2.

Determinants and Cramer's Rule

Recap of Facts and Fonnulae

1. Minors and cofactors of elements of a determinant Similarly, we get the cofactor of an element in case of
• In determinants of order 3 or more, every element has determinants of fourth or higher order.
a minor and a cofactor.
• ln the determinant
2. Expansion of a determinant
a b c
d e f of the third order,
• j : : I = ad - be (= value of the determinant).
g h
c
~ ~\
a b
the minor of a = \ • 6. = d e f = aA + bB + cC
which is a determinant of the second order and is g h
obtained by removing all elements of the determinant
that fall on the horizontal and vertical lines drawn =a l ~ ~1-b1; ~j+cJ; ~,
through a. Similarly, = a(ei - fh) - b(di -fg ) + c(dh - eg)

the minor of e = \ ; ~ \· Similarly,

In the determinant Li =dD+ eE+fF=-dlt ~j +e\; ~l-t\; ti

n1 b1 C1 d1
a2 b2 C2 d2
of the fourth order,
6. = cC + f F + ii = c I ,~ ~ \ - f \ ; · ~ I + i \ : ~ I , etc.
a3 b3 c3 d3
Note A determinant having all elements in a row (or
(14 /14 C4 d4
column) equal to 0, has the value zero.
b~ C2 d2 a 1 b1 c1 d1
the minor of a 1 = /J 3 C3 d3 a2 b2 C2 d2
b4 C4 d4 • 6= b d
a3 3
1 1 1
C3 1 1 1 1
3
=a,A +bB+c C+d D
which is a determinant of the third order and it is a4 b4 C4 d4
expanded as in case of determinants of third order.
b2 C2 d 2 a2 d2
• The cofactor of an element = (-1) ' +c x minor, 6 =a 1 b3 C3 d3 - bi a 3 d3
where r and c denote the number of the row and the b4 C4 d4 a4 d4
column respectively to which the element belongs.
In the determinant
a2 b2 d2 (12 ~ ~
+C1
b3 C3a3 b3 d3 -d, a3
a b c
d
g
e
'1
r
1
I the cofactor of a = (-1) 1 + 1 · I ~ ~I;
a4 b4 a4 b4 C4
where each of the third order determinant is to be
d4

expanded. ·
the cofactor off= (-1) 2 + 3 · I; !I·
The cofactor of an element is denoted by the 3. Reduction and increase of order of a determinant
corresponding capital letters.
• If all the elements in a row (or a column), except one
G = cofactor of g = (-1) 3 + 1
· I: } I · element, are zeros the determinant reduces to a
determinant of an order less by one.
A -39
 Problems Plus in /IT Mat1Iemt1 l ics

ma 1 mb 1 mc1
9 0 0 ai b1 C1
1
a2 b2 C2
For example -2 3 7 == 9 13 71 , ll z b2 C2 - m
b3 C3
4 5 1 5 1 •I
113 b3 C3 a3
because cofactors of the other two elements in the
fir st row cannot contribute to the value of the i.e., 6 =;;1 · 6R; __. mR;-
detemunant. Similarly,
4 7 O 5 • m times of the elements of a row (o: column) can be
8 -5 2 3 7 0 5 added to the corresponding elements of another row
6 O o o = 6 -5 2 3 (or column). Symbolically,
1 2 3 4 2 3 4
6 = f:::, R;-+ R; + mRj
(or 6 c; __. c; + mci)
• A_ determinant can be replaced by a determinant of a
higher order by one. For example
1 0 0 a, b1 c, a, b, C1
2
For example \ 3 I 0 2 3 a2 b2 C2 F
-5 8 I= a2 b2 C2 = I

0 -5 8 a3 + ma 1 b3 + mb 1 c3 + mc 1
a3 b3 C3
2 3 0 0 0 1 (R 3 ➔ R 3 + mR 1 )
or -5 8 0 or 2 3 0
0 0 1 -5 8 0 (ii) The value of a determinant reduces to zero in any
0 2 3 one the following cases.
or 0
1
-5
0
8
0
. The value is zero if all the elements in a ro'w (or
column) are zeros.
4 0 13
4. Properties of determinants For example -7 0 11 = 0.
2 0 6
(i) A determinant can be transformed without
changing value by any one of the following • The value is zero if any two rows (or columns) are
properties (these properties hold for determinants identical. Symbolically,
of all orders): or = 0.
. Corresponding rows and columns can be
D R; - Rj=0

-2 3
6c; .. cj

7 5
interchanged. Symbolically, 6 = 6. R = c· 5 2
For example 9 1 4 = 0, -1 -1 4 = 0.
(l I b, c, 111 tlz 113
-2 3 7 7 7 11
For example 112 b2 C2 bi b2 b3
a3 b3 C3 c, Cz C3

• Two consecutive rows (or columns) can be

changed 5. Properties of cofactors of a determinant
i_n terchanged by multiplying the
determinant by (-1). Symbolically,
• The sum ~f the products of elements of a row (or
t::, = - t,. R; = R; + 1 (or- 6 cJ-=c·J + i) ~~lt~x;m> lw1thf tthheir corre~ponding cofactors is equal
va ue o e determinant.
ai bi C1 a2 b2 C2

For example a2 b2 C2 = (-1) a, bi C1 For example aA + bB + cC = 6

11 3 b3 C3 a3 . b3 C3 _. aA + dD + gG = 1::,.
a 2 b2 Cz a b c
=(-1 )2 a3 b3 C3 where t:, = d e f
111 b, C1 g h i
• If a factor is co~mon in all elements of a row (or • The sum of the products of
column), the factor can be taken outside the column) with the f elements of a row (or
co actors of th
determinant. Symbolically, 6 = m · 6 Rj ➔ ;,-R;
1
e1ements of another ( e corresponding
row or column) is equal to 0.
For example aD + bE
+ cf =O
ma 1 mb 1 mc1 a, b, c,
cA +fD + iG = O
a.2 b2 C2 =m a2 b2 Cz
For example
a3 b3 C3 113 b3 C3 a b c
where 6 = d e f
w hich also implies g h
 [)rtr m1 iw111/~ 1111d
A -41
Cr,1mcr's Rule

6. Sum of determinant s, a determinant as sum of 11 1X 1 + /) 1X ~ + C1X:1 /1 1.1/ 1 + b1 .1/ 2 + C1.1/)

detenninants = /12X 1 + ' ' 2X2 + C2X3 11 2.1/1 + /J2Y2 + C'12h
bi l1 3X1 + /1 3X 2 + C3XJ t13.1/1 + b3)h + C:,..1/3
l71 C1 d i [11 C1
. Let ::i i= n2 b2 '2 2- 2::: d2 b2 C2
nI z 1 + b1z2 + c1z3
n3 1'3 C::,. d3 b3 C3
a 2Z 1 + h2z2 + C2Z3
be two third order determinant s which have 3 - 1 1132 1 + b:,?.2 + C3Z3
(on e less than the common order) columns identical.
is obtained by using sum of products of elements
Then their addition is also a determinan t of the third
in rows of the first and the columns of the second,
order given by
pattern being as follow s:
a 1 + d1 /11 C1 For the first row of the product, the elements in the
~ I + 62 = a2 + d2 h2 C2 different columns are shown below.
113 + d 3 /13 C3

al l, I C1
Similarly, if 6 3= d2 f2 ti then
a::,. b, ~ C3

al b, CJ Similarly for other rows.

