Republic of the Philippines

NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY

Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya

INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Bayombong Campus

DEGREE COURSE
BSCE HYDR 1
PROGRAM: NO.:
COURSE
SPECIALIZATION: HYDRAULICS
TITLE:
12- IM
YEAR LEVEL: 3rd Year TIME FRAME: WK NO.
17 NO.

I. UNIT TITLE/CHAPTER TITLE

1. Open Channel
2. Flow Mesurements

II. LESSON TITLE

1. Open Channel
1.1 Uniform Flow
1.1.1 Efficient Section
1.1.2 Specific Energy
1.2 Non-Uniform Flow
1.2.1 Rapidly Varied Flow
1.2.2 Gradually Varied Flow
1.2.3 Hydraulic Jump
2. Flow Measurements
2.1 Orifice
2.2 Venturi Meter
2.3 Weir
III. LESSON CONTENT

1.1 OPEN CHANNELS

Open Channels are not completely enclosed by solid boundaries, and their water surfaces are subject to atmospheric
pressure.
➢ It is a term used in hydraulics in a broad sense, it encompasses any system conveying a fluid under atmospheric
pressure.
➢ It is a conduit in which a liquid flow with free surface.
Example of open channel
Rivers airports runways
bayous parking lots
creeks wadis
streams floodplains
brooks golf coarses,
canals agricultural fields
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sewers gardens,
ditches lawns
street, parks, and others

Classification of Open Channel:

Natural Channels-or natural water courses have developed though out history by natural processes without any human
interface.
Artificial Channels- are designed and constructed according to specifications, to meet certain water conveyance
requirements.
Note: Channels maybe either prismatic or non-prismatic
Prismatic channels are those that have a constant cross section and bed slope with distance.
Non-prismatic- the cross section and bed slope vary with distance.

Artificial Channel are built for various purposes:

1. Water-power development: Water is brought from streams or reservoirs to headworks above power
plants.
2. Irrigation: Water is brought from streams or reservoir or tanks or directly to tank to be irrigated
3. City water supply: Water is brought from streams or storage reservoirs to ponds supplying city distribution
systems.
4. Sewerage: City sewers, although usually covered conduits or pipes, ordinarily are designed as open
channels because they are not supposed to flow full but to have a free surface under atmospheric
pressure.
5. Drainage: low lying, swampy, waterlogged lands are frequently made productive by draining them though
open ditches or by laying and covering pipe which may or may not flow full.
6. Flood control: Protection of cities or valuable lands from flood often requires improving a natural channel
by straightening, cleaning or paving to increase the capacity or by building additional flood channels on
new location.

Types of open channel flows

Steady flow – when discharge (Q) does not change with time.
Uniform flow – when depth of fluid does not change for a selected length or section of the channel
Uniform steady flow – when discharge does not change with time and depth remains constant for a selected section
-cross section should remain unchanged – referred to as a prismatic channel
Varied steady flow – when depth changes but discharge remains the same
Varied unsteady flow – when both depth and discharge change along a channel length of interest.
Rapidly varying flow – depth change is rapid
Gradually varying flow – depth change is gradual

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Section 1 – rapidly varying flow

Section 2 – gradually varying flow
Section 3 – hydraulic jump
Section 4 – weir and waterfall
Section 5 – gradually varying
Section 6 – hydraulic drop due to change in channel slope

Formulas for Open Channel

The Chezy Formula
This fundamental law of turbulent flow applies either to open channels or to pipes through it was originally used
for open channels.

𝑉 = 𝐶√𝑅𝑆

S =slope of the egl, hydraulic slope, energy gradient as in pipes.

ℎ𝑓
𝑠=
𝐿
R =hydraulic radius, hydraulic mean depth (m) is the area of cross section of stream divided by wetted perimeter.
𝐴
𝑅=
𝑃

Theoretically:
8𝑔
𝐶=√
𝑓

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C by Manning
1
𝑅6
𝐶=
𝑛
C by Bazin
87
𝐶= 𝑚
1+
√𝑅

C by Kutter;
1 0.00155
+ 23 +
𝐶= 𝑛 𝑆
𝑛 0.00155
1+ (23 + )
√𝑅 𝑆

m,n=roughness coefficient
C by Powell: (English System)
𝐶 𝜀
𝐶 = −42𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( + )
𝑁𝑅 𝑅
𝑓𝑡 1/2
C is in 𝑠
If C is not given/specified in the problem, use the manning’s C in the Chezy’s V. the result is the Manning or the Chezy-
Manning Formula for V:
1
𝑉 = 𝑅2/3 𝑆 1/2 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
𝑛
1.486 2/3 1/2
𝑉= 𝑅 𝑆 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑠ℎ 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
𝑛

1.1.1 Uniform flow

The same depth, cross sectional area and velocity for a length of flow
The channel bed is parallel to egl.

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Channel Geometry
The term cross section is used to denote the cross section of a channel taken normal to the direction of flow.

Table 10.1 Properties and Geometric Elements of Typical Channel Cross Sections
Section Area Wetted Hydraulic Top Hydraulic depth Cross section
perimeter radius width
Rectangular

by b+2y by/( b+2y) b y

trapezoidal

(b+ty)y b+tyw A/P b+d2ty A/B

w=(1+𝑡 2 )0.5

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triangular

𝑡𝑦 2 2𝑦𝑤 𝑡𝑦/(2𝑤) 2𝑡𝑦 𝐴/𝐵

circular

𝑑2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑 𝜃 𝐴/𝐵
(𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) (1 − ) 2𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )
8 𝑟𝜃 𝜃 4 2

𝑦
𝜃 = 2 cos −1 (1 − 2 )
𝑑
semicircular

𝜋𝑟 2 /2 𝜋𝑟 𝑟/2 2𝑟 𝜋𝑟/4

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Sample Problem:
1. A finished concrete channel 2.4 m wide and 1.5m deep has a slope of 0.0087, n=0.012.
a. What is the velocity of flow?
b. What is the discharge?
c. What is the discharge using “f” value of 0.016?
Solution:

1.5m

2.4m

S=0.0087
n= 0.012
a) Since C is not applicable or given, V can be solved as;

𝑉 = 1/𝑛𝑅2/3 𝑠1/2 ---------- equation 1

Solve first for the R,
𝐴 2.4m(1.5m)
𝑅= =
𝑃 2(2.4m + 1.5m)

𝑅 = 6/13m ---------- substitute to equation 1

1 6 2/3
𝑉= ( ) (0.0087)1/2
0.012 13

V= 4.64m/s

b) Q=AV
Q = (2.4x 1.5)( 4.64)
Q = 16.704m3 /s

c) Since f is given we can now solve V using;

𝑉 = 𝐶√𝑅𝑆

8(9.81)
𝐶=√ = 70.036
(0.016)

6
𝑉 = 70.03√( ) (0.0087)
13
𝑉 = 4.44m/s
Q=AV
Q = (2.4x 1.5) ( 4.44)
Q = 15.984m3 /s

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Seatwork:
1. Water flows in a triangular steel channel with n is 0.014 as shown in the figure below at a velocity
of 2.9ft/s,
Determine the depth of flow if the slope is 0.0015.
2. After a flood had passed an observation station on a river, an engineer visited the site and, by
locating flood marks, performing appropriate surveying, and doing necessary computations,
determined that the cross-section area, wetted perimeter, and water surface slope at te time of
the peak flooding were 2960𝑚2 341m, and 0.00076, respectively. The engineer also noted that
the channel bottom was earth with grass and weeds. Estimate the peak flood discharge
3. A 30in dia. concrete storm sewer pipe must a carry a flow rate of 9cfs at a minimum velocity of
2.5ft/s, find the required slope and water depth.

