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Assembler
Feb 21, 2018 • 6 likes • 4,035 views T Temesgen Molla Following

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Assembler is a kind of system software that translate mnemonic codes written in

assembly language (which is, in turn, a low-level language) into its equivalent object code
(which is, in turn, need to change into executable code by loader and linker)
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Assembler

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1. Chapter 2: Assembler Overview Assembler Features Assembler Designing Options (1 pass and 2 pass)
2. Overview[1] • Computers like ones and zeros (0001110010000110 ) and humans like symbols (ADD R6,R2,R6 ; increment index reg.) • Assembler is a program that turns symbols
into machine instructions. • ISA-specific: close correspondence between symbols and instruction set • Mnemonics for opcodes • Labels for memory locations • Additional operations
for allocating storage and initializing data
3. Overview[2] • Basic Assembler functions • Translate mnemonic operation codes to their machine language equivalents • Symbolic operands (e.g., variable names)  addresses. •
Choose the proper instruction format & addressing mode. • Constants  Numbers. • Output to object files and listing files.
4. Overview[3] • Assembler is a program that accepts an assembly language program as input and produces its machine language equivalent along with information for the loader
• The feature and design of an assembler depend • Source language it translate • The machine language it produce
5. Overview[4] Source Program Assembler Object Code Loader Executable Code Linker
6. Basics of Assembler Design[1] The design of assembler can be to perform the following: • Scanning (tokenizing) • Parsing (validating the instructions) • Creating the symbol table •
Resolving the forward references • Converting into the machine language The design of assembler in other words: • Convert mnemonic operation codes to their machine language
equivalents • Convert symbolic operands to their equivalent machine addresses • Decide the proper instruction format Convert the data constants to internal machine
representations • Write the object program and the assembly listing
7. Basics of Assembler Design[2] • Assembler Designing Steps 1. Machine architecture understanding 2. Identify the algorithms and the various data structures to be used •
According to the required steps for assembling, the assembler also has to handle assembler directives, these do not generate the object code but directs the assembler to perform
certain operation. • Assembler directives (also called pseudo-instructions) • Not translated into machine instructions • Provides instructions to the assembler
8. Basics of Assembler Design[3] • Basic assembler directives • START: Specify name and starting address for the program • END: Indicate the end of the source program, and
(optionally) the first executable instruction in the program • BYTE: Generate character or hexadecimal constant, occupying as many bytes as needed to represent the constant •
WORD: Generate one-word integer constant • RESB: Reserve the indicated number of bytes for a data area • RESW: Reserve the indicated number of words for a data area
9. Basics of Assembler Design[4] TEST START 1003 FIRST LDA FIVE STA ALPHA ALPHA RESW 1 /*symbolic variable*/ FIVE WORD 5 /*symbolic constant, Literal */ END FIRST LABEL
Instruction Operand Psuedo Opcode OR Assembler Directives START RESW WORD, END
10. Basics of Assembler Design[5] Line numbers (for reference) Address labels Mnemonic opcode operands comments
11. Basics of Assembler Design[6] Index addressing Indicate comment lines
12. Basics of Assembler Design[7]
13. Basics of Assembler Design[8] • Example Program with Object Code • The first column shows the line number for that instruction, second column shows the addresses allocated
to each instruction. • The third column indicates the labels given to the statement, and is followed by the instruction consisting of opcode and operand. • The last column gives the
equivalent object code.
14. Basics of Assembler Design[9] • The most important things which need to be concentrated is the generation of Symbol table and resolving forward references. • Symbol Table: •
This is created during pass 1 • All the labels of the instructions are symbols • Table has entry for symbol name, address value. • Forward reference: • Symbols that are defined in the
later part of the program are called forward referencing. • There will not be any address value for such symbols in the symbol table in pass 1.