2 , + l:::.3 = a2 + d2 b2 + e2 Cz +f 2 al bi C1 XI .1/1 21
a3 b::,. (ii) .61 ' =
C3 6.2 a2 b2 C2 X2 Yi Z2

But .i 2 + !:::. _-, can.not be found like this. a3 b3 C3 X3 Y3 Z3

• A determinan t having two or more terms in the a1X1 + b1Y1 + C12 1 a1 X2 + b1Y2 + C1Z 2

elements of a row (or column) can be written as the a 2x1+ b 2Y1 + C22 1 a2x 2 + bi)J 2 + c2z2
sum of two or more determinant s as follows: a3x1 + b3y 1 + c3z1 a 3X2 + b3y2 + C:12 2
a1 + /J 1 C1 di a, c, d1 bi C1 di a1x3 + b 1y~+ c1z3
a2 + b2 C2 d2 = a2 C2 d2 + b2 C2 d2 + b2YJ + C2 2 3
ll zX3
a3 + bJ C3 d3 03 C3 d3 b3 C3 d3 a3x, + b_,y3 + C3Z3
decomposin g along the first column. This is also obtained by interchangi ng rows and
columns of the post-multiplier in (i) and then
a1 b1 C1
multiplying as in (i).
172 b2 Cz
d 1+ d 2+ d 3 e1 + e2 + e3 f1+f2+f3
8. Derivative of a determinant
a1 bi C1 al bi C1 al b, C1
A determinant can be differentiated in any one of the
= ll z [12 C2 + a2 b2 Cz + a2 b2 Cz
two ways given below.
di f1 f1 d2 e2 f2 d3 f3 f,
• Expand the determinan t and then differentiate the
decompos!,ng along the third row. e~·,ression.
u(x) v(x) w(x)
• If 6.(x) = p(x) q(x) r(x) then
7. Product of two determinants
11.(x) ~t(x) v(x)
Two determinant s of the same order can be multiplied u'(x) v'(x) w'(x) ll(X) v(x) w(x)
and the product is also a determinant of the same order. 6. '(x)= p(x) q(x) r(x) + p'(x) q'(x) r'(x)
The rule is as displayed by the illustrations.
A(X) µ{x) v(x) A(X) ~l(X) v(x)
a1 b1 c1 X1 Yi Z1
u(x) v(x) w(x)
lf 6 1 = a2 b2 C2 and !J. 2 = Xz Y2 Z2
+ p(x) q(x ) r(x)
a3 b3 c3 X3 Y3 Z3
A.'(x) µ '(x) v '(x)
then j_ 1 . :, 2 can be found in any one of the two ways
This differentiation can also be done columnwise . -
given below.

ll 1 b, C1 'x, Yi Z1
9. Cramer's Rule for solving simultaneou s linear
(i) 6 ,. 6.2= a2 b2 Cz X2 Z2
Y2 equations
a_,. b3 c., X3 YJ Z3
The solution of the linear equations
 - r- !1.j - .: , ::: - d- =0 • ~ ~0 ⇒ the system has unique solution
ii ~ - _. :_~ - r:.:: - d:. = 0 ,A, (independent system)
.i~.1 - b,1; - .:-: - d~= 0 • ~ = 0 but at least one of -· x, L y, L z # 0
!S ~ ,·E-n ~ · ⇒ the system has no solution
(unsolvable or inconsistent system)
r - f,I

y c. d. = a, • :_ = 0 = Lx = ly = l 2 ~ thesystemhasinfin itesolution
C1 d1
(dependent system)
b- ~- d-J.. Q- C2 di
"
I- ~; d1 a3 C3 d3 11. Condition for consistency and existence of nontrivial
z -1 solution
= =
a1 b1 di a-, b1 c, • The system of linear equations a,x + b,y + c, = O;
a2 b2 di a2 bi C:2 r = 1, 2, 3 are cons:stent if
QJ b3 d-; a3 b3 C3
I

a1 b1 C1
Denoting the determinants in the denominators by Lx, a2 b2 c2 = O .. . (1)
._ ~, - z and _ respectively, a3 b3 C3

• • The system of homogeneous linear equations

-x Lu - Lz
x= - - , y =--L. , z= - - a,x + b,y + c,z = O; r = 1, 2, 3 wiJl ha ve nontrivial (at
l L L
least one nonzero) solutions ii the above condition (1)
is satisfied.
10. Sumber of solutions of a sy~tem of linear equations • If a,x + b,y + c,z = O; r = 1, 2, 3 have a non-trivial
f o r th~ above system of Ii.near equations (A), solution then it will have infinite number of solutions.
 Eq11ations, lnequations and Expressions A-71

iv) Positive definiteness and negative definiteness of a factor off (x), which is positive for all real x
quadratic polynomial
except x = a where f (x) is zero.
ax 2 +bx + c > 0 holds for all x E R, i.e., ax 2 + bx+ c is
:. the solution off (x) > 0 will be the same as
positive definite, if
f(x)
2 the factor
D < 0 and a > 0 where D = b - 4ac. (x - a) 2
> 0. So the omission of
2
ax 2 +bx+ c ~ 0 holds for all x E R, i.e., ax +bx+ c is (x - a)
2
from f (x) will not affect the solution of
non-negative, if the inequation.
D $ 0 and a> 0. (3) If two roots off (x) = 0 for the inequation be
2
2
ax +bx+ c < 0 holds for all x E R, i.e., ax +bx+ c complex conjugate a ± if3 then (x - a) 2 + p2 is a
is negative definite, if positive factor off (x). So the omission of the
2 2
D < 0 and a< 0. factor (x - a) + f3 from f(x) will not affect the
3 2 solution of the inequation.
(v) The sign-scheme for ax + bx +ex+ d, x ER
It is as follows: (4) The solution of an inequation f (x) > 0 or < 0 or
Let the roots of the corresponding equation ~ 0 or $ 0 is directly dependent on the solution
2
ax 3 + bx +ex+ d = 0 be a, f3, y. of the corresponding equation f(x) = 0.
If a, f3, y are real and unequal (a < f3 < y) then
(+) (-) (+) (-) 7. Quadratic equation and its roots
y
a
If ax 2 + bx + c = 0, (a-:;:. 0) be a quadratic equation whose
where a value between f3 and y makes the only two roots are a, p then
expression positive;
-b ± ✓b 2 - 4ac
roots a, f3 = 2a
(-) a(+) ~ (-) y (+)

where a value between p and y makes the where b 2 - 4ac is the discriminant D.
expression negative. • The nature of the roots will be as follows:
3 2
For example Discuss the sign of x + 2x - x - 2, D > 0 <=> roots are real and unequal (a, b, c being real)
XE R. being real)
D = 0 <=> roots are real and equal (a, b, c
The corresponding equation is
D < 0 <=> roots are nonrea I conjugate complex
X
3
+ 2X 2 - X - 2= 0
(a, b, c being real)
or 2
x (x + 2) - l(x + 2) =0 Dis a perfect square <=> roots are rational
or (x+2)(x 2 -1)=0.
(a, b, c being rational)
Its roots are x = -2, 1, -1. D is not a perfect square (but positive)
:. the sign-scheme for x 3 + 2x 2 - x - 2, x e R is as <=> roots are conjugate irrationals
follows:
(a, b, c being rational)
(-) ( +) (-) ( +)

-2 -1 Note
becauseatx=O (-1, 1),thevalueisnega tive.
e (1) If any of the coefficients a, b, c is nonreal complex
x 3 +2x 2 -x-2>0 if x E (-2,-l)u(l , +oo) and p + iq is a complex root of ax 2 + bx+ c = O
x 3 +2x 2 -x-2<0 if x E (-oo,-2)u(-l, 1) then the other rc:>ot need not be p - iq .
X
3
+ 2X 2 - X - 2 = Q if X = -2, -1, J. (2) If any of the coefficients a,b, c is irrational and
Note p + ✓q be an irrational root of ax 2 + bx + c = Othen
(1) The sign-scheme for fourth or higher degree the other root need not be p - ✓q.
polynomials is also prepared as above by (3) The above notes (1), (2) hold for equations of
detecting the sign of the value of the higher degrees also.
polynomial for x belonging to an interval
determined by two consecutive roots and then • If a+ b + c = 0 then the equation ax 2 +bx + c = 0 has a
root x = 1.
setting alternate signs in the other intervals.
(2) If two roots of f (x) = 0 for the inequation -b C
a + P= - , ap =- .
f (X) > 0 be real and equal to a then (x - a) 2 is a a a
A -72 Problems P/11Ai11 JIT Mnth emntics

• f high er deg rees and thei r roots

• Sign of real roots s. Equations o
(a) Wh en D ~ o, r1 _+ a x n - 2 + . , . + a,, == 0, whe re a 1s
1
a0x 11 + a,x ?. •
are real
. •
(i) both root s are pos itive if
(a 0 -:t- 0), 1s a
n nth deg ree poly nom ial equ atio n in on
e
-b C vari able x.
a+ 13 =- > 0, cxl3 =- > 0. It has n root s ( une qua l or equ al) whi ch
a II
are eith er real or
a p non real com plex .
0 ax 3 + bx 2 +ex + d == O, (a
(ii) bot h root s
-:t:- 0) is a cub ic equ atio n
are neg ativ e if
who se root s are a , P, Y·
-b C
a+ 13 = - < 0, a~ = - > 0.
a a -b
The n LCt = o. + P+ Y = -;-
p 0: 0
C -d
(b) Wh en D > 0 , :Ea.13 = aj3 + PY + ya = ; al3 y=-
a
one root is pos itiv e and one root
is neg ativ e if The se are obta ined by equ atin g coef
C ficie nts of x 2, x
al3= - < 0. and x O on both side s of
a
ax 3 + bx 2 +ex + d = a(x - a)(x - J3)(x -
y).
a O 13

