Module - 4

1.COLOR FUNDAMENTALS

Color is a fascinating phenomenon that involves both our physical senses and our
brain's interpretation. While we don't fully understand how our brain perceives and
interprets color, we can describe the physical nature of color based on scientific
experiments and theories.

In 1666, Sir Isaac Newton discovered that when sunlight passes through a prism, it
separates into a range of colors called a spectrum. The spectrum spans from violet to
red, and it can be divided into six broad regions: violet, blue, green, yellow, orange, and
red. These colors blend smoothly into each other rather than ending abruptly.

The colors we see in an object are determined by the light that is reflected from it.
Visible light is a narrow band of frequencies within the larger electromagnetic spectrum.
When an object reflects light balanced in all visible wavelengths, it appears white.
However, if an object reflects light in a limited range of the visible spectrum, it exhibits
different colors. For example, a green object primarily reflects light in the 500 to 570
nanometer range, absorbing most of the energy at other wavelengths.

In simpler terms, the colors we perceive depend on the light that is reflected by an
object. When all colors are reflected equally, we see white. When certain colors are
absorbed and only specific colors are reflected, we see different colors. This is how
the physical nature of color works.

The science of color involves understanding and describing light. Light can be either
achromatic (without color) or chromatic (with color).

Achromatic light refers to light that is void of color, like what we see on a black and
white television. When we talk about image processing, we often refer to achromatic
light, which is characterized by its intensity or brightness. The term "gray level" is used
to describe the scalar measure of intensity, ranging from black to various shades of gray
and finally to white.

Chromatic light, on the other hand, spans the electromagnetic spectrum from around
400 to 700 nanometers (nm). It is the range of light that contains different colors. Three
main quantities are used to describe chromatic light: radiance, luminance, and
brightness.

• Radiance measures the total amount of energy flowing from a light source,
typically measured in watts (W).
• Luminance is a measure of the amount of energy perceived by an observer from
a light source, measured in lumens (lm). It takes into account how our eyes
perceive light.
• Brightness is a subjective descriptor of intensity, related to our perception of
intensity and color sensation. It is challenging to measure objectively.

Our eyes have cones, which are responsible for color vision. These cones can be divided
into three categories: red-sensitive, green-sensitive, and blue-sensitive. The majority
(65%) are sensitive to red light, followed by green (33%), and blue (2%). These cones
have different absorption characteristics, as shown in experimental curves. Colors are
seen as combinations of these three primary colors.

The Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage (CIE) established standardized values for

By adding the primary colors or mixing a secondary color with its opposite primary color
in the right intensities, we can produce secondary colors of light. The secondary colors
are magenta (red plus blue), cyan (green plus blue), and yellow (red plus green). When
all three primaries or their combinations are mixed in the right proportions, we obtain
white light.

In simpler terms, achromatic light refers to colorless light, while chromatic light
contains different colors. Our eyes have cones that are sensitive to red, green, and
blue light. Colors are seen as combinations of these primary colors. Mixing the
primary colors or their combinations in the right amounts can produce secondary
colors, and the right proportions of all primaries together result in white light.
Differentiating between the primary colors of light and the primary colors of pigments
or colorants is important.

Primary colors of light are the colors that can be mixed together to create other colors.
In light, the primary colors are red, green, and blue. When these three colors are
combined in the right proportions, they can produce all the other colors we see.

On the other hand, primary colors of pigments or colorants are different. They are the
colors that absorb one primary color of light and reflect or transmit the other two. In
this case, the primary colors are magenta, cyan, and yellow. When these pigment
primary colors are mixed in the right proportions, they can create other colors. The
secondary colors in pigment systems are red, green, and blue.

In color television, the additive nature of light colors is used. Inside a CRT color TV
screen, there are many small dots that emit red, green, or blue light when excited. These
dots are arranged in patterns. The intensity of the light from these dots is controlled to
create different colors. When viewed on a TV screen, the three primary colors from each
dot pattern are added together and perceived as a full-color image by our eyes.

Modern display technologies like LCDs and plasma screens also use the principle of
combining red, green, and blue colors to generate a single color pixel. These displays
have subpixels for each primary color, and by controlling the light filters or phosphors,
they create the desired colors.

The characteristics used to describe and distinguish colors are brightness, hue, and
saturation. Brightness refers to the intensity or the amount of light in a color. Hue
represents the dominant color or wavelength perceived by an observer, like calling
something red, orange, or yellow. Saturation refers to the purity of a color and indicates
the amount of white light mixed with it. Fully saturated colors are pure and vivid, while
less saturated colors have some white light mixed in.

So, the primary colors of light (red, green, and blue) can be mixed to create other
colors, while the primary colors of pigments (magenta, cyan, and yellow) absorb
or reflect light to create different colors. The characteristics used to describe
colors include brightness, hue, and saturation.

Hue and saturation are two important aspects of color that, when combined, are referred to as
chromaticity. Hue represents the dominant color or wavelength of light, while saturation refers to the
purity or intensity of a color.