15. Object Program[1] The object code later will be loaded into memory for execution. The simple object program we use contains three types of records: • Object Program Format
• Header Col. 1 H Col. 2~7 Program name Col. 8~13 Starting address of object program (hex) Col. 14-19 Length of object program in bytes (hex) • Text Col.1 T Col.2~7 Starting address
for object code in this record (hex) Col. 8~9 Length of object code in this record in bytes (hex) Col. 10~69 Object code, represented in hexa (2 col. per byte) • End Col.1 E Col.2~7
Address of first executable instruction in object program (hex)
16. Object Program[2] • H COPY 001000 00107ª • T 001000 1E 141033 482039 001036 281030 301015 482061 3C1003 00102A 0C1039 00102D T 00101E 15 0C1036 482061 081044
4C0000 454F46 000003 000000 T 002039 1E 041030 001030 E0205D 30203F D8205D 281030 302057 549039 2C205E 38203F T 002057 1C 101036 4C0000 F1 001000 041030 E02079
302064 509039 DC2079 2C1036 T 002073 07 382064 4C0000 05 • E 001000
17. Design and Implementation Issues • Some of the features in the program depend on the architecture of the machine. • If the program is for SIC machine, then we have only
limited instruction formats and hence limited addressing modes. • We have only single operand instructions; the operand is always a memory reference. • Hence the improved
version of SIC/XE machine provides more instruction formats and hence more addressing modes. • The moment we change the machine architecture the availability of number of
instruction formats and the addressing modes changes. • Therefore the design usually requires considering two things: • Machine-dependent features and • Machine-independent
features.
18. Assembler Features Machine-Dependent Assembler Features • Instruction formats • Addressing modes • Program relocation Machine Independent Assembler Features •
Literals • Symbol-defining statements • Expressions • Program blocks • Control sections and program linking
19. Machine-Dependent Features (Instruction Format and Addressing Mode) • The instruction formats depend on the memory organization and the size of the memory. • In SIC
machine the memory is byte addressable. • How Assembler Recognizes the Addressing Mode e.g. SIC/XE • PC-relative or Base-relative addressing: op m • Indirect addressing: op @m
• Immediate addressing: op #c • Extended format: +op m • Index addressing: op m,x • Register-to-register instructions • Larger memory -> multi-programming (program allocation)
20. Machine-Dependent Features (Instruction Format and Addressing Mode) • Translations for the Instruction involving Register-Register addressing mode • During pass 1 the
registers can be entered as part of the symbol table itself. The value for these registers is their equivalent numeric codes. • During pass 2, these values are assembled along with the
mnemonics object code. If required a separate table can be created with the register names and their equivalent numeric values. • Translation involving Register-Memory
instructions: • In SIC/XE machine there are four instruction formats and five addressing modes. • Among the instruction formats, format -3 and format-4 instructions are Register-
Memory type of instruction. One of the operand is always in a register and the other operand is in the memory. • The addressing mode tells us the way in which the operand from the
memory is to be fetched.
