Fuels

 Any source of heat energy is called a fuel. The term fuel is applied to a
combustible substance which on burning in presence of oxygen produces a large
amount of heat that can be used economically for domestic and industrial
purposes. For e.g. wood, charcoal, coal, kerosene etc.
 During combustion of these fuels, a chemical reaction involving the breakage of
bonds of reactants and formation of new bonds in the products takes place,
which is accompanied by a large amount of heat. Hence, these fuels are termed
as Chemical Fuels.

Fuels can be classified on the basis of their

1) Occurrence
2) Physical State
On the basis of the occurrence fuels are of two types
A) Primary Fuels: Fuels which occur in nature as such are called primary fuels. .
Examples: wood, peat, coal, petroleum.
B) Secondary Fuels: The fuels which are derived from the primary fuels by further
chemical processing are called secondary fuels. Example Coke, charcoal,
kerosene, coal gas, producer gas, etc.

On the basis of the physical state of fuels are of three types

1. Solid Fuels: The ones which are solid in nature. E.g. Wood, peat, lignite.
2. Liquid Fuels: The ones which are liquid in nature. E.g. Crude oil.
3. Gaseous Fuels: The ones which are gaseous in nature E.g. Natural gas.

Characteristics of a Good Fuel

1. High Calorific value: The fuel should possess high calorific value because calorific
value determines the efficiency of the fuel.
2. Ignition temperature: Ignition temperature is the minimum temperature to which
the fuel must be heated so that it starts burning smoothly. A good fuel should have a
moderate ignition temperature. If the fuel has a low ignition temperature, it can lead to
fire hazard. If the fuel has high ignition temperature, then a lot of heat will be required
to heat it but its storage and transportation would become easier.
3. Low Moisture Content: The moisture content should be low because presence of high
moisture lowers the effective calorific value of the fuel.
4. Low Non combustible matter content: The presence of the non combustible matter
reduces the heating value of the fuel.
5. Nature of the products: The products formed should not be harmful. They should not
cause unpleasant odours and other harmful effects.
6. Cost of fuel: The fuel should have a low cost and should be available in large amount
at a cheap rate.
7. Smoke: Formation of the smoke should be as low as possible which is must for a
healthy environment.
8. Control of the process: The fuel should be such that its combustion can be easily
controlled.
9. Suitability: The fuel selected should be most suitable for the process. Eg. coke made
out of bituminous coal is most suitable for the blast furnace.

Calorific Values
 It is defined as the total quantity of the heat liberated when a unit mass of a fuel
is burnt completely. Higher the C.V., Greater is the efficiency of the fuel.

CV can be measured in the following units:

1) Calorie: It is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1
gram of water through 1degree centigrade.
1 calorie = 4.185 Joules = 4.185 x 107 ergs
2) Kilocalorie: This represents the unit of heat in MKS system. It is defined as the
amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water through 1
degree centigrade.
1Kilocalorie = 1000 cal
3) British Thermal Units (BTU): It is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 pound of water through 1 degree Fahrenheit.
1 BTU = 0.252 kcal
1 kcal = 3.968 BTU
4) Centigrade Heat Unit (C.H.U): It is defined as the amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of 1 pound of water through 1 degree centigrade.
1 kcal = 3.968 BTU
1 kcal = 2.2 CHU

Calorific value is of two types:

1) Gross Calorific Value (GCV)
2) Net Calorific Value (NCV)

1. Gross Calorific Value is also called as Higher Calorific Value (HCV). It is the total
amount of heat generated when a unit quantity of fuel is completely burnt in
oxygen and the products of combustion are cooled down to the room
temperature.
2. Net Caloric Value is also called as Lower Calorific Value (LCV). It is defined as the
net heat produced when a unit quantity of fuel is completely burnt and the
products of combustion are allowed to escape.

NCV = GCV–Latent Heat of water vapours formed

Since 1 Part by weight of hydrogen gives nine parts by weight of water i.e.
H2 + ½ O2 ........ H2O
Therefore, NCV= GCV - Weight of hydrogen x 9 x Latent heat
= HCV – Weight of hydrogen x 9x 587

Bomb Calorimeter
The calorific value of solid and non-volatile fuels is determined by Bomb Calorimeter.
Principle: A known amount of the fuel is burnt in excess of oxygen and the heat
liberated is transferred to a known amount of water. The calorific value of the fuel is
then determined by applying the principle of calorimetry i.e.
Heat Gained = Heat Lost
Construction
 Steel bomb: Steel bomb consists of a strong cylindrical container made up of
stainless steel which is capable of withstanding pressure of at least 50
atmospheres. The bomb is generally provided with a gas-tight screw cap or lid.
The lid in turn is provided with two holes for electrodes and one oxygen inlet
valve. A small ring is fitted to one of the electrodes which act as a support for
silica crucible.
 The bomb is placed in a copper calorimeter containing a known amount of water.
The calorimeter is provided with an electrical stirrer and a Beckmann
thermometer.
 The copper calorimeter is surrounded by the air jacket and water jacket to
prevent any loss of heat due to radiation.
 A crucible is made up of nickel, or fused silica which contains the fuel. The
crucible is placed inside the ring attached to one of the electrodes.
Working: A known amount of the given fuel is taken in the silica crucible supported over
the ring. A piece of fine magnesium wire is tightly stretched across the electrodes,
touching the fuel sample. The lid of the bomb is tightly screwed and bomb filled with
oxygen at 25 atmospheric pressure. The bomb is placed inside the copper calorimeter
which contains a known amount of water. After thorough stirring, initial temperature of
water is noted with the help of Beckmann thermometer Which can read accurately,
temperature difference up to 1/100th of a degree. The electrodes are connected to a
6-volt battery and the circuit is completed. The fuel in the crucible burns with the
evolution of heat. The heat produced by burning of a fuel is transferred to water, which
is stirred throughout the experiment by the electric stirrer. Maximum temperature
shown by thermometer is recorded. Time taken to cool the water in the calorimeter
from maximum temperature to room temperature is also noted.