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1.1.1a MOST EFFICIENT SECTION (MES)

MES
In channels of different shapes/ proportions but of same A, S and n, the one that gives the biggest Q or
smallest P is the most efficient section(also called most economical section, most hydraulic section, most
advantageous section and the like)
MES
May be used to save excavation and lining of the channel, It is important to note that
“the same material” not only means the “P” P=material

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Sample Problem:
1. Find b, d and V for the channel below to convey 18𝑚3 /𝑠, S=0.0013 and n=0.026

4d+b
Solution 2d b 2d

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d
A = (4d + 2b) ( )
2
A = 2d2 + bd

Since x=2y, solve for b in terms of d

4d + b = 2(√5d)
b = 2√5d − 4d
b = 0.47d ------- substitute to the equation of Area
A = 2d2 + (0.47d)d
A = 2.47d2

Using the formula of V;

𝑉 = 1/𝑛𝑅2/3 𝑠1/2

For MES R=d/2, thus

1 𝑑 2/3
𝑉= ( ) (0.0013)1/2
0.026 2
from Q = AV;
1 𝑑 2/3
18 = (2.47d2 ) ( ) ( ) (0.0013)1/2
0.026 2
d = 2.22m; b = 1.04m
V can be solved to ways by using the formula of V or Q
from Q = AV; V = Q/A
V = 18/(2.47d2 )
V = 18/(2.47(2.22)2 )
V = 1.48m/s

Seatwork:
An open channel is to be designed to carry 1.0𝑚3 /s at a slope of 0.0065. The channel
material has an n value of 0.011. Find the most efficient cross section for a semicircular
section.

Compound Sections
When channel shape changes with flow depth – typical in natural stream sections during flooding

1.486 𝐴 2/3 1/2

𝑣= ( ) 𝑆
𝑛 𝑃

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𝑄 = ∑ 𝐴𝑉
𝑖=1

During floods – water spills over the flood plain

You need to know Q at various depths or vice-versa – so that
you can design channels or determine channel safety for various
flood magnitudes

Cazenovia Creek in Buffalo during

“normal” flow conditions

Cazenovia Creek during flood

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Sample Problem:

Channel – earth with grass cover, n = 0.04

S = 0.00015
Determine normal Q for depth = 3 and 6 ft.
Compound section –
More realistic situation – channel roughness n may be different
for floodplain than the main channel
In that case
- determine velocity for each sub section
- and then sum up the discharges for the sections
Solutions:

a) Q at normal depth 3
Q = AV; 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑉 = 1.486/𝑛𝑅2/3 𝑠1/2

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3ft 3ft

Solve For A
18 + 12
A= (3) = 45ft 2
2
P = 12 + (3√2)(2) = 20.49ft
2
1.486 45 3 1
Q = 45 [( )( ) (0.00015)2 ]
0.04 20.49
Q = 34.59ft 3 /𝑠
b) Q at depth 6

2 3
1

Divide the channel into 3 sections

For section 1
20 + 12
A= (4) + 20(2) = 104ft 2
2
P = 12 + 2(4√2) = 23.31ft
2
1.486 104 3 1
Q = 104 [( )( ) (0.00015)2 ]
0.04 23.31
Q1 = 128.24ft 3 /𝑠

For section 2
12 + 10
A= (2) = 22ft 2
2
P = 10 + (2√2) = 14.83ft
2
1.486 22 3 1
Q = 22 [( )( ) (0.00015)2 ]
0.04 14.83
Q 2 = 13.02ft 3 /𝑠
Since section 2 and 3 are the same, thus Q 2 = Q 3 = 13.02ft 3 /𝑠
Q total = Q1 + Q 2 + Q 3
Q total = 128.24ft 3 /𝑠 + 13.02ft 3 /𝑠 + 13.02ft 3 /𝑠
Q total = 154.28ft 3 /s

Seatwork:
Determine the total discharge flowing in the natural channel below. S= 0.000278
With tall grass and weeds Page 15 of 51

Smooth earth
With stone and weeds
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Note:

Energy Principles for Open Channel flow

Energy at a particular point in the channel = PE + KE
𝑣2
𝐸 =𝑦+
2𝑔

Where y is the depth of flow and v is the velocity

Note – no pressure term!
This is energy with respect to the channel bottom – Specific Energy
When energy is measured with respect to another fixed datum –
Total energy
𝑣2
𝐸 = 𝑦+𝑧+
2𝑔
Where z is the height of the channel bottom from the datum
In terms of Q the specific energy can be expressed as –
𝑄2
𝐸=𝑦+
2𝑔𝐴2
Where Q is the discharge and A is the cross-sectional flow area

Specific Energy Diagram

The specific energy can be plotted graphically as a function of
depth of flow.
𝑄2
𝐸=𝑦+
2𝑔𝐴2

Relationship between y and Es & Ek

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Combining the two relationships – specific energy diagram

Key points from the diagram –

1. the diagram applies for a given cross section and discharge
2. as the depth of flow increases, the static energy increases, and the kinetic energy decreases
3.the total energy curve approaches the static energy curve for high depths and the kinetic energy curve
for small depths
4. The specific energy is minimum (Emin) for a particular depth – this depth happens to be the critical
depth – Depth for which the Froude’s number = 1.0. velocity = Vc.
5. Emin – only energy value with a singular depth!
6. Depths less than the critical depths – supercritical flow. Froude Number > 1.0. V > Vc.
7. Depths greater than the critical depths – subcritical flow. Froude Number < 1.0. V < Vc.
8. For all other energy values – there are two depth associated – one greater than the critical depth and
one less than the critical depth.
9. The two depths associated with the same energy values are referred to as – Alternate depths
10. As discharge increases, the specific energy curves move to the upper right portion of the chart

Kinds (types) of open channel flow

Reynolds number for pipe flow –
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v𝐷
𝑁𝑟 =
𝑣

Reynolds number for open channel flow

v𝐷
𝑁𝑟 =
𝑣
For pipe flow –
NR < 2000 – laminar
NR > 4000 – turbulent
For channel flow –
NR < 500 – laminar
NR > 2000 – turbulent
Another “number” for channel flow!
Froude Number [NF] (gravity versus inertial forces)
v
𝑁𝑓 =
√𝑔𝑦ℎ
Where yh is referred to as the hydraulic depth and given as –
𝑦ℎ = 𝐴/𝐵
where A is the area and B is the top width of the channel
NF = 1.0 or when v = (𝑔𝑦)1/2 - critical flow
NF < 1.0 – and if 𝑦 > 𝑦𝑐 subcritical flow,
NF > 1.0 – and if 𝑦 < 𝑦𝑐 super critical flow
A combination of both the numbers is used to describe channel flow conditions.

