1.2 Computer Aided Design and Analysis - www.airwalkbooks.

com

CAD can also be defined as the use of computer systems to assist in

the creation, modification, analysis (or) optimization of a design.
Modern CAD systems are based on Interactive Computer Graphics
(ICG). It denotes a user oriented system in which the computer is employed
to create, transform and display data in the form of pictures or symbols. The
user is the designer who communicates data and commands to the computer
through input devices.
Why should we go for CAD?
There are four fundamental reasons for implementing the CAD system,
which are as follows.
(i) To increase the productivity of the designer.
(ii) To improve the quality of the design.
(iii) To improve communications.
(iv) To create a database for manufacturing.
1. To increase the productivity of the designer
The product and its components, subassemblies and parts can be
visualized quickly by the designer using CAD. Time for synthesis, analysis
and documentation of the design will be reduced. Even it reduces design time
and cost.
2. To improve the quality of design
Without any error, quick alterations can be made in the design with
the help of CAD. Also inbuilt features help to check for any calculation errors
and lead to better quality and accuracy of design.
3. To improve communications
Better documentation of the design, fewer drawing errors with greater
legibility will be provided by CAD.

4. To create database for engineering.

The product geometries and dimensions, bill of materials, etc., with a
design database can be created which are essential input for manufacturing
of the product.
 CAD 1.3

1.2 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS

The essential technological foundation for CAD is Interactive Computer
Graphics and hence its evolution has been largely related to the developments
in computer graphics.
The development of the Automatically Programmed Tools (APT)
language, in 1950s, at MIT ( Massachusetts Institute of Technology) was one
of the significant initial projects in computer graphics. The project was
concerned with developing a convenient way to define geometry elements for
NC part programming using the computer.
In the late 1950s, the idea for a light pen came about during a research
on the processing of radar data for a defence project called SAGE
(Semi-Automatic Ground Environment System). The concept was to use the
light pen to identify a particular sector of the CRT screen to save time in
displaying.
Then in 1960s, ‘sketch pad’ was developed by Ivan Sutherland at MIT.
The project was one of the first to demonstrate the creation and manipulation
of images on a CRT screen, in real time.
Afterwards, many large industrial concerns like General Motors, IBM,
McDonell, etc were involved in projects in computer graphics. Also several
CAD/CAM system vendors (like Catma in 1968, Application and Computer
Vision in 1969) turned up to sell ‘turnkey’ systems. These systems included
most of the hardware and software components needed by the user. Some
vendor firms, like MCS, become specialised in computer graphics software.
One such popular software was AD2000, whose later version is ANVIL 4000.

1.3 INDUSTRIAL LOOK AT CAD

In the past few decades, rapid development had taken place in science
and technologies such as micro electronics, computers, automation,
telecommunications and networks.
Due to the rapid changes in market demand and global economic
competition, the manufacturing industry faces the challenges of network,
knowledgeable services and complexity. These issues are difficult to handle
through traditional operation modes and control strategies.
1.4 Computer Aided Design and Analysis - www.airwalkbooks.com

As such, the manufacturing industry is also developing in the direction

of automation, integration, network and globalization. So, high-end
technologies are being widely employed in many manufacturing systems to
associate with various product development activities such as marketing
design, process planning, production, customer service and others, distributed
at various locations into an integrated environment.

1.4 COMPARISON OF CAD WITH TRADITIONAL DESIGNING

Traditionally, engineering design has been accomplished on drawing boards,
with the design being documented in the form of detailed engineering drawings.
Documentation is required in all engineering design fields such as mechanical
design, electrical design, structural design, chemical engineering design, etc.
Traditional designing approach has been to synthesize a preliminary design
manually and then subject that design to some form of analysis. The analysis
may involve either complex engineering calculations or a subjective judgement
of the aesthetic appeal possessed by the design. This procedure identifies certain
improvement in the design with each iteration. This approach requires many
engineering labour hours and is therefore highly time consuming.
Traditional Designing CAD
(i) Particularly in architectural In CAD program, the designer can
drawing, repetition of identical create a single window or other
component is sometimes required, feature, then replicate it as many
which again has to be drawn in case times as necessary.
of traditional designing.
(ii) It is very difficult to achieve Higher accuracy in designing can be
higher accuracy while drawing by obtained by using Computer Aided
hand in case of traditional designing. Designing system.
(iii) This approach requires many CAD approach doesnot need much
engineering labour hours and is time for designing as compared to
therefore highly time consuming traditional designing.
(iv) In traditional designing, the In CAD, the user only needs to
whole object is created on paper indicate specific points, locations and
using a chosen drawing tool like the measurements in the drawing space,
pencil and ruler. then the computer generates or draws
the objects on its own.
 CAD 1.5

The problems of the traditional engineering approach can be overcome

by the application of computers to the designing process i.e computer aided
design.