Let , weight of the fuel sample taken = x gm

Weight of water in the calorimeter = W gm
Water equivalent of the calorimeter, stirrer, bomb, thermometer= w gm
Initial temperature of water= t1 degree C
Final temperature of water = t2 degree C
Higher of gross calorific value= C cal/gm
Heat gained by water= W x ∆t x Specific heat of water
Heat gained by water = W (t2-t1) x 1 cal
Heat gained by calorimeter = w(t2-t1)cal
Heat liberated by the fuel = x C cal
Heat liberated by the fuel = Heat gained by water +Heat gained by calorimeter
x C = (W+ w) (t2-t1) cal
C = (W+w)(t2-t1) / x cal/gm

Net Calorific Value

Let the percentage of hydrogen in the fuel = H% or H/100
Weight of water produced from 1gm of the fuel = 9H/100 gm
Heat liberated during condensation of steam= 0.09H x 587 cal
Net (Lower) Calorific Value = GCV- Latent heat of water formed = GCV –0.09H x 587
cal/gm
For obtaining the accurate results following corrections are also incorporated
1. Fuse wire corrections: As Mg wire is used for ignition, the heat generated by burning
of Mg wire is also included in the gross calorific value as measured above. Hence, this
amount of heat has to be subtracted from the total value.
2. Acid Corrections: During combustion, sulphur and nitrogen present in the fuel are
oxidised to their corresponding acids under high pressure & temperature. Since the
reactions are exothermic in nature, the heat liberated is not obtained in the practical
use of coal, because SO2 and N2 pass into the atmosphere. Therefore, the heat liberated
needs to be subtracted.
3. Cooling Corrections: Heating & cooling are simultaneous processes. As the
temperature rises above the room temperature, there will be loss of heat due to
radiation, and the highest temperature recorded will be slightly less than that obtained.
Therefore, this temperature of cooling corrections needs to be added.

Therefore, the formula becomes:

C = (W+w)(t2-t1+Cooling correction) - (Acid + fuse corrections) / Mass of the fuel

Boy`s Gas Calorimeter

The C.V. of gaseous and volatile liquid fuels is determined by Boy`s Gas Calorimeter.

Construction:
1. A gas burner in which a known volume of gas at a known pressure is burnt at a
uniform rate. The volume of the gas is measured by a meter fitted near the inlet of the
gas.
2. The burner is surrounded by a chimney/ combustion chamber, which have copper
tubing inside as well as outside. Through this copper coil, water at a constant rate is
flowing. Water enters from the top of the outer coil, passes through the outer coils,
moves to the bottom of the chimney and then moves upwards through the inner coils,
and exit from the top.
3. The thermometers t1 and t2 are fitted to note the temperature of incoming, outgoing
water respectively.
4. A container is provided for collecting water which is formed due to the condensation
of steam produced during combustion. The whole assembly is enclosed in an insulated
chamber.

Working;
Burning of fuel and circulation of water are continued for about 15 minutes for initial
warming up period. When the calorimeter gets warmed, the rate of flow is so adjusted
that the water leaves the apparatus nearly at atmospheric pressure. Heat produced by
burning of gaseous fuels is transferred to water in the copper coil and the steam formed
inside the chimney during combustion gets condensed to water which is collected. The
following readings are noted, when the conditions become steady:
1. Volume of gas burnt at a given temperature and pressure in time t
2. Weight of water is passed through the coil in the same time t.
3. Temperature of incoming and outgoing water.
4. Weight of water condensed during this time.

Let ,
Volume of the gas burnt at STP in a certain time t = Vm3
Weight of water passed through the coil in time t = W kg
Weight of water condensed during this time = m
Temperature of incoming water = T1
Temperature of outgoing water = T2
Rise in temperature = T2-T1
Gross Calorific value = C
Heat absorbed by the circulating water = W(T2-T1)
Heat produced by combustion of fuel = VC
Heat Lost = Heat Gained by water
VC = W (T2-T1)
Gross Calorific Value (C ) = W (T2-T1)/V

Net Calorific Value

Weight of water condensed per m3 of gas = m/V kg
Latent heat of steam per m3 of gas= m x 587/ V kcal
So, Net calorific value = GCV – m/V x 587 kcal/m3

Dulong's Formula
Theoretically, the calorific value of a fuel can be calculated if the percentages of the
constituent elements are known. According to Dulong's, the calorific value of a fuel is
the sum of the calorific values of its constituents. The calorific value of C, H, and S are
found to be 8080, 34500 and 2240 kcal/kg respectively.

Therefore the formula becomes,

GCV=1/100{8080 C+34,500(H-O/8)+2,240S} kcal/kg