EMF2016 Electromagnetic Theory

Lecture 2(1):
Review of Vector Calculus
 Vector calculus
 Gradient
 Curl and Divergence
 Gauss’s, Stokes, Hemholtz and Green’s Theorem
 Review of Electrostatics and Magnetostatics

1
 Review on Complex Numbers
z  x  jy Complex number rectangular form

z  z e j  z   Complex number polar form

e j  cos  j sin 

z  z e j  z cos  j z sin 
The complex number is an important mathematical
tool to be used in solving various EM problems
2
 Scalar and Vector

A scalar is a quantity which has only a magnitude.

A vector is a quantity which has a magnitude and a direction.

A
â 
A

3
Unit Vector
 Vector with magnitude of 1
 Indicate direction only

A
aˆ  A  aˆ A
A
direction magnitude
 Scalar (Dot) Product

The scalar product (or the dot product) of two vectors is a scalar
whose magnitude is the product of the magnitudes of the two
vectors and the cosine of the angle between the vectors.

  
A  B  A B cos 


B

5
Dot Product

A.B = B.A (commutative)

A.(B+C) = A.B + A.C (distributive)

A.A = A2
 Vector (Cross) Product
The vector
 (or cross)
 product of two   
vectors, A and B , is defined as: A  B  nˆ A B sin 

n̂is a unit vector that is perpendicular to the plane that contains the two
vectors and is determined by the so-called right-hand rule or right-
handed-screw rule.
n
n
R ig h t-h a n d e d
scre w

A x B
B
B

A
A

P la n e
c o n ta in in g th e vectors
7 tw o v e cto rs
 3.1 Introduction

Right-Hand Screw Rule

Used to relate the
• direction of current flowing in Thumb
a conductor bar, & direction of the current
flowing in the conductor
I
• direction of magnetic field
circling it
Directed OUT
of the paper
  Directed INTO
the page
B
Fingers
direction of the circling
magnetic flux around the
conductor
8
 Right Hand Rule - Direction of Fm

Fm = q u × B
Thumb: direction of Fm

Fingers: direction of velocity u

9
Cross Product

A x B = -B x A (anti-commutative)

A x (B+C) = A x B + A x C (distributive)

AxA=0
A
A
B B
AxB=0
A x B = AB
 Example

11
 Cartesian Coordinate System

12
 Cylindrical Coordinate System

13
 Spherical Coordinate System

14
 Example

15
 Field
In our context of discussions, the term “field” is a quantity that
exists over the physical spacetime. Mathematically, it is written
as a function of the physical spacetime, e.g. f(x,y,z,t).

A scalar field has a scalar quantity “associated to each point of

spacetime”*. Likewise, a vector field has a vector quantity
“associated to each point of spacetime”.

16
 Gradient

The gradient of a scalar field is a vector field describing the

maximum rate of spatial variation of the scalar field.
Mathematically, it is written as

dV
gradV  V  a n
dn

17
 Gradient
Grad T = T  xˆ T  yˆ T  zˆ T Cartesian
x y z
Change of T within a short distance dl:
T T T
dT  T  dl  dx  dy  dz
x y z
dT
 T  aˆl
dl

 ˆ1  
  rˆ   zˆ cylindrical
r r  z

ˆ  ˆ 1  ˆ 1 
R   spherical
R R  R sin  
 Divergence
The divergence of a vector field at a point is defined as the net
out-flow of flux from the point per unit volume. Mathematically, it
is written as

div A    A  lim
 A  ds
S
v 0 v
where S is a closed surface which bounds the differential
volume v. Imagine the velocity field of flowing water. A positive
valued divergence indicates a point source from which water
emerges. A negative valued divergence indicates a point sink to
which water drains. The divergence of a vector field is a scalar
field. A vector field for which the divergence is zero is called a
solenoidal vector field.

19
 Divergence


V
  A dv   A  ds
S
Divergence Theorem

Ax Ay Az Cartesian

A   
x y z

1  1  
A  rAr   A    Az  Cylindrical
r r r  z

1   
A  2
R R

R AR 
2

1
R sin  
 A sin    1
R sin  
A  Spherical
 Example
 For the vector field , evaluate differential volume of
divergence theorem for the region enclosed between the
spherical shells defined R=1 and R=2.
Sol.

21
 Curl
The curl of a vector field at a point is defined as the net
circulation about the point per unit area. Mathematically, it is
written as

curl A    A  lim
 C
A  dl
s 0 s
where C is a closed contour which bounds the differential area
s. Imagine the velocity field of flowing water. If the curl of the
velocity field at a point is non-zero, we find a vortex at the point.
The curl of a vector field is a vector field. A vector field for which
the curl is zero is called an irrotational or conservative vector
field.

22
 Curl

rˆ ˆr zˆ
1   
H  Cylindrical
r r  z
Hr H r Hz

Rˆ ˆR ˆR sin 

1   
H  2 Spherical
R sin  R  
HR H R H  R sin 
Stoke’s Theorem
H
C I   H  dl iˆ ˆj kˆ
C
  

  H  lim
 H  dl
C
x y z
Hx Hy Hz
s 0 s

   H  ds   H  dl
S C
Stoke’s theorem

Null Identities
   V   0
    A   0
 Try it

Sol.

