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2021 EMC
FUNDAMENTALS
GUIDE

INTERFERENCE TECHNOLOGY GUIDE SERIES | www.interferencetechnology.com

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Leaders in EMC testing,
from debugging to full compliance
for over 50 years
Rohde & Schwarz offers an exceptional range of EMC test equipment,
from standalone instruments to test software and customized turnkey
test systems. Rohde & Schwarz can supply the right solution for your
requirements, whether you need a small precompliance test system or
a large, standard‑compliant, fully automated system. Our experts are
familiar with current EMC standards.

rohde-schwarz.com/emc-testing
 INTERFERENCE TECHNOLOGY

TABLE OF CONTENTS
2021 EMC Supplier Guide 5
What is EMC? 10
GHERY PETTIT
Pettit EMC Consulting LLC

Basic EMI Concepts 15

KENNETH WYATT
Wyatt Technical Services

Design for Compliance Essentials 18

KENNETH WYATT
Wyatt Technical Services

Input Filters – The Key to 25

Successful EMC Validation
RANJITH BRAMANPALLI & STEFFEN SCHULZE
Würth Elektronik

REFERENCE SECTION 32
Common Commercial EMC Standards 32

EMC Standards Organizations 37

Equations, Tools, & Calculators 39

LinkedIn Groups 42

Common Symbols & Acronyms 43

Recommended EMC Books, 46

Magazines and Journals

Index of Advertisers 48

www.interferencetechnology.com | 3 | 2021 EMC Fundamentals Guide

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2020 EMC SUPPLIER GUIDE

Introduction
In this section, we provide a quick guide to some of the top suppliers in each EMC category–test equipment,
components, materials, services, and more. To find a product that meets your needs for applications, frequen-
cies, standards requirements, etc., please search these individual supplier websites for the latest information and
availability. If you have trouble finding a particular product or solution, email [email protected] for further
supplier contacts.

www.interferencetechnology.com | 5 | Interference Technology Guide Series

 2021 EMC FUNDAMENTALS GUIDE

TEST EQUIPMENT RENTALS

TEST EQUIPMENT OTHER
SEALANTS & ADHESIVES

TESTING LABORATORIES
CABLES & CONNECTORS

TRAINING SEMINARS &

SPECTRUM ANALYZERS
DESIGN / SOFTWARE

LIGHTNING & SURGE

FILTERS / FERRITE'S

SHIELDED ROOMS

TEST EQUIPMENT
EMI RECEIVERS
CERTIFICATION
CONSULTANTS
COMPONENTS

WORKSHOPS
AMPLIFIERS

SHIELDING
ANTENNAS

TESTING
MEDIA
COMPANY WEBSITE

Aaronia AG www.aaronia.com X X X X
Advanced Test Equipment
www.atecorp.com X X X X X X X X X X X X
Rentals (ATEC)
AH Systems, Inc. www.ahsystems.com X X X X X X
Altair- US www.altair.com X X
American Certification Body
https://acbcert.com/ X X X X X X
A Inc.
Ametek- CTS Compliance Test
www.ametek-cts.com X X X X X
Solutions
Anritsu Company www.anritsu.com X X X X X
API Technologies www.apitech.com X X
AR RF/Microwave
www.arworld.us X X X X X X X X
Instrumentation
Astrodyne www.astrodyneTDI.com X
B Beehive Electronics www.beehive-electronics.com X
Captor Corporation (EMC Div.) www.captorcorp.com X
Coilcraft www.coilcraft.com X X
C
CPI- Communications &
www.cpii.com/emc X
Power Industries (USA)
Dassault System Simulia
www.3ds.com/ X
Corp

D Delta Electronics (Americas)

www.delta-americas.com X
Ltd.

DLS Electronic Systems, Inc. www.dlsemc.com X

Electro Rent www.electrorent.com X X X X X
Elite Electronic Engineering
www.elitetest.com X
Co.
EMC Live www.emc.live X
EMC Partner www.emc-partner.com X
E
Empower RF Systems, Inc. www.empowerrf.com X
EM TEST USA www.emtest.com X
Exemplar Global (iNarte) www.exemplarglobal.org X
EXODUS Advanced
www.exoduscomm.com X X X X
Communications
F2 Labs www.f2labs.com X X X X X
Fischer Custom
F www.fischercc.com X
Communications
Frankonia Solutions www.frankonia-solutions.com X X X X

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 INTERFERENCE TECHNOLOGY

TEST EQUIPMENT RENTALS

TEST EQUIPMENT OTHER
SEALANTS & ADHESIVES

TESTING LABORATORIES
CABLES & CONNECTORS

TRAINING SEMINARS &

SPECTRUM ANALYZERS
DESIGN / SOFTWARE

LIGHTNING & SURGE

FILTERS / FERRITE'S

SHIELDED ROOMS

TEST EQUIPMENT
EMI RECEIVERS
CERTIFICATION
CONSULTANTS
COMPONENTS

WORKSHOPS
AMPLIFIERS

SHIELDING
ANTENNAS

TESTING
MEDIA
COMPANY WEBSITE

Gauss Instruments www.gauss-instruments.com X X

G
Gowanda Electronics www.gowanda.com X
Haefely www.haefely.com X X X
Heilind Electronics, Inc www.heilind.com X
H
Henry Ott Consultants www.hottconsultants.com X
HV TECHNOLOGIES, Inc. www.hvtechnologies.com X X X X X X X X
Instrument Rental Labs www.testequip.com X X X X
Interference Technology www.interferencetechnology.com X
I
Intertek www.intertek.com X
ITG Electronics, Inc. www.itg-electronics.com X X
Keysight Technologies www.keysight.com/us/en X X X X
K
Krieger Specialty Products www.kriegerproducts.com X

Laird Electronics www.lairdtech.com/ X X

L
Langer EMV-Technik www.langer-emv.de/en/index X
Magnetic Shield Corp. www.magnetic-shield.com X
Master Bond Inc. www.masterbond.com X
MBP Srl www.mbp.it/en/ X X
Microlease www.microlease.com X X X X
M MILMEGA www.ametek-cts.com X
Montrose Compliance
www.montrosecompliance.com X
Services
MVG Microwave Vision
www.mvg-world.com X X X X
Group
Narda Safety Test
www.narda-sts.com X X X X X
Solutions
N
Noise Laboratory Co., Ltd. www.noiseken.com X
NTS www.nts.com X
o Ophir RF www.ophirrf.com X
Parker Chomerics www.chomerics.com X
Pearson Electronics www.pearsonelectronics.com X
PPG Cuming Lehman
www.cuminglehman.com X X X
Chambers
P
PPG Engineering Materials www.dexmet.com X

Prana www.prana-rd.com X
Pulse Power &
https://ppmtest.com/ X
Measurement Ltd

Q Quell Corp. www.eeseal.com X X X X

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2021 EMC FUNDAMENTALS GUIDE

TEST EQUIPMENT RENTALS

TEST EQUIPMENT OTHER
SEALANTS & ADHESIVES

TESTING LABORATORIES
CABLES & CONNECTORS

TRAINING SEMINARS &

SPECTRUM ANALYZERS
DESIGN / SOFTWARE

LIGHTNING & SURGE

FILTERS / FERRITE'S

SHIELDED ROOMS

TEST EQUIPMENT
EMI RECEIVERS
CERTIFICATION
CONSULTANTS
COMPONENTS

WORKSHOPS
AMPLIFIERS

SHIELDING
ANTENNAS

TESTING
MEDIA
COMPANY WEBSITE

Radiometrics www.radiomet.com X
R&B Laboratory, Inc. www.rblaboratory.com X
Retlif Testing
www.retlif.com X X X
Laboratories
RIGOL Technologies www.rigolna.com X X X X X
R
R&K Company Limited www.rk-microwave.com X X
Rohde & Schwarz GmbH
www.rohde-schwarz.com/de X X X X X X X
& Co. KG
Rohde & Schwarz USA,
www.rohde-schwarz-usa.com X X X X X X X
Inc.
Schaffner EMC, Inc. www.schaffner.com X X X X
Schurter, Inc. www.schurter.com X X
Schwarzbeck Mess-
www.schwarzbeck.com X
Elektronik
S Select Fabricators www.select-fabricators.com X X
Siglent Technologies www.siglentna.com X
Signal Hound www.signalhound.com X X X X
Solar Electronics www.solar-emc.com X
Spira Mfg. Corp. www.spira-emi.com X
TDK www.tdk.com X X X X
Tektronix www.tek.com X
Teledyne LeCroy www.teledynelecroy.com X
TESEQ Inc. www.teseq.com X
Test Equity www.testequity.com/leasing/ X X X X
Thurlby Thandar (AIM-
www.aimtti.com X X
TTi)
T
www.toyotechus.com/emc-
Toyotech (Toyo)
electromagnetic-compatibility/
X X X X
TPI www.rf-consultant.com X
Transient Specialists www.transientspecialists.com X
www.trsrentelco.com/
TRSRenTelCo categories/spectrum- X X X X X X X
analyzers/emc-test-equipment
Vectawave Technology www.vectawave.com X
V V Technical Textiles /
www.vtechtextiles.com X
Shieldex US

Washington Laboratories www.wll.com X X X X X X X

Windfreak Technologies www.windfreaktech.com X X

W
Würth Elektronik eiSos
www.we-online.com X X X X X X X
GmbH & Co. Kg

Wyatt Technical Services www.wyatt-tech.net X X

X XGR Technologies www.xgrtec.com X

www.interferencetechnology.com | 8 | Interference Technology Guide Series

 PROVIDING SOLUTIONS FOR
EMC COMPLIANCE

www.schaffner.com
WHAT IS EMC?

Ghery S. Pettit
[email protected]

Introduction
This article will serve as an introduction to the topic. It is aimed at the people who have been told by their man-
agement, “You are now my EMC person. Go figure out what it is and how we must deal with it!” It will not be an all
encompassing treatment of the subject, but it will provide the reader with a start and some ideas of where to go
for more information.

www.interferencetechnology.com | 10 | Interference Technology Guide Series

 INTERFERENCE TECHNOLOGY

WHAT IS EMC? in value, but they will not exceed it. The example shown
is for a 50% duty cycle signal with a frequency of 500
EMC stands for electromagnetic compatibility. You will MHz, a rise and fall time of .03 x 10-9 seconds, a pulse
see some people refer to EMC/EMI, but this is partially width of .97 x 10-9 seconds and an amplitude of 3.3 volts.
redundant. EMI (electromagnetic interference) is just a
part of EMC. The two major parts of EMC are EMI and
EMS (electromagnetic susceptibility) as it is called in the
aerospace and military world and electromagnetic immu-
nity (as it is called in the commercial world). Susceptibility
and immunity are pretty much the same thing, just called
by different terms. Susceptibility is a measure of how
a device reacts to various items in the electromagnetic
environment and immunity is simply a demonstration of
its failure to react to certain levels of these phenomena.
Emissions are regulated in the commercial world in var-
ious ways and immunity for commercial products is reg-
ulated in certain countries and not at all in many others.

In the aerospace and military world, a common standard Figure 1: Frequencies resulting from a 500 MHz trapezoidal waveform
for emissions and susceptibility is MIL-STD-461G. Var-
ious tests and levels are called out for various services There are a couple of key things to note in Figure 1, in-
and products. In the commercial world, it depends on cluding that the computed harmonics do not always rise
what product is being discussed, but for information tech- to the envelope in Figure 2, but never exceed it. If you
nology equipment (ITE), broadcast receivers, and multi- were to look at the signal (ideal) in both the time and fre-
media equipment, CISPR 32 provides limits for emissions quency domains, it will look something like the following:
and CISPR 35 provides tests and test levels for immunity.
In the U.S., the FCC in Part 15 of its rules provides limits
for emissions and does not mandate immunity for digital
devices. In fact, the rules specifically state that a Part 15
device must accept any interference received. Countries
that mandate immunity, on the other hand, require that
products not suffer inference when tested to the levels
called out in the applicable standards.

