Theory of Structures

CHAPTER 1

1. Stability & Determinacy of Structures

1.1 Introduction
A structure refers to a system of connected parts used to support loads. The fundamental purpose
of a structure is to transmit loads from the point of application to the point of support and
through the foundations to the ground.

Before going into the analysis of any structure, it is necessary to identify its statical type
(classification), i.e., whether it is determinate or indeterminate, stable or unstable. An unstable
arrangement of supports and structural members should be avoided

All structures are subjected to loads from their functions and to other unavoidable loads.
Establishment of the loads that act on a structure is one of the most difficult and yet important
steps in the design process.

In this chapter; criteria for statically classification will be established and different structures will
be checked for stability and determinacy.

1.2 Stability of Structures

A stable structure is the one, which remains stable and can support any conceivable (imaginable)
system of applied loads. Therefore, we do not consider the types of loads, their number and their
points of application for deciding the stability or determinacy of the structure. Normally internal
and external stability of a structure should be checked separately and if it’s overall stable then
total degree of indeterminacy should be checked.

To ensure the equilibrium of a structure or its members, it is not only necessary to satisfy the
equations of equilibrium, but the members must also be properly held or, constrained by their
supports. In structural analysis, a structure is said to be stable when it can support any possible
system of applied loads.

Page 1
 Theory of Structures

A structure in which there are insufficient numbers of reactions to prevent motion from taking
place is called an unstable structure. This is external instability.

What matters is not only the number of support reactions but also their arrangement. Structures
for which the numbers of reaction components are greater than or equal to the number of
available equilibrium equations but that are unstable due to arrangement of these reaction
components are said to be geometrically unstable.

When the reaction elements are three or more like supports that are either parallel or concurrent,
they are not sufficient to maintain static equilibrium. For the case of parallel reactions, they will
offer no resistance to horizontal motion, thus making the arrangement unstable. The point of
intersection of the concurrent reactions becomes an instantaneous center of rotation and the
system is instantaneously unstable.

The stable fundamental element of a plane truss is a triangular arrangement of three members. A
truss may have internal instability if four members are used to form an element.

In conclusion, the stability of structures depends on the number and geometric arrangement of
reactions and structural members rather than on the strength of individual member or supports.
Despite the possibility that an unstable structure could become stable under a particular system
of applied loads, the structure is classified as an unstable structure.

A stable structure should have at least three reactive components, (which may not always be
sufficient) for external stability of a 2-D structure, which are non-concurrent and non-parallel.

Example of unstable structures

Page 2
 Theory of Structures

1.3 Determinacy of Structures

When all forces in a structure can be determined strictly from equilibrium equations, the
structure is referred to as statically determinate. Structures having more unknown forces than
available equilibrium equations are called statically indeterminate.

A statically indeterminate structure is one that cannot be analyzed by the equations of static
equilibrium alone. Indeterminacy is introduced in structures on account of functional
requirements, limitations on types of framing, need for stiffness and often by the nature of
inherent continuity introduced by the type of material used like reinforced concrete.

A structure is statically indeterminate when it possesses more members or is supported by more

reactive restraints than are strictly necessary for stability (and equilibrium). The excess members
or restraints are called redundant. The degree of indeterminacy is the number of unknowns in
excess of the available equilibrium equations. In the analysis of indeterminate structures,
therefore, ways of establishing additional equations must be sought. These additional equations
may be derived from compatibility of deformation or from conditions of symmetry. This
additional task would make the analysis of indeterminate structures more difficult than their
determinate counterparts.

Page 3
 Theory of Structures

Indeterminate structures have some advantages and disadvantages over determinate ones. One
obvious disadvantage is the computational difficulty involved when establishing the required
additional equations. Another disadvantage is that indeterminate structures will be stressed due
to differential settlement of supports, temperature changes and errors in fabrication of members.
On the other hand, however, indeterminate structures are stiffer and in the case of over loads
indeterminate structures can provide an advantage of redistribution of loads within the structure.

The indeterminacy of a structure can be external (with respect to reactions) or internal (with
respect to member forces). The question of identifying external or internal indeterminacy is
largely of academic interest. What is of primary importance is the total degree of indeterminacy,
Nevertheless, determining external and internal indeterminacy is desirable as a method to
evaluate the total degree of indeterminacy.