To describe a color more precisely, we can use tristimulus values, denoted as X, Y, and Z, which
represent the amounts of red, green, and blue needed to create that color. These values are used to
calculate trichromatic coefficients, namely x, y, and z, which can be obtained using specific equations.
It’s worth noting that the sum of x, y, and z is always equal to 1.

To determine the tristimulus values for a particular color, we can refer to experimental data or tables
that provide the values for different wavelengths of light. Another approach is to use the CIE
chromaticity diagram, which shows the composition of colors based on their red (x) and green (y)
components. The blue component (z) can be calculated by subtracting the sum of x and y from 1.

The chromaticity diagram displays the spectrum colors around its boundary, ranging from violet to
red. These are the pure colors observed in the spectrum. Any point within the diagram represents a
mixture of these pure colors. The point of equal energy on the diagram represents white light, with
equal fractions of the three primary colors.

Points on the boundary of the chromaticity chart are fully saturated colors, meaning they don’t
contain any white light. As a point moves away from the boundary towards the point of equal
energy, it becomes less saturated as more white light is added. The saturation at the point of equal
energy is zero, indicating a fully desaturated or neutral color.

In simpler terms, chromaticity involves describing colors based on their dominant hue and
intensity. Tristimulus values and the chromaticity diagram provide ways to precisely quantify
and represent colors, allowing us to understand their composition and characteristics.

The chromaticity diagram is a helpful tool for understanding color mixing. It allows us to
visualize how different colors can be combined additively. By drawing a straight line
between two points on the diagram, we can see all the possible color variations
obtained by combining those two colors.
For example, if we draw a line from the red point to the green point on the diagram, any
color along that line represents a mixture of red and green light. If there is more red
light than green light, the new color will be closer to the red point, and vice versa.

Similarly, if we draw a line from the point of equal energy (representing white light) to
any point on the boundary of the diagram, we can see all the shades of that specific
spectrum color.

Extending this concept to three colors is straightforward. We can connect lines from
each of the three color points to form a triangle. Any color within or on the boundary of
that triangle can be created by combining the three initial colors in different
proportions.

However, it's important to note that not all colors can be achieved using just three fixed
primary colors. A triangle formed by fixed color points cannot enclose the entire color
region on the chromaticity diagram, indicating the limitations of using only three
primaries.

Figure 6.6 shows an example triangle representing the color range produced by RGB
monitors. The irregular region inside the triangle represents the color gamut of current
high-quality color printing devices. The boundary of the color printing gamut is irregular
because color printing involves a combination of additive and subtractive color mixing,
which is more challenging to control compared to the additive color mixing used in
monitor displays.

In simpler terms, the chromaticity diagram helps us understand how colors can be
mixed together. By drawing lines between colors, we can see all the possible
combinations. However, it's important to remember that some colors cannot be
created using only three fixed primary colors. The diagram also illustrates the
differences in color gamuts between monitors and color printing devices.
2.color models
A color model, also known as a color space or color system, is a way to standardize and specify
colors. It provides a coordinate system where each color is represented by a single point.

A color model is a way to describe and specify colors in a standardized manner. It

In digital image processing, there are commonly used color models. The RGB model
represents colors using combinations of red, green, and blue. It is used for color
monitors and cameras. The CMY and CMYK models are used in color printing and
involve combinations of cyan, magenta, yellow, and black. The HSI model is closer to
how humans perceive and describe color. It separates color information from grayscale
and is useful for various image processing techniques.

There are many other color models used in different fields, but the focus here is on the
important models for image processing. Understanding these models will help you
grasp additional ones used today. (Imagine you have a set of crayons and you want to
describe the colors using a special system. A color model is like a rulebook that tells you how
to describe each color in a specific way.

One popular color model is called RGB, which stands for red, green, and blue. It's like mixing
different amounts of red, green, and blue paint to create new colors. For example, if you mix a
lot of red and a little bit of green and blue, you get a bright red color. If you mix equal
amounts of red and blue, you get purple.

Another color model used in printing is CMYK, which stands for cyan, magenta, yellow, and
black. It's like using different colored inks to print pictures. By combining different amounts
of these colors, you can create a wide range of shades and hues.

There's also the HSI color model, which is more like how we humans think about colors. It
focuses on three main properties: hue, saturation, and intensity. Hue is the basic color, like
red, blue, or green. Saturation describes how pure or vibrant the color is, and intensity refers
to how bright or dark it appears.

These color models help us communicate and work with colors in a standard and organized
way. They are used in things like computers, printers, and even in art and design. By
understanding these color models, we can explore and describe colors in a fun and creative
way!)
2.1 The RGB color model
The RGB color model is a way of representing colors using three primary colors: red,
green, and blue. Think of these colors as the building blocks for all other colors. In the
RGB model, we use a special system that looks like a cube to show all the possible
colors.

Imagine a cube with red, green, and blue at its corners. These are the primary colors. At
the opposite corners, we have the secondary colors: cyan, magenta, and yellow. Black is
at the very center of the cube, and white is at the corner farthest away from the center.