WHAT CAUSES ELECTROMAGNETIC EMISSIONS

IN THE FIRST PLACE?
Various functions within a product may contribute to the
generation of emissions. These emissions may be radiated
from the product, typically as radio waves, or they may be
conducted from the product via the power mains cable or
other I/O cables connected to the product. Limits on the
magnitude of these emissions are specified by regulatory
bodies in many countries to protect licensed and unlicensed Figure 2: Trapezoidal waveform and envelope containing all harmonics
users of the radio spectrum from harmful interference.
The fundamental of this 50% duty cycle signal actually
Emissions from the product may be created by various falls above the first break point in frequency when the
means within the product. The two major means by envelope starts falling at -20 dB/decade of frequency.
which these may be generated are harmonics of inten- Above f2 the envelope falls off at -40 dB/decade of fre-
tional signals or parasitic emissions, which can come quency. So, lowering the rise time of the signal moves
from improperly terminated transmission lines and the this breakpoint to the left, decreasing the harmonics lev-
lengths of these lines. els at higher frequencies faster. In reality, circuit design-
ers are going to use the fastest products they can find,
In the case of harmonics of clocks and other signals, but the EMC engineer can always dream.
these emissions will be related to the fundamental fre-
quency and integral harmonics of these signals. Figure You may run into digital designers who say that 500 MHz
1 shows the relationship of these signals. An envelope, isn’t very high. Just remember, 470 MHz is the bottom of
which will not be exceeded in level by these signals is the UHF television broadcast band, so 500 MHz is very
shown in Figure 2. They may not get up to this envelope definitely RF. It may not be high to a digital circuit de-

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2021 EMC FUNDAMENTALS GUIDE

signer, but it definitely is RF and will certainly radiate and Finally, there is a path for the interfering emission to
cause interference to licensed services. travel from the source to the victim. This may be a direct
radiation path or a conducted path. It may fall under the
Why is this preceding information important? It gives the control of the operator of the source, it may fall under
EMC engineer a tool for computing the frequencies that the control of the operator of the victim, or a combination
may come from the product, at least as harmonics of of both.
intentionally generated digital signals. It also gives a tool
for computing the amplitudes of these signals. The next HOW DO I FIX AN EMC PROBLEM?
step, at least for computing the radiated or conducted To quote a retired professor (Todd Hubing), “It depends.”
emissions, will be to compute the coupling factor or fac- What is the problem? Did your product fail an EMC test?
tors, as a function of frequency. Or, if the measurements Is it causing harmful interference to another device or
have already been performed, then troubleshooting to service? Fix your product. This is especially important if
bring them into compliance may be the next thing on the you only control the source (in the case of emissions) or
agenda. the victim (in the case of immunity testing). If you control
both the source and victim, you may be able to alter the
Another means by which RF energy can be created by path and leave the source and/or victim alone.
a product is due to transmission lines that are not prop-
erly terminated. The frequency of these emissions will Let’s assume that your product is failing an emissions
not necessarily be harmonically related to the frequency test. This is not the best time to find out that you have an
of the signal being sent down the transmission line, but, EMC problem as marketing probably wants to ship the
will instead, be related to the propagation velocity of the product soon and you are being called the roadblock to
wave down the transmission line and its length. This ter- shipping and are therefore the bad guy. Never mind that
mination may be designed into the product at either end you have been telling the project team for a year that
of the transmission line and each has its advantages and there are areas they need to address, and they have
disadvantages. Troubleshooting these emissions can refused to make changes you’ve recommended. This
take more detective work. is where a prime requirement to being an EMC engi-
neer comes in—you must have a thick skin and stick to
There are a number of ways that RF energy created by your guns. No data showing compliance, no shipment
a product through its normal operation can generate and of product. Get to know the project lawyers well in ad-
radiate unintentional emissions that can cause interfer- vance, they likely will be on your side. You’ll spend long
ence or simply failure to pass emissions limits. This paper hours in the lab finding and fixing the problem(s). Oh,
will not go into detail on each as this would be way be- and your fixes must be manufacturable and, ideally,
yond the scope of a single paper, but things to consider cheap (or even free). Sometimes these are, and some-
are current loops, exit points from PWBs for cables, by- times they aren’t. Sometimes a product that passed in
passing (all filters are not created equal and installation the lab last week or last month will have had a change
methods are critical), component layout, trace routing, made by a vendor as it was easier for them to make
chassis and packaging design, and “grounding”. Notice the part and your company’s specification wasn’t tight
that I put quotation marks around grounding. Grounding enough to prevent the change. Can you find this prob-
in the EMC sense does not mean connection to earth lem quickly and tell the program team how to fix it? Oh,
ground. Ask yourself how this would be possible for a and there are some problems that you will find repeated-
satellite in geosynchronous orbit around the earth. Ob- ly over a career as new designers come and go, creat-
viously, it isn’t, and satellites typically have to meet far ing job security for EMC engineers. So, from a personal
more stringent EMC requirements than your computer on point of view, these easy to find and fix problems aren’t
your desk. all bad. At least not after you’ve found and fixed them a
few times over the years. It you are new to the game it
WHAT IS A MODEL FOR INTERFERENCE? will take a bit longer.
There are three basic components in the interference
model that must be considered. IMMUNITY
I haven’t discussed immunity as a separate issue much
There is a source. This may be a board, a complete de- in this paper. The good news (at least on the commercial
vice, or natural event. It generates the emission that is side of the discussion) is that immunity isn’t typically a
causing the problem. major issue for designers and EMC engineers. Prior to
immunity requirements being published for the first time
There is a victim. This is the device (component, board, about 30 years ago one major manufacturer only had in-
or full product) that suffers interference that causes what- ternal specifications for electrostatic discharge and pow-
ever malfunction is being noted. This may be an unin- er line surges. Nothing else in their experience showed
tended operation or a failure to operate on the part of the itself to be an issue. Some of the commercial immunity
device suffering as a victim. requirements are so low that the EMC engineer can tell

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 INTERFERENCE TECHNOLOGY

the project designers 6 months in advance that he will • Introduction to Electromagnetic Compatibility, 2nd
run the test only because it is required, but not to wor- Edition, Clayton R. Paul, John Wiley & Sons, 2006
ry as the product will pass. Or the company may have
internal requirements for significantly higher test levels, Clayton has passed away, much to the sorrow of
in which case more attention must be paid to the test those of us who knew him, but if I was limited to a
phenomena. ESD and surge testing, however, do not single book on EMC, this is the one I would have. Not
fall in the camp of serious concern. If a designer lives a simple, easy to read, treatment on the subject, but
and works in an area where humidity levels are typically complete and comprehensive. I highly recommend
high, he probably doesn’t have much experience or wor- this book.
ry about ESD failures. If, however, he lives and works in
an area like the front range of Colorado or Washington • PCB Design for Real-World EMI Control, Bruce Ar-
D.C. where humidity levels can be very low, he likely will chambeault and James Drewniak, Kluwer Academic
be a firm believer in ESD. Likewise for electrical surge, if Publishers, 2002/2004
the designer lives in an area where lightning storms are
common surge is an issue. If not, no worries. However, The title says it all. It is limited to PCBs, but it is a
the product must be sold and used in areas where these great treatment on the subject, by two gentlemen
are common problems. who are well respected in the EMC world. Bruce is
a past president of the IEEE EMC Society and has
Then there are the immunity or susceptibility matters that been around the block more than once.
must be considered to avoid problems like the U.S.S.
Forrestal in the late 1960s. Susceptibility can be a serious There are plenty more books and papers that you can
matter. Three V/m may be adequate for some commer- read and learn from. This is just a start, but for someone
cial environments, but the flight deck of an aircraft carrier new to the EMC world this will be a great start.
is not one of those environments. Do a Google search
and look for the video and discussion of what went wrong Have fun and feel free to ask questions when you have
on the Forrestal to see what I mean. some. I don’t say “if” because after 44 years I still have
many.
CONCLUSION
EMC is a matter deserving of serious consideration. It
may only be a matter of whether a product can ship on
time, or it may be a matter of life and death. Learn about
it, ask questions of people who are considered experts
in the subject (I’ll give you my definition of “expert” some
time), and read books and articles on the subject. Also,
attend events where you can learn more about EMC by
listening to papers, talking with vendors, and networking
with “your fellow wizards”. You’ll find in many of those
places that EMC folks (engineers and technicians) are
EMC professionals first and employees of X, Y, or Z com-
pany second. They won’t disclose company secrets, but
they will help you fight a common enemy—EMC issues.

Listed below are a few places where you can learn more
about EMC.

• Noise Reduction Techniques In Electronic Systems,

Second Edition, Henry W. Ott, John Wiley & Sons,
1988

This is a great book for learning more about EMC.

• Fields and Waves in Communication Electronics,

Ramo, Whinnery and Van Duzer, John Wiley & Sons,
1965

I thought this was a lousy textbook when I was in

college (maybe some bias there), but it is a fantastic
reference book that I highly recommend you have.

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BASIC EMI CONCEPTS

Kenneth Wyatt
Wyatt Technical Services
[email protected]

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2021 EMC FUNDAMENTALS GUIDE

BASIC EMI CONCEPTS second. The actual physical mechanism of near light
speed propagation is due to a “kink” in the E-field, which
Understanding EMC is all about two important concepts: propagates along the molecules of copper. Refer to Ref-
(1) all currents flow in loops and (2) high frequency sig- erences 1, 2, and 3 for further details.
nals are propagated as electromagnetic waves in trans-
mission lines and the field energy travels through the di-
electric. The two concepts are related because they are
intertwined together. Digital signals create the propagat-
ing field, which induces the convection current to flow in
the copper traces/planes.

CURRENTS FLOW IN LOOPS

These two concepts are closely related and coupled to
one another. The problem we circuit designers miss is
defining the return path back to the source. If you think
about it, we don’t even draw these return paths on the Figure 1 - A digital signal propagating along a microstrip with currents shown.
schematic diagram - just showing it as a series of various
“ground” symbols. The important thing is that this combination of conduction
and displacement current must have an uninterrupted
So what is “high frequency”? Basically, anything higher path back to the source. If it is interrupted in any way, the
than 50 to 100 kHz. For frequencies less than this, the propagating electromagnetic wave will “leak” all around
return current will tend to follow the shortest path back inside the PC board dielectric layers and cause electro-
to the source (path of least resistance). For frequencies magnetic coupling and “common mode” currents to form,
above this, the return current tends to follow directly un- which then couple to other signals (cross-coupling) or to
der the signal trace and back to the source (path of least “antenna-like structures”, such as I/O cables or slots/ap-
impedance). ertures in shielded enclosures.