• Location of real roots

• ax 4 + bx 3 + ex 2 + dx + e = 0, (a 0) *
is a four th degree
(biq uadr atic ) equ atio n who se root s
are a, 13, y, 8.
(a) Wh en D ~ 0,
(i) both root s are grea ter than k The n LO. = a + 13 + y + 8 = --b
a
⇒ a - k > 0, 13 - k > 0
La.l3 = a.!3 + ay + o.8 + J3y + 138 + y& = -C
a 13 a
k
La.J3y = a.l3y + a.13<> + a.yo + l3y8 -d
⇒ (a - k ) + (13 - k) > 0, (a - k)(l3 -
k) > 0 = -a
⇒ a+ 13 - 2k > 0, a.13 - k(a + 13) + k 2 > 0 e
a.J3yo = -
(ii) both root s are less than k a
⇒ a - k < 0, 13 - k < 0 Not e
(1) The abo ve resu lts for an
equ atio n of the nth
13 a k deg ree can be rem emb ered as follo ws:
⇒ (a - k) + (13 - k) < 0, (a - k)((3 sr = sum of the prod ucts of the root
- k) > 0 s taki ng r at a
(iii) both root s lie betw een k and time
/ (k < I)
⇒ a - k > 0, 13 - k > 0, a - I< 0, 13 = (-l) r coefricie~t. of the (hig hest - rth) pow er
- I< 0 coef ficie nt of the high est pow er
a. 13
For exam ple In case of the cub ic equ
k atio n
l
⇒ a. - k + j3 - k > 0, a. - I + 13 - I < ax 3 + bx 2 + ex+ d = o,
0
La.13 = sum of the prod ucts of root s taki
(a - k)((3 - k) > 0, (a. - 1)(13 - /) >
0 ng two at
a time
(b) Wh en D > 0,
(i) one root is less than k and the = (- l)2. coef ficie nt of x 3 - , i.e., x
2
othe r grea ter than k c
coef ficie nt of x 3 a
⇒ o. - k < 0, !} - k > 0
In case of the equ atio n
a. k 13 ax 5 + l·Jx 4 + ex :i + dx 2 +ex + f =0,
⇒ (a - k)(l3 - k)< 0 i:apy = sum of the prod ucts of root s
taki ng three
(ii) one root is less than k and the othe r at a time
gTeater than
I (k < /) = (- l) 3 . coef ficie nt of x
- 3, i.e., x
52
_ !!._ .
⇒ a - k < 0, 13 - k > 0, u - I < 0, 13 - I > coef ficie nt of x 5 - - a
0

-
=> (a_ k)(j3 _
o. k L 13
k) < 0, (c..1 - 1)(13 - 1) < 0
(2) lf the equ atio n is of the thir d deg
coefficients then
(i) root s are all real or
ree with real
 Equat ions, ln equations and Expressions A -73

(ii) one roo t is real and two roots are nonreal 2

11. Extreme values of ax +bx+ c, x e R
complex which are conjugate to each other.
• If ax + bx+ c = y then ax + bx + (c - y) = O will have
2 2
In case of (i) all roots are rational or one
rational and two irrational conjugates. real roots, i.e., D ~ 0 => b 2 - 4a(c - y) ~ O;
this is a lirlear irlequation in y solving which we get
the extreme values of y (i.e., ax 2 + bx+ c).
9. Formation of equation when roots are known a1x 2 + b1x + c 1
• If 2 -y
The quadratic equation with roots a, f3 is a2 x + b2 x + c2
2
2
(x-a)(x-f3 )=0, i.e., x -(a+f3)x+ af3=0. then (a 1 - aiY)X + (b 1 - b2Y)X + (c 1 - CzY) = 0
• The cubic equation with roots a, f3, y is will have real roots, i.e.,
D ~ 0 => (b 1 - bzY) - 4(a 1 - azY)(c 1 - CzY) ~ 0;
2
(x - a)(x - ~)(x - y) =.0, i.e.,
2 thisisaqua draticineq uationiny which can be solved
x 3 - (a+ f3 + y)x + (af3 + f3y + ya)x - af3y = 0.
by usirlg sign-schem e. The solution of this inequation
The nth degree equation with roots a 1, D:z, a 3, ••. , an is gives the extreme values of y.
(x - a 1){x - D:z)(x - ~) ... (x - an) = 0.
Note 12. Factors of polynomial s
(1) If one root of a quadratic equation with real • x - a is a factor of the polynomia l/(x)
coefficients is given to be p + iq then the other a is a root of the equation/(x ) = 0, i.e., /(a)= 0.
¢=>
root (another root) is also known to be p - iq. This
is true for equations of higher degrees also. • y - mx is a factor of J(x, y)

(2) If one root of a quadratic equation with rational ¢=> f(x, rnx) = 0 or !(;,, y] =0.
coefficients is given to be p + ✓q then the other
root (another root) is also known to be p - ✓q. • ax 2 + bx + c is a perfect square
This is true for equations of higher degrees also. if D = 0, i.e., b 2 - 4ac = 0 .
• If a, f3 are the roots of the correspondi rlg equation
then ax 2 + bx+ c = a(x - a)(x - f3).
10. Common roots in two quadratic equations 2
• ax 2 + 2hxy + by + 2gx + 2/y + c can be resolved into
2 2
linear factors ¢=> abc + 2fgh - a/2 - bg - ch = O.
2
• a is a common root irI a1x + b1x + c1 = 0 and
a2x 2 + b2x + c2 = 0
=> a 1a 2 + b1a + c1 = 0 13. Use of calculus in problems of equations and
expressions
a 2 a 2 + b2 a + c2 = 0
• Ii/(A) and/(µ) are of opposite signs then the equation
a2 a 1
J(x) = 0 has a real root lying between the real numbers
b1c2 - b2c1 c1a 2 - c2a 1 a1b2 - a2b1 ). andµ.
• If roots of a1x 2 + b1x + c1 = O are a, f3 and those of This is clear from the graph of the function/(x ).
y
-a2x 2 + b2x + c2 = O are a, y (there beirlg one common
root) then I
I

b1 - bi C1 C2 f (A):
a + f3 = - - , a + y =- , af3 = - , CJ:'f =-a2 · I
a1 a2 a1 I x=µ
0 I X
• If two quadratic equations with real coefficients have I
I
a nonreal complex common root then both roots will : f ( µ)
I
be common, i.e., both the equations will be the same. I

f(µ)<O
So the coefficients of the correspond ing powers of x
3 2
will have proportiona l values. For example lff(x) = x - 4x -Sx + 1 then
• If two quadratic equations with rational coefficients 2
f(4) = 4 3 - 4 · 4 - 5 · 4 + 1 < 0
have a common irrational root p + ✓q then both roots 2
and /(5) = 5 3 - 4 · 5 - 5 · 5 + 1 > O
will be common, i.e., no two different quadratic
equations with rational coefficients can have a x 3 - 4x 2 - Sx + 1 = 0 has a real root lyirlg between
common irrational root p + ✓q. 4and5.
 A-74 Pmblems Plus in TIT Mathematics

• If the equation f (x) = 0 has two real roots a and f3 then Let a be a repeated root ot f (x) = 0.
_f'(x) = 0 will have a real root lying between a and f3.
Then two roots are a.
(See Roi/e's theorem)
2
f (x) = (x - a)(x - a) cf> (x) = (x - a) cf> (x)
For example The equatio n 2x 3 + x 2 - 2x - 1 = 0 has
hvo roots -1 and 1. f '(x) = 2(x - a) cp (x) + (x - a) 2 q> '(x)
So, the derived equatio n f'(x) = 6x 2 + 2x - 2 = 0 = (x - a){2q>(x) + (x - a) q> '(x)}
has a root lying between -1 and 1.
f '(a)= 0.
• If a is a repeated root, i.e., two roots are a, a, of the
• If a is a repeated root commo n in f(x) = 0 and q>(x) = 0
equatio nf(x) = 0 then a will be a root of the derived
then a is a commo n root inf '(x) = 0 and q> '(x) = 0.
equatio nf'(x) = 0 wheref '(x) = 1f · 2
• (x - a) is a factor off (x)
The reason for this is as given below: ⇒ x - a is a factor of f(x) as welJ as f '(x).
 4. Complex Numbers