Additional Equations
Specific energy equation –
𝑄2
𝐸=𝑦+
2𝑔𝐴2
Taking a derivative and equating it to zero (critical flow conditions when energy is minimum
𝑄2𝐵 𝑄 2 𝐴3
= 1 𝑜𝑟 =
𝑔𝐴3 𝑔 𝐵𝑐
Solving these further, for a rectangular channel (A = By), we get –
𝑞2 3 𝑞2
=1 𝑜𝑟 𝑦𝑐 = √ 𝑉𝑐 = √𝑔𝑑𝑐
𝑔𝑦𝑐 3 𝑔
Critical depth can be determined explicitly Also, for rectangular channel –

2
𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑦
3 𝑐

Alternative stage Flow

-In a channel for a given total head or specific energy E there are two stages of flow that gives the
same discharge Q.
The upper stage The lower stage
Tranquil flow Rapid or Shooting flow
Subcritical Supercritical
𝑁𝑓 < 1 𝑁𝑓 > 1

V 2 /2g US
Subcritical Q
E Critical Qmax
d𝑐 LS d𝑐 Q
Supercritical
d𝑐
Channel bed

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Critical Depth – depth of flow where Q is maximum for a given E, or the depth of flow where E is the
minimum for a given Q (𝑁𝑓 = 1)

Sample Problem:
1. Water flows in a rectangular channel at a depth of 0.60m and a velocity of flow of 1.2m/s
a. What is the discharge?
b. What is the critical depth?
c. Is the flow sub or supercritical?
d. What is the alternate depth?

Solution:
a. What is the discharge?
0.6m
b=width

𝑞 = 0.6(1)(1.2) = 0.72m3 /s per meter width of the channel

b. What is the critical depth?
3 𝑞 2 3 (0.72)2
𝑑𝑐 = √ =√
𝑔 9.81

dc = 0.38m

c. Is the flow sub or supercritical?

v 1.2
𝑁𝑓 = =
√𝑔𝑦ℎ √9.81(0.6)

𝑁𝑓 = 0.49 < 1 ∴ subcritical

d. What is the alternate depth?

𝑄2 𝑉2
𝐸=𝑦+ 𝑜𝑟 𝐸 = 𝑦 +
2𝑔𝐴2 2𝑔
(1.2)2
𝐸 = 0.6 + = 0.673m
19.62
In the Lower stage
(𝑉 )2
0.673 = d +
19.62
0.72 0.72
But V=Q/A = =
1(𝑑) 𝑑
(0.72/d)2
0.673 = d +
19.62

d = 0.59m
2. Find the critical depth in the trapezoidal channel shown conveying water at 25cu.m/s. S =0.0012
and n=0.015.

3m

Solution:

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3 +6dc
3dc 3m 3dc

dc

3m
For critical flow;
Q2 A3
= − − − − − eq. 1
g Bc
Solve for Area (A) first,
6 + 6dc
A= (dc)
2
A = 3dc + 3dc 2 -------substitute to eq. 1
(25)2 (3dc + 3dc2 )3
=
9.81 3 + 6dc
dc = 1.28m
Seatwork:
1. The semicircular channel as shown (n=0.010) is to carry water at a depth of 1.0 ft. Find the
velocity, slope, and discharge at the critical stage.

2. The triangular channel(n=0.012) as shown is to carry water at a flow rate of 10𝑚3 /𝑠. Find the
critical depth critical velocity and critical slope of the channel

1.1.2 Non-Uniform or Varied Flow (S≠ 𝑺𝒐 )

The manning equation for uniform flow can be applied to non-uniform flow with accuracy
dependent on the length of reach L taken. Thus along stream should be divided into
several reached of varying length such that the change in depth is roughly the same with
each reach

1 2

ℎ𝐿 = 𝑆𝐿
𝑉1 2
2𝑔 Slope of the EGL(S)

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𝑉2 2
2𝑔

𝑑1

𝑑2

𝑆𝑜 𝐿

Slope of the channel bed(So)

𝐿

From the figure shown:

𝑉12 𝑉22
+ 𝑑1 + 𝑆𝑜 𝐿 = + 𝑑2 + 𝑆̅𝐿
2𝑔 2𝑔

𝑉22 𝑉12
𝑆𝑜 𝐿 − 𝑆̅𝐿 = ( + 𝑑2 ) − ( + 𝑑1 )
2𝑔 2𝑔

𝑉22 𝑉12
(2𝑔 + 𝑑2 ) − (2𝑔 + 𝑑1 )
𝐿=
𝑆𝑜 𝐿 − 𝑆̅
𝐻2 − 𝐻1
𝐿=
𝑆𝑜 𝐿 − 𝑆̅
𝑆1 + 𝑆2
𝑆̅ =
2
Where: H= specific energy
𝑉2
𝐻 = 2𝑔 + 𝑑

L – length of reach
So- slope of the channel bed
𝑆1 &𝑆2 −
slope of the energy garde line at the section 1 & 2, respectively, computed using Manningg ′ sformula
𝑛2 𝑣1 2
𝑆1 = 4/3
𝑅1

𝑛2 𝑣2 2
𝑆2 = 4/3
𝑅2

Non- Uniform Form (varied flow)

S = slope of the egl
𝑆𝑜 = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙 𝑏𝑒𝑑

`Retarded: 𝑑1 < 𝑑2 𝑉1 > 𝑉2 𝑆 ≠ 𝑆𝑜

Egl is not parallel to channel

Accelerated: 𝑑1 > 𝑑2 𝑉1 < 𝑉2 𝑆 ≠ 𝑆𝑜

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Sample Problem:
1. A 1.2m wide rectangular flume carries water at 1.60m/s. The bed slope is 0.00065 and n =0.013.
At a certain section the depth is 1m.
a) How far there from is the depth 70cm?
b) What is the slope of the egl?
c) What is the headloss?
Solution:
Assume the 75cm depth is upstream (retarted) write B.E.