25
 The EM Spectrum

Frequency - 300kHz 300MHz 300GHz

Wavelength - 1km 1m 1mm 0.7-0.4um 0.03um 0.3nm (1018 Hz)

Audio Radiowave Microwave Infrared

Ultra X Ray Gamma

Visible Violet Ray

26
 Electric and Magnetic Fields
 Electric and magnetic fields forms the bridge from
circuit theory to transmission lines, waves and
antennas.
 Circuit theory treats resistors, capacitors and
inductors as two terminal devices connected by
wires. Electromagnetic theory deals with the space
both inside and outside of these devices.

27
 Review of Electrostatics
 Basic electrical quantity is the charge Q.
 Electrostatic deals with the interaction of electric
charges at rest.
 Two fundamental laws governing electrostatics:
Coulomb’s law and Gauss’s law – they are based on
experimental studies and are interdependent.

28
 Electric Field
 Every charged object sets up an electric field in the
surrounding space.
 A second charge "feels" the presence of this field.
 The magnitude and direction of the electric field vector
varies from point to point in the field space.
 Electric field can also vary with time.
 Electrostatic field - field from electric charge at rest.

29
 Coulomb’s law
 An experimental law formulated in 1785 by the French
colonel, Charles Agustin de Coulomb.
 Deals with the force a point charge exerts on another point
charge.
 Thus, a charge Q2 at a distance R from a charge Q1
experiences a force given by

kQ1Q2
F
R2
R̂12

30
 Electric field intensity
 A static electric charge sets up an electric field in the region of
space that surrounds it. The quantity we use to measure the
strength of the electric field is its intensity.
The intensity of an electric field (or electric field strength), E,
is the force exerted by the electric field on a unit test charge.
 Dividing the Force equation by the charge Q2, gives a force per
unit charge which is defined as the electric field intensity, E.
 E is a vector just like F.

F Q1
E 
Q2 4 0 R 2

 E is at the same direction with F. E is measured in V/m.

31
 Electric flux
 In SI units, one line of electric flux is defined as a tube of
lines (known as Faraday tube) that emanates from +1 C and
terminates on -1C charge.
 Since electric flux is numerically equal to the charge, so unit
of flux is measured in coulomb, which is represented by .
   D  dS
 Flux density, D, is given by the normal flux per unit area. If a
flux of  coulombs passes normally through an area of A m2,
then flux density, 
D
A

32
 Electric flux density
 Unlike E field that is dependant on the medium, D is
independent of it.
 It is related to electric field intensity by the relation,
D  E
 In an isotropic medium (properties independent of direction)
D and E are in the same direction and  is a scalar quantity.
 One useful property of D is that its surface integral over any
closed surface equals the enclosed surface charge, Qenc.
{Gauss’s law}

33
 Gauss’s law
 Gauss’ law states that:
“The total outward flux of electric field intensity over any closed surface
in free space equals the total charge enclosed by the surface divided
by the permittivity of free space”
 Imagine a quantity of charge Q located somewhere in free
space. This charge is enclosed by the closed surface S. The
magnitude of the electric intensity at every point on the
surface of the sphere is:

 E  dS  Q  0

34
 Energy and potential
 The total work done or difference in electric potential energy in
moving the test charge from point 1 to point 2 within the field is
therefore: 2
W  Q  E  dl
1

 Negative sign indicates that work done by external agent.

 Dividing W by Q gives the potential energy per unit charge, V12,
known as potential difference between point 1 and 2.
W 2
V12    E  dl
Q 1
E
P a th 1

P o in t 2

P o in t 1 P a th 2

35
 Electric potential - voltage
 If V12 is negative, there is a loss in potential energy in moving
Q from 1 to 2 – work is being done by the E field. Potential
is measured in joules per coulomb or volts.
 It is customary to choose infinity as reference, that is we
assume the potential at infinity is zero.
 The electric potential V at an arbitrary point P in an electric
field is defined as the work done in bringing a unit charge
from an infinite distance away to point P
E
P a th 1

P o in t 2

P o in t 1 P a th 2

36
 Conservative field
E  The line integral does not
P ath 1
depend on which path is
taken to get from point 1 to
Point 2
point 2. It depends only on
the location of the points. It
follows that if we were to
Point 1 P ath 2 move the charge from point 1
to point 2 and then back again
to point 1, the total work
done is zero.