Recap of Facts and Formulae

1. Algebra of complex numbers If x > 0, y > 0 then the complex number will be
represented by a point in the first quadrant. Similarly,
• z = x + iy is a complex number where x E R, y E R,
for other possible signs of x and y the location of the
i=~, i.e., i 2 =-l; real part of z =Re(z)=x, point is c1 s shm.vn in the fi gure.
imaginary part of z = lrn(z) = y.
y
• If z1 = x, + iy 1, z2 = x2 + iy 2 then
Z1 ± Zz = (X1 ± X2) + i(Y1 ± Y2)
t
Cf)

·~ z = ( x,y)
and z 1 · z2 = (X1X2 - Y1Y2) + i(X1Y2 + Y1X2)
1 1 Xz - iy2 Xz - iy2
Zz = x 2 + iy 2 = (x2 + iy 2)(x2 - iy2) = xz2 - i 2yz2
-,+ -°'i~
.~
+,+

real axis - X

- ,- + ,-
x, + iyl = X2 + iy2 <=> X i = X2, Yi = Y2·
Thus, one complex equation is equivalent to two real
equations. 3. Modulus, amplitude (argument), conjugate of a
11
i =1 , i,-1,-i complex number
according as n = 4m, 4m + 1, 4m + 2, 4m + 3. If z = x + iy then
Note J'he values of different integral powers of i are
• modulus of z = Iz I = + ✓x 2 + y 2
i or -1 or -i or 1. The digit in the units place of
the value of a positive integral power of a digit
also follows a sequence of digits.
. . amplitude of z = amp z(or arg z) = tan -l t·
The digits in units places of 71, 7 2, 7 3, 7 4, 7 5, We know that tan - l Y.... has many values. The smaIIest
X
etc., are 7, 9, 3, 1, 7, etc. Using this fact we can
determine the digit in the units place of a numerical value falling in the quadrant of the
power of a natural number. complex number is called the fundamental amplitude
(or simply amplitude). The general value is
For example What is the digit in the units place of
(193) 50 ? 2nr + tan -l y_ where tan -l y_ is the fundamental
X X
Consider the values of 3 1, 3 2, 3 3, 3", 35, 36, e tc. amplitude, and this value is called the general
The digit in the units place will be in the sequence amplitude.
3, 9, 7, 1, 3, 9, 7, 1, .... The 50th term in it is 9.
50 The amp z lies between -n and n,
So the digit in the units place of (193) is 9.
i.e., 0 ~ amp z ~ 1t or -n < amp z < 0.
If z belongs to the first quadrant then its amplitude is
2. Representation of complex numbers in Argand plane n .
• The complex number z = x + iy is represented in a
between Oand
2 ; if z belongs to the second quadrant
plane by t~1e point (x, y) . The plane in which complex
then the amplitude is between] and n; if z belongs to
numbers are represented by points is callea the
Argand plane. the third quadrant then the amplitude is between -n
A -115
A -11 6 Problem5 P/11s in !IT Mathema tics

- 7t
. (
i.e., z = r cos 0
+ isin 0) where r = I z I and 0 == alllp i.
and 2 and if z belongs to the fourth quadrant then • Unimodular complex number z is such tha t z I 1 :::
1
and hence unimodular complex n umber
the amplitude is between ~7t and 0.
z = cos e + isin 0 where 0 = amp z.
• Method of calculating amp z is as follows . While taking a complex number z in workin

n-a a= tan-
1
1{1
Q out a problem or ~lving an equation we
z =x + iy (in algebraic form)
or z =, (cos 0 + isin 0) (in trigonometrical form).
tak!

If the modulus or amplitude of the complex number is

known, it is always convenient to take z in the
a-n -o: trigonometrical form .
Note (i) _ z_ is always a unimodular complex number
Calculate tan - l j!j (= a) in the first quadrant.
Iz I
if z -:1; 0.
If z is in the first quadrant, amp z = a n n . l . .
(ii) If amp z = or - , z 1s pure y unagmary;
2 2
If z is in th~ second quadrant, amp z = 1t - a
if amp z =0 or rr, z is purely real.
If z is in the third quadrant, amp z = a - 1t

If z is in the fourth quadrant, amp z = -a.

. For example Let z 1 = 1 + ✓3i, z2 = - 1 - ✓3i, 4. To express real part and imaginary part in terms of the
Z3 = -1 + ✓3i, Z4 = 1 - ✓3i
complex number z

3 • Let z = x + iy; then z= x - iy .

For z1 : Calculating tan - i I~ 1 = a,
Adding these, z + z= 2x; x = -1 (z + -z)
2
we get a = tan - 1 ✓3 = 2: .
3 1 -
1t
Subtracting these, z - z= 2iy; y = 2i (z - z).
As z1 is in the first quadrant, amp z1 =
3· Note (i) z + zis always real and z - zis always
- ✓31 = a,
For z 2 : Calculating tan - 1 ~
l imaginary.
zz
(ii) is always real.
we get a = tan - l ✓3 = i·
As z2 is in the third quadrant,
5. Properties of conjugate, amplitude and mod~lus
1t -27t
amp Z2 = J - 7t = J · • Z1 ± Z2 = Z1 ± Z 2

For z3 : Calculating tan - 1 , _✓31

1 = a, 21 · z2 = z 1 · z2

we get a = tan - 1 ✓3 = 1t
3· (:: )= ~:-
As z 3 is in the second quadrant, • amp(z 1 · z 2 ) = amp z 1 + amp z 2
1t 21t
amp z3 = 1t - 3 =3 · amp(::)= amp z1 - amp 22

1
-✓3,
For z 4 : Calculating tan -l -
1
- = a, z
amp== 2amp z
z
✓
3 =3 ·
-1 1t
we get a = tan amp z 2 = 2amp z.
1t
As 24 is in the fourth quadrant, amp Z4 =- 3 · Note If 21 = r1(cos 0 1 + isin 0 1), z 2 = ri(cos 02 + isin 02)
Note The complex number z = 0 has indeterminate • then Z1 . Z2 = r,r2(cos 81 + isin 91)(cos 02 + isin 02)
amplitude.
= '1'2 kos(0 1 + 0 2) + isin(0 1 + 02)}
• Conjugate of z = z= x - iy.
• The trigonometrical form (or polar ~nn) of a complex and .:.!. = r1(cos 01 + isin 0 1)
22 82 + isin 02)
number is z = I z I {(cos(amp z) + rsm(amp z)}, r 2(COS
 Complex Numbers A-117

,. 2rn 2nt
3 , where r = 0, 1, 2
::: _.!. (cos(0 1 - 0;) + isin(0 1 - 0 211 = cos + isin
r2 . , 3
amp(2 1z2) = amp 2 1 + amp z 2 and 1 . ✓3 1 ✓3
=1 - - + 1 - , - - - i - -
, 2 2 2 2
Z1
amp - = amp 2 1 - amp z2 • If one of the nonreal complex roots be w tl-}en the other
Z2
Clearly, these results on amplitude hold wben \ye nonreal complex root will be w 2 .
take fundamental amplitudes only. • W = 1, w, w 2 where w 3 = 1 and 1 + w + w 2 = 0.
I Z1 · Z2 I = I Z1 I · I Z2 I • The-value of 1 + w 11 + w 211

1~1=~
Z2

I z II I = I z I
I Z2 I
=3 if n = 3m, i.e., n is divisible by 3
= 0 if n -:t:- 3m, i.e., n is not diyisible by 3.
II
Note Any complex number for which
I Z1 + 22 I ~ I 21 J + J Z2 I , . part
, -- 1 .. ✓ 3 or ✓ 3 .. 1,
. real
equality holding if 2 = 0, 2 1, 2 2 are collinear with z = 0 I 1magmary part
can be expressed in terms of w and i.
at one end.
For example
I Z1 - 22 I 2! 1121 I - I Z211 .
-1- ✓3i
- 2 1 + ✓3-i = · (-2) = -2w (or -2w 2)
z · z = I2 I 2
-1- ✓3i_±_=2w_ ( 2w
2
-1- ✓3i
I~ I= 1. i - ✓3 = i 2 i i or i
)
·

6. Power of a complex number (De Moivre's theorem) 8. Application of complex numbers in geometrical
problems
• If 21 = cos 01 + isin 01, z2 = cos 82 + isin 821 etc., then
. The geometrical meaning of complex expressions,
21 · z2 = (cos 0 1 + isin 01 )(cos 02 + isin 02 )
equations and inequations are as follows.
= cos(0 1 + 02 ) + isin(0 1 + 02 ).
• z = x + iy is a point whose coordinates are
~ z
21 · Zz · Z3 ... = COS (01 + 02 + 03 + ... ) (x, y).
+ isin(8 1 + 82 + 83 + .. . ). Note The complex number z is also represented by a
(cos 0 + isin 0)" = cos 110 + isin n0, vector. If P represents z in the Argand plane we
➔
where n is a positive integer. · say OP represents the complex number z, 0
(cos 0 + isin 8)- = cos n0 - isin n0.
11

being the origin. If P and Q represent co!pplex

(cos 0 - isin 0) 11 = cos n0 - isin n0 .. ➔

·numbers z and z1 respectively then QP = z - z1.