HL
𝑉2 2 /2𝑔
𝑉1 2 /2𝑔

𝑑1 𝑑2
𝑥
L
Slope = tanθ
0.00065 = 𝑥/𝐿 ;𝑥 = 0.00065𝐿

V1 2 V2 2
+ d1 + 0.00065L = HL + + d2 − − − − − − − equation 1
2g 2g
But HL =SL
Solve for V1 and V2
V1 = 1.60/(0.70)(1.2) V2 = 1.60/(1)(1.2)

V1 = 1.90m/s V2 = 1.33m/s

Solve for S

Vave = 1/nRave 2/3 Save1/2--------------equation 2

𝑉1 + 𝑉2
Vave =
2
1.90+1.33
Vave = = 1.62m/s
2

𝑅1 + 𝑅2
Rave =
2
𝐴 (1)(1.2)
𝐴 (0.70)(1.2) 𝑅2 = =
𝑅1 = = 𝑃 1 + 1.2 + 1
𝑃 0.70 + 1.2 + 0.70
𝑅2 = 0.375
𝑅1 = 0.32

0.25 + 0.3
Rave = = 0.31
2

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Substitute the value of Rave and Vave to equation 2

1
1.62 = (0.31)2/3 Save1/2
0.013

Save = S = 0.000211----------substitute to equation 1 answer for b

So>S thus assumed flow is correct So ≠ 𝑆

1.902 1.332
+ 0.70 + 0.00065L = 0.000211L + +1
19.62 19.62

L = 469.62m answer for a

HL=SL=0.000211(469.62) = 0.0986

1.2.3 HYDRAULIC JUMP

A phenomenon of a sudden rise, called hydraulic jump, or sometimes standing wave.

Whenever the flow profile changes from supercritical to subcritical, hydraulic jumps will occur.
A hydraulic jump represents a significant head loss that manifests in available energy for scour
and creation of turbulence. Hydraulic jumps are one of the three occurrences of Rapidly Varied
Flow that FishXing approximates. Hydraulic jumps are generally an undesirable condition for
fish passage and erosion control.

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Condition for formation of hydraulic jump

• When depth of flow is forced to change from a
supercritical depth to a subcritical depth
• Or Froude number decreases from greater than 1.0 to less
than 1.0.
• Jump will not occur when Froude number is less than 1.0
• Jump does not occur from subcritical to supercritical flow –
only vice versa.

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y1 – supercritical flow
y2 – subcritical flow

𝑦2 = (𝑦2 /2)√1 + 8𝑁𝑓1 2 − 1

Where NF1 is the Froude number at section 1.
Note – subcritical depth y2 only depends on y1 and the Froude
number.

Specific Energy conditions in the Hydraulic jump –

(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )3
𝐸1 − 𝐸2 =
4𝑦1 𝑦2
Theoretical depth
Theoretical depth after jump – alternate depth
Actual depth after jump – sequent depth
Length of jump – varies – but about 7 times the subcritical depth

A hydraulic jump can only occur if the following two conditions are satisfied:

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1. The culvert has a steep hydraulic slope (yc > yn)

2. The tailwater depth is greater than critical depth (yTW > yc)

If both of these conditions exist FishXing checks for the possibility of a jump occurring within
the culvert. FishXing solves the Gradually Varied Flow equations in the downstream direction
(frontwater calculations) starting from critical depth at the inlet. This gives a supercritical water
surface profile. Next, FishXing performs backwater calculations starting at the outlet with the
water depth equal to the tailwater depth. Proceeding upstream, the backwater calculations
produces a subcritical water surface profile. At any given point in the culvert there is now both a
supercritical and subcritical depth. To determine which depth is correct, at each node (point) the
corresponding momentum (or specific force) is calculated for both of the depths. When the
upstream momentum and downstream momentum values are equal a jump occurs.

FishXing does not locate the exact location of the jump but determines the up and downstream
nodes of the jump and connects sub and supercritical flow between these nodes.

The steps followed to locate the jump are summarized as:

1. Compute the upstream supercritical water surface profile by solving the Gradually Varied
Flow equations from the inlet depth equal to critical depth. Calculations proceeding in the
downstream direction are called "front water calculations".

2. Starting at the downstream boundary condition at the outlet, compute the subcritical water
surface profile in the upstream direction. Calculations proceeding in the upstream direction are
called "backwater calculations".

3. At each node, compute the momentum (specific force) for associated with the two depths
(supercritical and subcritical).

Where:

M = Momentum or specific force

Q = Flow rate

g =Acceleration due to gravity

A = Cross sectional area

𝑧̅ = is the distance from the water surface to the centroid of the cross sectional area of flow.

4. Beginning at the outlet and proceeding towards the inlet, compare the momentum associated
with the corresponding supercritical and subcritical depths. When the momentum associated
with the subcritical profile becomes less than the momentum associated with the supercritical
profile, a hydraulic jump is assumed to have occurred between the two nodes.

Height of jump 𝑑2 − 𝑑1

Power Lost by the jump P=Q𝛾𝐻𝐿

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Generally (all sections)

p=𝛾ℎ̅𝐴

For rectangular section

𝑞2 𝑑1+𝑑2
= 𝑑1 𝑑2 ( )
𝑔 2

Energy loss due to jump

(𝑑2 − 𝑑1 )3
𝐻𝐿 =
4𝑑1 𝑑2

𝑉12 𝑉2 2
𝐻𝐿 = ( + 𝑑1 ) − ( + 𝑑2 )
2𝑔 2𝑔

Critical depth

𝑑1 𝑑2
𝑑𝑐 3 = (𝑑1 + 𝑑2 )
2

Practical applications of hydraulic jumps:

• Dissipation of energy of water flowing over dams and weirs – to prevent possible erosion and
scouring due to high velocities
• Raising water levels in canals to enhance irrigation practices and reduce pumping heads
• Reducing uplift pressure under the foundations of hydraulic structures
• Creating special flow conditions to meet certain special needs at control sections – gaging
stations, flow measurement, flow regulation

Types of hydraulic jumps

Classified based on flow form, approach Froude number, and
energy loss.

(a) Undular jump (1 < Fn1<1.7)

• Slight undulation
• Two conjugate depths are close
• Transition is not abrupt – slightly ruffled water surface

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(b) Weak jump (1.7<Fn1<2.5)

• Eddies and rollers are formed on the surface
• Energy loss is small
• The ratio of final depth to initial depth ~ between 2.0 and
3.1.