37
 Magnetostatics

1) Magnetism is associated with the

motion of charge, the basics are
magnetic fields and their effects
on matter
2) Magnet is a dipole, north pole and
south pole
3) These poles were found to exist
for every magnet, regardless of its
shape. The magnetic field pattern
of a bar magnet is displayed

38
 Magnetostatics
4) An attractive force exists between the
opposite poles, and a repulsive force exists
between similar pole
5) This attraction-repulsion property is
similar to the electric force between
opposite electric charges, except electric
charges can be isolated, but magnetic
poles must exist in pairs
6) The magnetic lines encircling a magnet are
called the magnetic-field lines
7) Magnetic flux density B is used to
represent the existence of magnetic field
8) Magnetic flux is the term used to explain
and describe various magnetic effects and
39 its magnitude
 Magnetostatics
9) Current-carrying wire induces a magnetic field that
formed closed circular loops around the wire as shown
below

40
 Characteristics of Line of Magnetic Flux
1. Direction of magnetic field is the direction of
the north-seeking pole of a compass needle
placed in the field
2. Each line of magnetic flux forms a closed-loop
3. Lines of magnetic flux never intersect
4. Lines of magnetic flux are like stretch cords,
always trying to shorten themselves thus
causing opposing magnetic poles to attract
each other
5. Lines of magnetic flux (parallel) are in the
same direction and repel. They exert a lateral
pressure on one another
6. A piece of soft iron can be magnetized thru’
41 magnetic induction
 Magnetic Dipole and Current Loops

A current carrying conductor was placed near a magnetic field

as shown. The needle was deflected in a certain direction and
this phenomenon validated the existence of a magnetic field
around a conductor carrying electric current.
42
 Magnetic Dipole and Current Loops
 The magnetic field consists of
lines of force, which form
complete circles around the
conductor. These circles centered B
around the center of the current
carrying conductor and the
circular planes are
lines of force
perpendicular to it
 Right-Hand Screw Rule can be
used to relate the direction of
current flowing in a conductor
bar and the direction of magnetic
field circling it.
 The thumb is pointing along the
direction of the current flowing
in the conductor bar, and the I
fingers point in the direction of
the circling magnetic flux around
43
the conductor
 Magnetic Dipole and Current Loops

Parallel Linear Current Anti-Parallel Linear Current

44
 Magnetic Force
When a test charge q is in a magnetic field B, experiments
show that it experiences a magnetic force, Fm. This force is
proportional to q; the direction of Fm at any point is at right
angle to the velocity vector, u and magnetic field, B as shown
below. The magnetic force acting on the particle of charge is
equal to:
Fm = q u  B (N)

u
q
q+ u

45 Right Hand Rule

 Magnetic Force

 The magnitude of Fm, is given by Fm = q u B sin,

where  is the angle between vectors u and B.
 If a charged particle is present in both an electrical field,
E and magnetic field, B. According to Lorentz Force
law, the total electromagnetic force acting on the
particle is:
F = Fe + Fm
Fe Fm =qE+quB
= q (E + u  B) N

46
 Differences between Electric Force and
Magnetic Force
 Electric force is always in the direction of the electric field.
The magnetic force is always perpendicular to the magnetic field

 The electric force acts on a charged particle whether or not it is moving,

the magnetic force acts on it only when it is in motion

 The electric force expends energy in displacing a charged particle, the

magnetic force does no work when a particle is displaced

47
 Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying
Conductor

A slightly flexible vertical wire is oriented along the z-

direction, is placed in a magnetic field B directed into
the page (produced by a magnet)
a) No current flowing in
the wire, Fm= 0. The
wire maintains its
vertical orientation

48
 Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying
Conductor
dFm= I dl  B

Fm Fm

Current is flowing upward Current is flowing downward

in the wire in the wire

Wire deflects to the left Wire deflects to the right

(-y–direction) (+y–direction)
49
 The Biot-Savart Law
From experiments, Oersted, Jean Biot, and Felix Savart
obtained an expression for the magnetic flux density at
a point R from an element dl of a wire that is carrying a
current I. This expression is known as the Biot-Savart
law, and it is expressed as:
m0 1 l
dB= I 2 (d x r̂ ) (Tesla)
4 r
It is also defined as the differential magnetic flux
density dB generated by a steady current I flowing
through a differential length dl
Point R
B
Rr
I

50
dl
Maxwell’s Magnetostatic Equations
Maxwell’s Equations

Gauss’ Law

??

Gauss’ Law of magnetism

(No magnetic charges)

Ampere’s Law
51
 Infinitely
long wire
Closed path, C

Electrostatics Magnetostatics
Gauss’s Law Ampere’s Law

Total charge enclosed Total current flowing

By Gaussian surface S through surface S
52
 Ampere’s Law
Infinitely
long wire
Closed path, C

Ampere’s law states that the line integral of H

(Magnetic Field Intensity) about any closed contour C is
exactly equal to the net current enclosed by that path.
Mathematically:

Net Current
Enclosed
by closed path
C
OR

53
Ampere’s Law

Contour C does not

enclose the current I

For configurations A and B, line integral of H is equal to

current I. Whereas for configuration C, line integral of H
is equal to zero
54
 Magnetostatic & electrostatic
 Static
 Time-invariant
 Electric and magnetic fields are functions of
space only
 Electric and magnetic fields are independent of
each other
 Source is static electric charges and motion of
electric charge with uniform velocity (dc) or
static magnetic charge (magnetic dipole)
55
 Attributes of Electrostatics and Magnetostatics

56
 Electromagnetic fields
 Dynamic fields (field quantities changes with time).
 Electric and magnetic fields are dependant on each
other – time-varying electric field involves a
corresponding time-varying magnetic field.
 Has more practical value.
 Due to accelerated charges or time-varying currents
such as square wave or sine wave.

57