21. Machine-Dependent Features (Program Relocation) • The larger main memory of SIC/XE • Several programs can be loaded and run at the same time. • This kind of sharing of
the machine between programs is called multiprogramming • To take full advantage • Load programs into memory wherever there is room • Not specifying a fixed address at
assembly time • Called program relocation
22. Machine-Dependent Features (Relocatable Program) • Modification record • Col 1 M • Col 2-7: Starting location of the address field to be modified, relative to the beginning of
the program • Col 8-9: length of the address field to be modified, in half-bytes
23. Machine-Independent Features • Features are not closely related to machine architecture. • More related to issues about: • Programmer convenience • Software environment •
Common examples: • Literals • Symbol-defining statements • Expressions • Program blocks • Control sections • Assembler directives are widely used to support these features
24. Machine-Independent Features (Literals) • Literal is equivalent to: • Define a constant explicitly and assign an address label for it • Use the label as the instruction operand •
Why use literals: • To avoid defining the constant somewhere and making up a label for it • Instead, to write the value of a constant operand as a part of the instruction • How to use
literals: • A literal is identified with the prefix =, followed by a specification of the literal value
25. Machine-Independent Features (Literals vs. Immediate Operands) • Same: • Operand field contains constant values • Difference: • Immediate addressing: the assembler put the
constant value as part of the machine instruction • Literal: the assembler store the constant value elsewhere and put that address as part of the machine instruction
26. Machine-Independent Features (Literal Pool) • All of the literal operands are gathered together into one or more literal pools. • literal pool: • At the location where the LTORG
directive is encountered • To keep the literal operand close to the instruction that uses it • At the end of the object program, generated immediately following the END statement
27. Machine-Independent Features (Literals Examples) Original Program Using Literals
28. Machine-Independent Features (Literal Implementation) • Data structure: a literal table LITTAB • Literal name • Operand value and length • Address • LITTAB is often organized
as a hash table, using the literal name or value as the key
29. Machine-Independent Features (Symbols)[1] • How to define symbols and their values • Address label • The label is the symbol name and the assigned address is its value
FIRST STL RETADR • Assembler directive EQU symbol EQU value • This statement enters the symbol into SYMTAB and assigns to it the value specified • The value can be a constant or
an expression • Assembler directive ORG ORG value

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30. Machine-Independent Features (Symbols)[2] • Use of EQU • To improve the program readability, avoid using the magic numbers, make it easier to find and change constant
values • +LDT #4096 • MAXLEN EQU 4096 +LDT #MAXLEN • To define mnemonic names for registers • A EQU 0 • X EQU 1 • BASE EQU R1 • COUNT EQU R2
31. Machine-Independent Features (Symbols)[3] • Use of ORG • Indirect value assignment: ORG value • When ORG is encountered, the assembler resets its LOCCTR to the specified
value • ORG will affect the values of all labels defined until the next ORG • If the previous value of LOCCTR can be automatically remembered, we can return to the normal use of
LOCCTR by simply write ORG
32. Machine-Independent Features (Symbols)[4] • Forward reference is not allowed for EQU and ORG. • That is, all terms in the value field must have been defined previously in
the program. • The reason is that all symbols must have been defined during Pass 1 in a two- pass assembler. Allowed Not allowed
33. Machine-Independent Features (Symbols)[5] • Usages of Symbols • Establish symbolic names to improve readability in place of numeric values. • E.g., +LDT #4096 can be
changed to : MAXLEN EQU 4096 +LDT #MAXLEN • When the assembler encounters the EQU statement, it enters MAXLEN into SYMTAB (with value 4096). • During assembly of the LDT
instruction, the assembler searches SYMTAB for the symbol MAXLEN, using its value as the operand in the instruction. • Define mnemonic names for registers
34. Machine-Independent Features (Expressions)[1] • A single term as an instruction operand can be replaced by an expression. STAB RESB 1100 STAB RESB 11*100 STAB RESB
(6+3+2)*MAXENTRIES • The assembler has to evaluate the expression to produce a single operand address or value. • Expressions consist of • Operator • +,-,*,/ (division is usually
defined to produce an integer result) • Individual terms • Constants • User-defined symbols • Special terms, e.g., *, the current value of LOCCTR
35. Machine-Independent Features (Expressions)[2] • Expressions are classified as either absolute expression or relative expressions depending on the type of value they
produce. • Absolute Expressions: The expression that uses only absolute terms is absolute expression. Absolute expression may contain relative term provided the relative terms
occur in pairs with opposite signs for each pair. Example: MAXLEN EQU BUFEND- BUFFER • Relative Expressions: All the relative terms except one can be paired as described in
“absolute”. The remaining unpaired relative term must have a positive sign. Example: STAB EQU OPTAB + (BUFEND – BUFFER)
36. Machine-Independent Features (Expressions)[3] • Illegal Expressions • These expressions represent neither absolute nor location within the program. Therefore, these
expression are considered illegal. • BUFEND + BUFFER • 100 – BUFFER • 3 * BUFFER
37. Machine-Independent Features (Program blocks) • Collect many pieces of code/data that scatter in the source program but have the same kind into a single block in the
generated object program. • For example, code block, initialized data block, un-initialized data block. (Like code, data segments on a Pentium PC). • Advantage: • Because pieces of
code are closer to each other now, format 4 can be replaced with format 3, saving space and execution time. • Code sharing and data protection can better be done. • With this
function, in the source program, the programmer can put related code and data near each other for better readability.