A structure is internally indeterminate when it is not possible to determine all internal forces by
using the equations of static equilibrium. For the great majority of structures, the question of
whether or not they are indeterminate can be decided by inspection. For certain structures this is
not so, and for these types rules have to be established. The internal indeterminacy of trusses will
be first considered, and then that of continuous frames.

1.4 Criteria for Stability and Determinacy of Structures-Trusses, Beams and Frames
Internal stability of structures and determining which conditions exist in a given case need
experience, especially for trusses. In some cases, the structure is different from what our
mathematical criteria tell us. Therefore, stability of trusses is most easily settled by inspection.
It is convenient to consider stability and determinacy of structures as follows.
a) With respect to reactions, i.e. external stability and determinacy.
b) With respect to members, i.e. internal stability and determinacy.
c) A combination of external and internal conditions, i.e. overall stability and determinacy.

1.4.1 Beams

Page 4
 Theory of Structures

A beam is a structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by resisting

bending.
The bending force induced into the material of the beam as a result of the external loads, own
weight and external reactions to these loads is called a bending moment. Beams generally carry
vertical gravitational forces but can also be used to carry horizontal loads (i.e., loads due to an
earthquake or wind).

 Stability depends on external supports

 Determinacy relates on the number of available and conditional equations.
- ra < r; structure is statically unstable
- ra = r; structure is statically determinate
- ra > r; structure is statically indeterminate
where:
ra is the available number of reaction components
r is the minimum number of reaction components required for stability, usually 3+n
n is the number of special/ conditional equation
Remark: r = 3 is not a sufficient condition for stability.

1.4.2 Trusses
A simple truss can be made by combining three bars to form a triangle. Stability depends partly
on external supports and partly on the arrangement of members or bars. Three reaction
components are required for external stability and determinacy of a plane truss without condition
equations.

1.4.2.1 External classification

The external statically classification of the structure depends on the total number of reaction
components, ra and their arrangement. Therefore, the following criteria hold true:
- ra < r; structure is statically unstable externally
- ra = r; structure is statically determinate externally
- ra > r; structure is statically indeterminate externally
where

Page 5
 Theory of Structures

ra is the available number of reaction components

r is the minimum number of reaction components required for external stability, usually 3+n
n is the number of special/ conditional equation
The condition for ra ≥ r is necessary but not sufficient conditions for statical classification
because the arrangement of the reaction components may render the truss unstable.

1.4.2.2 Internal classification

For internal classification, in addition to the above definition for r; let m be the total number of
bars and j the total number of joints. Then
2j = m + r
The above equation can be rewritten as: m = 2j – r
In this form, m is the number of members required to form an internally statically determinate
truss that connects j joints and has r reaction components required for external stability. If ma is
the actual number of bar forces in the truss, then the following criteria hold true for internal
classification.

- ma < m; truss is statically unstable internally

- ma = m; truss is statically determinate internally
- ma > m; truss is statically indeterminate internally

1.4.3 Frames
Frames are composed of continuous members and rigidly connected joints, the degree of
indeterminacy (DI) is determined as the difference of the total number of unknown reaction
components and the number of static equilibrium equations available. Stability depends partly on
external supports and partly on moment resisting joints.

1.4.3.1 External classification

The external statical classification of the structure depends on the total number of reaction
components, ra and their arrangement. Therefore, the following criteria hold true:
- ra < r; structure is statically unstable externally
- ra = r; structure is statically determinate externally

Page 6
 Theory of Structures

- ra > r; structure is statically indeterminate externally

where
ra is the available number of reaction components
r is the minimum number of reaction components required for external stability, usually 3+n
n is the number of special/ conditional equation
Note: ra ≥ r is necessary but not sufficient conditions for statically classification because the
arrangement of the reaction components may render the frame unstable.

1.4.3.2 Internal classification

(3 ma + r) < (3j + n);
Let ma = the actual number of members
r = the minimum number of independent reaction components required for external stability
j = the total number joints
n = number of special/condition equations
Therefore, 3 ma + r = the number of unknowns
3j+n = the number of available equations
Then the following criteria hold true for internal classification of frames
- (3ma + r) < (3j + n); structure is statically unstable
- (3ma + r) = (3j + n); structure is statically determinate
- (3ma + r) > (3j + n); structure is statically indeterminate
Overall classification
The criterion already established for both trusses and frames hold also for investigation of overall
effect. To determine the overall classification of a frame, in the above expressions replace r by ra.
Note. The number of conditional equation introduced by a hinge joint is equal to the number of
members at the joint minus one.