Where some board designs go wrong is when high dV/ Most of us were taught the “circuit theory” point of view
dt return signals, such as those from low frequency DC- and it is important when we visualize how return currents
DC switch mode converters or high di/dt return signals want to flow back to the source. However, we also need
get comingled with I/O circuit return currents or sensitive to consider the fact that the energy of the signal is not
analog return currents. We’ll discuss PC board design only the current flow, but an electromagnetic wave front
in the next article. Just be aware of the importance of moving through the dielectric, or a “field theory” point of
designing defined signal and power supply return paths. view. Keeping these two concepts in mind just reinforc-
That’s why the use of solid return planes under high fre- es the importance of designing transmission lines (power
quency signals and then segregating digital, power, and and signal traces with return path directly adjacent), rath-
analog circuitry (keeping them separate) on your board is er than just simple circuit trace routing.
so important.
It is very important to note that all power distribution
HOW SIGNALS MOVE networks (PDNs) and high frequency signal traces are
At frequencies greater than DC, digital signals start to transmission lines and the energy is transferred as elec-
propagate as electromagnetic tromagnetic waves at about half the speed of light in nor-
mal FR4-type board dielectrics. We’ll show what happens
waves in transmission lines. As shown in Figure 1, a high when the return path or return plane is interrupted by a
frequency signal propagates along a microstrip transmis- gap in the next article. More on PDN design may be found
sion line (circuit trace over return plane, for example), in Reference 4, 5, and 6.
and the wave front induces a conduction current in the
copper trace and back along the return plane. Of course, DIFFERENTIAL MODE VERSUS COMMON
this conduction current cannot flow through the PC board MODE CURRENTS
dielectric, but the charge at the wave front repels a like Referring to Figure 2, the differential mode current (in
charge on the return plane, which “appears” as if current blue) is the digital signal itself (in this case, shown in a
is flowing. This is the same principle for capacitors and ribbon cable). As described above, the conduction cur-
Maxwell called this effect “displacement current”. rent and associated return current flow simultaneously as
the signal wave front moves along the transmission line
The signal’s wave front travels at some fraction of the formed by the microstrip and return plane.
speed of light, as determined by the dielectric constant
of the material, while the conduction current is comprised The common mode current (in red) is a little more complex
of a high density of free electrons moving at about 1 cm/ in that it may be generated in a number of ways. In the fig-

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 INTERFERENCE TECHNOLOGY

ure, the impedance of the return plane results in small volt- SUMMARY
age drops due to multiple simultaneous switching noise To summarize product design for EMI compliance, a prop-
(SSN) by the ICs. These voltage drops induce common erly designed PC board with adjacent return planes to
noise currents to flow all over the return (or reference) all signals and PDNs, properly bonded I/O cable shields,
plane and hence, couple into the various signal traces. well bonded shielded enclosures with minimal slots or
gaps, and common mode filtering on all I/O and power
cables for unshielded products is generally required for
best EMI performance. Paying attention to these factors
early in the design greatly reduces the risk of EMC and
EMI compliance failures.

REFERENCES
1. Bogatin, Signal Integrity - Simplified, 3rd edition,
Prentice-Hall, 2018.
2. Morrison, Grounding and Shielding - Circuits and In-
terference, Wiley, 2016.
3. Morrison, Fast Circuit Boards - Energy Management,
Figure 2 - An example of differential and common mode currents.
Wiley, 2018.
4. Smith and Bogatin, Principles of Power Integrity for
Besides SSN, common mode currents can also be created
PDN Design, Prentice-Hall, 2017.
by gaps in return planes, poorly terminated cable shields,
5. Sandler, Power Integrity - Measuring, Optimizing,
or unbalanced transmission line geometry. The problem is
and Troubleshooting Power Related Parameters in
that these harmonic currents tend to escape out along the
Electronic Systems, McGraw Hill, 2014.
outside of shielded I/O or power cables and radiate. These
6. Novak and Miller, Frequency-Domain Characteriza-
currents can be very small, on the order of μA. It takes just
tion of Power Distribution Networks, Artech House,
5 to 8 μA of current to fail the FCC class B test limit.
2007.

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DESIGN FOR COMPLIANCE ESSENTIALS
Kenneth Wyatt
Wyatt Technical Services
[email protected]

Introduction
While unrealistic to discuss all aspects of product design in a single article, I’ll try to describe the most common design
issues I find in the hundreds of client products I’ve had a chance to work on. These issues generally include PC board
design, cables, shielding, and filtering. More detailed information may be found in the Reference section below.

As previously mentioned, the top three product failures I run into include (1) radiated emissions, (2) radiated sus-
ceptibility, and (3) electrostatic discharge. Other failures can include things like conducted emissions, electrically fast
transient, conducted susceptibility, and electrical surge. Most of these last items are also the result of the same poor
product designs, which cause the top three failures.

NOTE: I prefer to avoid the word “ground” in this article or in my consulting practice. The reason is that there are too many misinterpretations,
which can also lead to EMC failures. It’s much more clear to use power and power return, and signal and signal return - or just “return plane” or
reference plane. Finally, cable shields or shielded enclosures are “bonded” together - not “grounded”. The only exception is the so called “safety
ground” or earth ground. But these have nothing at all to do with proper EMC design - just personal safety against electrical shock. I suppose
the one exception would be the earth ground connection on a three-wire power line filter. Also, occasionally, there will be an earth ground on a
PC board - especially for power supplies, but again, connecting a product or system to earth ground will not improve EMI, due to the very high
inductance (length) of the wire.

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 INTERFERENCE TECHNOLOGY

DESIGN FOR COMPLIANCE ESSENTIALS information on the physics of signal propagation through
PC boards.
PC BOARD DESIGN
The single most important factor in achieving EMC/EMI
compliance revolves around the printed circuit board de-
sign. It’s important to note that not all information sources
(books, magazine articles, or manufacturer’s application
notes) are correct when it comes to designing PC boards
for EMC compliance - especially sources older than 10
years, or so. In addition, many “rules of thumb” are based
on specific designs, which may not apply to future or
leveraged designs. Some rules of thumb were just plain
lucky to have worked.
Figure 1 - A propagating wave along a microstrip with reference plane. Figure,
PC boards must be designed from a physics point of view courtesy Eric Bogatin.
and the most important consideration is that high frequen-
cy signals, clocks, and power distribution networks (PDNs) In order to satisfy both the circuit and field theory view-
must be designed as transmission lines. This means that points, we now see the importance of adjacent power
the signal or energy transferred is propagated as an elec- and power return planes, as well as adjacent signal and
tromagnetic wave. PDNs are a special case, as they must signal return planes. PDN design also requires both bulk
carry both DC current and be able to supply energy for and decoupling “energy storage” capacitors. The bulk ca-
switching transients with minimal simultaneous switching pacitors 4.7 to 10 μF, typ.) are usually placed near the
noise (SSN). The characteristic impedance of PDNs is de- power input connector and the decoupling capacitors (1
signed with very low impedance (0.1 to 1.0 Ohms, typical- to 10 nF, typ) nearest the noisiest switching devices - and
ly). Signal traces, on the other hand, are usually designed most importantly, with minimal trace length connecting
with a characteristic impedance of 50 to 100 Ohms. these from the power pins to signal return plane. Ideally,
all decoupling capacitors should be mounted right over
The previous article introduced the concept of the circuit (or close to) the connecting vias and multiple vias should
theory and field theory viewpoints. A successful PC board be used for each capacitor to reduce series inductance.
design accounts for both viewpoints. Circuit theory sug-
gests that current flows in loops from source to load and Signal or power routed referenced to a single plane will
back to the source. In many cases of product failure, the always have a defined return path back to the source.
return path has not been well defined and in some cases, Figure 2 shows how the electromagnetic field stays with-
the path is broken. Breaks or gaps in the return path are in the dielectric on both sides of the return plane. The
major causes of radiated emissions, radiated susceptibil- dielectric is not shown for clarity.
ity, and ESD failures.

Correspondingly, electric fields on PC boards exist be-

tween two pieces of metal, such as a microstrip over a
return plane (or trace). If the return path is broken, the
electric field will “latch on” to the next closest metal and
will not likely be the return path you want. When the re-
turn path is undefined, then the electromagnetic field Figure 2 - A signal trace passing through a single reference plane.
will “leak” throughout the dielectric and cause common
mode currents to flow all over the board, as well as cause On the other hand, referring to Figure 3, if a signal passes
cross-coupling of clocks or other high speed signals to through two reference planes, things get a lot trickier. If
dozens of other circuit traces within that same dielectric. the two planes are the same potential (for example, both
are return planes), then simple connecting vias may be
Figure 1 shows a propagating wave within the dielectric added adjacent to the signal via. These will form a nice
between the signal trace and return plane (or trace). This defined return path back to the source.
shows both the conduction current flowing in the signal
trace and back on the return plane (or trace) and the If the two planes are differing potentials (for example,
displacement current “through” the dielectric. The signal power and return), then stitching capacitors must be
wave front travels at some fraction of the speed of light placed adjacent to the signal via. Lack of a defined return
as determined by the dielectric constant. In air, signals path will cause the electromagnetic wave to propagate
travel at about 12 inches per nanosecond. In the typical throughout the dielectric, causing cross coupling to other
FR4 dielectric, the speed is about half that at 6 inches signal vias and leakage and radiation out the board edg-
per nanosecond. Refer to Reference 1, 2, and 3 for more es as shown.

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2021 EMC FUNDAMENTALS GUIDE

nal (or power) return plane. It’s also a good idea to run
multiple connecting vias between the two return planes
in order to guarantee the lowest impedance path back to
the source. The EMI performance will be significantly im-
proved using this, or similar designs. In many cases, sim-
ply rearranging the stack-up is enough to pass emissions.

Note that when running signals between the top and bot-
tom layers, you’ll still need to include “stitching” vias be-
tween the return planes and stitching capacitors between
Figure 3 - A signal trace passing through two reference planes. If the reference the power and power return planes right at the point of
planes are the same potential (signal or power returns, for example), then stitch- signal penetration in order to minimize the return path.
ing vias next to the signal via should be sufficient. However, if the planes are Ideally, these stitching vias should be located within 1 to 2
different potentials (power and return, for example), then stitching capacitors mm of each signal via.
must be installed very close to the signal via. Lack of a defined return path
will cause the electromagnetic field to leak around the dielectric, as shown, and Other Tips - Other design tips include placement of all
couple into other signal vias or radiate out board edges. power and I/O connectors along one edge of the board.
This tends to reduce the high frequency voltage drop be-
For example, let’s take a look at a poor (but very typical) tween connectors, thus minimizing cable radiation. Also,
board stack-up that I see often. See Figure 4. segregation of digital, analog, and RF circuits is a good
idea, because this minimizes cross coupling between
noisy and sensitive circuitry in the return plane.

Of course, high-speed clocks, or similar high-speed sig-

nals, should be run in as short and as direct a path as
possible. These fast signals should not be run long board
edges or pass near I/O or power connectors.

Gaps in Return Plane - I’d like to come back to the gap

or slot in the return plane mentioned earlier and show
Figure 4 - A six-layer board stack-up with very poor EMI performance. an example of why it’s bad news for EMI. When the re-
turn path is interrupted, the conduction current is forced
Notice the power and power return planes are three lay- around the slot, or otherwise finds the nearest (lowest im-
ers apart. Any PDN transients will tend to cross couple pedance) path back to the source. The electromagnetic
to the two signal layers in between. Similarly, only signal field is forced out and the field will “leak” all over the board.
layers 1 and 3 have an adjacent return plane. Signal lay- I have an article and good demonstration video of this and
ers 4 and 6 are referenced to power, rather than signal how it affects common mode currents and ultimately, EMI.
return, therefore, the propagating wave return path will See Figure 6 and Reference 4.
jump all over to whatever is the closest metal on the way
back to the source, which is referenced to signal return.
Again, this will tend to couple clock and other digital noise
throughout the board.

Figure 6 - shows a demonstration test board with transmission lines terminated

Figure 5 - A six-layer board stack-up with good EMI performance. Each signal layer in 50 Ohms. One transmission line has a gap in the return plane and the other
has an adjacent return plane and the power and power return planes are adjacent. doesn’t. A harmonic comb generator (2 ns pulse) is connected to one of the two
BNC connectors in turn and the harmonic currents in a wire taped to the return
A better design is shown in Figure 5. Here, we lose one plane are measured with a current probe.
signal layer, but we see the power and power return planes
are adjacent, while each signal layer has an adjacent sig- The difference between the gapped and un-gapped trac-

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 INTERFERENCE TECHNOLOGY

es is shown in Figure 7. Note the harmonic currents are inch. See Reference 5 and 6 for more detail on shield-
10 to 15 dB higher for the gapped trace (in red). Failing ing. Interference Technology also has a free download-
to pay attention to the signal and power return paths is a able 2017 EMI Shielding Guide with excellent information
major cause of radiated emissions failures. (Reference 7).

Figure 9 is a chart of wavelength versa half wave reso-

nance at 1000 MHz. This is a handy tool for determining
how efficient a cable or slot will act as an antenna.