(cos 0 + isin 8) p/q = lcos(2nt + 0) + isin(2rn + 0)) p/q
y
(2r1t + 8)p . . {2nt + 0)p P(z)
=cos---'-+ zsm - - - ' - ,
q q
where r = 0, 1, 2, ... , q - l. a ( z1 )
· · 0) 1/n
· = 1 1/11 = ( cos 0 + zsm
11th roots o f umty
= (cos 2rn + isin 2rn) 1111 X

2nt . . 2rn • Iz I = distance between the origin and the point z

= cos - + zsm - ,
n n Iz - z1 I = distance between the points z and z1.
where r = 0, 1, 2, ... , n - l.
27t 21t .
If cos-+ isin - = z0 then the nth roots of umty are
n n
1, J.w zt, zt, ... ,z~' - which are in GP.
1

z,
7. Cube roots of unity

• Cube roots of unity

113 = (cos 2rn + isin 2rn) 113 X
= 1 113 = (cos O+ isin 0)
 A -118 Problems Plus in /IT Mathematics

• amp :: = L ZOX, where Z represents z Complex numbers z satisfying I z - zo I < p

z
amp:- = L Z OZ 1• represent points inside the circle whose centre is 20
"' t
and radius = p .
• If Z3, z 1, z2 are three points taken in the anticlockwise Complex numbers z satisfying I z - z0 I > p
sense then
represent points outside the circle whose centre is z0
23 - Z1 and radius= p.
amp - - = LZ 3 Z 1Z 2 •
22 - Z1
• If z is on the circle I z I = p then iz is also on the circle,
• The angle between two line segments joinirtg the the radius vector being shifted by 1t/2. in the
points Z 1, -'2 and Z3, 24 is anticlockwise sense.
Z1 - 22 Z1 - Z2
amp-- or n - amp - - •
Z3 - Z4 Z3 - Z4

• The line segment joining the complex numbers z1, z2

is divided by the complex number z in the ratio m : n
. mz2 + nz 1
1f z=----.
m+n

• Complex numbers z satisfying Iz - z0 I = p 7

-2
1..
represent points on the circle whose centre is z0 and
radius= p .
a
• General equation of a line is z + a z+ f3 = Owhere 13
tz-z 0 1> P is a real constant and a is a nonreal complex constant.
• General equation of a circle is zz az az
+ + + f3 = o
where 13 is a real constant and a is a nonreal complex
constant.
 5. Permutation and Combination

Recap of Facts and Formulae

1. Counting of number of ways to do some_work 3. Counting formulae for combination

If a work W consists of two parts W1, W2 of which one • The number of combinations (selections) of n different
things taking r at a time
part can be done in m ways and the other part in n ways
then = n C , = -n-! - - .
r ! (n - r) !
• the work W can be done in m + n ways, if by doing
any of the parts the work Wis done. • The total number of selections of one or more objects
(Addition law of counting) from n different objects
= 2" - 1 (= "C1 + "C2 + "C3 + ... + "C,,) .
• the work W can be done in mn ways, if both the parts
are to be done one after the other to do the work W. • The total number of selections of any number of
(Multiplication law of counting) things from n identical things
= n + 1 (when selection of O things is allowed)
Similar is the law for works that have 3 or more parts.
n (when at least one thing is to be selected).
If a work is to be done under some restriction then • The total number of selections from p like things,
• the number of ways to do the work under the q like things of another type and r distinct things
restriction = (the number of ways to do the work = (p + l)(q + 1)2 r - 1 (if at least one thing is
without restriction) - (the number of ways to do the to be selected)
work under opposite restriction). (p + l)(q + 1)2' - 2 (if none or all cannot be
selected)
• The total number of selections of r things from n
different things when each thing can be repeated
l Counting formulae for permutation
unlimited number of times="+ r- 1 c,.
• The number of permutations (arrangements) of n For example If 8 balls are to be selected from balls of
different things taking rat a time 3 colours, balls of each colour being available
=nPr -- -n -! - w h ere n ! = 1.2.3 . ... n. unlimited number of times, then the number of
(n - r) ! selections
• The number of permutations of n things taking all at-a _ 3+s-1c
- 8 ( ·: here r = 8, n = 3)
time of which p things are identical, q things are
= JOC = ~ _ 10 X 9_
identical of another type and the rest are different 8 8 !2 ! - 2 - 45.
n!
= p !q! .
4. Number of distributions
• The number of arrangements of n different things
round a closed curve • The number of ways to distribute n different things
== (n -1) ! if clockwise and anticlockwise between two persons, one receiving p things and .the
arrangements are considered different, other q things, where p + q = n ·
1 .
2 (n - 1) ! if clockwise and anticlockwise = "Cp X n-pcq
arrangements are considered identical. = n ! x (n - p) !
(Circular permutation) p ! (n - p) ! q ! (n - p _ q) !
A-151
 11
II ! = coefficient of x in
- - - 1·.- n=p+ql
p!q! r(r + 1) 2
Similarly for 3 persons, the number of ways 1 + rx + ! x + ···
2
n!
= , where p + q + r = n. r(r + l)(r + 2) ... (r + n - 1)
p.1 q 1. r 1. 11
+ n.I X +
• The number of ways to distribute m x 11 different things
(mn) 1
among 11 persons equally = - - · . r(r + l)(r + 2) ... (r + n - 1)
(111 !) ll = n!

• The number of ways to divide n different things into = (r+ rl -1) ! = ll •~ r-lcr-l·
1 n ! (r - 1) !
three bundles of p, q and r things= n!
- p!q!r! 3! • The number of integral solutions of
• The number of ways to divide m x n different things x1 + x2 + x3 + ... + x, = n where x 1 ~ 1, x2 ~ 1, ... , x, ~ 1
is the same as the number of ways to distribute n
into 11 equal bundles= (mn) ! . .l. identical things among r persons each getting at least 1.
(m !) n n !
11
• The total number of ways to divide 11 identical things This is also equal to the coefficient of x in the
1 2 3
among r persons expansion of (x + x + x + .. .) '
_n+r-lC
- r- I· = coefficient of x n in (-x-)
1-x
'
For example The number of different ways to divide
20 identical apples among 4 persons = coefficient of x n in x '(1 - x) -r
= 20+ 4 - 1
c4-l c-.- here n = 20, r = 4) = coefficient of x n in
= 23C3 = 23 x 22 x 21

=23xllx7
6 I
x r 1 + rx + r(r +! 1) x 2 + .. .
2
= 1771. r(r + l)(r + 2) ... (r + n - 1) 11
• The total number of ways to divide n identical things + I X + .. .
n.
among r persons so that each gets at least one
_ ll-lc = coefficient of x n - ' in
- r- l·

For example The number of different ways to distri- r(r + l)

1 + rx+ ! x 2 + ...
bute 20 identical balls in 4 different boxes so that 2
\
no box remains empty
+ r(r + l)(r + 2) ... (r +n - 1) n .
= 20-lc4-l 1·.- here n = 20, r = 41 n.
I X -r ...

