac Muscle Striated; involuntary muscle Heart muscle

*Muscle Cells must stretch and grow

*Nerve Cells send signals to the brain
from the body

What is Cell Modification? Apical Modification

Villi and Microvilli
> Villi are finger-like projections that arise from the
epithelial layer in some organs. They help to increase
surface area allowing for faster and more efficient
adsorption
>Microvilli are smaller projections that arise from the
cell's surface that also increase surface area allowing
faster and more efficient absorption
Cilia and Flagella
>Cilia are usually short, hair-like structures that
move in waves
>Flagella are long whiplike structures
>Formed from microtubules
Pseudopods
>Temporary, irregular lobes formed by amoebas and some other eukaryotic cells
>Bulge outward to move the cell or engulf prey
Extra Cellular Matrix (ECM)
>Compound secreted by the cell on its apical surface
>Cell wall is the structure in plant cells that distinguishes
them from animal cells
>Glycoprotein is the main ingredient of ECM in animal cells
Basal Modification
Desmosomes/Hemidesmosomes

>Anchoring junction on the basal surface of the cell

> Rivet-like links between cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix components such as the
basal lamina that underlie epithelia
>Primarily composed of keratin, integrins and cadherins
Lateral Modification
Adhering Junction
>Anchoring junction on the lateral surface of the cell
> Very similar to the anchoring junction of the basal surface of the cell
>Fasten cells to one another

Cell Cycle and Mitosis

>Eukaryotic cells a.Somatic Cells b.Sex Cells
-make up your organs and tissues -gametes(the ONLY non-somatic)