38. Machine-Independent Features (Program blocks Example) Default block.
39. Machine-Independent Features (Control Sections) • A control section is a part of the program that maintains its identity after assembly. • Each such control section can be
loaded and relocated independently of the others. (Main advantage) • Different control sections are often used for subroutines or other logical subdivisions of a program. • The
programmer can assemble, load, and manipulate each of these control sections separately.
40. Machine-Independent Features (Control Sections External References) • Symbols that are defined in one control section cannot be used directly by another control section. •
They must be identified as external references for the loader to handle. • Two assembler directives are used: • EXTDEF (external definition) • Identify those symbols that are defined
in this control section and can be used in other control sections. • Control section names are automatically considered as external symbols. • EXTREF (external reference) • Identify
those symbols that are used in this control section but defined in other control sections.
41. Assembler Design Options[4] • The assembler design can be done: • One pass assembler • Passes over the file once, that is it collects all the information in one loop • Two pass
assembler: • Two passes over the source file: • In first pass, looks for label definitions and introduces them in the symbol table • In the second pass, after the symbol table is
complete, it does the actual assembly by translating the operations into machine codes and so on. • A strict 1-pass scanner cannot assemble source code which contains forward
references.
42. Assembler Design Options[4] • Forward Referencing in Pass 2 Assembler: • Instruction contains the forward reference, i.e. if the used symbol is not yet defined. • Since, if the
program is processed ( scanning and parsing and object code conversion) is done line-by-line, we will be unable to resolve the address of this symbol. • Due to this problem most of
the assemblers are designed to process the program in two passes.
43. One-Pass Assembler[1] • The whole process of scanning, parsing, and object code conversion is done in single pass. • The only problem with this method is resolving forward
reference. • This is shown with an example below:
44. One-Pass Assembler[2] • Main problem • Forward references • Solution • Require that all areas be defined before they are referenced. • It is possible, although inconvenient, to
do so for data items. • Forward jump to instruction items cannot be easily eliminated. • So, a multi-pass assembler resolves the forward references and then converts into the object
code.
45. One-Pass Assembler[3] • There are two types of one-pass assemblers: • One that produces object code directly in memory for immediate execution (Load-and-go assemblers). •
The other type produces the usual kind of object code for later execution. • Forward Reference in One-pass Assembler • Omits the operand address if the symbol has not yet been
defined • Enters this undefined symbol into SYMTAB and indicates that it is undefined • Adds the address of this operand address to a list of forward references associated with the
SYMTAB entry
46. One-Pass Assembler[4] • Load-and-go assembler generates their object code in memory for immediate execution. • No object program is written out, no loader is needed. • It is
useful in a system with frequent program development and testing • The efficiency of the assembly process is an important consideration. • Programs are re-assembled nearly every
time they are run; efficiency of the assembly process is an important consideration.
47. Two-Pass Assembler[1] • A two-pass assembler performs two sequential scans over the source code: 1. Pass 1: symbols and literals are defined 2. Pass 2: object program is
generated • For a two pass assembler, forward references in symbol definition are not allowed • Prohibiting forward references in symbol definition is not a serious inconvenience. •
Forward references tend to create difficulty for a person reading the program.