Now, within this cube, we can represent different colors by using combinations of red,
green, and blue. Each color is like a point inside the cube or on its surface. To describe a
color, we use numbers to specify how much red, green, and blue are mixed together.
These numbers are like vectors that start from the center of the cube (black) and extend
to the desired color.

In the RGB model, we assume that the values for red, green, and blue range from 0 to 1.
This means that we can have different intensities of each color, from no intensity (0) to
maximum intensity (1). For example, pure red would be represented by the vector (1, 0,
0), which means maximum red, no green, and no blue.

By adjusting the values of red, green, and blue, we can create any color within the cube.
Colors closer to the corners of the cube will have stronger intensities of their respective
primary colors, while colors towards the center will have a mix of two or more primary
colors.

The gray scale, which includes shades of gray from black to white, is represented by
points along a line that connects black and white within the cube. This line represents
equal values of red, green, and blue, resulting in various shades of gray.

Overall, the RGB color model allows us to specify and create a wide range of colors by
mixing different amounts of red, green, and blue. It is commonly used in devices with
color displays like TVs, computer monitors, and smartphones.
When we talk about images in the RGB color model, we actually have three separate
images for each primary color: red, green, and blue. These images work together to
create a colorful composite image on a screen. Each pixel in the image is made up of
three values: one for red, one for green, and one for blue.

Let's imagine each color value as a number. In this case, each color component (red,
green, and blue) has 8 bits, which means it can have a value from 0 to 255. When we
combine these three 8-bit color values for each pixel, we get a total of 24 bits for that
pixel. That's why we say the pixel depth is 24 bits.

A full-color image, also known as a 24-bit RGB color image, uses this 24-bit pixel depth.
With 24 bits, we can represent a vast number of colors. In fact, the total number of
colors we can create is 2^24, which equals 16,777,216. That's a lot of colors!

To visualize this in a simple way, we can imagine a cube where each corner represents a
primary color: red, green, and blue. Inside this cube, there are many different points that
represent different colors. The cube is like a three-dimensional map of all the possible
combinations of red, green, and blue values. In the case of a 24-bit RGB color image,
this cube allows us to create millions of different colors.

So, when we talk about a 24-bit RGB image, we mean an image that uses three color
components (red, green, and blue), each represented by 8 bits, to create a wide range of
colors. This gives us a rich and detailed representation of the image with millions of
possible colors.

RGB 24bit color cube

Think of the cube as a big box filled with millions of colors. We can slice through this
box to see different groups of colors. One way to do this is by fixing one color and
changing the other two.

To see these colors on a screen, we use three separate images for each color. Each
image represents a different shade of that color. For example, we can choose the red
color to stay the same while we vary the green and blue colors. By combining these
three images, we can display the colors in that particular slice of the cube.

When we take a color photo, we use a special camera that captures three separate
images: one for red, one for green, and one for blue. Each image shows how much light
is present in that color. By combining these three images, we can recreate the original
colors of the scene.

So, by showing these combined images on a screen, we can see the colorful picture just
like the original scene. It's like putting the colors back together to show the full picture.
Sometimes, computers and monitors can only show a limited number of colors, like 256
colors. This means that some of the original colors in a picture may not look the same
on all systems.

To make sure that colors are displayed consistently across different systems, there is a
set of colors called "safe colors" or "all-systems-safe colors." These colors are carefully
chosen to work well on most computers and monitors, so they are commonly used in
things like websites.

Out of the 256 colors available, there are 216 colors that are considered safe and are
used as a standard. This helps make sure that when people look at the same website or
image, they see the same colors, no matter what computer or monitor they are using.
These safe colors have become widely accepted and are used to create a consistent
visual experience for everyone.
The 216 safe colors are a special set of colors that can be displayed consistently on most
computer systems. Each color is made up of three values: red, green, and blue (RGB).
However, in the safe color set, each value can only be 0, 51, 102, 153, 204, or 255. These
values are often written using a numbering system called hexadecimal, where the
numbers 0 to 9 and the letters A to F represent decimal numbers 0 to 15.

For example, the purest red color in the safe color set is written as FF0000 in
hexadecimal notation. The values 000000 and FFFFFF represent black and white,
respectively. The safe colors are organized in a grid, with the brightest colors in the top
left corner and the darkest colors in the bottom right corner. Each row and column
represents different combinations of red, green, and blue values.

It's important to note that the safe color set does not include all possible shades of gray.
However, most display systems can still represent gray colors accurately using the safe
color values. The safe color cube shown in Figure 6.11 represents the 216 safe colors on
its surface, with each plane containing 36 colors.

In simpler terms, the 216 safe colors are a special set of colors that can be used to
ensure consistent appearance on different computer systems. They are formed using
specific values for red, green, and blue, and are organized in a grid. These colors are
widely used in various applications to maintain color consistency across different
devices.

2.2 The CMY and CMYK color models