1.5 APPLICATION OF COMPUTERS IN DESIGN

The use of computers in the design process is illustrated in the Fig. 1.1.

Tra ditio n al C o m p u ter

D e sign P ro cess A ide d D esig n

R e co gn itio n O f
N e ed

P ro blem
D e fin ition

G eo m etric
S ynthe s is
M od elin g

A n alys is A nd E n gine ering

O ptim iza tio n A n alys is

D e sign R e view
E valua tion
A n d E valu a tio n

A u to m a te d
P re sen tatio n D ra fting

Fig. 1.1 A p plication of C om pu ter to th e D esign Pro cess

1.6 Computer Aided Design and Analysis - www.airwalkbooks.com

From Fig.1.1, we can infer the various design related tasks performed
by the CAD system. They are
 Geometric Modelling
 Engineering analysis
 Design review and evaluation
 Automated drafting

1. Geometric Modelling
The mathematical description of the geometry of an object using a
software is called as Geometric Modelling. It provides a means of representing
part geometry in a graphical form. It allows the image of the object to be
displayed as well as manipulated on a graphical screen. Also the image can be
stored in memory and retrieved back to display on the screen whenever required.
To create the graphical image of the object on the screen, three types
of commands are given as input by the designer. These commands perform
the following functions.
 Generation of basic geometric elements like points, lines and
circles.
 Transformation of these elements like scaling, rotation, etc, and
 Joining the various elements into the desired shape of the object.

2. Engineering Analysis
 Some type of analysis is required in the formulation of nearly any
Engineering design project.
 The analysis may involve stress-strain calculations, heat transfer or
use of differential equations to describe the dynamic behaviour of
the system being designed.
 CAD/CAM systems often include engineering analysis software
which can be called to operate on the current design model.

Example:
1. Analysis of mass properties
2. Finite element analysis
 CAD 1.7

3. Design, Review and Evaluation

 Checking the accuracy of the design can be accomplished
conveniently on the graphics terminal.
 A procedure called layering is often helpful in design review.
Example: A good application of layering involves overlaying the geometric
image of the final shape of the machined part on the top of the image in the
rough casting.
 Another procedure for design review is interference checking.

4. Automated drafting
 It involves the creation of hardcopy engineering drawings directly
from the CAD database.
 CAD systems can increase productivity in the drafting function by
more than 5 times of manual drafting.
 This feature includes automatic drawing, hatched areas, scaling,
zoom, etc.
It is important that the geometric model created should be as
comprehensive and clear as possible so that the other modules of the
manufacturing system are able to use this information in the most optimal
way.

1.6 ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS OF CAD

The CAD system is extensively used in mechanical engineering and
manufacturing industries. CAD increases productivity of designer through the
visualization of components/assemblies. The engineering applications of
computer aided design (CAD) are shown in Table 1.1.
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Table 1.1 Applications of CAD

S.No. Applications Detail
1. Structural design of Aircraft CAD analyzes the turbulent flow
pattern in aerospace structures
2. Aircraft simulation The complex situation during the
flight can be simulated in flight
simulator using the CAD software,
which avoids lengthy delay, saves fuel
cost and provides better than pilots.
3. Real time simulation It is possible to study the real-time
behaviour and inspection of critical
parts subjected to repeated stresses
due to mechanical loading.
4. Automobile industries CAD provides various types of space
curves for the aerodynamic design of
automobile surfaces.
5. Architectural design CAD has tremendous scope in
architectural design of bridges,
buildings, structures, etc. It is possible
to estimate the building materials
requirements for a similar design with
different design parameters.
6. Pipe routing and plan layout CAD Design optimizes the pipe layout
design and plant layout in chemical plants.
7. Electronic industries CAD is applicable in the design of
Integrated circuits and printed circuit
board design used in electronic
equipment/machines.
8. Dynamic analysis of CAD design is useful for estimating
mechanical systems the dynamic forces, reactive forces of
mechanical systems at various time
intervals.
 CAD 1.9

