EMBEDDED

SYSTEMS

Presented by:-
CONTACT DETAILS
ASWANTH KUMAR K RAM SWAROOP SINGH
BRANCH: CSE BRANCH: CSE
ROLL NO: 05C71A0546 ROLL NO: 05C71A0547
CONTACT NO: 9704147603 CONTACT NO: 9966952101
EMAIL ID: [email protected] EMAIL ID: [email protected]
ELLENKI COLLEGE OF ENGG. & TECH., PATELGUDA
ABSTRACT:

The capability of embedded for IVHM requires the development of

piezoelectric wafer-active sensors small, lightweight, inexpensive,
(PWAS) to perform in-situ unobtrusive, minimally invasive sensors
nondestructive evaluation (NDE) is to be embedded in the airframe with
explored in this article, which includes minimum weight penalty and at
animations of PWAS interactions with affordable costs. Such sensors should be
Lamb modes. PWAS can satisfactorily able to scan the structure and identify
perform Lamb wave transmission and the presence of defects and incipient
reception, and crack detection in an damage.
aircraft panel with the pulse-echo
method is illustrated. For large-area
scanning, a PWAS phased array is used
to create the embedded ultrasonics
structural radar. For quality assurance,
PWAS are self-tested using
electromechanical impedance.
Embedded nondestructive
evaluation (NDE) is an emerging
technology that will allow for the
transitioning from conventional
ultrasonics methods to embedded
systems structural health monitoring
(SHM), such as those envisioned for the
Integrated Vehicle Health Management
(IVHM). Structural health monitoring

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 pressure and shear waves are
simultaneously generated into the thin
plate. However, conventional Lamb-
wave probes (wedge and comb
INTRODUCTION transducers) are too heavy and
expensive to be considered for
Current ultrasonic inspection of widespread deployment on an aircraft
thin-wall structures (e.g., aircraft shells, structure as part of a SHM system.
storage tanks, large pipes, etc.) is a Therefore, a different type of sensors
time-consuming operation that requires than the conventional ultrasonic
meticulous through-the-thickness C- transducers are required for the SHM
scans over large areas. One method to systems.
increase the efficiency of thin-wall .
structures inspection is to utilize guided
waves (e.g., Lamb waves) instead of the
conventional pressure waves. Guided
waves propagate along the mid-surface
of thin-wall plates and shallow shells.
They can travel at relatively large
distances with very little amplitude loss
and offer the advantage of large-area
coverage with a minimum of installed
sensors. Guided Lamb waves have
opened new opportunities for the cost-
effective detection of damage in aircraft
structure. Traditionally, guided waves
have been generated by impinging the
plate obliquely with a tone-burst from a
relatively large ultrasonic transducer.
Snell’s law ensures mode conversion at
the interface, hence, a combination of

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Figure 1. Piezoelectric wafer active Ek, and electrical displacement Dj) in the
sensors (PWAS) mounted on an
form:
aircraft panel

(1)

where is the mechanical

compliance of the material measured at
Several investigators have
recently explored the generation of zero electric field (E = 0), is the
Lamb-waves with piezoelectric wafer- dielectric permittivity measured at zero
active sensors (PWAS). Piezoelectric mechanical stress (T = 0), and dkij
wafer-active sensors are inexpensive, represents the piezoelectric coupling
non-intrusive, unobtrusive, and effect. For embedded NDE applications,
minimally invasive devices that can be PWAS couple their in-plane motion,
surface-mounted on existing structures excited by the applied oscillatory
inserted between the layers of lap joints voltage through the piezoelectric effect,
or inside composite materials. Figure 1 with the Lamb-wave-particle motion on
shows an array of 7 mm square PWAS the material surface. Lamb waves can
mounted on an aircraft panel, adjacent be either quasi-axial (S0, S1, S2, . . . ) or
to rivet heads and an electric-discharge quasi-flexural (A0, S1, S2, . . . ).
machined (EDM) simulated crack. The Piezoelectric wafer-active sensor probes
minimally invasive nature of the PWAS can act as both exciters and sensors of
devices is apparent. These PWAS weigh the elastic Lamb waves traveling in the
around 68 mg, are 0.2 mm thick, and material.
cost $7. They operate on the
piezoelectric principle that couples the
electrical and mechanical variables in
the material (mechanical strain, Sij,
mechanical stress, Tkl, electrical field,