The cell cycle is an orderly sequence of events that describes the stages of a cell’s life from
the division of a single parent cell to the production of 2 new daughter cells
CELL DIVISION
*In eukaryotes, cell division occurs in two major stages.
The first stage, division of the cell nucleus, is called mitosis.
Mitosis is the part of a cell cycle that results in identical daughter nuclei that are also
genetically identical to the original parent nucleus.
The second stage, division of the cell cytoplasm, is called cytokinesis.
*Meiosis employs many of the same mechanisms as mitosis. However, the starting nucleus is
always diploid and the nuclei that result at the end of a meiotic cell division are haploid.
Nuclear division (karyokinesis) is usually followed by the cytoplasm into two (cytokinesis).
-- A phase is a defined period within a cycle of change. Cells go through phases, too. --
The sequence of phases in the life cycle of a cell is called the cell cycle. The cell cycle has
two parts:
1. Growth and preparation (interphase) and
2. Cell division (mitosis or meiosis). Cell division in turn is divided into two stages:
Karyokinesis and cytokinesis.
PHASES OF THE CELL CYCLE
▪ Mitotic (M) phase (mitosis and cytokinesis)
▪ Interphase (cell growth and copying of chromosomes in preparation for cell division)
CELL CYCLE (4 Phases)
The cell cycle is the series of events that cells go through as they grow and divide.
During the cell cycle:
1. a cell grows
2. prepares for division
3. divides to form two daughter cells, each of which begins the cycle again
INTERPHASE (90% of the cell cycle)
-the period of growth that occurs between cell divisions. Cell spends most of its life in this
phase. It can be divided into subphases:
G1 phase ("first gap") S phase ("synthesis") G2 phase ("second gap")
The cell grows during all three phases, but chromosomes are duplicated only during the S
phase
The phases of cell cycle happen along with the cell cycle control system. Cell cycle control
system, also called as cell cycle checkpoints, is driven by a built-in clock that can be adjusted
by external stimuli like sending chemical messages (protein).
Cell cycle control system has three main checkpoints:
G1 checkpoint, G2 checkpoint, and Mitosis checkpoint.
G1 checkpoint is the restriction point which ensures that the cell is large enough to divide
and that enough nutrients are available to support the resulting daughter cells.
During G1, the cell increases in size (cell grows) synthesizes new proteins and organelles
(cell develops)
During the S phase, (DNA replication)
*Chromosomes are replicated
*DNA synthesis takes place
Once a cell enters the S phase, it usually completes the rest of the cell cycle. During the S
stage, the chromosomes, specifically their DNA, replicate. As DNA replication has ended, the
cell enters another checkpoint called the G2 checkpoint.
The G2 Phase (Second Gap Phase) organelles and molecules required for cell division are
produced
Once G2 is complete, the cell is ready to start the M Phase-Mitosis
Mitosis is conventionally divided into five phases;
▪ Prophase
▪ Prometaphase
▪ Metaphase
▪ Anaphase
▪ Telophase
DNA
Chromatin - long, thin strands made up of DNA and protein. The protein helps the DNA to
stay together when chromosomes form.
Chromosomes - Genetic information is passed from one generation to the next on
chromosomes. Before cell division, each chromosome is duplicated, or copied.
-Each chromosome consists of two identical "sister" chromatids.
-Each pair of chromatids is attached at an area called the Centromere.
MITOSIS-CELL DIVISION
Occurs in body cells - somatic cells
Forms two identical daughter cells - exactly like the original
Biologists divide the events of mitosis into four phases: (PMAT)
"Prophase
"Metaphase
"Anaphase
“Telophase
PROPHASE
Prophase is the first and longest phase of mitosis. The centrioles separate and take up
positions on opposite sides of the nucleus.
-- Summary --
*Longest Phase *First phase of MITOSIS *Chromosomes become visible
*Centrioles separate and move to opposite poles (ends) *Spindle fibers appear
*Nucleolus and nuclear membrane (envelope) disappear
PROMETAPHASE
a transition phase between prophase and metaphase, chromatin materials have coiled to form
the chromosomes.
The nucleus and other organelles are no longer visible.
The centrioles have reached the opposite poles of the cell.
Spindle fibers converge and connect to the kinetochore of chromosomes. As the
interconnection of spindle fibers to the chromosomes, specifically to their kinetochore, has
ended, the cell enters the metaphase checkpoint.
METAPHASE
The second phase of mitosis is metaphase.
The chromosomes line up across the center of the cell.
Microtubules connect the centromere of each chromosome to the poles of the spindle
-- Summary --
*Shortest phase *Chromosomes attach to spindle fibers in center of the cell
ANAPHASE
•The third phase of mitosis.
•The sister chromatids separate into individual chromosomes.
•The chromosomes continue to move until they have separated into two groups.
--Summary --
Centromeres split apart and chromatids separate from one another. Each chromatid moves to
opposite poles.
TELOPHASE
•The fourth and final phase of mitosis.
•Chromosomes gather at opposite ends of the cell and lose their distinct shape
•A new nuclear envelope forms around each cluster of chromosomes
-- Summary --
*Chromosomes reach opposite poles of cell
*Chromatids unwind back into chromatin
*Nuclear envelope and nucleolus reappear reforming the nucleus
*Spindle fibers disappear
*New double membrane (cell membrane) gain to form between 2 nuclei (cell pinches)
Animal cell – cleavage Plant cell- cell plate
CYTOKINESIS - CYTOPLASM DIVISION
During cytokinesis, the cytoplasm pinches in half.
Each daughter cell has an identical set of duplicate chromosomes
Errors in Mitosis
Non-disjunction Anaphase The chromosomes or sister
chromatids failed to separate
that may to chromosomal
mutation.
Mosaicism is a condition
where some cells in an
individual have a mutant
version of a gene while
other cells have a normal
version of the same gene. It
usually results from non-
disjunction of sister
chromatids during fetal
development. Two examples
of diseases linked to
mosaicism are hemophilia,
a blood - clotting disorder,
and Marfan syndrome, or
unusually long limbs.
Interphase The cell produces incorrect
DNA copies. As a result,
mutated cells are formed
known as cancer cells.
Cancer cells do not respond
normally to the cell cycle
control system; they divide
actively producing an
abnormally growing mass of
body cells called tumor.
Benign tumor is a lump of
cancer cells that remain at
the original site
 Malignant tumor is a lump
of cancer cells that can
spread into neighboring
tissues and other parts of the
body, displacing normal
tissue and interrupting organ
function as it goes. This
spread of cancer cells via the
circulatory system beyond
their original site is called
metastasis.