Figure 7 - The resulting common mode currents on an attached wire (to the
return plane) as measured with a current probe. The trace in aqua is the un-
gapped return path and the trace in red, the gapped return path. The difference
is 10 to 15 dB higher for the gapped return path. These harmonic currents will
tend to radiate and will likely cause radiated emissions failures.

SHIELDING Figure 9 - A handy chart for determining resonant frequency versus cable or slot
The two issues with shielded enclosures is getting all length in free space. Half-wavelength slots simulate dipole antennas and are
pieces well-bonded to each other and to allow power or particularly troublesome. Figure, courtesy Patrick André.
I/O cable to penetrate it without causing leakage of com-
mon mode currents. Bonding between sheet metal may Cable Penetration - The number one issue I find when
require EMI gaskets or other bonding techniques. Slots tracking down a radiated emissions problem is cable ra-
or apertures in shielded enclosures become issues when diation. The reason cables radiate is that they penetrate a
the longest dimension approaches a half wavelength. shielded enclosure without some sort of treatment - either
bonding the cable shield to the metal enclosure or com-
mon mode filtering at the I/O or power connector (Figure
10 and 11). This occurs frequently, because most con-
nectors today are attached directly to the circuit board
and are then poked through holes in the shield. Once the
cable is plugged in, it is “penetrating the shield” and EMI
is the usual result.

Figure 8 - A chart of attenuation versus slot length. Figure, courtesy Henry Ott.
Figure 10 - Penetrating the shield with a cable defeats the shield. This example
Figure 8 shows a handy chart for determining the 20 dB shows how external energy sources can induce noise currents in I/O cables,
attenuation of a given slot length. For example, if a prod- which can potentially disrupt internal circuitry. The reverse is also true, where
uct design requires at least a 20 dB shielding effective- internal noise currents can flow out the cable and cause emissions failures. Fig-
ness, then the longest slot length can be just one-half ure, courtesy Henry Ott.

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2021 EMC FUNDAMENTALS GUIDE

There are four combinations or cases that must be con- ical topology is shown in Figure 13. The “X” capacitor is
sidered: shielded or unshielded products, and shielded or designed to filter differential mode, while the CM choke
unshielded cables. Power cables are usually unshielded and “Y” capacitors are designed to filter common mode.
for consumer/commercial products and so require power The resistor shown is usually 100 kOhm and the purpose
line filtering at the point of penetration or at the connector is merely to bleed off the line voltage stored on the capac-
of the circuit board. Shielded cables must have the shield itors to a safe level.
bonded (ideally in a 360 degree connection) to the prod-
uct’s shielded enclosure. If the product does not have a
shielded enclosure, then filtering must be added at the
point of penetration or at the I/O connector of the PC
board. Figure 11 shows the usual result when connectors
simply poke through a shielded enclosure.

Figure 12 - A typical common mode filter used for I/O filtering. The two windings
are wound in opposite directions and so tend to cancel the common mode currents.

Figure 11 - Result of a penetrating cable through a shielded enclosure, because

of un-bonded I/O connectors to the shielded enclosure.
Figure 13 - A general purpose filter typically used for power supply input filtering.
Cable Shield Terminations - Another potential issue is
if the I/O cable uses a “pigtail” connection to the connec-
tor shell. Ideally, cable shields should be terminated in a
360-degree bond for lowest impedance. Pigtails degrade
the cable shield effectiveness by introducing a relatively
high impedance. For example, a 1-inch pigtail connection
has 12 Ohms impedance at 100 MHz and gets worse the
higher you go in frequency. This is especially problem-
atic for HDMI cables, because the HDMI working group
(http://www.hdmi.org) originally failed to specify the meth-
od for terminating the cable shield to the connector. This
may have been corrected in the latest edition of the stan-
dard released in 2017.

FILTERING
I won’t go into very much detail here, because Interfer-
ence Technology has an excellent EMI Filter Guide free
for the downloading (see Reference 8). Suffice to say,
filters, as well as transient protection, are important at
power and I/O connectors. Typically, these will be com-
mon mode topologies, as shown in Figure 12. Most sig-
nal-level common mode chokes may be obtained in sur-
face mount packaging. Power chokes are much larger to
handle the current and may be obtained as either surface
mount or through-hole mount, depending on the current
rating. Many Ethernet connectors also have built-in com- Figure 14 - Five common filter topologies, depending on the source and load
mon mode filtering. impedances. Figure, courtesy Würth Electronik.

Power supply input filters are generally designed to sup- For general purpose filtering of signals, the handy chart of
press both differential and common mode currents. A typ- possible filter topologies may be found in Reference 9 and

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 INTERFERENCE TECHNOLOGY

is reproduced here in Figure 14. The appropriate topolo- Power line surge protection usually requires much larger
gy depends on the source and load impedances. If these transient protection devices and they can come in a va-
impedances are not known, then either the “PI” or “T” to- riety of types. Gas discharge or metal oxide varistors are
pology may be used (#3 or #5 on the chart, respectively). the most common, but larger silicon-based devices are
also available. More information on the design of surge
Ferrite or inductive components should not be used in se- protection may be found in Reference 9.
ries with the power pins of ICs, as this will only reduce
the ability of the local decoupling capacitors to supply SUMMARY
required energy during simultaneous switching of the Most EMC/EMI failures are due to poor shielding, pene-
IC output stages with the resulting higher power supply tration of cables through shields, poor cable shield termi-
noise. If used, they should be inserted “upstream” from nation, poor filtering, and above all, poor PC board layout
the bulk capacitor. and stack-up. Paying attention to these common design
faults will pay off with a lower risk of compliance failures
Ferrite Chokes - One common filter element usually and result in lower project costs and schedule slippage.
added to I/O cables is the ferrite choke. Ferrite chokes
come in either the clamp-on types or solid cores meant REFERENCES
to be assembled along with the cable assembly. Often, 1. Bogatin, Signal Integrity - Simplified, Prentice-Hall,
these are used as a last resort to reduce cable emis- 3rd edition, 2018.
sions or susceptibility. 2. Morrison, Grounding and Shielding - Circuits and
Interference, Wiley, 2016.
Ferrite chokes have an associated impedance versus
frequency characteristic, often peaking around 100 to 3. Morrison, Fast Circuit Boards - Energy Management,
300 MHz. Some materials are designed to peak below Wiley, 2018.
100 MHz for lower frequency applications. Maximum im- 4. Wyatt, Gaps in Return Planes - Bad News for EMI
pedances can range from 25 to 1000 Ohms, depending (with video demo), https://interferencetechnology.
on the ferrite material used and style of choke. com/gaps-return-planes-bad-news-emi/
5. Ott, Electromagnetic Compatibility Engineering,
You may have noticed that clipping a ferrite choke onto a
Wiley, 2009.
cable sometimes has no effect. This is usually due to the
fact the choke has the same, or lower, effective imped- 6. André and Wyatt, EMI Troubleshooting Cookbook for
ance than the source and load impedances. The attenua- Product Designers, SciTech, 2014.
tion of a ferrite choke is easily calculated. 7. ITEM, 2017 EMI Shielding Guide, https://
i n t e r f e r e n c e t e c h n o l o g y. c o m / w p - c o n t e n t /
Attenuation (dB) = 20 * log((Zin + Zferrite + Zload) / (Zin + Zload)) uploads/2017/06/2017_IT_EMI-Shielding-Guide_
Low-Res.pdf
For example, if we add a 100 Ohm ferrite choke to a
power supply cable with system impedance of 10 Ohms 8. ITEM, 2017 EMC Filters Guide, https://
(source and load), the attenuation would be: i n t e r f e r e n c e t e c h n o l o g y. c o m / w p - c o n t e n t /
uploads/2017/05/2017-IT_EMC_Filters_Guide_Low-
Attenuation = 20 * log((10 + 100 + 10) / (10 + 10)) = 15.5 dB Res.pdf
9. Würth Electronik, Trilogy of Magnetics, 4th edition,
Refer to Reference 9 for much additional detail on ferrite 2010.
chokes and general filter design.

TRANSIENT PROTECTION
In order to protect internal circuitry from electrical tran-
sients, such as ESD, electrically fast transient (EFT), or
power line surge, due to lightning, transient protective
devices should be installed at all power and I/O ports.
These devices sense the transient and “clamp” the tran-
sient pulse to a specified clamp voltage.

Transient protectors in signal lines must generally have

a very low parallel capacitance (0.2 to 1 pF, typical) to
the return plane (or earth ground), depending on the
data rate in order to maintain signal integrity. These sili-
con-based devices may be purchased in very small sur-
face mount packaging.

www.interferencetechnology.com | 23 | 2021 EMC Fundamentals Guide

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INPUT FILTERS — THE KEY TO SUCCESSFUL
EMC VALIDATION

Ranjith Bramanpalli | Steffen Schulze

Würth Elektronik

Introduction
Input filters are today as ever a requisite factor for successful EMC validation of switching controllers, irrespective
of the size of the AC component involved. Switching controllers create conducted EMC interferences due to AC
components in their lines, independent of their individual topology and application. Certain component manufac-
turers have therefore optimized their power modules for a low line-bound and radiated emission of interferences.
These types of modules’ residual ripple generally exhibits a negligibly low value, meaning that an output filter can
be dispensed within most applications. Since the input current at the step-down converter is pulsating, this may
generate radio-frequency interferences in the application. Depending on the specific application, the hardware
developer decides whether an input filter is necessary directly before the power module or in another position in
the switch. The design process of input filters for optimized power modules and the measurement techniques that
are used is discussed in this article.

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2021 EMC FUNDAMENTALS GUIDE

INPUT FILTERS – THE KEY TO SUCCESSFUL To reduce differential mode noises, at least one simple
LC filter must be fitted at the input of the converter as a
EMC VALIDATION measure to minimize the AC component in the line. In
high-impedance systems, such an input filter can theo-
As a starting point it is useful to illustrate how differential
retically produce a voltage attenuation of 40 dB/decade
mode noises develop in the first place. Differential mode
in the stopband. In practice, a lower degree of attenuation
noises are interference signals in a system with a sym-
is achieved since the terminating impedances are low-
metrical current back and forth between the source and
ohm in their nature and also because the components
the load in the lines of a switching controller.
themselves exhibit losses. In dimensioning the LC filter a
corner frequency fc is selected that is below the switching
frequency fsw of the power module. If the factor is one
tenth, theoretically an insertion loss of 40 dB is achieved
at the switching frequency at which the highest spectral
amplitude occurs.

(1)

The corner frequency of an LC filter is generally:

(2)
Figure 1 – Symmetrical system

In the input circuit, the clock frequency of the power mod- As an example for the calculation of the filter, an induc-
ule includes an AC component superimposed over the tance of 10 μH is selected and Equation (2) is trans-
useful current and is similar in its configuration to the cur- formed to:
rent through the storage inductance of the power module.
The input current flows into the input capacitor Cin. Real (3)
capacitors possess a resistive component, the ESR, and
an inductive component, the ESL as shown in Figure 2. In arranging the filter components, as shown in Figure 3,
the filter capacitor can be positioned on the side of the
Due to the ESR of the input capacitor and the impedanc- voltage source or on the input side of the power module.
es of the lines of the power module, the AC component The decisive factor for the attenuation of the pulsating
produces an undesirable voltage drop. current drawn from the voltage source is the inductance
of the filter inductor.
In this form, the noise voltage shows up as a differen-
tial-mode signal. The amplitude of the interference voltage
occurring at the input capacitor is essentially dependent
on the ESR of the capacitor used. Electrolytic capacitors
have a relatively high ESR, the value of which can range
between just a few milliohms up to several ohms. As a
consequence, the interference voltage can vary between
a few millivolts up to several volts. Ceramic capacitors,
on the other hand, have a very small ESR of just a few
milliohms and thus result in a noise voltage of a few mil-
livolts. In addition, the circuit-board design of the power
module exerts a great effect on the interference voltage.
Figure 3 – Arrangement of the components of the input filter

When the quality of the filter resonance is too high, os-

cillations may occur in the event of changes in the input
voltage that must be regulated. The stability criterion that
applies here is that the output impedance of the input filter
Zout,filter within a broad frequency spectrum has to be lower
than the input impedance of the power module Zin,converter:

(4)

Figure 2 – Development of the noise voltage In addition, the corner frequency fc of the input filter should

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 INTERFERENCE TECHNOLOGY

lie far below the crossover frequency fco of the power current in the input circuit. Figure 5 shows the impedance
module. curves of three rod core chokes based on an example of
the Würth Electronics WE-SD product family.
(5)

Figure 4 shows how this is done by placing an attenuat-

ing branch parallel to the power module input.