(c) Oscillating jump (2.5 <Fn1<4.5)

• Jet oscillates from top to bottom – generates surface waves
that persist beyond the end of the jump
• Ratio final depth to initial depth ~ between 3.1 to 5.0
• To prevent destructive effects this type of jump should be avoided

(d)_Stable jump (4.5<Fn1<9)

• Many advantages
• Position of jump fixed regardless of downstream conditions
• Good dissipation of energy
• Considerable rise in downstream water level
• Ratio of final to initial depth ~ between 5.9 and 12.0

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(e) Strong or rough jump (Fn1 > 9)

• Jump becomes increasingly rough
• Fn1 should not be allowed to exceed 12 – otherwise required stilling basins will be large and
massive
• Ability of jump to dissipate energy is massive
• Ratio of final to initial depth ~ over 12 and may exceed 20.

Sample Problem:
1. A stream having a width of 4m carries 14.88𝑚3 /𝑠 at a velocity of 5.18 m/s.
a. What is the Froude number?
b. If hydraulic jump occurs, what is the depth of water downstream?
c. What is the Froude number?

Solution:
Subcritical

critical d2
Supercritical
d1

V
a) Nf = Q = AV; 14.88 = 4d1 (5.18) ; d1 = 0.718m
√gd
5.18
Nf = = 1.95m > 1 supercritical
√9.81(0.718)
q2 d1 +d2
b) = d1 d2 [ ]
g 2
Q 14.88
q= = = 3.72𝑚3 /𝑠/𝑚
b 4
(3.72)2 0.718 + d2
= (0.718)d2 [ ]
9.81 2
d2 = 1.655𝑚
V2
c) Nf =
√gd
14.88
V2 = = 2.25m/s
( 4)(1.655)

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V2 2.25
Nf = =
√gd √9.81(1.655)

Nf = 0.56 < 1 − −subcritical

Seatwork:
1. Water is flowing in the spillway chute with a discharge of 150𝑚3 /s which has a rectangular section and
is 15m as shown. n=0.015.
a. What is the depth of flow at the bottom of the 3% slope at A?
b. What would be the required depth of tailwater at section B to cause a hydraulic jump to cause a hydraulic
jump to form on the flat slope?
c. Determine the horsepower degenerated due to the jump?
𝑚3
2. A trapezoidal channel with 3.0 bottom width and 1:1 side slope carries a discharge of 10 at a slope of
𝑠
12cm/km. A hydraulic jump is formed in the channel with an initial depth of 0.6 m. Calculate the
momentum function, the critical depth, and the conjugate depth.

2.0 FLOW MEASUREMENTS

2.1 WEIRS
Definition

A structure, used to dam up a stream or river, over which the water flows, is called a weir.
The conditions of flow, in the case of a weir, are practically the same as those of a
rectangular notch. That is why, a notch is, sometimes, called as a weir and vice versa.

The only difference between a notch and a weir is that the notch of a small size and the weir is of
a bigger one. Moreover, a notch is usually made in a plate, whereas a notch is made of masonry or
concrete.

Types of Weirs

There are many types of weirs depending upon their shape, nature of discharge, width of
crest and nature of crest. But the following are important from the subject point of view :
1. According to the shape :

• Rectangular weir
• Cippoletti weir

2. According to the nature of discharge :

• Ordinary weir
• Submerged or drowned weir

3. According to the width of crest :

• Narrow crested weir

• Broad crested weir

4. According to the nature of crest :

• Sharp crested weir

• Ogee weir

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Velocity of Approach

Sometimes, a weir is provided in a stream or a river to measure the flow of water. In such
a case, the water, approaching the weir, has got some velocity, known as velocity of
approach. It is assumed to be uniform over the whole weir.Let,

• A = Cross sectional area of the channel on the upstream side of the weir, and
• Q = Discharge over the weir

Velocity of approach,

Ventilation of Rectangular Weirs

It has been observed that whenever water is flowing over a rectangular weir, having no
end contractions, the nappe (i.e., the sheet of water flowing over the weir) touches the
side walls of the channel. After flowing over the weir, the nappe falls away from the
weir, thus creating a space beneath the water as shown in fig-1. In such a case, some air is
trapped beneath the weir.

This air is carried away by the flowing water, which results in creating a negative
pressure beneath the nappe. The negative pressure drags the lower side of the nappe
towards the surface of the weir wall. This results in more discharge than the normal
discharge. In order the keep the atmospheric pressure in the space below the nappe holes
are made through the channel walls which are connected through the pipes to the
atmosphere as shown in figure. Such holes are called 'Ventilation' of a weir. Though there
are many types of the nappes, yet the following are important from the subject point of
view :

• Free nappe
• Depressed nappe
• Clinging nappe

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Free Nappe

If the atmospheric pressure exists beneath the nappe, it is known as a free nappe as shown
in fig-2(a). A free nappe is obtained by ventilating a weir.

Depressed Nappe

Sometimes a weir is not fully ventilated, but is partially ventilated as shown in fig-2(b). If
the pressure below the nappe is negative, it is called a depressed nappe.
The discharge of the nappe, in this case, depends upon the amount of ventilation and the
negative pressure. Generally, the discharge of a depressed nappe is 6% to 7% more than
that of a free nappe.

Clinging Nappe

Sometimes, no air is left below the water, and the nappe adheres or clings to the
downstream side of the weir as shown in fig-2(c). Such a nappe is called clinging nappe
or an adhering nappe. The discharge of a clinging nappe is 25% to 30% more than that of
a free nappe.

Discharge Over A Rectangular Weir

Consider a rectangular weir over which the water is flowing as shown in figure -

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Let,

• H = Height of the water above the crest of the weir

• L = Length of the weir and
• Cd = Coefficient of discharge

Let us consider a horizontal strip of water of thickness at a depth from the water surface as
shown in
figure.
Area of the strip =
We know that the theoretical velocity of water through the strip =
Discharge through the strip,
= Area of strip Theoretical Velocity

The total discharge, over the weir, may be found out by integrating the above equation within the
limits 0 and H.

3/2 3/2
𝑉𝑎2 𝑉𝑎2
𝑄 = 𝑚𝐿 [(𝐻 + ) −( ) ]
2𝑔 2𝑔

Neglecting the velocity of approach

𝑄 = 𝑚𝐿𝐻3/2
𝑚 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
If C or m is not given used the Francis formula:
3/2 3/2
𝑉𝑎2 𝑉𝑎2
𝑄 = 1.84𝐿 [(𝐻 + ) −( ) ]
2𝑔 2𝑔
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1.07𝑚 < 𝐿 > 5.18𝑚

0.183𝑚 < 𝐻 > 0.488
For contracted sections, replaced L by L’
L’ =L-0.1H-------for singly contracted
L’=L-0.2H--------for doubly contracted
Note :
Coeff.<1.0 --------C
Coeff.>1.0--------m

Discharge Over A Cippoletti Weir

The "Cippoletti" weir is a trapezoidal weir, having 1 horizontal to 4 vertical side slopes, as
shown in figure. The purpose of the slope, on the sides, is to obtain an increased discharge
through the triangular portions of the weir, which, otherwise would have been decreased due to
end contractions in the case of rectangular weirs. Thus the advantage of a Cippoletti weir is that
the factor of end contraction is not required, while using the Francis' Formula.

