Reading and Writing

Reading & Writing Week 1

Hypertext and Intertext

What is Hypertext?

- Is a non-linear way to present information and is usually

accomplished with “links”.

- Such “links” help readers to navigate further information about the

topic being dicussed.

- Hypertext makes a dynamic organization of information possible

through links and connections (called hyperlink)

World Wide Web (www): Is a global hypertext system of information

residing on the servers linked across the internet.

The term hypertext was coined by Ted Nelson in 1963.

Uniform Resources Locator (URL): Web address; reference to a web

resource that specifies its location on the computer network and a
mechanism for retrieving it.

Hypermedia: links that incorporate other forms of media such as

images, audio and videos that stimulate more senses.
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 Why Hypertext?

- In a hypertext system, the reader is free to navigate information by

exploring the connections provided.

- Hypertext is a very different way of presenting information than the

usual linear form.

- Text no longer flows in a straight line through a book. Instead it is

broken down into smaller units.

- It acts as a bridge between two basic, opposite and complementing

elements: free and shortcut.

Intertext

- or intertextuality is technically defined as a process of text

development that merges two or more processes such as imitation and
creation in doing a text.

- Intertextuality has rooted from the work of a Swiss linguist Ferdinand

de Saussure (1857-1913).

- Meanwhile, the term itself was first used by Bulgarian-French

philosopher and psycho-analyst Julia Kristeva in the 1960’s.

- Are there two or more stories involved?

- Does the text show a direct or indirect connection to another piece of

work?

Methods of Intertextuality
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 1. Retelling: It is a restatement of a story or re-expression of a narrative.

2. Quotation: directly lifting the exact statements or set of words from a

text another author has made.

3. Allusion: writer or speaker explicitly or implicitly pertains to an idea or

passage f0und in another text.

4. Pastiche: copies the style or other properties of another text without

making fun of it.

Reading & Writing Week 2

Critical Reading as Reasoning

Critical reading: is engaging in analytical activity which involves the

reading by asking questions about the text and the authors claim.

A critical reader should:

- Evaluate

- Analyze

- Interpret the assertion of the hidden meaning of the text

Reasoning: is an act of giving statements for justification and

explanation. It is the ability of someone to defend something by giving
out reasons.

Critical Reading as Reasoning

- when reading critically, it is necessary to question the different

arguments used by the author, as any problem can weaken the
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 authenticity of the conclusion.

- Critical reading is not meant to criticize but to assess the validity of

textual evidences.

Ways to help you become a critical reader

- Annotate what you read

- Outline the text

- Summarize the text

- question the text

Steps in critical reading as reasoning (by Maxine Rafaella C. Rodriguez

and Marella Therese A. Tiongson)

1. Identifying assertion

Fact
Opinion
Preference
Convention

2. Formulating counterclaims

- counterclaims are made to rebut the previous claims

-Hedges: words or phrases that give a courteous tone

Different forms of hedges

Modals: may, could, would, should, might, certain, must

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 Frequency adverbs: usually, generally, commonly
Probability adverbs: probably, possibly, presumably

3. Determining Evidence

Evidences: details given by the author to support his or her claim.

Reason Evidence
Offers an explanation behind the Statement that proves the truth of a
claim claim

Reading & Writing Week 3-4

Formulating Evaluative Statements

What is an evaluative statement?

- it is a statement about one’s good judgement about something

through writing which is supported by reasons by reasons and
evidence

- it also presents the strengths and weaknesses of something based on

a set of criteria which needs to be factual, substantial and unbiased.

How to formulate an Evaluative statement?

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 Step 1: Begin with the positives before you point out the negatives

Step 2: suggest a solution/s or siggestion/s

Step 3: keep your feedback concise and precise

Step 4: Be careful in giving your feedback (write it with care and much
diligence)

1. Assertion: are declarative sentences that give one's belief about

something else as if it's true though it may be not.

- useful, significant, important, insightful, detailed, up-to-date,

comprehensive, practical, impressive, etc.

Types of Assertion

*Fact: Is a statement that can be

proven objectively by direct experience, testimonies of witnesses,

verified observations or

result of research.

*Convention: Is a way in which something is done similar to traditions

and norms. The truthfulness can be verified only by reference to
historical precedents, laws, rules, usage, and customs

*Opinion: Is a statement based on facts but is difficult to objectively

verify because of the uncertainty of

producing satisfactory proofs of soundness.