Figure 5 – Example of Impedance of one manufacturer’s SD rod core chokes

Figure 4 – Attenuation of the input filter
The higher the inductance, the smaller the SRF. It is
The attenuator reduces the quality of the input filter and recommend-ed to select an inductor with an inductance
consequently its output impedance at the resonance whose numeric value is lower than the capacitance of
frequency. Equation (6) can be applied to calculate the the filter capacitor. In practice, a filter inductance with a
attenuation resistance Rd for a filter quality of Qf=1: maximum value of 10 μH is selected, since – depending
on the design – such an inductance has a self-resonant
(6) frequency of approximately 30 MHz.

Exceeding the rated current of the filter inductor may re-

A value that has established itself in practice as an indi- sult in damage to the wire winding. Taking the efficien-
cator of the capacity of the attenuation capacitor Cd is the cy of the switching controller as a basis, it is possible to
five-to-ten-fold measure of the filter-capacitor capacitance: calculate the effective input current of the power module
using Equation (8).
(7)
(8)
As an alternative, the filter can be attenuated by selecting
an electrolytic capacitor that is switched parallel to the
filter output instead of the attenuator. As a rule, the val- For safety reasons, a larger value should be selected as
ue of the ESR of the electrolyte capacitor is sufficient to the rated current of the filter coil.
attenuate the filter.
The filter capacitor may take the form of a liquid elec-
SELECTING THE LC FILTER COMPONENTS trolyte capacitor, a polymer capacitor, or even a ceramic
Both capacitors and coils show capacitive as well as in- capacitor. The only aspect that must be considered is that
ductive properties in reality. Filter inductors have their the filter quality at the corner frequency is sufficiently low.
highest filter effect at their self-resonant frequency (SRF).
In coils, the SRF is strongly dependent on the inductance Further measures must be considered when dimension-
and the capacitive coupling between the winding turns. In ing a Π filter. In the optimal case, an input filter should
capacitors, the SRF is strongly dependent on the capaci- be placed as close as possible to the input of the power
tance and the length of their terminations. When selecting module. For the case that the in-put filter is placed further
the filter components, it is hence advisable to make sure away due to geometric circumstances, the traces may
that the SRF is at the upper end of the frequency range in act as an antenna between the input filter and the power
which the RFI voltage is at its maximum or, respectively, module at higher frequencies. The trace inductance can,
in which the filter is to be active. however, also be used together with a ceramic capacitor
to establish an additional LC filter with a higher cut-off
The decisive factor for the reduction of the differen- frequency (see Figure 6). Due to its negligibly low ESR, a
tial-mode noise is the filter inductor, since this is the com- ceramic capacitor can swiftly short-circuit high-frequency
ponent that counteracts the rapid rise and drop in the voltages to ground with low impedance.

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2021 EMC FUNDAMENTALS GUIDE

power module to an absolute minimum, or otherwise to

suppress undesirable subharmonic oscillations. The filter
can be dimensioned as already described. Attenuation of
the filter resonance is not necessary in this case.

Figure 6 – Π input filter

The SRF of the capacitor should roughly lie within the

spectrum of the switching frequency of the power mod-
ule. To illustrate this point, Figure 7 shows impedance
curves of Würth Elektronik WCAP-CSGP ceramic capac-
itors in the 0805 size. Figure 8 – Output filter

MEASURING THE NOISE VOLTAGE

The noise voltage is measured according to the basic
standard IEC CISPR 16-2-1, which describes the types
of the interference variables to be measured, the equip-
ment to be used for the various interfaces, and the mea-
surement set-up for table-top and floor-standing devices.
The interferences are evaluated in the frequency range
from 9 kHz to 30 MHz. The measuring devices include
besides the EMI receiver a variety of line impedance sta-
bilizing networks (LISNs), voltage probes, current clamps
and capacitive couplers. In a measurement set-up for
table-top devices, as shown in Figure 9, the test object
(DUT, “device under test”) is positioned on a non-con-
Figure 7 – Impedance of ceramic capacitors ductive table standing on a ground reference plane. The
table should be 40 cm in height. In the case that a vertical
Of the components shown in Figure 7, at a clock frequen- ground reference plane is also present, the table should
cy of 2 MHz, for example, a capacitor with 1 μF would be at least 80 cm in height. The LISN must be connected
be suitable (resonant frequency marked in red). Even a to the ground plane ensuring good conductivity. The DUT
100 nF ceramic capacitor (resonant frequency marked in itself and any attached cables are to be arranged so that
blue), which is used as a blocking capacitor in numerous they are 40 cm distant from the ground plane.
electronic circuits, would be a suitable candidate at these
values; it should be mentioned, however, that com-pared
with the 1 μF version the 100 nF capacitor has an ESR
higher by a factor of nine.

DIMENSIONING AN OUTPUT FILTER

Some power modules on the market, such as Würth
Elektronik MagI³C power modules, exhibit a negligibly
low residual ripple at the output, which is why an output
filter is not absolutely necessary. For the case that com-
ponents supplied by the switching controller decouple
interference signals via interfaces (e.g. sensor switches,
analog switching circuits), it may be necessary to include
an output filter to filter the output voltage.

The circuit schematic shown in Figure 6 images an out-

put filter as an option comparable to that shown here in
Figure 8. It is not generally possible to make a definitive
statement on the necessity for and effectiveness of such
an output filter, since this must be dimensioned individ-
ually for each specific application. It may be possible to
use an output filter to reduce the residual ripple of the Figure 9 – Test set-up for measuring conducted interferences on power-supply lines

www.interferencetechnology.com | 28 | Interference Technology Guide Series

 INTERFERENCE TECHNOLOGY

The length of the cable between the DUT and the LISN
should not exceed 80 cm. The EMI receiver evaluates the
asymmetric noise voltage that is decoupled at the LISN
for the separate leads of the cable.

MEASURING THE RADIATED NOISE

The method for measuring the radiated noise above 30
MHz is described in the IEC CISPR16-2-3 basic standard.
The measurement environment is generally in the form of
an anechoic room with a conductive floor or, at a smaller
scale, an anechoic chamber. Here, too, the DUT is posi-
tioned on a non-conductive table (for portable or table-top
devices, see Figure 10, or on the floor. To enable the DUT
to revolve on its own axis in its default state during the
measurement, it is placed on a turntable. In larger anecho- Figure 11 – Time-domain signal with a broadband spectral content
ic rooms, the receiving antenna is placed at a distance of
10 m from the DUT and adjusted in its height during the Figure 11 shows an AC component of 80 mV, measured
measurement to find the maxi-mum electric field strength at an in-put voltage of the power module of 7.5 V, an av-
at each measurement frequency (peak spectrum). In ad- erage input current of 1.2 A, and an average load current
dition, the orientation of the antenna is altered (horizontal of 2 A. Switching controllers have the property to show up
and vertical polarization). In smaller anechoic chambers, as a negative differential resistance from the viewpoint of
the distance between antenna and DUT should be 3 m; the power supply. The input current rises with decreas-
since the antenna height needs to be fixed, the height ing input voltage. For this reason, the noise voltage is
scan is omitted and he floor between the antenna and the measured under “worst case” conditions – minimum input
DUT must be covered with absorbing material. voltage, maximum current.

Figure 12 – Noise voltage without an input filter

The decisive factor in the analysis of this type of noise

emission, however, remains the measurement of noise
voltage as can be per-formed in an EMC laboratory. Fig-
Figure 10 – Test set-up for measuring the radiated noise in anechoic rooms ure 12 shows the result of a noise voltage measurement
or chambers without an input filter.

CASE STUDY – MEASURED NOISE VOLTAGE This power module operates at a clock frequency of 370
The following section describes the measurement of the kHz. In the interference spectrum, the highest amplitude
noise volt-age using a Würth Elektronik MagI³C power (red peak: 68 dBμV) can be measured at this frequency.
module evaluation board fitted with a Variable Step Down The amplitude density of the noise voltage drops at a rate
Regulator Module (171 020 601) as an example. of approx. 40 dB/decade, meaning that no significant in-
terference level can be seen above the 15th harmonic.
Already during the preliminary phase it is possible to mea- Nevertheless, it is only above the 9th harmonic that the
sure the AC component at the power module’s input using interference level is more than 10 dB below the limit for
an oscilloscope. By running an analysis within the time the average detector (dark blue line).
domain, the anticipated interference spectrum can be es-
timated at the start of the work on the design of the filter. Equation (3) can now be used to calculate a suitable LC

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2021 EMC FUNDAMENTALS GUIDE

input filter. Due to the relatively low switching frequency, Finally, the equations can be used to calculate an atten-
an inductor with a low SRF and an inductance of 4.7 μH uating resistance.
is selected and the filter capacitance is calculated.

(11)
(9)
The higher the value of the attenuation resistance, the
The selected filter capacitor is the one with a little higher higher the attenuation of the filter resonance. In this
capacitance of 10 μF. The maximum input current is cal- case, the next higher resistance of the E12 series of 1 Ω
culated using Equation (8). can be selected.

This calculation requires the efficiency of the evaluation A value of 47 μF is selected for the attenuation capacitor.
board, which is determined by measurement and in this This may be, for example, a Würth Elektronik eiCap ce-
case has a value of 91%. ramic capacitor of the WCAP-CSGP series.

MEASURING ACCORDING TO IEC CISPR 22

(10) The above measurements were performed according to
the IEC CISPR16-2-1 standard, as described in Section
8. The use of a LISN enabled the asymmetric voltage
On the basis of the calculations of the filter inductance to be decoupled and equated to the asymmetric (com-
and input current, it is now possible to select an appro- mon-mode) voltage, which was then compared to the
priate inductor. Picked for the purpose is an unshielded limit, taken from the IEC CISPR 22 standard for devices
inductor from the Würth Elektronik PD2 series, size 5820. for private and commercial use (Class B). For power-sup-
Figure 13 shows the result of the noise voltage measure- ply components – and this includes all types of switching
ment with the matched filter. controllers – there is no directly applicable EMC standard.
The entire application in which the switching controller is
used must be assigned to a specific category of devices
and then tested according to the corresponding standard
applicable for the product or product family. In this case,
the product-family standard IEC CISPR 22 for IT instal-
lations was taken only with reference to the limits, which
are also given in the IEC 61000-6-3 generic standard.
The generic standards can be used in cases for which
there is no specific standard for the device in question.

SUMMARY
Irrespective of the size of the AC component involved,
an input filter is today as ever a requisite factor for a
successful EMC validation of a switching controller. Sim-
ple-to-apply equations can be used to calculate such an
input filter on an individual basis. Taking the impedances
of the filter and the switching controller into account in
Figure 13 – Noise voltage with an input filter the equations, this enables oscillations to be avoided and
also ensures the control stability of the switching con-
The interference level measured at the 370 kHz switching troller itself. A targeted selection of the filter components
frequency has a value of 30 dBμV. The levels of all har- lays the foundations for an optimal design of the filter.
monics are lower than 20 dBμV and are thus sufficiently Equipped with an appropriate degree of technical skill in
attenuated. The average level at 370 kHz corresponds to EMC testing methods, the hardware developer can de-
the peak level and is 18 dB lower than the average limit of sign his switch purposefully and, wherever necessary,
47 dBμV. In measuring such conducted interferences in make any adjustments to the filter himself.
the practical context, a signal-to-noise ratio of this dimen-
sion is entirely sufficient in order to confirm the conformity
of this measurement.