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 • Acoustic emission monitoring of
crack initiation and growth
• Low-velocity impact detection

Piezoelectric wafer-active sensors

operation is different than that of
conventional ultrasonic probes. For
example, PWAS achieve Lamb-wave
excitation and sensing through surface
“pinching” (in-plane strains), while
conventional ultrasonic probes excite
through surface “tapping” (normal
stress). In addition, PWAS are strongly
coupled with the structure and follow the
structural dynamics, while conventional
ultrasonic probes are relatively free from
the structure and follow their own
dynamics. Finally, PWAS are non-
resonant wide-band devices, while
conventional ultrasonic probes are
For non-destructive evaluation, narrow-band resonators.
PWAS can be used as both active and The main advantage of PWAS over
passive probes. Thus, they address four conventional ultrasonic probes lies in
IVHM-SHM needs: their small size, light weight, low profile,
and low cost. In spite of their size, these
• Far-field damage detection using
novel devices are able to replicate many
pulse-echo and pitch-catch
of the functions of the conventional
methods
ultrasonic probes, as proven by the
• Near-field damage detection
proof-of-concept laboratory
using a high-frequency
demonstrations described.
impedance method

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 rectangular grid. Omnidirectional
transmission is achieved and signals are
strong enough and attenuation is
sufficiently low for echoes to be
detected. The proof of these attributes is
especially important for PWAS, which
are at least an order of magnitude
smaller and lighter than conventional
ultrasonic transducers.
To prove that the Lamb waves
excited by PWAS are omnidirectional,
one PWAS (11) was used as a
transmitter and the other PWAS (1–10)
as receivers. The signals observed in
this investigation are shown in Figure
2a. In each row, the electromagnetic
coupling of the initial bang is shown
around the origin. Then, the first wave
package corresponding to the wave
received from the transmitter PWAS is
seen, followed by other wave packages
corresponding to reflections from the
PWAS-GENERATED LAMB WAVES
plate edges. The time difference between
The basic principles of Lamb-wave the initial bang and the wave-package
generation and detection by PWAS arrival represents the time-of-flight
probes were first verified in simple (TOF). The TOF is consistent with the
laboratory experiments. A 1.6-mm-thick, distance traveled by the wave. Figure 2b
2024-aluminum alloy rectangular plate shows the straight-line correlation
(914 mm × 504 mm × 1.6 mm) was between TOF and distance. The slope of
instrumented with 11 7-mm-square, 0.2- this line is the experimental group
mm thick PWAS that were placed on a velocity, cg = 5.446 km/s, while the

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theoretical value should be 5.440 km/s. correlation between radial distance and
Very good accuracy is observed (99.99%
time of flight
correlation; 0.1% speed detection
error), proving that PWAS-generated
PULSE-ECHO WITH PWAS
Lamb waves are loud and clear,
propagate omnidirectionally, and Piezoelectric wafer-active sensor
correlate well with the theory. 11 was used to demonstrate pulse-echo
. capabilities. Figure 3a shows that the
sensor 11 signal has two distinct zones:
the initial bang, during which the PWAS
11 acts as transmitter, and the echoes
zone, containing wave packs reflected by
the plate boundaries and sent back to
PWAS 11. These echoes were processed
to evaluate the pulse-echo capabilities
of the method. Since the wave generated
by the initial bang underwent multiple
reflections from the plate edges, each of
these reflections had a different path
length, as shown in Figure 3b. It is
interesting to note that the path lengths
for reflections R1 and R2 are
approximately equal. Hence, the echoes
R1 and R2 in the pulse-echo signal of
Figure 3a are almost superposed.
Also interesting to note is that
the reflection R4 has two possible paths,
R4a and R4b, of the same length. Hence,
the echoes corresponding to these two
Figure 2. (a) Reception signals on active reflection paths arrive simultaneously
and form a single but stronger echo
sensors one through ten; (b) the