Chemotherapy drugs such as vincristine and colchicine disrupt mitosis by binding to tubulin,
the subunit of microtubules found in centriole and interfering with microtubule assembly and
disassembly.
Meiosis
*The form of cell division by which Gametes, with HALF the number of CHROMOSOMES,
are produced.
*DIPLOID (2n) → HAPLOID (n)
*Meiosis is SEXUAL reproduction. *TWO divisions (MEIOSIS I and MEIOSIS II).
Diploid Cells (2n) Haploid Cells (n)
>2 sets of chromosomes >1 set of chromosomes
1 set from each parent ½ diploid no.
>Contains pairs if Homologous chromosomes >No homologous
>All somatic cells >Gametes only
>Reproduce by Mitosis >Formed by Meiosis
>No gametes
SPERMATOGENESIS – origin/development of sperm cells
OOGENESIS – egg cell (Meiosis II only 1 survives, other 3 polar bodies die)
• A polar body is a small haploid cell that is formed at the same time as an egg cell during
oogenesis, but generally does not have the ability to be fertilized.
FERTILIZATION
• The fusion of a sperm and egg to form a zygote.
•A zygote is a FERTILIZED EGG
MEIOSIS
*Meiosis, like mitosis, is preceded by the duplication of chromosomes.
*However, this single duplication is followed by two consecutive divisions, called meiosis I
and meiosis II.
*These two cellular divisions result in four genetically distinct daughter cells, each with a
haploid set of chromosomes.
*Meiosis is preceded by interphase just like in mitosis.
*During interphase, the cell grows and its genetic materials duplicate. As the cell enters
meiosis I, also called as first meiotic division, the chromosome number of the cell is reduced
to half of its original. After reducing the chromosome number to half, the cell will enter
meiosis II, also called as second meiotic division
INTERPHASE I (Nucleus & Nucleolus visible)
• Similar to mitosis interphase.
• CHROMOSOMES (DNA) replicate in the S phase
• Each duplicated chromosome consists of two identical SISTER CHROMATIDS attached at
their CENTROMERES
• CENTRIOLE pairs also replicate.
--MEIOSIS I (FOUR PHASES)--
>Cell division that reduces the chromosome number by one- half.
Four phases:
a. Prophase I b. Metaphase I c. Anaphase I d. Telophase I
PROPHASE I
•It has been subdivided into five substages:
• Leptonema, • Zygonema, • Pachynema, • Diplonema, • and Diakinesis.
>In leptonema, the chromatin materials have coiled and are already visible
>In zygonema, chromosomes begin to pair and twist with their homologues in a highly
specific manner. This pairing of chromosomes is called synapsis.
>In pachynema, crossing - over, a form of physical exchange of chromosomal region between
homologous chromosomes, takes place.
>In diplonema, after the crossing -over process, the pair of homologous chromosomes begin
to separate from each other and the area of contact between two non- sister chromatids during
crossing - over, called chiasma, become more evident.
>In diakinesis, homologous chromosomes become more condensed and the chiasma often
terminalizes and moves down reaching the telomeres, terminal ends of chromosomes, which
delays the separation of homologous chromosomes.
-- Summary –
*Longest and most complex phase (90%).
*Chromosomes condense. *Spindle forms *Nucleus & Nucleolus disappears
*Synapsis occurs - Homologous chromosomes come together to form a tetrad.
*Tetrad is two chromosomes or four chromatids (sister and non-sister chromatids).
HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES
•Pair of chromosomes (maternal and paternal) that are similar in shape and size. Homologous
pairs (tetrads) carry GENES controlling the SAME inherited traits. Each locus (position of a
gene) is in the same position on homologues.
•Humans have 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes:
a. First 22 pairs of autosomes b. Last pair of sex chromosomes
CROSSING OVER
•Crossing over may occur between non-sister chromatids at sites called chiasmata.
•Crossing over: segments of non-sister chromatids break and reattach to the other chromatid.
METAPHASE I
*Shortest phase
*Tetrads align on the equator
ANAPHASE I
•Homologous chromosomes separate and move towards the poles.
•Sister chromatids remain attached at their centromeres.
TELOPHASE I
•Each pole now has haploid (n) set of chromosomes.
•Cytokinesis occurs and two haploid daughter cells are formed.
MEIOSIS II (Sister chromatids separate)
*No Interphase II *No DNA replication
Note: Meiosis II is similar to mitosis
PROPHASE II (Same as prophase in mitosis)
*Nucleus & Nucleolus disappear *Spindle forms *Chromosomes condense
METAPHASE II (Same as metaphase in mitosis)
ANAPHASE II (SAME)
TELOPHASE (SAME)
 Karyotype
-a visual representation of an individual’s complete set of chromosomes in the cell
Abnormalities involving the presence of an extra chromosome or the absence of a
chromosome are called aneuploidies.
Aneuploidy is caused by non-disjunction, the failure of chromosomes to correctly separate as
homologues during meiosis I or sister chromatids during meiosis II.
An individual with an extra chromosome- three of one kind - is said to be trisomic for that
kind of cell.
An individual lacking one member of a pair of chromosomes is said to be monosomic.
When disease causes multiple symptoms, we refer to it as a syndrome.
Errors in Meiosis
Chromosomal aberrations Error in the structure or no. Characteristic Properties
of chromosomes
Monosomy
Turner’s Syndrome Has only one X The affected individual is female, short,
chromosomes in the 23rd with webbing on the neck, has a low
pair hairline on the back of the neck, has a
broad chest, exhibits slight mental
deficiency, and the breasts, the external
genital organ, and secondary
characteristics do not develop
Trisomy
Down’s Syndrome Has an extra copy of The mouth is usually open, slanting eyes,
chromosome in the 21st pair upper eyelid appears bulging or swollen,
usually a low nose bridge, low set ears,
short broad hands with abnormal palm
prints, mentally retarded, with heart and
respiratory ailments, and a reduced life
expectancy.
Edward’s Syndrome Has an extra copy of The jaws are small, clenched fingers,
chromosome in the 18th pair harelips, cleft palates, malformations of
the heart, skull, face, and feet, severely
mentally retarded, and die at three to
four months of age.
Patau’s Syndrome Has an extra copy of There is deformation of hands and feet,
chromosome in the 13th pair as well as a face severely deformed by a
cleft lip and cleft palate, and live from
about a few days to a few months.