* Preferences: States a personal choice in which the writer is under no

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 obligation to support or prove the truthfulness of the statement. They
are subjective.

2. Counterclaims: are made to rebut a previous claim. To rebut means

to contradict someone’s statement through formal argument.

To be able to locate counterclaims to an argument, remember the

following:

- Show competence and familiarity with the writer's topic.

- Examine different perspectives and not just passively accepting the

writer’s claim.

- Consider the topic, and make sure you are willing to engage different
viewpoints from your opinion.

- Clarify your personal position on the topic.

Four Elements of Argument

* Claim: Is a statement that asserts facts based on one’s understanding

about a particular topic or issue.

*Counterclaim: Is just the opposite of claim. It is a statement that

contradicts one’s claim and is usually proven and supported by

both reasons and evidences.

*Reason: Is the part of an argument where a statement offers an

explanation behind a party’s claim.

*Evidence: Is the statement that

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 provides the truth of a claim and generally leads to the conclusion of an
argument.

Determining Textual Evidences

Textual Evidence: details given by the author in order to support his/

her claims.

- It reveals the position of the writer and makes the reading more
interesting.

Ways to present textual evidences in your writing

1. Paraphrasing: restating the text in your own words

2. Summarizing: stating in a shorter way the text and other relevant

details to support the idea.

3. Referencing: mentioning a specific section in the text.

4. Quoting: directly restating the parts of the text

Reading & Writing Week 5-6

Composing Academic Writing

Book review: describes and evaluates a work of fiction or nonfiction

and offers the book's overall purpose, structure,

style of narration to the unknown readers. It tells not only what a book
is about, but also how successful it is at what it is trying to do. It is a
sneak peek at a book, not a summary.

- Reviews are a way to assess the effectiveness of a book review. As a

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 reviewer, one must combine their

skills of describing the content of the pages, analyzing how the book

achieved its purpose, and expressed their own personal comments,

reactions and suggestions. This will help them to identify the most
important details and explain them concisely.

- Before writing a book review, it is important to consider the author's

viewpoint and purpose, key points, evidence, and its relation to other

books. The author should also be

knowledgeable and have the

necessary expertise to write the book. Additionally, the author should

be successful in completing the book's purpose.

- A book review title should be based on your total impression of a

book. Similar to creating passwords, strong titles might be "Drew girl
power to new height", "A night owl that seldom sleeps even during
daytime," "Beautiful illustrations with a story to match," "Perfect for a
weekend getaway" while weak titles are: "State of the art book," "Five
stars," "A breath of fresh air," "Fast and furious.

How do you start writing a book review?

1. Identify the book by author, title and sometimes publishing

information.

2. Specify the type of book( for example: fiction, nonfiction, biography,

autobiography.) Help your readers to review with perspective.
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 3. Mention the book's theme.

4. Include background, if necessary, to enable reader/s to place the

book into a specific context.

5. You may also use an interesting quote, an interesting fact, or an

explanation of a concept or term

What do you do with the content?

1. For nonfiction books like biography, history and the like: pay

primary attention to the major points (the argument) the author is

putting forth and to the sources the author has drawn upon to back up
his/her point of view.

2. For fictional works such as novels, chic lit, graphic novels, manga:
Pay attention primarily to the novel or book's setting, plot, style,
characters, theme/s, use of language and voice. Caution: Do not give
away the story for no one appreciates a spoiler!

3. Provide your reactions to the book.

4. Describe the book

5. Respond to the author's opinions and analyze it.

6. Explore issues the book raises.

How do you conclude?

1. Relate your argument to other books or authors.

2. Relate the book to larger issues.

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 3. Tie together issues raised in the review.

4. Briefly restate your main points and your thesis statement.

5. Indicate how well the book has achieved its goal, what possibilities
are suggested by the book, what the book has left out, how the book
compares to others on the subject, what specific points are not
convincing, and what personal

experiences you've had related to the subject.

How do you revise the draft?