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signal, which has roughly twice the
intensity of the other echoes. A plot of
the TOF of each echo vs. its path length
is given in Figure 3c. The straight-line
fit has a very good correlation (R2 =
99.99%). The corresponding wave speed
is 5.389 km/s (i.e., within 1% of the
theoretical value of 5.440 km/s). The
echoes were recorded from over 2 m
distance, which is remarkable for such
small ultrasonic devices. Thus, it was
proven that the PWAS are fully capable
of transmitting and receiving pulse-echo
signals of remarkable strength and
clarity.

PWAS CRACK DETECTION

Wave-propagation experiments
were conducted on an aircraft panel to
illustrate crack detection through the
pulse-echo method. The panel has a
typical aircraft construction, featuring a
vertical splice joint and horizontal
stiffeners. Figures 4a,4b and 4c show
three photographs of PWAS installation
on increasingly more complex structural

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regions of the panel. Figures 4d, 4e, 4f Figure 4g shows features similar to
and 4g show the PWAS signals. All the those of the previous signal, but
experiments used only one PWAS, somehow stronger at the 42 micrometer
operated in pulse-echo mode. The PWAS position. The features at 42 micrometer
was placed in the same relative location correspond to the superposed reflections
(i.e., at 200 mm to the right of the from the rivets and from the crack. The
vertical row of rivets). Figure 4a shows detection of the crack seems particularly
the situation with the lowest complexity, difficult because the echoes from the
in which only the vertical row of rivets is crack and from the rivets are
present in the far left. Figure 4d shows superposed.
the initial bang (centered at around 5.3 This difficulty was resolved by
microseconds) and multiple reflections using the differential signal method (i.e.,
from the panel edges and the splice subtracting the signal presented in
joint. The echoes start to arrive at Figure 4e from the signal presented in
approximately 60 micrometer. Figure 4b Figure 4f). In practice, such a situation
shows the vertical row of rivets in the far would correspond to subtracting a
left and, in addition, a horizontal double signal previously recorded on the
row of rivets stretching toward the undamaged structure from the signal
PWAS. Figure 4e shows that, in addition recorded now on the damaged structure.
to the multiple echoes from the panel Such a situation of using archived
edges and the splice, the PWAS also signals is typical of health monitoring
receives backscatter echoes from the systems. When the two signals were
rivets located at the beginning of the subtracted, the result presented in
horizontal row. These backscatter Figure 4g was obtained. This differential
echoes are visible at around 42 signal shows a loud and clear echo due
micrometer. Figure 4c shows a region of entirely to the crack. The echo, marked
the panel similar to that presented in the "reflection from the crack" is centered at
previous row, but having an additional 42 micrometer (i.e., TOF = 37
feature: a simulated crack (12.7 mm micrometer) which correlates very well
EDM hairline slit) emanating from the with a 5.4 km/s 200 mm total travel from
first rivet hole in the top horizontal row. the PWAS to the crack placed at 100

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mm. The cleanness of the crack-
detection feature and the quietness of the
signal ahead of the crack-detection
feature are remarkable. Thus, PWAS
were determined to be capable of clean
and unambiguous detection of structural
cracks. A manual sweep of the beam
angle can be also performed with the
turn knob; the signal reconstructed at
the particular beam angle (here, 0 =
136°) is shown in the lower picture.

Figure 4. Crack-detection laboratory

experiments on an aircraft panel: 4a-4c
are specimens (1 mm 2025 T3) with
increasing complexity. 4d-4g represent
the pulse-echo signals; 4g shows the
crack detection through the differential
signal method.