Let us split up the trapezoidal weir into a rectangular weir and a triangular notch.
Now discharge over a rectangular weir,

and discharge over a triangular notch

So total discharge,

Since the main idea of Cippoletti was to avoid the factor of end contraction, and as such he gave
the formula for the
discharge,

CIPOLLETTI: (symmetrical, trapezoidal weir whose sides slope is 4V and 1H)

𝑄 = 1.875𝐿𝐻 3/2

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Triangular Notch A triangular notch is also called a V-notch. Consider a triangular notch, in one side of the
tank, over which water is flowing as shown in figure.

Let,

• H = Height of the liquid above the apex of the notch

• θ = Angle of the notch
• Cd = Coefficient of discharge

From the geometry of the figure, we find that the width of the notch at the water surface,

Area of the strip =

We know that the theoretical velocity of water through the strip =

and discharge over the notch,

The total discharge over the whole notch may be found out only by integrating the above equation within the limits
0 and H.

𝑄 = 𝑚𝐻 5/2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 ∅ = 90°, 𝑚 𝑚𝑎𝑦𝑏𝑒 1.4
When C is not given, C =0.60

A triangular notch gives more accurate results for low discharges than rectangular notch and the
same triangular notch can measure a wide range of flows accurately.
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Discharge over A Narrow Crested Weir

If the height of water above the weir crest is greater than two times of the width of the crest of
weir, the weir is called a Narrow Crested weir.
A narrow crested weir is hydraulically similar to an ordinary weir or to a rectangular weir. Thus
the same formula for discharge over a narrow-crested weir holds good, which was derived from
an ordinary weir.

Example:
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[metric]

Example - Discharge Over A Narrow Crested Weir

Problem
A narrow-crested weir of 10 meters long is discharging water under a constant head of 400 mm.
Find discharge over the weir in liters/s. Assume coefficient of discharge as 0.623.
Workings
Given,

• L = 10 m
• H = 400 m = 0.4 m
• Cd = 0.623

We know, the discharge over the weir,

Discharge Over A Broad Crested Weir

If the height of water above the weir crest is not greater than two times of the width of the crest
of weir, the weir is called a Broad Crested weir.

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Consider a broad crested weir as shown in figure. Let A and B be the upstream and downstream
ends of the weir.
Let,

• H = Head of water on the upstream side of the weir

• h = Head of water on the downstream side of the weir
• v = Velocity of the water on the downstream side of the weir (i.e., at B)
• Cd = Coefficient of discharge and
• L = Length of the weir

Applying Bernoulli's equation at A and B,

Discharge over the weir,

(1)
The discharge will be maximum, when is maximum. Therefore differentiating the
equation and
equating the same to zero,

Substituing this value of in the equation (1)

Example:
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Example - Discharge Over A Broad Crested Weir

Problem
Determine the maximum discharge over a broad-crested weir 60 meters long having 0.6 m height
of water above its crest. Take coefficient of discharge as 0.595. Also determine the new
discharge over the weir, considering the velocity of approach. The channel at the upstream side
of the weir has a cross-sectional area of 45 sq meters.
Workings
Given,

• L = 60 m
• H = 0.6 m
• Cd = 0.595
• A = 45 m2

Maximum Discharge Over The Weir Without Considering The Velocity Of Approach
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We know that the maximum discharge over the weir,

Maximum Discharge Over The Weir Considering The Velocity Of Approach

We know that velocity of approach,

and the head due to velocity of approach,

We also know that the maximum discharge over the weir,

Solution
Maximum discharge over the weir = 29.6 m3 /s

Discharge Over A Sharp-crested Weir

It is a special type of weir having a sharp-crest as shown in figure. The water flowing over the
crest comes in contact with the crest line and then springs up from the crest and falls as a
trajectory.

In a sharp-crested weir, the thickness of weir is kept less than half of the height of water on the
weir, i.e.,
where,

• b = Thickness of the weir

• H = Height of water, above the crest of weir

The discharge equation, for a sharp-crested weir, remains the same as that of a rectangular weir,
i.e.,

Example:
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Example - Discharge Over A Sharp-crested Weir

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Problem
A rectangular sharp-crested weir is to be constructed in a testing station with small stream in
which the discharge varies from 50 liters/s and 1250 liters/s. Find the suitable length of the weir,
if the minimum head to be measured is 50 mm and the maximum head on it does not exceed one-
third of its length.
Workings
Given,

• Qmax = 50 liters/s = 0.05 m3 /s

• Qmin = 1250 liters/s = 1.25 m3 /s
• Hmin = 50 mm = 0.05 m

Let, H = Length of weir in meters

Maximum head of water, Hmax = L/3
We know that the minimum discharge over the weir (Qmin)

(1)
and maximum discharge over the weir (Qmax)

(2)
Dividing equation (2) by (1)

Solution
Length of weir = 1.28 m

Discharge over an Ogee Weir

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It is another special type of weir, generally used as a spillway of a dam as shown in figure. The
crest of an ogee weir slightly rises up rom the point A (i.e., crest of the sharp-crested weir) and
after reaching the maximum rise of (where is the height of the water above the point
A) falls in a parabolic form as shown in figure.

The discharge equation for an ogee weir remains the same as that of a rectangular weir, i.e.,

Discharge Over A Submerged Or Drowned Weir

When the water level on the downstream side of a weir is above the top surface of weir, it is
known as submerged or drowned weir as shown in figure.