The purpose of the measurement of the noise voltage is

to demonstrate the usefulness of an analysis of the inter-
ference potential in the time domain; though an analysis
in the frequency domain is still indispensable.

www.interferencetechnology.com | 30 | Interference Technology Guide Series

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and Contributors!
Want to be a part of the next issue of
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you’d like to write for InterferenceTechnology.com?

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2021 EMC FUNDAMENTALS GUIDE

COMMON COMMERCIAL EMC STANDARDS

►COMMERCIAL STANDARDS
The following are some of the most common commercial EMC standards. Most standards have a fee associated and
most on the list are linked back to the source where they’re available. If you’re purchasing the printed version of this
guide, then refer to the Standards Organizations in the References section for standards purchase information. Note
that many Euro Norm (EN) versions of IEC standards may be purchased at a considerable discount from the Estonian
Centre for Standardization, https://www.evs.ee.

FCC
(https://www.ecfr.gov)

Electronic Code of Federal Regulations (e-CFR)

CFR 47 - Part 15 (Radio Frequency Devices)

ANSI
(http://webstore.ansi.org)

Document Number Title

Methods of Measurement of Radio-Noise Emissions from Low-Voltage Electrical and
C63.4
Electronic Equipment in the Range of 9 kHz to 40 GHz

IEC
(https://webstore.iec.ch)

Document Number Title

Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 3-2: Limits - Limits for harmonic current
IEC 61000-3-2
emissions (equipment input current ≤ 16 A per phase)

Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 3-3: Limits - Limitation of voltage changes,

IEC 61000-3-3 voltage fluctuations and flicker in public low-voltage supply systems, for equipment with
rated current ≤ 16 A per phase and not subject to conditional connection

Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 4-2: Testing and measurement techniques -

IEC 61000-4-2
Electrostatic discharge immunity test

Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 4-3 : Testing and measurement techniques -

IEC 61000-4-3
Radiated, radio-frequency, electromagnetic field immunity test

Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 4-4 : Testing and measurement techniques -

IEC 61000-4-4
Electrical fast transient/burst immunity test

Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 4-5: Testing and measurement techniques -

IEC 61000-4-5
Surge immunity test
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 4-6: Testing and measurement techniques -
IEC 61000-4-6
Immunity to conducted disturbances, induced by radio-frequency fields

Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 4-7: Testing and measurement techniques -

IEC 61000-4-7 General guide on harmonics and interharmonics measurements and instrumentation, for
power supply systems and equipment connected thereto

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 INTERFERENCE TECHNOLOGY

Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 4-8: Testing and measurement techniques -

IEC 61000-4-8
Power frequency magnetic field immunity test

Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 4-9: Testing and measurement techniques -

IEC 61000-4-9
Impulse magnetic field immunity test

Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 4-10: Testing and measurement techniques -

IEC 61000-4-10
Damped oscillatory magnetic field immunity test

Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 4-11: Testing and measurement techniques -

IEC 61000-4-11
Voltage dips, short interruptions and voltage variations immunity tests

Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 4-12: Testing and measurement techniques -

IEC 61000-4-12
Ring wave immunity test

Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 6-1: Generic standards - Immunity standard

IEC 61000-6-1
for residential, commercial and light-industrial environments

Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 6-2: Generic standards - Immunity standard

IEC 61000-6-2
for industrial environments

Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 6-3: Generic standards - Emission standard

IEC 61000-6-3
for residential, commercial and light-industrial environments

Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 6-4: Generic standards - Emission standard

IEC 61000-6-4
for industrial environments

Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 6-5: Generic standards - Immunity for power
IEC 61000-6-5
station and substation environments

Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 6-7: Generic standards - Immunity requirements

IEC 61000-6-7 for equipment intended to perform functions in a safety-related system (functional safety) in
industrial locations

Electrical equipment for measurement, control and laboratory use – EMC requirements –
IEC 61326-1
Part 1: General requirements

Electrical equipment for measurement, control and laboratory use - EMC requirements
- Part 2-1: Particular requirements - Test configurations, operational conditions and
IEC 61326-2-1
performance criteria for sensitive test and measurement equipment for EMC unprotected
applications

Electrical equipment for measurement, control and laboratory use - EMC requirements
- Part 2-2: Particular requirements - Test configurations, operational conditions and
IEC 61326-2-2
performance criteria for portable test, measuring and monitoring equipment used in low-
voltage distribution systems

Electrical equipment for measurement, control and laboratory use - EMC requirements
IEC 61326-2-3 - Part 2-3: Particular requirements - Test configuration, operational conditions and
performance criteria for transducers with integrated or remote signal conditioning

Electrical equipment for measurement, control and laboratory use - EMC requirements
- Part 2-4: Particular requirements - Test configurations, operational conditions and
IEC 61326-2-4
performance criteria for insulation monitoring devices according to IEC 61557-8 and for
equipment for insulation fault location according to IEC 61557-9

Electrical equipment for measurement, control and laboratory use - EMC requirements
IEC 61326-2-5 - Part 2-5: Particular requirements - Test configurations, operational conditions and
performance criteria for field devices with field bus interfaces according to IEC 61784-1

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2021 EMC FUNDAMENTALS GUIDE

Electrical equipment for measurement, control and laboratory use - EMC requirements -
IEC 61326-2-6
Part 2-6: Particular requirements - In vitro diagnostic (IVD) medical equipment
Electrical equipment for measurement, control and laboratory use - EMC requirements -
IEC 61326-3-1 Part 3-1: Immunity requirements for safety-related systems and for equipment intended
to perform safety-related functions (functional safety) - General industrial applications
Electrical equipment for measurement, control and laboratory use - EMC requirements -
Part 3-2: Immunity requirements for safety-related systems and for equipment intended
IEC 61326-3-2
to perform safety-related functions (functional safety) - Industrial applications with
specified electromagnetic environment
Electrostatics - Part 3-1: Methods for simulation of electrostatic effects - Human body
IEC 61340-3-1
model (HBM) electrostatic discharge test waveforms

CISPR
(https://webstore.iec.ch)

Document Number Title

Industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) radio-frequency equipment -
CISPR 11
Electromagnetic disturbance characteristics - Limits and methods of measurement
Vehicles, boats and internal combustion engines - Radio disturbance characteristics -
CISPR 12
Limits and methods of measurement for the protection of off-board receivers
Sound and television broadcast receivers and associated equipment - Radio disturbance
CISPR 13
characteristics - Limits and methods of measurement
Electromagnetic compatibility - Requirements for household appliances, electric tools
CISPR 14-1
and similar apparatus - Part 1: Emission
Electromagnetic compatibility - Requirements for household appliances, electric tools
CISPR 14-2
and similar apparatus - Part 2: Immunity - Product family standard
Limits and methods of measurement of radio disturbance characteristics of electrical
CISPR 15
lighting and similar equipment
Specification for radio disturbance and immunity measuring apparatus and methods -
CISPR 16-1-1
Part 1-1: Radio disturbance and immunity measuring apparatus - Measuring apparatus
Specification for radio disturbance and immunity measuring apparatus and methods -
CISPR 16-1-2 Part 1-2: Radio disturbance and immunity measuring apparatus - Coupling devices for
conducted disturbance measurements
Specification for radio disturbance and immunity measuring apparatus and methods -
CISPR 16-1-3 Part 1-3: Radio disturbance and immunity measuring apparatus - Ancillary equipment -
Disturbance power
Specification for radio disturbance and immunity measuring apparatus and methods -
CISPR 16-1-4 Part 1-4: Radio disturbance and immunity measuring apparatus - Antennas and test sites
for radiated disturbance measurements

Specification for radio disturbance and immunity measuring apparatus and methods -
CISPR 16-1-5 Part 1-5: Radio disturbance and immunity measuring apparatus - Antenna calibration
sites and reference test sites for 5 MHz to 18 GHz
Specification for radio disturbance and immunity measuring apparatus and methods
CISPR 16-1-6 - Part 1-6: Radio disturbance and immunity measuring apparatus - EMC antenna
calibration
Specification for radio disturbance and immunity measuring apparatus and methods
CISPR 16-2-1 - Part 2-1: Methods of measurement of disturbances and immunity - Conducted
disturbance measurements

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 INTERFERENCE TECHNOLOGY

Specification for radio disturbance and immunity measuring apparatus and methods
CISPR 16-2-2 - Part 2-2: Methods of measurement of disturbances and immunity - Measurement of
disturbance power

Specification for radio disturbance and immunity measuring apparatus and methods -
CISPR 16-2-3 Part 2-3: Methods of measurement of disturbances and immunity - Radiated disturbance
measurements
Specification for radio disturbance and immunity measuring apparatus and methods
CISPR 16-2-4 - Part 2-4: Methods of measurement of disturbances and immunity - Immunity
measurements
Specification for radio disturbance and immunity measuring apparatus and methods -
CISPR TR 16-2-5 Part 2-5: In situ measurements for disturbing emissions produced by physically large
equipment
Specification for radio disturbance and immunity measuring apparatus and methods -
CISPR TR 16-3
Part 3: CISPR technical reports
Specification for radio disturbance and immunity measuring apparatus and methods - Part
CISPR TR 16-4-1
4-1: Uncertainties, statistics and limit modelling - Uncertainties in standardized EMC tests
Specification for radio disturbance and immunity measuring apparatus and methods
CISPR 16-4-2 - Part 4-2: Uncertainties, statistics and limit modelling - Measurement instrumentation
uncertainty

Specification for radio disturbance and immunity measuring apparatus and methods -
CISPR TR 16-4-3 Part 4-3: Uncertainties, statistics and limit modelling - Statistical considerations in the
determination of EMC compliance of mass-produced products

Specification for radio disturbance and immunity measuring apparatus and methods
CISPR TR 16-4-4 - Part 4-4: Uncertainties, statistics and limit modelling - Statistics of complaints and a
model for the calculation of limits for the protection of radio services
Specification for radio disturbance and immunity measuring apparatus and methods
CISPR TR 16-4-5 - Part 4-5: Uncertainties, statistics and limit modelling - Conditions for the use of
alternative test methods
CISPR 17 Methods of measurement of the suppression characteristics of passive EMC filtering devices
Radio interference characteristics of overhead power lines and high-voltage equipment -
CISPR TR 18-1
Part 1: Description of phenomena
Radio interference characteristics of overhead power lines and high-voltage equipment -
CISPR TR 18-2
Part 2: Methods of measurement and procedure for determining limits
Radio interference characteristics of overhead power lines and high-voltage equipment -
CISPR TR 18-3
Part 3: Code of practice for minimizing the generation of radio noise

Sound and television broadcast receivers and associated equipment - Immunity

CISPR 20
characteristics - Limits and methods of measurement
Information technology equipment - Radio disturbance characteristics - Limits and
CISPR 22
methods of measurement (Withdrawn and replaced by CISPR 32:2015)
Information technology equipment - Immunity characteristics - Limits and methods of
CISPR 24
measurement (Withdrawn and replaced by CISPR 35:2016)
Vehicles, boats and internal combustion engines - Radio disturbance characteristics -
CISPR 25
Limits and methods of measurement for the protection of on-board receivers

CISPR 32 Electromagnetic compatibility of multimedia equipment – Emission requirements

CISPR 35 Electromagnetic compatibility of multimedia equipment - Immunity requirements

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2021 EMC FUNDAMENTALS GUIDE

OTHER RELEVANT STANDARDS

(https://webstore.iec.ch)

Document Number Title

IEC 60601-1 General requirements for basic safety and essential performance

IEC TR 60601-4-2 Electromagnetic immunity performance

IEC TR 60601-4-3 Considerations of unaddressed safety aspects in the third edition of IEC 60601-1