Klinefelter’s Syndrome Has an extra copy of X The affected individual is male, has a
chromosome and one Y general male appearance, the testes are
 chromosome in the 23rd pair usually small, sperm cells are usually not
produced, most are mentally
handicapped, the arms are longer than
average, the breasts are slightly
developed, the voice has a higher pitch
than in normal males.
Metafemale or Triple X Syndrome Has three to four X The affected individual is female, does
chromosomes in the 23rd not have distinct clinical features but
pair may have menstrual irregularities,
secondary amenorrhea, and premature
menopause, generally has subnormal
mental abilities.
Metamales or Double Y Syndrome Has an extra copy of Y The affected individual is male, tall, with
chromosome and one X low IQ, with severe facial acne during
chromosome in the 23rd pair adolescence, severely mentally retarded.
Deletion - refers to the loss of a fragment of a chromosome
Cri-du-chat or Cat- cry Syndrome Deletion of a segment of a The affected individual has a
chromosome in the 5th characteristic high-pitched cry during
pair infancy similar to a kitten in distress,
malformed head and face, severely
mentally retarded, with low IQ, and
malformed and improperly functioning
brain, heart, eyes, kidneys, bones, and
larynx.
William's Syndrome Deletion of a segment of a The affected individual has broad
chromosome in the 7th pair forehead, flat nasal bridge, lower eyelid
appears bulging or swollen, full lips,
wide mouth, very active, and with
cognitive impairment and developmental
delays.