The total discharge, over such a weir, is found out by splitting up the height of water, above the
sill of the weir,
into two portions. Let,

• H1 = Height of water on the upstream side of the weir

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• H2 = Height of water on the downstream side of the weir

The discharge over the upper portion may be considered as a free discharge under a head of
water equal to . And the discharge over the lower portion may be considered as a
submerged discharge under a head of .
Thus discharge over the free portion (i.e., upper portion)

and the discharge over the submerged (i.e., lower portion)

Total Discharge,
Seatwork:
1. Compute the discharge in gpm for a measured head of 356mm over.
a. A trapezoidal weir 1.5m long whose sides make an angel of 75°57′50" with the
horizontal
b. A 3.80 m long rectangular weir, 0.805 m high
Solution:
a)
H = 356mm
𝜃 = 75°57′50"

4 tan(75°57′50") = 4/1 ∴ cipolleti

1

Q = 1.875LH 3/2
3
Q = 1.875(1.5)(0.356)2 = 0.572m3 /s
1000li 1gal 60𝑠
Q = 0.572 m3 /s ( 3
)( )( )
1m 3.79li 1min
Q = 9055.40gpm
b) approach
H = 0.356m

z = 0.805m 3 3
Va 2 2 Va 2 2
Q = 1.84L L[(H +
= 3.80m ) −( ) ]
2g 2g

Q
Q = AV𝑎 ; 𝑉𝑎 = = 0.225Q
[(0.365 + 0.805)(3.8)]
3 3
(0.225Q)2 2 (0.225Q)2 2
Q = 1.84(3.80) [(0.356 + ) −( ) ]
19.62 19.62

1000li 1gal 60𝑠

Q = 1.52 m3 /s ( )( )( )
1m3 3.79li 1min
Q = 24053.62gpm

2.2 ORIFICE
An opening, in a vessel, through which the liquid flows out is known as orifice. This hole or
opening is called an orifice, so long as the level of the liquid on the upstream side is above the
top of the orifice.
The typical purpose of an orifice is the measurement of discharge. An orifice may be provided in
the vertical side of a vessel or in the base. But the former one is more common.
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Types of Orifices
Orifices can be of different types depending upon their size, shape, and nature of discharge. But
the following are important from the subject point of view.

A. According to size:

• Small orifice
• Large orifice

B. According to shape:

• Circular orifice
• Rectangular orifice
• Triangular orifice

C. According to shape of edge:

• Sharp-edged
• Bell-mouthed

D. According to nature of discharge:

• Fully submerged orifice

• Partially submerged orifice

Jet of Water
The continuous stream of a liquid, that comes out or flows out of an orifice, as known as the Jet
of Water.

Vena-contracta
Consider an orifice is fitted with a tank. The liquid particles, in order to flow out through the
orifice, move towards the orifice from all directions. A few of the particles first move downward,
then take a turn to enter into the orifice and then finally flow through it.

It may be noted, that the liquid particles loose some energy, while taking the turn to enter into the
orifice. It can be observed that the jet, after leaving the orifice, gets contracted. The maximum

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contraction takes place at a section slightly on the downstream side of the orifice, where the
jet is more or less horizontal. Such a section is known as Vena-Contracta.

Hydraulic Coefficients
The following four coefficients are known as hydraulic coefficients or orifice coefficients.

• Coefficient of contraction
• Coefficient of velocity
• Coefficient of discharge
• Coefficient of resistance

Coefficient Of Contraction
The ratio of the area of the jet, at vena-contracta, to the area of the orifice is known as coefficient
of contraction. Mathematically coefficient of contraction,

The value of Coefficient of contraction varies slightly with the available head of the liquid, size
and shape of the orifice. The average value of is 0.64.

Coefficient of Velocity
The ratio of actual velocity of the jet, at vena-contracta, to the theoretical velocity is known as
coefficient of velocity.
The theoretical velocity of jet at vena-contracta is given by the relation, , where h is
the head of water at vena-contracta.
Mathematically coefficient of velocity,

The difference between the velocities is due to friction of the orifice. The value of Coefficient of
velocity varies slightly with the different shapes of the edges of the orifice. This value is very
small for sharp-edged orifices. For a sharp edged orifice, the value of increases with the head
of water.

Coefficient of Discharge

The ratio of a actual discharge through an orifice to the theoretical discharge is known as
coefficient of discharge. Mathematically coefficient of discharge,

Thus the value of coefficient of discharge varies with the values of and . An
average of coefficient of discharge varies from 0.60 to 0.64.

Coefficient Of Resistance

The ratio of loss of head in the orifice to the head of water available at the exit of the
orifice is known as coefficient of resistance.

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The loss of head in the orifice takes place, because the walls of the orifice offer some
resistance to the liquid as it comes out. The coefficient of resistance is generally
neglected, while solving numerical problems.

Flow Through Orifices And Mouthpieces

▪ An orifice is a small aperture through which the fluid passes. The thickness of an
orifice in the direction of flow is very small in comparison to its other dimensions.

▪ If a tank containing a liquid has a hole made on the side or base through which liquid
flows, then such a hole may be termed as an orifice. The rate of flow of the liquid through
such an orifice at a given time will depend partly on the shape, size and form of the
orifice.

▪ An orifice usually has a sharp edge so that there is minimum contact with the fluid and
consequently minimum frictional resistance at the sides of the orifice. If a sharp edge is
not provided, the flow depends on the thickness of the orifice and the roughness of its
boundary surface too.
▪

Flow from an Orifice at the Side of a Tank under a Constant Head

▪ Let us consider a tank containing a liquid and with an orifice at its side wall as shown in
Fig. 16.5. The orifice has a sharp edge with the bevelled side facing downstream. Let the
height of the free surface of liquid above the centre line of the orifice be kept fixed by
some adjustable arrangements of inflow to the tank.

▪ The liquid issues from the orifice as a free jet under the influence of gravity only. The
streamlines approaching the orifice converges towards it. Since an instantaneous change
of direction is not possible, the streamlines continue to converge beyond the orifice until
they become parallel at the Sec. c-c (Fig. 16.5).

▪ For an ideal fluid, streamlines will strictly be parallel at an infinite distance, but however
fluid friction in practice produce parallel flow at only a short distance from the orifice.
The area of the jet at the Sec. c-c is lower than the area of the orifice. The Sec. c-c is
known as the vena contracta.

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Fig 16.5 Flow from a Sharp edged Orifice

▪ The contraction of the jet can be attributed to the action of a lateral force on the jet
due to a change in the direction of flow velocity when the fluid approaches the
orifice. Since the streamlines become parallel at vena contracta, the pressure at this
section is assumed to be uniform.

▪ If the pressure difference due to surface tension is neglected, the pressure in the jet at
vena contracta becomes equal to that of the ambience surrounding the jet.

▪ Considering the flow to be steady and frictional effects to be negligible, we can write by
the application of Bernoulli’s equation between two points 1 and 2 on a particular stream-
line with point 2 being at vena contracta (Fig 16.5).

(16.10)

▪ The horizontal plane through the centre of the orifice has been taken as datum level for
determining the potential head.

▪ If the area of the tank is large enough as compared to that of the orifice, the velocity at
point 1 becomes negligibly small and pressure p1 equals to the hydrostatic pressure p1
equals to the hydrostatic pressure at that point as p 1=patm +ρg(h-z1).

▪ Therefore, Eq. (16.10) becomes

(16.11)

or, (16.12)

▪ If the orifice is small in comparison to h, the velocity of the jet is constant across the vena
contracta. The Eq. (16.12) states that the velocity with which a jet of liquid escapes from
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a small orifice is proportional to the square root of the head above the orifice, and is
known as Torricelli’s formula.