1. Allow time to elapse, at least a day, before starting your revision.

2. Correct grammatical mistakes and punctuation as you find them.

3. Read your paper through again looking for unity, organization and
logical development.

4. If necessary, do not hesitate to make major revisions in your draft.

5. Verify quotations for accuracy and check the format and content of
references.

Literature Review

A literature review (LR) is a type of academic essay that examines what

has already been written about a topic. As a collection of published
research about your topic by recognized scholars and researchers, it is
a way for you to examine also what has already

been done in regard to your research question or problem. Likewise, it

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 summarizes and synthesizes the conducted research driven by guiding
principles. Although it is not a research paper, it provides background
for your problem and a rationale for your research (Abadiano 2016, 51-
52).

Literature reviews consist of the following components and its

purposes:

Introduction

• Defines the topic and the scope being considered

• Notes intentional exclusions

• States general findings of the review and the availability of

the sources.

Main Body

• Organize the evaluation of the sources whether chronologically or

systematically.

• Showcases the critical summary and evaluation of the research's

premise, methodology, and conclusion.

• Uses grammatical connectors, relational words or phrases

and transitional devices.

Conclusion

• Summarizes the key findings of the review.

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 • Offers the review's justification of the conducted research.

Reference

• Reflects the in-text citations.

• Contains complete and correct citations.

4 literature review strategies

1. Summary: State briefly the argument and main points of relevant

research

2. Synthesis: Combine ideas in order to form an integrated theory or

system through critical evaluation, compare/contrast, etc.

3. Analysis: Examine closely the elements or structure of the research.

4. Evaluation: Assess the research based on the criteria or rubric that

you choose, state, and explain.

- Support it with another similar

research.

Research Report

A Research Report is a long, formal essay, usually five to fifteen pages

in length. which presents the writer's views and findings on a chosen
subject. However, it is not just a long composition which follows the
principles of good writing. It is a scholarly work and not just a collection
of notes lifted from many different sources and strung together, one
after the other.
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 The components of a research report are as follows:

1. Title: It reflects the content and emphasis of the project described in

the report. Similarly, it should be as short as possible, including

essential key words.

2. Abstract: It is an overview of the research study and is typically two

to four paragraphs in length containing 200-300 words. Think of it as
an executive and technical summary that distills the key elements of
the remaining sections into a few sentences.

3. Introduction: It provides the key question that the researcher is

attempting to answer and a review of any literature that is relevant. In

addition, the researcher will provide a rationale of why the research is

important and will present a hypothesis that attempts to answer the key
question. Lastly, it should contain a summary of the key question
following the completion of the research.

4. Methodology: This is arguably the most important section for two

reasons: (1) it allows readers to evaluate the quality of the research,
and (2) it provides the details by which Methodology another
researcher may replicate and validate the findings. Typically, the

information in the methodology section is arranged in chronological

order with the most important information on top of each section.

5. Results: In longer research papers, the results section contains the

data and perhaps a short introduction. Ideally, the interpretation of the
data and the analysis is reserved for the discussion section.

6. Discussion: This section is where the results of the study are

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 interpreted and evaluated against the existing body or literature. In
addition, should there be any anomalies found in the results, this is
where the authors point them out. Finally, it is an attempt to connect
the results to the bigger picture and show how the results might be
applied.

7. References: This section provides a list of each author and paper

cited in the research report. Any fact, idea, or direct quotation used in
the report should be cited and referenced.

How do you format a research report?

There is no one best format for all reports for a format depends on
several relevant variables. You must employ a suitable format to create
a desirable impression with clarity. Report must be attractive. While you
should write systematically, you must use the format (or often called

structure) that best fits the needs and wants of its readers.

Project Proposal

A project proposal is a document that is written for problem solving,

service provision, event planning, or equipment selling. Generally,

proposals are used to convince the reader to do what the proposal

suggests, such as buying good services, funding a project, or
implementing a program. Proposals in the professional world are used
for internal (within an organization) and external (from one organization
to another) purposes. They are ways of generating income for
companies or seeking funding for projects. This is provided to the
sponsor of the project for approval.
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 - A proposal stands out depending on its ability to clearly answer
questions about what is being proposed, how the plan will be carried
out, when it will be implemented, and how much money will be needed
or spent. In other words, they are persuasive documents that need to
do the

following: highlight reader benefits, prove your credibility in carrying out

the project, and allow the reader to respond easily.