19 · 18 · 17
= 19C3 = 6 = r(r + l)(r + 2) ... (r + n _ r _ 1)
(n - r) !
=969.
= r(r + l)(r + 2) ... (n -1)
(n - r) !
5. Use of solution of linear equations and coefficient of a (n - 1) !
power in expansions to find the number of ways of = (n - r) ! (r-1) ! = n-tc,_ 1·
distribution Note The number f 1 .
o so utions of X1 + X2 + X3 + X4 = 20
• The number of integral solutions of .
where X1 ~ 0, X2 ~ 1, x3-
> 3, x 4- >5
x 1 + x 2 + x 3 + ... + x, = n where x 1 ~ 0, x2 ~ 0, ... , x, ~ 0 lS equal to the coefficient of x w in
is the same as the number of ways to distribute n (xo + x 1 + 2 l 2
X + ... )(X + X + X 3 + ... )
identical things among r persons. x(x 3 + X 4 + X s + ... )(X 5 + X 6 + X 7 + ... ).
11
This is also equal to the coefficient of x in the
expansion . o f (,x O + x l + x 2 + x 3 + ... ) '
1 r 6. Some useful results
11
= coefficient of x in ( 1 _ x) • "c r = "c n - r
= coefficient of x
11
in (1 .- x) - ' • "c r + "cr-1-- n + 1C,
 Permutation and Combination A-153

-n n'( n + 1) , 2 n (n + l) (n + 2) 3
(1 - x) =I + nx +
2
! .x +
3
! x + ...
+ 11 + r- l C,.X r + ...
n(n + l)(n + 2) ... (n + r - 1) r 1

,
+ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - X + .... where n is a positive integer.
r!
 6. Bino mial Theorem f or Posit ive Integral Index

Recap of Facts and Formulae

1. Binomial theorem for positive integral index • The greatest among binomial coefficients
ta+ .r) 11 = "Co a'' +"C I a" - 1 x + "C2 a" - 2 x 2 + . .. "Co, "C1, "C2, .. . , "Cn

+ "C,, X" = "C,, when n is even

2

w h ere "C r = -n -! - - "C

· n -1 ot ·"c n + 1 when n is odd.
r ! (n - r) !
2 2
• l1 + x,) = "C0 + "C 1 X + "c2 X 2 + . .. + "C"
11
11
X •

• (1 + x) " = (x + 1)" 4. Summati on of series involving binomial coefficien ts

= "Co X" + "C1 X n -1 + "C2 X n - 2 + .. . + "C,,
For (1 + x) n = "Co + "e1 2
when expanded in descendi ng powers of x.
X + "C2 x + .. . + "c,, x" I
the binomial coefficients are "C0, "C 1, "C2, . .. , "c,,.
• (a - x)" = "C0 a" - "C 1 a" - 1 x + "C2 a" - 2 x 2 - .. •
A number of series may be formed with these
+ (-1)" · "C,, x ". coefficients figuring in the terms of a series. Standard
series of ttie binomial coefficients are as follows:
2. Terms in expansion • "Co -+ "C1 + "C2 + . .. + "C,, = 2" .. . (1)
It is obtained by putting x = 1 in the binomial
In the expansion of (a+ x) ", n EN
expansion for (1 + x) " .
• the number of terms = n + 1
• (r + l)th term= tr+ l = "Cr Q 11 - r
• nc0 - • .• + (-1)" ·"en= 0
"C1 + "C2 - ... (2)
·Xr
It is obtained by putting x = -1 in the binomial
• kth term from the end= {(n + 1) - (k - l)}th term
expansion for (1 + x) ".
= t(n +l)-(k-1)
• "Co + "C2 + "C4 + ... = 2" - t
• middle term = t , i.e., t when n is even
(n+l)+l · n It is obtained by adding (1) and (2).
2 2+ 1

middle term = t , t when n is odd. • "C1+ "C3+ "C5+ . .. = 2n-1

n + 1 n+3
2 2 It is obtained by subtracti ng (2) from (1).
2nc 2nc 2nc 211 1 2
3. Properties of ncr for simplifica tion
• o+ 1 + 2 + .. . + c,, -1 + 2. "c,, = 2 211 - i
We have
• "Co= 1, "C,, = 1
WC o + WC t + WC 2 + . .. + WC211 - t + 2ne211 = 2 i n
• Iler = "cn-r 2nc _ 2nc 2nc 211
11 o - . . 2n, 1 = C2,, - 1, etc., combinin g
the
• Cr + "Cr-1-
- n+1c
r terms eqmd1stant from the beginnin g and end we get '
• "cr= n Ck ⇒ r=k or r+k=n • 2(2"Co + 2ncl + 2nc2 + ... + 2ncn - 1) + 2nc,, = 2 211
• r - "( -n n - 1C
r- · r- 1 • 211 + tc0 + 211 + le1 + 211 + le 2n + 1
2 + .. . + c,, -_ 2 211
•~
r+l
-"c r =-1-· n+tc (as above)
n+l r+l
• Sum of the first half of "Co+ "c 1 + nc + .. . + "C n
2
A-181
A-182 . 1·IT Mathematics
Pmblrms Plus m

. gterms of the sequen ces

corresp on d in ·
= sum of the last half of ncn + "C + 11 C + ... + "C" 1
2
1
1 1 _!_, (HP)
- ,-, 2d ... , a+nd
a a+d a+
• Bino-ge ometric series
2, · · ., nc n-
. "C
11 2 and "Co, nC1, • •
"Co+ C 1 X + tic2 l' + . .. + "'C,, X n = (1 + x) n, (sequen ce of bmorm al coefficients).
• Bino--arith.metic series
Such series are added in two ways:
a "C0 + (a + d) "Ci + (a + 2d) nc 2 + ... +(a+ nd) "Cn
(i) by elimination of r in the multipl ier of binollli~
It ·s made by the sum of the products of
coefficient from the (r + 1)th term of the series
corresp onding terms of the sequences
a, a + d, a + 2d , ... , a + nd (AP) using -1- nCr== -1- n + 1cr + 1 J
and 11 C0 , "C 1, 11C 2 , ..• , "Cn
( r+1 n+1
(ii) by integrating suitable expans ion.
(sequen ce of binomia l coefficients). ·
Su.ch series ·c an be added in two ways: For explanation see worked out exampl e 24.
(i) by elimina tion of r in the multiplier of binomia l
.
·
. Dino-binomial series
1-.'.oefficient from th.e (r + l)th term of the series "Co · "C, + "C1 · "C, + 1 + nc2 • "C, + 2 + .. . + "Cn _r · "Cn
(using r ·"Cr= n n- 1Cr_ 1) or mco · "c, + mcl · "c,_ 1+ mc2 · "Cr-2 + .. .
(ii) by differen tiating the expansion of x 0 (1 + xd) ".
+me,. nco
For explana tion see worked out example 20. Sue~ series are added by multipl ying two expansions,
• Bino-ha rmonic series one involvin g the first factors as coefficients and the
nc
'· 0 nc· l nc "c ~ther involv~ g the second factors as coefficients and f
+ ... + - - - n-
2
- + - - + -~ finally equatin g coefficients of a suitable power of x
a a +d a+.'2.d • a+nd
on both sides.
l
lt is made b y the sum of the. product s of k
·
For explanation see worked out examples 28 and 29, f
 8. Infinite Series
(Binomial Series, Exponential Series, Logarithmic Series)

Recap of Facts and Formulae

1. Binomial theorem for any index p

• (1+
11
x) = 1 + nx +
n(n-1)
! x +
2 n(n-l)(n-2)
!
3
x + . ..
• (1 + x) q = 1 +_p_1! (~)+
q
p(p - q) (~\
2! lq )
2

2 3

to oc, provided Ix I < 1.

+
p(p - q)(p - 2q)
I
(x)
-
3
+ ... to oc
General term {(r + 1 )th term} in the expansion of 3. q
(1 + x) 11 is p

f,- •. 1=
n(n-l)(n-2) ... (n-r+l)
r!
r
X.
(1 - x) q= 1 - ..E.....
1! q
+ p(p - q) (~)
2! q
(~J 2

-
p(p - q)(p - 2q)
,
3.
(~J3 + ... tooc
q
2. Soµ,e useful binomial expansions for summation of
series
3. Exponential series
• (1 - X) - 11
= 1 + "C 1X + n+lc2X 2 + n + 2c 3X 3+ ,. ·
2
x x x3 x 11 "' x"
+ n + r - I CrX r + . . . to oc, • ex = l + -1' + -2' + -3' + ... + - 1 + .. . to oc = !: n !
· · · n. n=o
where n is a positive integer. 2 3
x x x x"
e -x = l - -1, + -2, - -3, + ... + (-1) n - , + .. . to cc
(1 + x) - 11 = 1 - "C 1x + 11 + 1C2x 2
- "+ 2C3x 3 + .. . to oc . . . n.
11
where n EN. 00

= L (-1) 11 -~
n!
• (1 - X) - I = 1 + X + X 2 + X 3 + X 4 + . .. to OC II= 0

(1 + x)- 1 =1 - X +X2- X
3
+X4- .•. to OC 1 x -x X2 X4 X 2n
• - (e + e ) = 1 + - 1 + - 1 + ... + - - + ... to oc
2 2. 4. (2n) !
• (1 - x) - 2 = 1 + 2x + 3x 2 + 4x 3 + . .. to oc
1 X X3 X5 X 2n - 1
(1 + x) - 2 = 1 - 2x + 3x 2 - 4x 3 + ... to oc - (ex - e -x) = -1' + -3' + -5' + ... + + ... to oc
2 . . . (2n - 1) !
p

' (1 - x) - q= l ..E.....
+l!q
(~J + p(p + q) (~)
2! q
2
. . ax = e log ea X = e xlogea
xlo&a (xlo&a) 2 (xlogea) 3
3 -1+---+--- +-....:;_-+ to cc
+ p(p + q)(p + 2q) (~) + .. . to oc - 1! 2! 3! ...
3! q oo X"
=L - , (logea) Tl
/1 n=O n.
(1 + x) -q = 1 - _p__
1! q
(~)+ p(p2+! q) (~)q 2

1 1 1
• e=1+1!+2!+3 !+ .. . toc:c
3
_ p(p + q)(; + 2q) (~) + ... to oc -1 - 1 _ l... l... l...
e - 1!+2!-3!+ ... to oc
3. q
A-235
 .I. I vv,l,..lfi.::, l iLt:J ,,. J J. J lYJ.U&1,1..1,,w._, ........