▪ The velocity V2 in Eq. (16.12) represents the ideal velocity since the frictional effects
were neglected in the derivation. Therefore, a multiplying factor Cv known as coefficient
of velocity is introduced to determine the actual velocity as

• Since the role of friction is to reduce the velocity, C v is always less than unity. The rate
of discharge through the orifice can then be written as,

(16.13)

where ac is the cross-sectional area of the jet at vena contracta.

• Defining a coefficient of contraction Cc as the ratio of the area of vena contracta to

the area of orifiice, Eq. (16.8) can be written as

(16.14)

where, a0 is the cross-sectional area of the orifice. The product of Cc and Cv is written as Cd and
is termed as coefficient of discharge. Therefore,

Constant Head Orifice

• Discharge if a compartment is closed
𝑝1 𝑝2
𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴√2𝑔 ( − + ℎ)
𝛾 𝛾
• Discharge if a compartment is open/non-submerged flow
𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴√2𝑔ℎ
• Discharge for submerged flow
𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴√2𝑔(ℎ1 − ℎ2 )

Falling head or Varying head Orifice

ℎ1
𝐴𝑠𝑑ℎ
𝑡=∫
ℎ2 𝐶𝐴√2𝑔

Page 46 of 51 Algebraic fromulas, use when

As is constant
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𝑉
𝑡=
𝑄𝑎𝑣𝑒.

2𝐴𝑠√ℎ1 − ℎ2
𝑡= use when As is constant
𝐶𝐴√2𝑔

Transfer
When two vessels, containing liquid, are connected together by means of an orifice, the liquid
will flow from the vessel with a higher level to the vessel with a lower level irrespective of their
areas. In such a case the liquid level will fall in one vessel with a corresponding rise in the other.
The orifice, through which the flow takes place, is a drowned one and the liquid head causing
flow will be the difference between the two liquid levels.
Consider two tanks connected at their bottom by a small orifice as shown in figure.

2𝐴1 𝐴2 (√ℎ1 − ℎ2
𝑡=
𝐶𝐴 (𝐴1 + 𝐴2 )√2𝑔

Sample:
1. Water flows from a large tank thru an orifice and discharges to the atmosphere as
shown. Cv= 0.96 and C=0.62. Find the diameter of the jet actual velocity and
discharge.

a) Diameter of the jet

C=CcCv; 0.62=Cc(0.96)
Cc=0.66
a𝑗𝑒𝑡 = Cc A𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒
h=3.0m πD2
4
d=0.082 π(0.082)2
= 0.66 ( )
m 4
D = 0.066m
b) Q = CA√2gh

But C= 0.62 and Cv=0.96

π(0.082)2
Q = 0.62 ( ) √19.629(3)
4

Q = 0.025m3 /s
c) Q=av
0.025
𝑉=
0.66(𝜋(0.033)2 )

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𝑉 = 11.07𝑚/𝑠

2. Calculate the time required to lower the water surface in the tank below by 0.8m
thru the 102mm∅ orifice at the bottom. C=0.80

0.8
m As
dh

Solution:
ℎ1
𝐴𝑠𝑑ℎ
𝑡=∫
ℎ2 𝐶𝐴√2𝑔ℎ

5
4𝜋ℎ−1/2
𝑡=∫
4.2 𝐶𝐴√2𝑔

5
4π
𝑡= ∫ h−1/2 dh
CA√2g 4.2
4π
let k =
CA√2g
5

𝑡 = 𝑘 ∫ h−1/2 dh
4.2
1
ℎ2 5
𝑡 = 𝑘 [ ] ∫4.2
1
2
5
𝑡 = 2𝑘[√ℎ]∫4.2

5
𝑡 = 2𝑘[(√ℎ1 − √ℎ2 )]∫4.2
𝑡 = 2𝑘[(√5 − √4.2)]
t = 0.373k
4π
t = 0.373 ( )
0.80(π(0.051)2 )√19.62

t = 161.87s or 162 s

2.3 VENTURI METER

Venturi meter is an instrument, which is used for measuring discharge
through pipes.
Clemente Hershel - American engineer invented the venturi meter.
Venturi meter are usually installed in an approximately horizontal position.
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For a given discharge the difference between elevations of the liquids in two
piezometers or the differential monometer reading, will be the same
regardless of weather the meter is horizontal or inclined.

Writing the Bernoulli’s Equation between point 1 and 2, neglecting friction, and
assuming uniform distribution of velocity in each cross section,
V1 2 p1 V2 2 p2
+ + z1 = + + z2
2g γ 2g γ
2 2
V2 V1 p1 p2
− = ( + z1 ) − ( + z2 )
2g 2g γ γ
The equation shows that the increase in kinetic energy is the decrease in potential
energy, which has been called the “Venturi principles”.
Q = CQ t
Where:
C − meter coefficient ( ranges from 0.96 − 0.98)
Q t − theoretical flow

Sample Problem:
1. The 450mm x 180mm venturi meter shown is known to have a coefficient
of 0.968. The liquid flowing is glycerin, sg = 1.26 and the manometer is
mercury.

a) What is the pressure difference between the inlet and the throat of
the meter?
b) What is the velocity of flow at the throat?
c) What is the amount of flow?

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Datum

a) Find Q
Theoretically
0 0
VA 2 pA VB2 pB
+ + zA = + + zB + 𝐻𝐿
2g γ 2g γ

VB 2 VA 2 pA pB
− = − ( + zB) − − − −equation 1
2g 2g γ γ
𝑄𝐴 = 𝑄𝐵
𝜋(0.225)2 𝑉𝐴 = 𝜋(0.09)2 𝑉𝐵
𝑉𝐴 = 0.16𝑉𝐵 − − − −equation 2
∑ pressure from A to B
pA + 1.26(9.81)(x) − 13.6(9.81)(0.84) − 1.26(9.81)(y) = pB
pA − pB = 112.07 + 12.36y − 12.36x
pA − pB = 112.07 + 12.36(y − x)
But y + 0.84 = x + 0.36
y − x = 0.36 − 0.84
y − x = −0.48
Solve pA − pB
pA − pB = 112.07 + 12.36(−0.48)
pA − pB = 106.14kPa − − − − − −equation 3
Use 2 and 3 in solving 1
VB2 (−0.16VB )2 106.14
− = − 0.36
2g 2g 1.26(9.81)
VB = 12.87m/s − − theoretically
Q 𝑡 = AV = 𝜋(0.09)2 (12.87)
Q 𝑡 = 0.327m3 /s
Q = CQ 𝑡 = 0.968(0.327)
Q = 0.317m3 /s
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b) VB = 𝑄/𝐴 − actual
0.317
VB = = 12.44m/s
𝜋(0.09)2
c) pA − pB = 106.14kPa

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