Page 7
 Theory of Structures

CHAPTER 2

2.1 Introduction

All structures are subjected to loads from their function and due to other unavoidable
circumstances. Establishment of the loads that act on a structure is one of the most difficult and
important steps in the design process.

The loads that act on a structure can be classified into three categories: dead loads, live loads and
environmental loads. Because the method of analysis is the same for each category of loading,
all loads can be combined before analysis is performed. However, separate analyses are usually
carried out to facilitate the consideration of various load combinations.

Different types of loads that may come on structures during their life period and their
combination for design will be discussed in this chapter.

Furthermore, loads can be classified based on:

 Direction: - The loads are broadly classified as vertical loads, horizontal loads and
longitudinal loads. The vertical loads consist of dead load, live load and impact load. The
horizontal loads comprise of wind load and earthquake load. The longitudinal loads i.e.
tractive and braking forces are considered in special case of design of bridges, gantry
girders etc.
 Variation with time: - dead load (permanent) and Live Loads (temporary)
 Structural Response: - Static (loads applied gradually) and dynamic (loads applied
over a short period of time and vary in magnitude with time)

Terms relating to actions

 Permanent actions (G), e.g. self-weight of structures, fixed equipment and road
surfacing, and indirect actions caused by shrinkage and uneven settlements;
 Variable actions (Q), e.g. imposed loads on building floors, beams and roofs, wind
actions or snow loads;
 Accidental actions (A), e.g. fire, explosions, or impact from vehicles.
 Seismic action (AE), action that arises due to earthquake ground motions.

Page 8
 Theory of Structures

2.1 Dead loads

Dead loads are those that act on the structure as a result of the weight of the structure itself and
of the components of the system that are permanent fixtures. As a result, dead loads are
characterized as having fixed magnitudes and positions. Examples of dead loads are the weights
of the structural members themselves, such as beams and columns, the weights of roof surfaces,
floor slabs, ceilings, or permanent partitions, fixed permanent equipments, weight of different
materials and soon.

The dead loads associated with the structure can be determined if the materials and sizes of the
various components are known. Nominal density of construction materials and nominal density
for stored materials are listed in Tables A-1 to A-12 of ES - EN 1991-1-1:2015.

Some values of density of construction materials are given in Table 2.1 below. Refer ES - EN
1991-1-1:2015 (Actions on Structures Part 1:1 General Actions-Densities, self-weight, imposed
loads for buildings).
Table 2.1: Density of construction materials
Materials Density (kN/m3)
Concrete 25.0
Metals
Steel 77.0–78.5
Aluminium 27.0
Natural stone
Basaltic 27.0-31.0
Granite 27.0-30.0
Trachyte 26.0
Mortal
Cement mortal 19.0–23.0
Lime cement mortal 18.0-20.0

Soft wood 5.0

Glass 22.0

Page 9
 Theory of Structures

2.2 Live loads

In a general sense, live loads are considered to include all loads on the structure that are not
classified as dead loads, including environmental loads, such as snow loads or wind loads.
However, it has become common to narrow the definition of live loads to include only loads that
are produced through the construction, use, or occupancy of the structure and not to include
environmental loads.

These loads are dynamic in character in that they vary both in magnitude and position. Live
loads where the dynamic nature has significance because of the rapidity with which change in
position occurs are called moving loads, whereas live loads in which change occurs over an
extended period of time, or where there is the potential for change whether exercised or not, are
referred to as movable loads. Moving loads include vehicular loads on bridges or crane loads in
industrial buildings. Another type of live load is a variable load or a time dependent load-that is,
one whose magnitude changes with time, such as a load induced through the operation of
machinery.

2.2.1 Occupancy live loads

Occupancy live loads for buildings are usually specified in terms of the minimum values that
must be used for design purposes. For areas which are intended to be subjected to different
categories of loadings the design shall consider the most critical load case.

Areas in residential, social, commercial and administration buildings shall be divided into
categories according to their specific uses are listed in Table 6.1 of ES - EN 1991 1-1:2015. The
categories of loaded areas shall be designed by using characteristic values q k (uniformly
distributed load) and Qk (concentrated load). Some representative values for qk and Qk are given
in Table 2.2 below.