1 -1 1 1 1 log(l + x) - log(l - x)
• -2 (e + e ) = 1 + -2 ! + -4 ! + -6 ! + ... to oc

1 -1 1 1 1 = 2 [ X + J1 X 3 + S
1 5
X + ... to OC
]
-(e-e
2 )--+-+-+ -1! 3! 5! ... to
oc

5. Recognising the type of the infinite series

4. Logarithmic series
• Each of the binomial, exponential and logarithmic
l 1 1 n-1 1 n
• 0 g/ 1 + X) = X - 2 X 2
+) X
3
- ... + ( -1) · -;; X + series has infinite terms.
• Series involving n ! sin the denominators of terms are
... to oc, provided -1 < x :$ 1
generally binomial or exponential series. But in a
1
IO ge( 1 - X) =-X - 2X
2
- 31 X 3 - ... - ""ii1 X 11 - ... to oc binomial series the number of factors in the
numerators (other than the power of a fixed number)
• log(l + x) + log(l - x) of terms goes on increasing .
• Logarithmic series do not contain n ! s in the
= 2 lr - l_ X 2 - ..!. X 4 - l_ X 6 -
2 4 6
. ••
·
to oc]
denominators of terms. The terms contain l_ s.
n
 9. Matrices

Recap of Facts and Formulae

1. Matrix
• An array of mn numbers written in m rows and n
For example [O . 0 O], [o0 0o}[o0 o0 o]0 are all zero
columns is called a matrix of the order m x n. A matrix matrices.
has no numerical value. The numbers are the A square matrix whose elements in the leading
elements of the matrix. diagonal are each equal to 1 and the rest are zeros, is a

[ 34 -21 1]
unit matrix.
For example is a 2 x 3 matrix. It has two rows
0
and three columns. Its elements are 3, -2, 1, For example [ ~ ~ } [ ~ ~ ~ ] are all unit matrices. A
4, 1, 0. 0 0 1
unit matrix of order n x n is denoted by In.
[-! j1 is a 3 x 2 matrix. It has three rows and two A square matrix is called a diagonal matrix if all its
elements other than the elements in the leading
columns. diagonal are zeros.
A matrix is denoted by a capital letter like A, B, X, Y,
etc.
5. Determinan t of a square matrix ...
I

• The determinan t of the square matrix

2. Rectangular matrix and square matrix

• If in an m x n matrix m * n then it is a rectangular

A =[ : -~ ] is IA I = I : -~ I = 50.
matrix. But if m = n, it is a square matrix. • The determinan t of the square matrix

For example [ ~
-6
-i ] is a rectangular matrix, while B=[~
001
~
~]is IBI =
001
=1. ~~~
9

U-~ !1 is a square ma~

6. Equality of matrices

• Two matrices A and B o~ the same order are equal

when their corresponding elements are equal.
3, Row matrix and column matrix

' 1 x n matrices are called row matrices, while m x 1 For example [ -: ; } = [: !] if a = -5, b = 7, c = 4, d = 3.
matrices are called column matrices.
For example [1 2 3], [O O] are row matrices, while [ -: ; ] ¢- [ - : ; ~ ] because they are not of the same

~ ~
order.
( } [ ] are column matrices.

7. Singular matrix and nonsingula r m atrix

4. Zero matrix, unit (identity) matrix and diagonal matrix • A square matrix A is a singular matrix if I A I = O. Bu t
• Amatrix whose every element is zero is a zero matrix. if I A I -:t 0, the matrix is nonsingula r.
A-245
A-246 Problems Pl11s i11 IIT Mnt/iemntics

Rule of multiplication
8. Scalar multiplication of a matrix by a number
• If A is a 1natrix and k is a sca lar, k·A is a n1atrix whose
Let A = [ : ~} B = [ ( ;,, :, ]
every element· 1·s k t·rmes tl1e corresponding element of
A.
A is of the order 3 x 2 and B is of the order 2 x 3.
For example If A= [: ~] then kA = [ ~: ~:] So AB as well as BA can be found. The rule for
e f

9. Negative of a matrix
ke kf fo;ding the product is as shown below.
b [ ax + bl ny + bm nz + u11
AB = [ : d ] x [ ; ;,, :, ] = ex + di cy + dm cz + dn .
l
e J ex + fl ey + fin ez +fn
• The negative of tl1e matrix A is the matrix (-l)A,
written as -A.

For example If A =[ ~ ~ f ]then -A =[ =~ =~ =;] · BA = [ :

y
m
2 ] [
11
a b
~ ~
l[ =
xa + ye + ze
la + me + ne
xb + yd + zf ]
lb + md + nf ·

Observe that AB is a 3 x 3 matrix, while BA is a 2 x 2

matrix. So, AB to- BA•
10. Addition of two matrices
• The addition (or sum) of two matrices A and B of the
same order is a matrix, written as A+ B, which is of 13. Transpose matrix
the same order as that of A as well as B, and the
elements of A + B are obtained by adding the • The transpose matrix, written as AT (or A'), of the
corresponding elements of A and B. matrix A is the matrix obtained by interchanging the
For example Let

A=[! -~ ], B
2
=[ 1~
-1 -3
1
!} =[ C
11
l3 ] .
- 7 15
rows with the corresponding columns of A.

For example If A = [ ; ! ;] then A T = [ ~ n

~ f ~] =~ : ]
A and B are matrices of order 3 x 2. So A+ B can be
found. If B = [ then B T = [

2
l l
A + B = [ 301 -: + [ 1~ 1! = [ 13++1~ -\\1~
-1 -3 0-1 2-3
l
l·
14. Adjoint matrix

=[ ~~
-1 -1
1~ • Let A be a square matrix. The transpose matrix of the
matrix of the corresponding cofactors of the elements
A and Care not matrices ol the same order. A is of the of I A I , is called the adjoint matrix of A, written as
order 3 x 2, while C is of the order 2 x 2. So, A + C adj A.
cannot be found. Similarly, B + C cannot be found.
For example Let A =[ :: :: :: ] · If A 1, B1, etc.,
a3 b3 e3
11. Subtraction of two matrices
• If A and Bare two matrices of the same order then the represent the cofactors of a1, bi, etc., respectively in
IA I then
sum A+ (-B), written as A - B, is the matrix obtained
by subtracting B from A.

