EARTH AND LIFE

SCIENCE
CHAPTER 2:
EARTH: HISTORY AND GEOLOGIC TIME
LEARNING COMPETENCIES
• explain how relative and absolute dating
were used to determine the subdivisions
of geologic time
• describe how index fossils (also known as
guide fossils) are used to define and
identify subdivisions of geologic time
scale
• describe how Earth’s history can be
interpreted from the geologic time scale
LEARNING COMPETENCIES
• recognize the uniqueness of Earth, being
the only planet in the Solar System with
properties necessary to support life
• devise ways to facilitate own learning
• display scientific values and attitudes
EARTH’S HISTORY
Are the current features of Earth the same
as its features 4.6 Gya?
How are scientists able to describe Earth’s
history? Geologists reconstruct the
sequence of events from the study of
petrology, stratigraphy, and paleontology.
Petrology is a branch of geology that
deals with the origin, composition,
structure, and classification of rocks.

Stratigraphy is the study of rock layers

(strata) and layering (stratifications).
Paleontology studies the lift that existed
prior to, or sometimes at the start of, the
Holocene epoch (the current geologic
epoch). It includes the study of fossils to
determine how they have evolved and
interacted with the environment.
Based on the information gathered from
the study of rock’s composition and
structure, rock layers, and fossils, geologists
developed the geologic time scale. It
represents the interval of time occupied by
the geologic history of Earth. It provides a
meaningful time frame within which events
of the geologic past are arranged.
 RELATIVE AND
ABSOLUTE DATING
How do scientists determine the geologic
time? Scientists measure geologic time
using two methods: relative dating and
absolute dating.
RELATIVE DATING
places events or rocks in their
chronological sequence or order of
occurrence without knowing their actual
age. This simply means that through relative
dating, one can find out which layer was
formed first relative to the layers. Relative
dating cannot tell exactly how many
years have passed since the event
happened.
The relative order of geologic events can
be established by applying the following
basic principles:
1. Principle of Original Horizontally
– Sedimentary rocks are deposited as
horizontal or nearly horizontal layers.
Any deviation from horizontally
indicates that deformation occurs after
the deposition.
The relative order of geologic events can
be established by applying the following
basic principles:
2. Principle of Superposition – In the
sequence of sedimentary rocks, the
layer at the bottom of the sequence is
the oldest, and the successively higher
levels are successively younger.
The relative order of geologic events can
be established by applying the following
basic principles:
3. Principle of Cross-cutting
Relationships – Geologic features like
faults or igneous intrusions are younger
than the rocks they cut across.
The relative order of geologic events can
be established by applying the following
basic principles:
4. Principle of Inclusion – If rocks or
rock fragments are included within
another rock layer, the rock fragments
must be older than the rock layer
where they were embedded.
ABSOLUTE DATING
places actual ages of rocks and events. The
method used in absolute dating technique
is based on the decay rate of certain
radioactive isotopes within fossils, rocks,
and artifacts. With the knowledge of the
decay rate, ratios of parent and daughter
isotopes, the absolute date may be
computed.
To better understand the concept of relative and absolute dating, do the
following activity. Imagine yourself belonging to a group of archaeologists
visiting two archeological sites of trash pits, one in Laguna and the other in
Cavite. While digging, you find that each trash pit shows a sequence of
layers.
Laguna Cavite
Diskettes layer Diskettes layer
Aluminum cans layer Aluminum cans layer
Tin cans layer with with license plate
license plate dated dated 1950
1950 Tin cans layer
Ceramic cups layer Stone loads layer
Stone loads layer

How will you determine the relative and absolute age? What conclusion
can you derive from the observation?
The relative age of the trash layer in Laguna and Cavite will be based on
the sequence of layers:

Laguna Cavite
Diskettes layer Diskettes layer
Aluminum cans layer Aluminum cans layer
Tin cans layer with with license plate
license plate dated dated 1950
1950 Tin cans layer
Ceramic cups layer Stone loads layer
Stone loads layer
 Laguna Cavite The absolute age of the trash layers
Diskettes layer Diskettes layer can be deduced from the clues
(youngest) (youngest) found in some layers. In the Laguna
Aluminum cans layer Aluminum cans layer trash, a license plate released in
Tin cans layer Tin cans layer 1950 is found in the tin cans layer. If
Ceramic cups layer Stone loads layer the year now is 2016, then the tin
Stone loads layer (oldest) cans layer is 66 years old.
(oldest)
 Laguna Cavite In the Cavite trash, a plastic ID
Diskettes layer Diskettes layer dated 1990 is found in the
(youngest) (youngest) aluminum layer. If the present year
Aluminum cans layer Aluminum cans layer is 2016, the aluminum cans layer is
Tin cans layer Tin cans layer 26 years old.
Ceramic cups layer Stone loads layer
Stone loads layer (oldest)
(oldest)
FOSSILS: EVIDENCE OF
PAST LIFE
Geologists also make use of information
derived from fossils to define and identify
subdivisions of geologic time scale. A fossil
is a remnant or trace of organisms of a
past geologic age. When you visit a natural
history museum, you will find different
types of fossils. They are classified based on
their formation.
1. True form fossils - are the entire
animals or plants trapped and
preserved in ice, tar, or other material,
such as remains of prehistoric
elephants or mammoths that were
frozen in the Arctic tundra of Siberia
and Alaska.
2. Mold fossils – are hollow impressions
of a living thing in a rock. The mold
reflects only the shape and surface
marking of the organisms.
3. Cast fossils – are created when mold
fossils get filled with mineral. The
minerals harden and form a replica of
the original fossil.
4. Trace fossils or ichnofossils – are
impressions on rocks that showed
various activities. Fossils can be
footprints, eggs, droppings, or nest of
animals.
William Smith, an English engineer and
canal builder, discovered that each rock
formation in the canal he worked on
contained fossils and noted that
sedimentary strata could be identified and
correlated by their fossil content.
Based on his observations and of many
geologists, the principle of fossil succession
was formulated. It states that fossil
organisms succeed one another in a
definite and determinable order and,
therefore, any time period can be
recognized by its fossil content.
For example, paleontologists recognized an
Age of Fusion, Age of Reptiles, and an Age
of Mammals, among others. These ages
pertain to groups that are plentiful and
characteristic of a particular period.
Once these fossils are recognized as time
indicators, they are used in correlating
rocks of similar age in different regions.
These fossils are called index fossils. Index
fossils are associated with a particular span
of geologic time.
A BRIEF DESCRIPTION
OF EARTH’S HISTORY
PRECAMBRIAN

If you look into the time span in geologic

timeline, Precambrian comprises about
88% or a total span of roughly 4.1 Ga.

However, Hadean was considered the

“chaotic eon.” It stretched from about 4.6
to 3.8 Gya. It lasted for 800 Ma. Hadean
came from Hades meaning “hell.”
PRECAMBRIAN

Earth’s surface was continually bombarded

by meteorites and the very hot mantle
caused severe volcanism. Earth would look
very inhospitable. In this eon, ocean and
atmosphere were formed, and the core, as
well as the crust, were stabilized.
PRECAMBRIAN

The Archean eon stretched from about 3.8

Gya to 2.5 Gya and lasted for 1.3 Ga. Earth
was probably warm. The atmosphere
contained mostly methane and little to no
oxygen. Most of Earth was covered with
ocean. Continent formation began during
the Archaean period.
PRECAMBRIAN

During the Archaen eon, there was

profusion of volcanoes, the sky was orange
due to abundance of methane, the sea was
green because of iron, and shorelines were
marked with stromatolites. The
Proterozoic eon stretched from 2.5 Gya to
542 Mya. It lasted for 1.9 Ga.
PRECAMBRIAN