Page 10
 Theory of Structures

Table 2.2: Imposed loads on floors

Uniformly Concentrated
Categories of loaded areas distributed Load (kN)
load (kN/m2)

Rooms in residential buildings and houses; Bedrooms 1.5-2.0 2.0-3.0

and wards in hospitals; bedrooms in hotels and hostels
kitchens and toilets.
Areas with tables, etc. e.g. areas in schools, cafés, 2.0-3.0 3.0-4.0
restaurants, dining halls, reading rooms, receptions.
Areas with fixed seats, e.g. areas in churches, theatres 3.0-4.0 2.5-7.0
or cinemas, Conference rooms, lecture halls, assembly
halls, waiting rooms, railway waiting rooms.
Areas with possible physical activities, e.g. dance halls, 4.5-5.0 3.5-7.0
gymnastic rooms, stages.

2.2.2 Traffic Loads for Bridges

Bridges must be designed to support the vehicular loads associated with their functional use and
minimum loads are mandated for designed purposes. Live loads due to vehicular traffic on
highway bridges are specified by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials (AASHTO) in the Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges and Bridge Design
Manuals. The approach is to specify the weights and spacing of axles and wheels for a design
truck, a design tandem, and the design lane load. These loadings provide for a set of concentrated
loads (which represent a truck type loading) and a uniform load (which simulates a line of
vehicles).

2.2.3 Impact loads

Loads that are applied over a very short period of time have a greater effect on the structure than
would occur if the same loads were applied statically. The manner in which a load varies with
time and the time over which the full load is placed on the structure will determine the factor by
which the static response should be increased to obtain the dynamic response. For building

Page 11
 Theory of Structures

occupancy loads, the minimum design loads normally include adequate allowance for ordinary
impact conditions. However, provisions must be made in the structural design for uses and loads
that involve unusual vibrations and impact forces. One situation in which an impact effect (IM is
defined as the dynamic load allowance) is applied for moving vehicular loads on a highway
bridge.

2.3 Environmental loads

Structures experience numerous loading conditions as a result of the environment in which they
exist. These are snow and ice loads, roof loads, wind loads and earthquake Loads.

2.3.1 Snow and Ice Loads

The procedure for establishing the static snow loads on a building is normally based on ground
snow loads and an appropriate ground-to-roof conversion.

The distribution of snow on a roof is complex, and many different approaches are used. Factors
considered in calculating snow and ice loads are location, exposure factor, thermal factor, the
effects of unloaded portions of roof, unbalanced or non-uniform loads on various roof
configurations, drifting, sliding snow, and extra loads induced by rain on snow.

2.3.2 Rain Loads

Roof loads that result from the accumulation of rainwater on flat roofs can be a serious problem.
This condition is produced by the ponding that occurs when the water accumulates faster than it
runs off, either because of the intensity of the rainfall or because of the inadequacy or blockage
of the drainage system. The real danger is that as ponding occurs the roof deflects into a dished
configuration, which can accommodate more water, and thus greater loads result.

The best way to prevent the problem is to provide a modest slope to the roof (0.25 in. per ft or
2cm. per m or more) and to design an adequate drainage system. In addition to the primary
drainage, there should be a secondary system to preclude the accumulation of standing water
above a certain level.

Page 12
 Theory of Structures

2.3.3 Wind Loads

The wind loads that act on a structure result from movement of the air against the obstructing
surfaces. Wind effects induce forces, vibrations, and in some cases instabilities in the overall
structure as well as its non-structural components. The effect of the wind on the structure (i.e. the
response of the structure), depends on the wind speed, mass density of the air, location and
geometry of the structure, and vibrational characteristics of the system.

Wind Pressure on Surfaces according to ES - EN 1991 1-4:2015

The basic wind velocity shall be calculated from Expression (4.1). (ES – EN 1991 1-4:2015
Wind actions)

Peak velocity pressure

The peak velocity pressure, qe (z) at height Z, includes mean and short-term velocity fluctuations
and depends on wind turbulence and mean wind velocity. The recommended rule is given by;
qe (z) = Ce(z). qb
Ce(z) : is the exposure factor and illustrated in Figure 4.2 of ES - EN 1991 1-4:2015 as a function
of height above terrain and a function of terrain category. Terrain categories are given in Table
4.1 of ES - EN 1991 1-4:2015.

Page 13
 Theory of Structures

Where: : is the air density, which depends on the altitude, temperature and barometric pressure to be
expected in the region during wind. The recommended value is 1.25 kg/m3.