IEC TR 62354 General testing procedures for medical electrical equipment

ISO 14708-1 Active implantable medical devices

www.interferencetechnology.com | 36 | Interference Technology Guide Series

 INTERFERENCE TECHNOLOGY

EMC STANDARDS ORGANIZATIONS

American National Standards Institute Gosstandart (Russia)
www.ansi.org https://gosstandart.gov.by/en/

ANSI Accredited C63 IEC

www.c63.org http://www.iec.ch/index.htm

Asia Pacific Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation IEEE Standards Association

(APLAC) https://standards.ieee.org/
https://www.apac-accreditation.org/
IEEE EMC Society Standards Development
BSMI (Taiwan) Committee (SDCOM)
http://www.bsmi.gov.tw/wSite/mp?mp=95
 
 https://standards.ieee.org/develop/index.html

Canadian Standards Association (CSA) Industry Canada (Certifications and Standards)

www.csa.ca http://www.ic.gc.ca/eic/site/smt-gst.nsf/eng/h_sf06165.
html
CISPR
http://www.iec.ch/dyn/www/f?p=103:7:0::::FSP_ORG_ ISO (International Organization for Standards)
ID,FSP_LANG_ID:1298,25 http://www.iso.org/iso/home.html

CNCA (China) RTCA

http://english.cnca.gov.cn https://www.rtca.org

Electromagnetic Compatibility Industry Association UK SAE EMC Standards Committee

http://www.emcia.org www.sae.org

FDA Center for Devices & Radiological Health (CDRH) SAE EMC Standards
https://www.fda.gov/MedicalDevices/default.htm http://www.sae.org/servlets/works/committeeHome.
do?comtID=TEVEES17
Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
www.fcc.gov VCCI (Japan, Voluntary Control Council for Interference)
http://www.vcci.jp/vcci_e/
Federal Standards
https://quicksearch.dla.mil/qsSearch.aspx

www.interferencetechnology.com | 37 | 2021 EMC Fundamentals Guide

 • WWWW EMC/EMI TTTTTTT?
• WWW ? • WWWWW I ?
Our expert technical staff are here to help answer these quessons
and more. F2 Labs is an A2LA accredited laboratory that can guide
you through the process of electrical product compliance tessng
that is required to get your product to market.
F2 Labs Performs EMC Tessng for:
CE Cerrficaaon (EMC Direccve ISED Canada Cerrficaaon
and Radio Equipment Direccve)
RFID for Tires
FCC Cerrficaaon
EMI Site Surveys
FCC Supplier’s
Declaraaon of Conformity And More
We can perform tessng in our lab or at your facility. We also offer EMC
pre-tessng and Lab Time to make sure your product is ready for the full
evaluaaon. Our goal is to get your product to market quickly.
 INTERFERENCE TECHNOLOGY

EQUATIONS, TOOLS, & CALCULATORS

COMMON EMC-RELATED EQUATIONS PARTIAL SELF-INDUCTANCE OF A ROUND

WIRE (1MM)
OHMS LAW 25 nH/inch or 1 nH/mm
 
Example, a 1.5 mm long via has a partial self-inductance
of about 1.5 nH.

IMPEDANCE OF A WIRE

Example, a 1-inch wire (25 nH) has an impedance

of 16 Ohms at 100 MHz.
Ohms Law “formula wheel” for calculating resistance (R),
voltage (V), current (I) or power (P), given at least two of
the other values. SPEED OF SIGNALS

BANDWIDTH VERSUS RISE TIME In air: 12 inches/nsec

In most PC board dielectrics: 6 inches/nsec

VSWR AND RETURN LOSS

Empirically derived and applies for a square wave, with
rise time measured at 10 and 90%. Example, for a rise
VSWR given forward/reverse power
time of 1 nsec, the bandwidth is 350 MHz.

VSWR given reflection coefficient (ρ)

BANDWIDTH VERSUS CLOCK FREQUENCY

Reflection coefficient (ρ), given Z1,Z2 Ohms

Assuming the rise time of a clock is 7% of the period, we Reflection coefficient (ρ), given fwd/rev power
can approximate the bandwidth as shown.

Example, for a clock frequency of 100 MHz, the band-

width is 500 MHz. That is, the highest significant sine- RETURN LOSS, GIVEN
wave frequency component in a clock wave is the fifth FORWARD/REVERSE POWER
harmonic.

PERIOD VERSUS FREQUENCY

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2021 EMC FUNDAMENTALS GUIDE

EQUATIONS, TOOLS, & CALCULATORS

RETURN LOSS, GIVEN VSWR ANTENNA (FAR FIELD) RELATIONSHIPS

Gain, dBi to numeric

Return Loss, given reflection coefficient (ρ) Gain, numeric to dBi

Gain,dBi-to-Antenna Factor

Antenna Factor-to-gain indBi

E-FIELD FROM Field Strength given watts, numeric gain, distance in meters
DIFFERENTIAL-MODE CURRENT

Field Strength given watts, dBi gain, distance in meters

ID = differential-mode current in loop (A)

f = frequency (Hz)

L = length of loop (m)

Transmit power required, given desired V/m, antenna nu-
s = spacing of loop (m) meric gain, distance in meters

d = measurement distance (3 m or 10 m, typ.)

(Assumption that the loop is electrically small and mea-

sured over a reflecting surface)
Transmit power required, given desired V/m, antenna dBi
gain, distance in meters

E-FIELD FROM
COMMON-MODE CURRENT

IC = common-mode current in wire (A) PC BOARD EQUATIONS

f = frequency (Hz) 1 oz. copper = 1.4 mils = 0.036 mm
 


L = length of wire (m) 0.5 oz. copper = 0.7 mils = 0.018 mm
 


d = measurement distance (3 m or 10 m, typ.) (Assump- Convert mils to mm: multiply by 0.0254 mm/mil
 

tion that the wire is electrically short)
Convert mm to mils: multiply by 39.4 mil/mm
 


Signal velocity in free space: approx. 12 in/ns
 


TEMPERATURE CONVERSIONS
Signal velocity in FR-4: approx. 6 in/ns
Celsius to Fahrenheit: °C = 5/9(°F - 32)
 

Fahrenheit to Celsius: °F = 9/5(°C) + 32

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 INTERFERENCE TECHNOLOGY

EQUATIONS, TOOLS, & CALCULATORS

WORKING WITH DB FIELD STRENGTH EQUATIONS

The decibel is always a ratio dBμV/m to V/m: V/m= 10(((dBμV/m)-120)/20)

Power Gain = Pout/Pin V/m to dBμV/m: dBμV/m = 20log(V/m) + 120
dBμV/m to dBμA/m: dBμA/m = dBμV/m - 51.5
Power Gain(dB) = 10log(Pout / Pin)
dBμA/m to dBμV/m: dBμV/m = dBμA/m + 51.5
Voltage Gain(dB) = 20log(Vout/Vin) dBμA/m to dBpT: dBpT = dBμA/m + 2
Current Gain(dB) = 20log(Iout/Iin) dBpT to dBμA/m: dBμA/m = dBpT - 2
μT to A/m: A/m = μT/1.25
We commonly work with:
A/m to μT: μT = 1.25 * A/m
dBm (referenced to 1 mW)

dBμV (referenced to 1 μV) DBM TO DBUV CHART

dBm dBμV
dBμA (referenced to 1 μA)
 
20 127
Power Ratios 10 117
0 107
3 dB = double (or half) the power
-10 97
10 dB = 10X (or /10) the power -20 87
-30 77
Voltage/Current Ratios -40 67
6 dB = double (or half) the voltage/current 20 dB - 10X (or
/10) the voltage/current -50 57
-60 47
-70 37
-80 27
-90 17
DBM, DBμV, DBμA (CONVERSION)
-100 7
Volts to dBV: dBV = 20log(V)
Volts to dBμV: dBμV = 20log(V) + 120 A common formula for converting default spectrum ana-
lyzer amplitudes (dBm) to the limits as shown in the emis-
dBV to Volts: V = 10(dBV/20)
sions standards (dBμV):
dBμV to Volts: V = 10((dBμV=120)/20)
dBm to dBμV, use: dBμV = dBm + 107
dBV to dBμV: dBμV = dBV +120
dBμV to dBV: dBV = dBμV - 120

Note: For current relationships, substitute A for V

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EQUATIONS, TOOLS, & CALCULATORS

WAVELENGTH EQUATIONS DIPOLE RADIATION

(FREE SPACE) VERSUS LENGTH

Wavelength(m) = 300/f(MHz)
 

Half wavelength(ft.) = 468/f(MHz)

RESONANCE OF STRUCTURES

Use this chart to for determining the relative radiation versus size in wavelength.
Image Source: Bruce Archambeault.

For example, a wire or slot whose length is 0.2 wave-

length at a particular frequency, would radiate about 15
dB down from the equivalent half-wavelength wire or slot.
Use this handy chart for determining the resonant frequency versus cable or slot
length in free space. Half-wavelength slots or cables simulate dipole antennas
and are particularly troublesome. Image Source: Patrick André.

LINKEDIN GROUPS
Electromagnetic Compatibility Forum

Electromagnetics and Spectrum Engineering Group

EMC - Electromagnetic Compatibility

EMC Experts

EMC Troubleshooters

ESD Experts

Signal & Power Integrity Community

EMI/EMC Testing

iNARTE

IEEE

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 INTERFERENCE TECHNOLOGY

COMMON SYMBOLS
A Amperes, unit of electrical current

AC Alternating Current

AM Amplitude modulated

dBm dB with reference to 1 mW

dBμA dB with reference to 1 μA

dBμV dB with reference to 1 μV

DC Direct Current

E "E" is the electric field component of an electromagnetic field.

Ratio of the electric field (E) to the magnetic field (H), in the far-field this is the characteristic impedance of free
E/H
space, approximately 377 Ω

EM Electromagnetic

EMC Electromagnetic compatibility

EMI Electromagnetic Interference

FM Frequency modulated

GHz Gigahertz, one billion Hertz (1,000,000,000 Hertz)

H "H" is the magnetic field component of an electromagnetic field.

Hz Hertz, unit of measurement for frequency

I Electric current

kHz Kilohertz, one thousand Hertz (1,000 Hertz)

λ Lambda, symbol for wavelength

MHz Megahertz, one million Hertz (1,000,000 Hertz)

mil Unit of length, one thousandth of an inch

mW Milliwatt (0.001 Watt)

mW/cm2 Milliwatts per square centimeter, a unit for power density

Pd Power density, unit of measurement of power per unit area (W/m2 or mW/cm2)

R Resistance

RF Radio Frequency

RFI Radio Frequency Interference

V Volts, unit of electric voltage potential

V/m Volts per meter, unit of electric field strength

W/m2 Watts per square meter, a unit for power density, one W/m2 equals 0.1 mw/cm2

Ω Ohms, unit of resistance

Ref: ANSI/IEEE 100-1984, IEEE Standard Dictionary of Electrical and Electronics Terms, 1984.

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ACRONYMS
(Antenna Factor) - The ratio of the received field strength to the voltage at the terminals of a receiving antenna.
AF
Units are 1/m.
(Absorber-Lined Chamber) - A shielded room with RF-absorbing material on the walls and ceiling. In many
ALC
cases, the floor is reflective.
(Amplitude Modulation) - A technique for putting information on a sinusoidal carrier signal by varying the
AM
amplitude of the carrier.
(Bulk Current Injection) - An EMC test where common-mode currents are coupled onto the power and
BCI
communications cables of an EUT.
CE (Conducted Emissions) - The RF energy generated by electronic equipment, which is conducted on power cables.
CE Marking The marking signifying a product meets the required European Directives.
CENELEC French acronym for the “European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization”.
(Conducted Immunity) - A measure of the immunity to RF energy coupled onto cables and wires of an electronic
CI
product.
 

CISPR French acronym for “International Special Committee on Radio Interference”.
Conducted Energy transmitted via cables or PC board connections.
Coupling
A structure or medium that transmits energy from a noise source to a victim circuit or system.
Path
(Conducted Susceptibility) - RF energy or electrical noise coupled onto I/O cables and power wiring that can
CS
disrupt electronic equipment.
CW (Continuous Wave) - A sinusoidal waveform with a constant amplitude and frequency.
 