12 _ Multiplication of two matrices

• For two matrices A and B, the product ma_trix AB can
be obtained if the number of columns m A = the 15. Inverse matrix (or reciprocal matrix)
number of rows in B. ·
. is nonsingular, 1,e.,
. which
• Let A be a squa re matnx
If A is a 2 x 3 matrix and B is a 3 x_4 mat~ix then the
IA I ;c 0.
atrix AB can be obtained (number of
pro d uc t m . )
columns in A = number of rows ~ Bd=(3 . Bbut the The matrix _l_ d. A . · of
··x BA cannot be obtame mun er of I A I · a J 1s called the inverse 111atnX
product ma t n .
. B _ 4 * 2 = number of rows m A). A, written as A -1.
columns m -
 Matricfs A-247

Orthogonal matri x (1) (AB)C = A(BC ) (asso ciativ e law of multi plicat ion)
16,
Asquare matri x A is c~~led an ortho gona l matrix if (2) A(B + C) =AB + AC
• T
ATA::: AA = I. (B + C)A = BA + CA (distr ibutiv e laws)
(3) AB -:f. Bi in general.

and skew -sym metr ic matri x

17. Symmetric'
, Asquare matri x A is calle d symm etric if Ar= A. It is 20. Other properties of matrices
skew-symmetric if A r = -A. (1) AA -I = A -lA = I
(2) (AB) - 1 = B- 1A -i

is. Properties of addit ion of matr ices (3) (AT) T = A

, If A, B, Care three matri ces of the same order then (4) (A + B) r =Ar + Br (if additions are possible)
(1) A+ B = B + A (com muta tive law of addit ion) (5) (AB) r =BrAr (if multiplications are possible)
(2) A+ (B + C) = (A + B) + C .. 2 2
(6) I A I = I A I
(asso ciativ e law of addit ion)
(3) A + O= 0 + A = A
21. Rank of a matrix
(4) A + B = A .+ C ⇒ B= C
= (-A) + A = 0. • The rank of a matrix A is the order of the highest-
(5) A + (-A)
order nonz ero mino rs of A.
:. rank of a matrix is r if
19. Properties of mult iplica tion of matrices
(l) every mino r of order (r + 1) is zero
th d
• If A, B, Care three ma.trices for whic h all e pra ucts (2) there is at least one nonz ero mino r of order r.
are possible then
 1. Circular Functions, Identities

Recap of Facts and Formulae

1. Identities 3. Sign of value
sin x, cos x and tan x are (trigonometrical) circular Sin X~0 if O '.S X '.S 1t
functions. Their reciprocals cosec x, sec x and cot x are sin x < 0 if 7t < x < 2n
also circular functions. These functions are related by
the following identities. 1t 1t
cosx~O if - :Sx:S
2 2
• sin 2x + cos 2x = 1
1t 31t
. 2
x = 1 - cos 2x cosx<O if <x<
• sm 2 2
• cos x = 1 - sm
2 . 2x n 3n
tan X~ 0 if O '.S X < 2 or 1t ~ X < 2
• sec 2x - tan 2x = 1
. 1t 31t
• 1 + tan 2x = sec 2x tan x < O 1f < x < 1t or < x < 2n
2 2
• sec 2x - 1 = tan 2x
• cosec 2x - cot 2x = 1
4. Trend of values of circular functions in [O, 2n] or
2 2
• 1 + cot x = cosec x [-1t, n]

• cosec 2x - 1 = cot 2x Function Domain of Domain oj"·gradual

1 gradual increase decrease
• secx+tanx

• cosec x + cot x =
secx-tanx
1
t
sin X [~,2 3n]
2
cosec x - co x
i.e., [0, ?] u [3; , 2n]
COS X [-n, 0) i.e., [n, 2n] (0, 1t)
2. Domain and range of circular function

Function Domain Range tan X [0,?), (?, 1t], No gradual

decrease; sudden
sin X R [-1, 1] fall of value at
COS X R [-1, 1] [n, 3;), (3; ,2n] ~ and J1t
tan X R -{1, 3; , s; ,. ·} (-oo, oo) 2 2
Pictorically the results can be remembered as follows:
cosec x R - {O, 1t, 21t, 31t, ... } (-oo, -1] U [1, + 00 )
slnx
8ec X R {~ 3rt Sn, ... } (-oo, -1] u (1, + oo) X =.!_
-2'2'2 2
1
cot x R - {O, 1t, 21t, 31t, ... } (-00,00)
decrease Increase
7t X = 1t 0 0 X=O
Note For values of circular functions, the angle x = - 2
-1
37t
and the angle x =2 are the same ang1e. )( =31t
2
B-3
lJ -4 Pro/I/ems P/11s ;,, llT M11tlle11111tics
. ular functions of compound ,
COS X
6 Conversion of circ 1
x= ~
. multiple and submultip le ang es
0 2 . . of the algebraic sum of two angles
decrease . ular functions of separa te
Circular functions
can be expressed as circ
-1 angles.
X =It 1 x=O . B + cos A sin B
sin(A ± B) = sm A cos -
B- ·n A sin B
increase • cos(A ± B) = cos A cos + s1

X
0 31t
=2
tan A± tan B
• tan(A ± B) = 1 + tan A . tan B
tan x
x= ~
2
cot A cot B 1 +
-oo +oo
• cot(A ± B) = cot B ± cot A

Circular functions of the multiple of an angle can be

increase expressed as circular functions of the angle.
x=O
2tan A
• sin 2A = 2sin A cos A = 2
1 + tan A
+oo -oo
2
, . 2 1 - tan A
• cos 2A = cos -A - sm A = - . - - 2-
l + tan A
2
5. Conversion of circular functions of complementary = 2cos 2A - l = 1 - 2sin A
angles, supplementary angles, etc.
2tanA
• tan 2A = 2
• If f( x ) is a circular function then /(2nrt + x) = f(x) 1 - tan A
where n is an integer. That is why all circular - 4sin 3A
• sin 3A = 3sin A
functions are periodic functions .
3
• cos 3A = 4cos A - 3cos A
• sin(-8) = - sin 8
cos(-8) = cos 8 3tan A - tan 3A
• tan 3A
. tan(- ~;= - tan 0
1 - 3tan 2A

Circular functions of half of an angle can be expressed

sin(~ - 0) = cos 0 as circular functions of the angle .

. A
• sin-=
✓ i-cosA
2 - 0 J = sin 0
\
cos ( 7t 2 2

A ✓ l +cos A
. tan(~ - 8) = cot 8
• cos-=
2 2

. ~ e) e
si~ + = cos • tan A = ✓ 1 - cos A = 1 - cos A
2 1 + cos A sm· A =
sin A
1 + cos A
. (n2 e"j= - . e
cos + sm
7. Conversions of sums o f sines.
and ·
products of sines and s . cosines into
. tan(~ + 8) = - cot 8 co ines, and conversel y

• sin C + sin D = 2sin ~ C- D

• sin(rt - 8) = sin 8 2 ·cos~
• cofi(rt - e) = - cos e sin C - sin D = 2co C + D C- D
s~·sm-
tan(n - 8) = - tan e 2

• sin(rt + 0) = - sin 8 • cos C + cos D = 2cos £.:!:._£ · c o

C- D
s-
2 2
• cos(n + 8) =- cos e cos C - cos D _ 2 . C + D D c
- sm~· sm-= -
.. tan(n + 8) = tan 8 2
 8-5
Circular Functions, Identities

acos x + bsin x = ✓a + b sin(x + P)

2 2
Note sin C + cos D = sin C + sin (~- D) or
a
= 2sin C + 7V2 - D
· cos
C - n1z + D where sin P= ✓a 2 + b 2
2 2
tan C + t.in O sin C + _sin D _ sin
=- - · (C + D) • - ✓a 2 + b 2 ::; a cos x + b sin x :5 ✓a 2 + b 2
cos C cos D - cos C . cos D

• sin A · cos B = ½{sin(A + B) + sin(A - B)}

10. Values of circular functions when the angles are
sin A · sin B = ½{cos(A - B) - cos(A + B)) 18°, 36°

✓s-1
1 • sin 18° = - -
cos A · cos B = {cos(A - B) + cos(A + B)} 4
2
2 2
, sin(A + B) · sin(A - B) = sin A - sin B ✓s + 1
• cos 36° = - -
2 2 4
cos(A + B) · cos(A - B) = cos A - sin B

8. Conversion of powers of a circular function in terms of 11. Some useful identities

circular functions of multiple angles
. , 1 I: tan A - tan A • tan B • tan C
• sm -A = (1 - cos 2A) • tan(A + B + C) = 1 - :Etan A · tan B
2
1 . • tan(A + B) - tan A - tan B = tan A · tan B • tan(A + B)
cos 2A = (1 + cos 2A)
2
• tan 0 = cot 0 - 2cot 20
1 - cos 2A
tan 2A = - - - -
1 + cos 2A • sin a+ sin(a + 13) + sin(a + 213) + ... + sin(a + n - 1 13)
. 3sin A - sin 3A . nl3
sm 3A = sm-
2 . 2a + (n - 1) 13
4
=---sm
. 13 2
3cos A + cos 3A sm-
• cos 3A = .:....::..:.. :.....---- 2
4
• cos a+ cos(a + 13) + cos(a + 213) + ... + cos(a + n - 1 13)
9. Periodic form of a cos x + b sin x sm-
. nl3
2 2a + (n -1) 13
n cos x + b sin x = *+2 2
lJ cos (x - a) a
=---co s
. 13
sm-
2
where cos a= ✓a2 + br 2