Guidelines in Writing the Proposal

1. Gathering the Data: One of the characteristics of an effective

proposal is being well-researched. It needs concreted data to back up
its claims so it can become more credible. You can gather data from

primary and secondary sources, and apply the strategies that you
learned in writing a research paper in the previous lessons.

2. Organizing the Data: A proposal becomes more effective if the

information on it is clearly organized. You can use the parts of

the proposal to guide you in your organization, or use an outline to

structure your discussion more effectively.

3. Writing the Proposal: Fill out the parts of the proposal with the
relevant data.

4. Revising the Proposal: Make sure to review your proposal for

accuracy and organization before you send it out. A good proposal will
be comprehensive and will put your organization in the best light.
(Tiongson and Rodriguez 2016)

Formatting the Project Proposal

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 Proposals are primarily categorized according to their length. An
informal proposal is about 2-4 pages long. Meanwhile, a formal
proposal has 5 or more pages. Regardless of their purpose and
audience, they have standard

parts such as the following:

1. Introduction. This part provides the background necessary for

understanding the project, which is done by telling your reader the

following:

• Rationale. This identifies the problem to be addressed and shows the

need to solve it.

• Objectives. These reveal what the project intends to achieve in terms

of results. It also gives the reader an idea of the intended solution.
Good

objectives are SMART (Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Results

oriented, and bound within a realistic Time frame).

• Benefits. These show what the reader or the target audience can gain
from the proposal, which may be improvements in processes or
systems, an increase in revenue, or a change in behavior of the
beneficiaries of the proposal.

2. Project Description. This section gives specific information about the

project itself. It indicates how the project will address the identified
problem through the following parts:

• Methodology. This entails the different activities, the project will take
on, including the manpower (i.e., the people involved and their duties),
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 resources to be utilized and

the expanded output.

• Schedule. This discusses the task duration and expected start and
end dates of each activity in the project.

• Budget. This presents an analysis of all the costs anticipated in the

project, which can be itemized or shown as a whole, depending on the
needs of the project.

Note: Organizations usually provide interested parties with a required

format for project proposals, so make sure that you follow the
prescribed format (Brighthubpm 2009)

Position Paper

The position paper is a composition that highlights an opinion of an

author or specified entity about an issue. As a debate, it presents one
side of an arguable opinion and

persuades the readers or audience that the author has a well-founded

knowledge about the issue.

In writing the Position Paper, your goal as a writer is not only to state
and defend your position on the issue but also to show how your stance
relates to other positions. Do remember that arguments should be
supported with reasons and evidence?

Writing Center of the University of Hawaii, stated that in choosing the

issue or problem to be discussed, you may ask yourself the following
questions as issue criteria to ensure that you will be able to present a
strong argument:
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 1. Is it an actual and real issue?

2. Can you clearly identify two positions?

3. Are you an advocate of one of these positions?

4. Is the issue narrow enough to be manageable?

After choosing the argument to take, you must present relevant

supporting evidence like (Rutgers 1998):

1. Factual knowledge: which valid and verifiable information

2. Statistical inferences: which are conclusions drawn from data

gathered

3. Informed opinions: which are based on knowledge of the facts and

carefully considered principle, and rely on evidence instead of limited

personal experience

4. Personal testimony: which are personal or first-hand experience of

the writer or knowledgeable party

Components of a position paper (Thoughtco 2020):

I. The Introduction identifies the issue that will be discussed and states
the author's position on that issue.

A. Introduce your topic with background information

B. Build up your thesis statement which asserts your position

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 • Fast food restaurants are bad for our health.

• Fast food packages should contain warning labels.

II. The Body contains the central argument and can be further

broken up into sections:

A. Possible objections to your position (counter argument)

• Whose job is it to determine which restaurants are bad?

• Such labels would affect the profits of major corporations.

B. A discussion of both sides of the issue, which addresses and

refutes arguments that contradict the author's position (your

argument)

• It would be difficult and expensive for any entity to determine which

restaurants should adhere to the policy.

• Nobody wants to see the government overstepping its

boundaries.

C. Explain that your position is still the best one, despite the strength

of counter- arguments. This is where you can work to discredit some of

the counter- arguments and support your own.

• Restaurants might improve the standards of food if warning

labels were put into place.

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 • The role of the government is to keep citizens safe.

III. Conclusion: restating the key points and when applicable,

suggest resolution to the issue.

A. restate your position

B. provide Plan of Action

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