Figure 2.1: Illustrations of the exposure factor Ce(z) for Co(z)=1 and a function of terrain category

Page 14
 Theory of Structures

Table 3.3: Terrain categories

Terrain Category
Category 0 Sea or coastal area exposed to the open sea
Category I Lakes or flat and horizontal area with negligible vegetation
and without obstacles
Category II Area with low vegetation such as grass and isolated obstacles
(trees, buildings) with separations of at least 20 obstacle
height
Category III Area with regular cover of vegetation or buildings or with
isolated obstacles with separations of maximum 20 obstacle
heights (such as villages, suburban terrain, permanent forest)
Category IV Area in which at least 15 % of the surface is covered with
buildings and their average height exceeds 15 m

Wind Pressure on Surfaces

The wind pressure acting on the external surfaces We is given by:

We = qp(ze) Cpe
Where
qp(z) is the peak velocity pressure
ze is the reference height for the external pressure
Cpe is the pressure coefficient for the external pressure

The wind pressure acting on the internal surfaces Wi is given by:

Wi = qp(zi) Cpi

Where
qp(z) is the peak velocity pressure
zi is the reference height for the internal pressure
Cpi is the pressure coefficient for the internal pressure

Page 15
 Theory of Structures

Pressure coefficient for buildings

External pressure coefficient: The external pressure coefficients Cpe for buildings and parts of
buildings depend on the size of the loaded area A, which is the area of the structure that produces
the wind action in the section to be calculated. The external pressure coefficients are given for
loaded areas A of 1 m2 and 10 m2 in the tables for the appropriate building configurations as
Cpe,1, for local coefficients, and Cpe,10, for overall coefficients, respectively.

Values of external pressure coefficients Cpe for different cases are given in Tables 7.1 to 7.5 of
ES - EN 1991 1-4:2015.

Internal pressure coefficient: The internal pressure coefficient, cpi depends on the size and
distribution of the openings in the building envelope. For a building with a dominant face the
internal pressure should be taken as a fraction of the external pressure at the openings of the
dominant face. The values given by
 When the area of the openings at the dominant face is twice the area of the openings in
the remaining faces, Cpi = 0.75 Cpe
 When the area of the openings at the dominant face is at least 3 times the area of the
openings in the remaining faces, Cpi = 0.9 Cpe
Internal and external pressures shall be considered to act at the same time. The worst
combination of external and internal pressures shall be considered for every combination of
possible openings and other leakage paths.

2.3.4 Earthquake Loads

A common dynamic loading that structures must resist is that associated with earthquake
motions. Here, loads are not applied to the structure in the normal fashion. Instead, the base of

Page 16
 Theory of Structures

the structure is subjected to a sudden movement. Since the upper portion of the structure resists
motion because of its inertia, a deformation is induced in the structure. This deformation, in turn,
induces a horizontal vibration that causes horizontal shear forces throughout the structure.

It results from the acceleration of the supporting earth. Movement of the ground during EQ in the
direction parallel to the ground surface has the most damaging effect on structures. The resulting
earthquake loads are dependent on the nature of the ground movement and the inertia response
characteristics of the structure. The computation of lateral loads due to EQ and load distribution
to various levels of a building frame as of ES-EN 1998-1:2015 (Design of structures for
Earthquake Resistance) is presented below.

Methods of analysis:
Depending on the structural characteristics of the building one of the following methods of
analysis may be used:
1. linear-elastic analysis
 Equivalent lateral force method of analysis - for buildings meeting the conditions given
in 4.3.3.2 of ES-EN 1998-1:2015;
 modal response spectrum analysis - which is applicable to all types of buildings
2. Non-linear method
 non-linear static (pushover) analysis
 non-linear time history (dynamic) analysis
Using equivalent lateral force method of analysis, the seismic base shear force Fb, for each
horizontal direction in which the building is analyzed, shall be determined using the following
expression:

Fb = Sd (T1).m

where
Fb is the total lateral load on the structure (seismic base shear)
Sd (T1) is the ordinate of the design spectrum at period T1;
T1 is the fundamental period of vibration of the building for lateral motion in the

Page 17
 Theory of Structures

direction considered;
m is the total mass of the building, above the foundation or above the top of a
rigid basement;
is the correction factor, the value of which is equal to: = 0.85 if T1 < 2TC and the building has
more than two storeys, or = 1.0 otherwise.
For buildings with heights of up to 40 m the value of T1 (in sec) may be approximated by:
T1 = C1H3/4

Where: H: is the height of the building, in m, from the foundation or from the top of a rigid
basement.