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 slabs, etc. These transducers employ
pressure waves generated through
normal impingement on the material
surface. In this a phased-array
technology was developed for thin-wall
structures (e.g., aircraft shells, storage
tanks, large pipes, etc.) that uses Lamb
waves to cover a large surface area
through beam steering from a central
location. This concept is called as
embedded ultrasonics structural radar
(EUSR). A PWAS array was made up of
a number of identical 7 mm square
elements aligned at uniform 9 mm pitch.
The PWAS phased array was placed at
the center of a 1.2 m square thin
aluminum plate (Figure 5). The wave
pattern generated by the phased array is
the result of the superposition of the
waves generated by each individual
element. By sequentially firing the
individual elements of an array
transducer at slightly different times, the
ultrasonic wave front can be focused or
PWAS PHASED ARRAYS
steered in a specific direction. Thus,

The advantages of phased-array electronic sweeping and/or refocusing of

transducers for ultrasonic testing are the beam was achieved without

multiple. Krautkramer, Inc. produces a physically manipulating the transducers.

line of phased-array transducers for the In addition, inspection of a wide zone

inspection of very thick specimens and was possible by creating a sweeping

for the sidewise inspection of thick beam of ultrasonic Lamb waves

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covering the whole plate. Once the beam is not reflected back to the source but
steering and focusing was established, rather deflected sideways. Hence, the
crack detection was done with the pulse- echo received from the offside crack is
echo method. During these proof-of- merely the backscatter signal generated
concept experiments, the EUSR at the crack tips. The sweep is
methodology was used to detect cracks performed automatically to produce the
in two typical situations: a 19-mm structural defect image in the right
broadside crack placed at 305 mm from pane. Manual sweep can be performed
the array in the 90° direction, and a 19 with the turn knob. The lower pane
mm broadside crack placed 409 mm shows the signal reconstructed at the
from the array in the 136° direction. Of beam angle 0 = 136° corresponding
these two, the latter was more to the crack location.
challenging because the ultrasonic beam

(EUSR-GUI) front panel. The angle

sweep is performed automatically to
Figure 5 – Proof-of-concept EUSR produce the structure/defect imaging
experiment: (a) thin plate specimen 9- picture on the right. Manual sweep of
element PWAS array and 19-mm offside the beam angle can be also performed
crack; (b) Graphical user interface with the turn knob; the signal

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reconstructed at the particular beam The procedure is based on PWAS in-situ
angle (here, ö0 = 136 deg) is shown in
electromechanical impedance.
the lower picture.
fig 5b

PWAS SELF-TEST

Since the PWAS probes are adhesively

bonded to the structure, the bond

Figure 6. A PWAS self test: when
durability and the possibility of the sensor is disbonded, a clear free-
vibration resonance appears at ~267
probe becoming detached are of
kHz.
concern. To address this, a PWAS self-
Figure 6 compares the Im Z
test procedure has been identified that spectrum of a well-bonded PWAS with
that of a disbonded (free) PWAS. The
can reliably determine if the sensor is
well-bonded PWAS presents a smooth
still perfectly attached to the structure.
Im Z curve, modulated by small
PWAS and structure vibration was
recorded.
structural resonances. The disbonded
PWAS shows a strong self-resonance
and no structural resonances. The
CONCLUSION
appearance of the PWAS resonance and
the disappearance of structural Embedded NDE piezoelectric wafer
resonances constitute features that can active s can be structurally embedded as
unambiguously discern when the PWAS both individual probes and phased
has become disbonded and can be used arrays. They can be placed even inside
for an automated PWAS self-test. For a closed cavities during
partially disbonded PWAS, a mixture of fabrication/overhaul (such as wing

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structures), and then be left in place for structural health monitoring of a
the life of the structure. The embedded multitude of thin-wall structures such as
NDE concept opens new horizons for aircraft, missiles, pressure vessels, etc.
performing in-situ damage detection and

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