48. Two-Pass Assembler[2] Pass 1 • Assign addresses to all statements in the program • Save the values (addresses) assigned to all labels (including label and variable names) for
use in Pass 2 (deal with forward references) • Perform some processing of assembler directives (e.g., BYTE, RESW these can affect address assignment) • Defines the symbols in the
symbol table(generate the symbol table) Pass 2 • Assemble instructions (generate opcode and look up addresses) • Generate data values defined by BYTE, WORD • Perform
processing of assembler directives not done in Pass 1 • Write the object program and the assembly listing
49. Two-Pass Assembler[3] • Simple assembler main internal data structures: • Operation Code Table (OPTAB): Contains symbolic instructions, their lengths and their op-codes (or
subroutine to use for translation) • Symbol Table (SYMTAB): Contains labels and their values • Location Counter(LOCCTR): Points to the next location where the code will be placed
50. Two-Pass Assembler[4] • OPTAB looks up mnemonic opcodes & translates them to their machine language equivalents • SYMTAB stores values (addresses) assigned to labels
51. Operation Code Table (OPTAB)[1] • Used to look up mnemonic operation codes and translate them into machine language equivalents • Contains the mnemonic operation code
and its machine language equivalent • In more complex assemblers, contains information like instruction format and length Instruction Op code Length (bytes) ADD m 18 3 LDA m
00 3
52. Operation Code Table (OPTAB)[2] • Content • The mapping between mnemonic and machine code. Also include the instruction format, available addressing modes, and length
information • Characteristic • Static table - the content will never change • Contents are not normally added/deleted (predefined) • Implementation • Array or hash table, easy for
search • Gives optimum performance for the particular set of keys being stored
53. Symbol Table (SYMTAB)[1] • Used to store values (addresses) assigned to labels • Includes the name and value for each label • Flags to indicate error conditions, e.g. duplicate
definition of labels • May contain other info like type or length about the data area or instruction labeled COPY 1000 FIRST 1000 CLOOP 1003 ENDFIL 1015 EOF 1024 THREE 102D
ZERO 1030 RETADR 1033 LENGTH 1036 BUFFER 1039 RDREC 2039 WRREC 2061 LABEL Address (LOC value) FIRST 1003 ALPHA 1009 FIVE 1012
54. Symbol Table (SYMTAB)[2] • Content • Flags to indicate error conditions, e.g. duplicate definition of labels • Characteristic • Dynamic table (i.e., symbols may be inserted,
deleted, or searched in the table) • Implementation • Hash table can be used to speed up search • Organized generally as hash table, for efficiency of insertion & retrieval • Because
variable names may be very similar (e.g., LOOP1, LOOP2), the selected hash function must perform well with such non-random keys

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1/15/24, 7:43 AM Assembler | PPT
55. Location Counter (LOCCTR) • Used to help in the assignment of addresses • Initialized to the beginning address specified in the START statement • After each source statement is
processed, the length of the assembled instruction or data area to be generated is added • Gives the address of a label
56. Pseudo Code for Pass 1 (SIC)[1] • 1st find starting address of the program • START – its operand will be the starting address
57. Pseudo Code for Pass 1 (SIC)[2] • Whenever we find a label, save it in the symbol table •Set the error flag if an unrecognized opcode is found OR if a symbol is encountered more
than 1 time
58. Pseudo Code for Pass 1 (SIC)[3]
59. Pseudo Code for Pass 2 (SIC)[1]
60. Pseudo Code for Pass 2 (SIC)[2]
61. Pseudo Code for Pass 2 (SIC)[3]
62. Chapter 2} Chapter 3{

Editor's Notes
1. Anything to be fetched from memory requires more time.
2. Benefits of SIC/XE Addressing Modes Register-to-register instructions Shorter than register-to-memory instructions No memory
reference Immediate addressing mode No memory reference. The operand is already present as part of the instruction Indirect
addressing mode Avoids the needs for another instruction Relative addressing mode Shorten than the extended instruction Easy
program relocation START directive specifies a beginning program address of 0: a relocatable program. Register-to-register instructions:
simply convert the mnemonic name to their number equivalents OPTAB: for opcodes SYMTAB: preloaded with register names and their
values Considering Instruction Formats Relative addressing: op m 1st choice: PC relative (arbitrarily chosen) 2nd choice: base relative (if
displacement is invalid in PC relative mode) 3rd choice: error message (if displacement is invalid in both relative modes

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