It was the longest period that lasted

almost half the age of Earth. It was the
time of great changes: oxygenation of the
atmosphere, origin and diversification of
eukaryote life, appearance of multicellular
animal life, and the motion of continental
drift.
PHANEROZOIC EON

The Phanerozoic eon consists of three

eras: Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic.
Each characterized by significant events.
PHANEROZOIC EON

Paleozoic Era
During the Paleozoic era, many fossils were
found in layers of sedimentary rocks.
Marine invertebrate probably lived near
the shores of shallow water. Fossils of
trilobites and brachiopods were found
preserved in rocks.
PHANEROZOIC EON

Paleozoic Era
By the middle of the Paleozoic era, marine
life forms had developed shells. The first
animal to succeed in adapting itself to
breathe air was an amphibian that came
out of the sea during the Devonian period.
PHANEROZOIC EON

Paleozoic Era
Land plants also began to develop during
this period. Giant ferns and marsh plants
provided food to land animals which
increased in number.
PHANEROZOIC EON

Paleozoic Era
Marine life also developed. Clams and snails
increased in number. Fish became more
abundant and showed a greater variety of
form.
PHANEROZOIC EON

Paleozoic Era
The late Paleozoic era showed the
appearance of reptiles. At first, these
animals looked much like their amphibian
ancestors but had the great advantage of
being able to lay their eggs on dry land.
PHANEROZOIC EON

Paleozoic Era
Toward the end of the Paleozoic era, the
land climate changed. Many kinds of plants,
such as land ferns, grew during this era.
Scientists believed that the remains of
these plants formed the huge coal deposits
in many parts of the world.
PRECAMBRIAN

Mesozoic Era
The early Mesozoic era saw the formation
of several continents. North America began
to part from Europe and probably, South
America and Africa began to drift apart as
well.
PRECAMBRIAN

Mesozoic Era
By the end of the era, Australia, New
Zealand, and India had all left Africa, though
Arabia still remained attached. With the
formation of continents, new bodies of
water were formed. Great changes in plant
and animal life occurred.
PRECAMBRIAN

Mesozoic Era
Scientists have found footprints, eggs,
bones, and other fossils of reptiles which
existed during Mesozoic era.
PRECAMBRIAN

Mesozoic Era
The largest creatures that existed during
this era were the dinosaurs. Dinosaurs
were believed to be descendants of the
primitive reptiles that had survived from
the Paleozoic era. However, a current
theory suggests that they were ancestors
of birds.
PRECAMBRIAN

Mesozoic Era
Some dinosaurs were carnivores, with
bodies adapted for eating other dinosaurs.
Some were herbivores, with digestive
organs adapted for a vegetarian diet.
PRECAMBRIAN

Mesozoic Era
Toward the end of Mesozoic era, more
continents broke up. North and South
America, Australia, Africa, and India became
separate plates. The plates drifted north
and south until they reached their present
positions.
PRECAMBRIAN

Mesozoic Era
Reptiles were the first true terrestrial
vertebrates existed which flourished
during this era. However, many reptile
groups became extinct. The only surviving
reptiles today are turtles, snakes,
crocodiles, and lizards.
PHANEROZOIC EON

Cenozoic Era
During the Cenozoic era, mountains were
uplifted and new life forms started
appearing. Volcanic activity was also
widespread, forming immense flows of lava
and basalt.
PHANEROZOIC EON

Cenozoic Era
Warm-blooded animals, such as the
marsupials like kangaroo, and primitive
mammals, roamed the land.
PHANEROZOIC EON

Cenozoic Era
Fossils during this era showed mammals
with tooth structures for specific diets,
limb structures for various postures, and
increased brain size.
PHANEROZOIC EON

Cenozoic Era
Along with the mammals, this era also
shared the development of the modern
horse, modern birds, and deciduous trees.
PHANEROZOIC EON

Cenozoic Era
Toward the end of this era, glaciers
covered the Northern Hemisphere. During
this period, humans left their marks on
land. Some of the earliest record of
humans were stone tools.