For the horizontal components of the seismic action, the design spectrum, Sd(T) is defined by

Page 18
 Theory of Structures

where
T is the vibration period of a linear single-degree-of-freedom system;
ag is the design ground acceleration on type A ground (ag = γI.agR);
γI is the importance factor
agR is reference peak ground acceleration on type A ground
TB is the lower limit of the period of the constant spectral acceleration branch;
TC is the upper limit of the period of the constant spectral acceleration branch;
TD is the value defining the beginning of the constant displacement response range of the
spectrum;
S is the soil factor;
Q is the behaviour factor;
is the lower bound factor for the horizontal design spectrum (the recommended value is 0.2).
The values of the periods TB, TC and TD and the soil factor S describing the shape of the elastic
response spectrum depend upon the ground type. Ground types (A, B, C, D and E) are described
by the stratigraphic profiles and parameters given in Table 3.1 of ES - EN 1998-1:2015.

Table 2.4: Ground types

Ground types Description of stratigraphic profile
A Rock or other rock-like geological formation, including at most 5 m
of weaker material at the surface.
B Deposits of very dense sand, gravel, or very stiff clay, at least several
tens of meters in thickness, characterized by a gradual increase of
mechanical properties with depth.
C Deep deposits of dense or medium dense sand, gravel or stiff clay
with thickness from several tens to many hundreds of meters.
D Deposits of loose-to-medium cohesion less soil (with or without some
soft cohesive layers), or of predominantly soft-to-firm cohesive soil.
E

E A soil profile consisting of a surface alluvium layer with Vs values of

type C or D and thickness varying between about 5 m and 20 m,
underlain by stiffer material with Vs > 800 m/s.

Recommended values of the parameters S, TB, TC and TD for the different ground types and type
(shape) of spectrum (Type 1 and Type 2 Spectra) are given in Table 3.2 and Table 3.3 of ES-EN

Page 19
 Theory of Structures

1998-1:2015.

Table 2.5: Recommended Values of the parameters for Type 1 spectra

Ground types S TB (s) TC (s) TD (s)

A 1.0 0.05 0.25 1.2

B 1.35 0.05 0.25 1.2
C 1.5 0.1 0.25 1.2
D 1.8 0.1 0.3 1.2
E 1.6 0.05 0.25 1.2

Importance factors: Buildings are classified in 4 importance classes, depending on the

consequences of collapse for human life, on their importance for public safety and civil
protection in the immediate post-earthquake period, and on the social and economic
consequences of collapse. Importance classes and importance factors (γI) are described in the
following Table 2.6.

Table 2.6: Importance classes for buildings

Importance Buildings Importance factor
class
I Buildings of minor importance for public safety, e.g. 0.8
agricultural buildings, etc.
II Ordinary buildings, not belonging in the other 1
categories.
III Buildings whose seismic resistance is of importance 1.2
in view of the consequences associated with a
collapse, e.g. schools, assembly halls, cultural
institutions etc.
IV Buildings whose integrity during earthquakes is of 1.4
vital importance for civil protection, e.g. hospitals,
fire stations, power plants, etc.
The behavior factor q, account for energy dissipation capacity, shall be derived for each design
direction as follows:
q = qokw 1.5

Page 20
 Theory of Structures

Where
qo is the basic value of the behavior factor, dependent on the type of the structural system and on
its regularity in elevation
kw is the factor reflecting the prevailing failure mode in structural systems with walls

For buildings that are regular in elevation, the basic values of o q for the various structural types
are given in Table 5.1 of ES - EN 1998-1:2015

Table 2.7: basic value of the behavior factor, o q , for systems regular in elevation

STRUCTURAL TYPE DCM DCH

Frame system, dual system, coupled
wall system
Uncoupled wall system 3.0
Torsionally flexible system 2.0 3.0
Inverted pendulum system 1.5 2.0

For buildings which are not regular in elevation, the value of qo should be reduced by 20%
Frames, or frame-equivalent dual systems.

Page 21
 Theory of Structures

Systems of large lightly reinforced walls cannot rely on energy dissipation in plastic hinges and
so should be designed as DCM structures.

The seismic hazard map is divided in to 5 zones, where the ratio of the design bedrock
acceleration to the acceleration of gravity g = for the respective zones indicated in the
following Table 2.8.