(Electromagnetic Compatibility) - The ability of a product to coexist in its intended electromagnetic environment
EMC
without causing or suffering disruption or damage.
(Electromagnetic Interference) - When electromagnetic energy is transmitted from an electronic device
EMI to a victim circuit or system via radiated or conducted paths (or both) and which causes circuit upset
in the victim.
(Electromagnetic Pulse) - Strong electromagnetic transients such as those created by lightning or
EMP
nuclear blasts.
(Electrostatic Discharge) - A sudden surge in current (positive or negative) due to an electric spark or
ESD secondary discharge causing circuit disruption or component damage. Typically characterized by rise
times less than 1 ns and total pulse widths on the order of microseconds.
(Equivalent Series Inductance) - Generally refers to the parasitic series inductance of a capacitor or
ESL
inductor. It could also include the extra series inductance of any connecting traces or vias on a PC board.
ESR (Equivalent Series Resistance) - Generally refers to the parasitic series resistance of a capacitor or inductor.
EU European Union.
EUT (Equipment Under Test) - The device being evaluated.
When you get far enough from a radiating source the radiated field can be considered planar (or
Far Field
plane waves).
FCC U.S. Federal Communications Commission.
(Frequency Modulation) - A technique for putting information on a sinusoidal “carrier” signal by varying
FM
the frequency of the carrier.
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission
(Industrial, Scientific and Medical equipment) - A class of electronic equipment including industrial
ISM
controllers, test & measurement equipment, medical products and other scientific equipment.
(Information Technology Equipment) - A class of electronic devices covering a broad range of equipment
ITE including computers, printers and external peripherals; also includes, telecommunications equipment,
and multi-media devices.
 


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 INTERFERENCE TECHNOLOGY

ACRONYMS
(Line Impedance Stabilization Network) - Used to match the 50-Ohm impedance of measuring
LISN
receivers to the power line.
(Multi-Layer Ceramic Capacitor) - A surface mount capacitor type often used as decoupling or energy
MLCC
storage capacitors in a power distribution network.
Near Field When you are close enough to a radiating source that its field is considered spherical rather than planar.
Noise Source A source that generates an electromagnetic perturbation or disruption to other circuits or systems.
OATS (Open Area Test Site) - An outdoor EMC test site free of reflecting objects except a ground plane.
 

(Power Distribution Network) - The wiring and circuit traces from the power source to the electronic
PDN circuitry. This includes the parasitic components (R, L, C) of the circuit board, traces, bypass
capacitance and any series inductances.
 
(Power Line Transient) - A sudden positive or negative surge in the voltage on a power supply input
PLT
(DC source or AC line).
(Power Integrity) - Refers to the quality of the energy transfer along the power supply circuitry from the
PI
voltage regulator module (VRM) to the die of the ICs. High switching noise or oscillations mean a low PI.
Radiated Energy transmitted through the air via antenna or loops.
(Radiated Emissions) - The energy generated by a circuit or equipment, which is radiated directly from the
RE
circuits, chassis and/or cables of equipment.
 


Radio Frequency Interference) - The disruption of an electronic device or system due to electromagnetic
RFI
emissions at radio frequencies (usually a few kHz to a few GHz). Also EMI.

Radiated Immunity) - The ability of circuits or systems to be immune from radiated energy coupled to
RI
the chassis, circuit boards and/or cables. Also Radiated Susceptibility (RS).
(Radio Frequency) - A frequency at which electromagnetic radiation of energy is useful for
RF
communications.
 
(Radiated Susceptibility) - The ability of equipment or circuits to withstand or reject nearby radiated RF
RS
sources. Also Radiated Immunity (RI).
 

Spread Spectrum Clock Generation) - This technique takes the energy from a CW clock signal and
SSCG spreads it out wider, which results in a lower effective amplitude for the fundamental and high-order
harmonics. Used to achieve improved radiated or conducted emission margin to the limits.
 


SI (Signal Integrity) - A set of measures of the quality of an electrical signal.

(Simultaneous Switching Noise) - Fast pulses that occur on the power bus due to switching transient
SSN
currents drawn by the digital circuitry.
(Transverse Electromagnetic) - An electromagnetic plane wave where the electric and magnetic fields are
TEM perpendicular to each other everywhere and both fields are perpendicular to the direction of propagation. TEM
cells are often used to generate TEM waves for radiated emissions (RE) or radiated immunity (RI) testing.
An electronic device, component or system that receives an electromagnetic disturbance, which
Victim
causes circuit upset.

(Voltage Regulator Module) - A linear or switch-mode voltage regulator. Generally, there will be several
VRM
of these mounted to a PC board in order to supply different levels of required voltages.
(Voltage Standing Wave Ratio) - A measure of how well the load is impedance matched to its
VSWR transmission line. This is calculated by dividing the voltage at the peak of a standing wave by the
voltage at the null in the standing wave. A good match is less than 1.2:1.
 


(Crosstalk) - A measure of the electromagnetic coupling from one circuit to another. This is a common
XTALK
problem between one circuit trace and another.

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RECOMMENDED EMC BOOKS, MAGAZINES

AND JOURNALS
ITEM 2021 ARRL,
(Interference Technology Engineer’s Master) The RFI Handbook
ITEM is an exhaustive guide full of invaluable EMC (3rd edition), 2010. Good practical book on radio
directories, standards, formulas, calculators, lists, and frequency interference with mitigation techniques. Some
“how-to” articles, compiled in easy-to-find formats. EMC theory.
 

https://learn.interferencetechnology.com/item-2021/
Bogatin,
2020 Europe EMC Guide Signal & Power Integrity - Simplified
This guide features technical articles, reference materials, Prentice-Hall, 2009 (2nd Edition). Great coverage of
a company directory, and a products and services list for signal and power integrity from a fields viewpoint.
 

more than 10 countries.
https://learn.interferencetechnology.com/2020-europe- Brander, et al,
emc-guide/ Trilogy of Magnetics - Design Guide for EMI Filter Design,
SMPS & RF Circuits
2020 EMC Fundamentals Guide Würth Electronik, 2010. A comprehensive compilation
The Fundamentals Guide keeps your project running of valuable design information and examples of filter,
smoothly by better understanding how to address EMI switch-mode power supply, and RF circuit design.  

and EMC in the early design phases.
https://learn.interferencetechnology.com/2020-emc- Goedbloed,
fundamentals-guide/ Electromagnetic Compatibility
Prentice-Hall, 1990. Good general text on EMC with
2019 Components & Materials Guide practical experiments. May be out of print.
This guide is updated with the most critical changes in
standards, upcoming events, new product distributors, Kimmel and Gerke,
and more as they relate to EMI shielding and filtering. Electromagnetic Compatibility in Medical Equipment
https://learn.interferencetechnology.com/2019- IEEE Press, 1995. Good general product design
components-and-materials-guide/ information.
 


André and Wyatt, Mardiguian,

EMI Troubleshooting Cookbook for Product Designers Controlling Radiated Emissions by Design
SciTech Publishing, 2014. Includes chapters on product Springer, 2016. Good content on product design for
design and EMC theory & measurement. A major part of compliance.
 

the content includes how to troubleshoot and mitigate all
common EMC test failures.
 
 Kunkel,
Shielding of Electromagnetic Waves, Theory and Practice
Archambeault, Springer. 2019. Provides efficient ways for design
PCB Design for Real-World EMI Control engineers to apply electromagnetic theory in shielding of
Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2002. electrical and electronic equipment.

Armstrong, Hall, Hall, and McCall,

EMC Design Techniques For Electronic Engineers High-Speed Digital System Design - A Handbook of
Armstrong/Nutwood Publications, 2010. A comprehensive Interconnect Theory and Design Practices
treatment of EMC theory and practical product design Wiley, 2000.
and measurement applications.
Joffe and Lock,
Armstrong, Grounds For Grounding
EMC For Printed Circuit Boards - Basic and Advanced Wiley, 2010. This huge book includes way more topics on
Design and Layout Techniques product design than the title suggests. Covers all aspects
Armstrong/Nutwood Publications, 2010. A comprehensive of grounding and shielding for products, systems, and
treatment of PC board layout for EMC compliance. facilities.

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 INTERFERENCE TECHNOLOGY

RECOMMENDED EMC BOOKS, MAGAZINES

AND JOURNALS
Johnson and Graham, Slattery and Skinner,
High-Speed Digital Design - A Handbook of Black Magic Platform Interference in Wireless Systems - Models,
Prentice-Hall, 1993. Practical coverage of high speed Measurement, and Mitigation
digital signals and measurement.
 
 Newnes Press, 2008. The first publication to publicize the
issue of self-interference to on-board wireless systems.
 

Johnson and Graham,
High-Speed Signal Propagation - Advanced Black Magic Smith,
Prentice-Hall, 2003. Practical coverage of high speed High Frequency Measurements and Noise in Electronic
digital signals and measurement.
 
 Circuits
Springer, 1993. A classic book on high frequency mea-
Ott, surements, probing techniques, and EMC troubleshoot-
Electromagnetic Compatibility Engineering ing measurements.
 

Wiley, 2009. The “bible” on EMC measurement, theory,
and product design.
 
 Smith and Bogatin,
Principles of Power Integrity for PDN Design - Simplified
Paul, Prentice-Hall, 2017. Getting the power distribution net-
Introduction to Electromagnetic Compatibility work (PDN) design right is the key to reducing EMI.  

Wiley, 2006 (2nd Edition). The one source to go to for an
upper-level course on EMC theory.
 
 Williams,
EMC For Product Designers
Mardiguian, Newnes, 2017. Completely updated text on product de-
EMI Troubleshooting Techniques sign for EMC compliance.
 

McGraw-Hill, 2000. Good coverage of EMI troubleshooting.
 

Weston,
Montrose, Electromagnetic Compatibility - Methods, Analysis,
EMC Made Simple Circuits, and Measurement
Montrose Compliance Services, 2014. The content CRC Press, 2017 (3rd Edition). A comprehensive text,
includes several important areas of EMC theory and encompassing both commercial and military EMC.
 

product design, troubleshooting, and measurement.
 

Witte,
Morrison, Spectrum and Network Measurements
Digital Circuit Boards - Mach 1 GHz (2nd edition), SciTech Publishing, 2014. The best text
Wiley, 2012. Important concepts of designing high around explaining the theory and usage of spectrum and
frequency circuit boards from a fields viewpoint.
 
 network analyzers.
 


Morrison, Wyatt and Jost,

Grounding And Shielding - Circuits and Interference Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) Pocket Guide
Wiley, 2016 (6th Edition). The classic text on grounding SciTech Publishing, 2013. A handy pocket-sized refer-
and shielding with up to date content on how RF energy ence guide to EMC.
 

flows through circuit boards.
 

Wyatt and Gruber,
Sandler, Radio Frequency (RFI) Pocket Guide
Power Integrity - Measuring, Optimizing, and Troubleshoot- SciTech Publishing, 2015. A handy pocket-sized refer-
ing Power Related Parameters in Electronics Systems ence guide to radio frequency interference.
McGraw-Hill, 2014. The latest information on measure-
ment and design of power distribution networks and how
the network affects stability and EMC.
 


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INDEX OF ADVERTISERS

F2 Labs Interference Technology LeaderTech

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LECTRIX Rohde & Schwarz USA, Inc. Schaffner EMC Inc.

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t: (484) 688-0300 t: (888) 837-8772 t: (800) 367-5566

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page: 49 page: 2 page: 9

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650 Jessie Street Max-Eyth-Str. 1
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t: (818) 764-8222 t: +49 7942 945 - 0

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www.interferencetechnology.com | 48 | Interference Technology Guide Series

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Problem First. Product Last.

Strategy | Content | Data | Technology

Digital Marketing for the B2B Electronics Industry

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