Table 2.8: Bedrock acceleration Ratio

Zone 5 4 3 2 1 0
= /g 0.20 0.15 0.1 0.07 0.04 0

Table 2.9: Seismic hazard zonation for some selected Towns

Seismic 5 4 3 2 1 0
zone
Towns Afdera, Adigrat,Alaba, Akaki, Adwa, Agaro,Ambo, Adi-Arkay, Ataye,
Dubti,Asaita, Alamata, Arisi- Axum, Jimma,Arek, Bahirdar, Assosa,
Menz – Adama, Negele,Dila, Kebri Merhabete D/markos,Asendabo
Mama Awassa, A.A,Aleltu Beyah,
Midir Kemise, Aleta- Holeta,Maji
Jijiga,D/berhan wondo,
Kombolcha

Distribution of the horizontal seismic forces

The fundamental mode shapes in the horizontal directions of analysis of the building may be
calculated using methods of structural dynamics or may be approximated by horizontal
displacements increasing linearly along the height of the building.

When the fundamental mode shape is approximated by horizontal displacements increasing

linearly along the height, the horizontal forces Fi should be taken as being given by:

Page 22
 Theory of Structures

Where
zi zj are the heights of the masses mi mj above the level of application of the seismic action
(foundation or top of a rigid basement).

The horizontal forces Fi determined in accordance with this clause shall be distributed to the
lateral load resisting system assuming the floors are rigid in their plane.

2.4 Hydrostatic and Soil Pressures

Structures used to retain water, such as dams and tanks, as well as coastal structures partially or
fully submerged in water must be designed to resist hydrostatic pressure. Hydrostatic pressure
acts normal to the submerged surface of the structure, with its magnitude varying linearly with
height. The pressure at a point located at a distance h below the surface of the liquid is given as:
p = h, which, unit weight of the liquid.

Underground structures, basement walls and floors, and retaining walls must be designed to
resist soil pressure. Similarly, the vertical soil pressure is given by p = h, which , unit weight
of the soil.

Page 23
 Theory of Structures

2.5 Load Combinations

To estimate the magnitudes of the design loads, it is necessary to consider the possibility that
some of these loads might act simultaneously on the structure. The structure is finally designed
so that it will be able to withstand the most unfavorable combination of loads that is likely to
occur in its lifetime. For each critical load case, the design values of the effects of actions (Ed)
shall be determined by combining the values of actions that are considered to occur
simultaneously. The minimum design loads and the load combinations for which the structures
must be designed are usually specified in building codes. [Refer ES - EN 1990:2015 Basis of
Structural Design].
Basic requirements
A structure shall be designed and executed in such a way that it will, during its intended life,
with appropriate degrees of reliability and in an economical way.
 Sustain all actions and influences likely to occur during execution and use, and
 Remain fit for the use for which it is required.

A structure shall be designed to have adequate

 structural resistance,
 serviceability, and
 durability

Ultimate Design Load

The ultimate design load acting on a member will be the summation of the relevant characteristic
load combinations multiplied by their respective partial safety factors. Thus, the ultimate design
load for the combination of dead and imposed loads will be expressed as follows.
Partial Safety Factors for Load
In practice the applied load may be greater than the characteristic load for any of the following
reasons:
a. Calculation errors
b. Constructional inaccuracies
c. Unforeseen increases in load (the unfavorable deviation of loads from their nominal values)

Page 24
 Theory of Structures

To allow for these the respective characteristic loads are multiplied by a partial safety factor
to give the ultimate design load appropriate to the limit state being considered. That is,
Ultimate design load = x characteristic load
Load combinations depend on the design philosophy adopted.

Ultimate limit states

The limit states that concern:
 the safety of people, and/or
 the safety of the structure

Serviceability limit states

The limit states that concern:
 the functioning of the structure or structural members under normal use;
 the comfort of people;
 the appearance of the construction works,
Load Combinations for Serviceability Limit States (SLS)
The combinations of actions to be taken into account in the relevant design situations should be
appropriate for the serviceability requirements and performance criteria being verified. The

Page 25
 Theory of Structures

combinations of actions for serviceability limit states are defined symbolically by the following
expressions. [See section 6.5.4 of ES - EN 1990:2015: Basis of Structural Design]

The final design of a structure must be consistent with the most critical combination of loads that
the structure is to support. However, some judgment is necessary in selecting loading conditions
that can reasonably be combined. Obviously, the maximum effects of all loading conditions
should not be combined because it is unlikely that they will all occur simultaneously.

Page 26