S.No. Applications Detail

9. Kinematic analysis Similar to dynamic force analysis,
CAD estimates the kinematic
quantities such as displacement,
velocity and acceleration of various
links for different configurations of
the mechanism.
10. Mesh data preparation for The input data for FEA of a structure
finite element analysis consists of geometrical and
mechanical properties, loading and
boundary conditions, CAD system
generates the best mesh data suitable
to a particular problem. It is possible
to represent data graphically to
quickly guess the results.
1.7 BASICS OF GEOMETRIC AND SOLID MODELLING
Elaborate explanations are given in Chapter 3 (3.10 - Page. 3.43)
There are different methods of representing the object in geometric
modelling. The three basic methods are:
 Wireframe modelling
 Surface modelling
 Solid modelling.
In wireframe modelling, the object is displayed by interconnecting
lines.
When the object is represented by surfaces, it is called surface
modelling. Here objects are clearly viewed but no data is available about the
interior of the object.
Solid modelling is the most advanced geometric modelling which uses
solid geometry shapes called primitives to construct the object.

Advantages of Solid Modelling

 Mass properties such as area, volume, weight, center of gravity
and moment of inertia of physical model can be calculated quickly.
1.10 Computer Aided Design and Analysis - www.airwalkbooks.com

 Solid Modelling is useful for FEA (Finite Element Analysis)

 NC machining instructions can be produced automatically
 Aesthetic look of finished object can be visualized in the computer
screen with color shading and highlighting facilities available in
solid modelers.
 Different views of the object can be viewed like isometric,
perspective and orthogonal views.

1.8 PACKAGES FOR CAD/CAM/CAE/CAPP

Many number of softwares are being used in different industries for
CAD/CAM/CAE/CAPP. These softwares are being used on large scale basis
by a number of engineering professionals and firms for various applications.
The most common application of CAD software is designing and
drafting. Some of the CAD softwares commonly used are
 Auto CAD LT,
 Solid works,
 MATLAB,
 CATIA etc.
 Some of the benefits of using CAD software are as follows:
(i) Increase in productivity of design.
(ii) Improvement in quality of the design.
(iii) Better documentation of the design etc.
Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) means using of machines that
are controlled by computers.
Various CAM softwares are used across all sectors of industry due to
the following benefits.
(i) Greater Accuracy
(ii) Higher Speed of Machining
(iii) Greater consistency and efficiency etc.
 CAD 1.11

Some of the examples of CAM softwares are

 Siemens NX,
 Topsolid,
 PowerMILL,
 SolidCAM,
 WorkNC etc.
CAE (Computer-Aided Engineering) includes Finite Element Analysis
(FEA), Computational Fluid Dynamics, Multibody Dynamics and
Optimization Capabilities. CAE softwares enables users to simulate, validate
and optimize products and manufacturing tools. Some of the commonly used
CAE softwares are
 MATLAB,
 Mathematical,
 SimEvents,
 Simulink,
 Hyperworks etc.
CAPP (Computer Aided Process Planning) is the use of computer
technology to aid in the process planning of a part or product in
manufacturing LISP is a functional programming language and it offers
flexibility in writing rules so that it can use logical programming language.

1.9 HARDWARE IN CAD COMPONENTS

The term ‘hardware’ is used to cover all those pieces of equipment,
which are used to implement computer programs. The following elements
make up the CAD hardware.
(i) Central Processing Unit (CPU)
(ii) User Interaction Devices
 Input Unit
 Output Unit
 Graphics Display Devices
(iii) Memory Unit
1.12 Computer Aided Design and Analysis - www.airwalkbooks.com

(i) Central Processing Unit (CPU)

It is the heart of a computer system. It takes care of all the internal
processing activities of the computer. The data are presented to the CPU as
electronic pulses and pauses, corresponding to 1s and 0s (binary digits). The
smallest possible piece of information is known as a ‘bit’. The system can
send and receive a number of bits at the same time to make communication
faster. A central microprocessor acts as CPU and its processing power is
given in terms of Mega Hertz (MHz). Higher the processing power, faster
will be the speed of operation.
In CAD systems, the design process or graphical simulations involve
large number of calculations and complex equations to be processed, which
will cause the central microprocessor to slow down. Additional processors
called “Co-processors” are used in parallel with the central processor to
support the central processor. A few CAD systems are provided with
mathematical co-processors, which have special interpolation functions and
arithmetic functions that helps in calculations involved in the design process.

(ii) User Interaction Devices

Input unit
These are the input devices that enable the user to input data to the
CAD system. Most of the CAD systems are capable of responding to the
input devices listed below:
(a) Light pens
(b) Analogue devices
(c) Keyboard devices
Light Pens
The light pen is a multiple purpose input device, which physical
construction is similar to regular writing pen. Its main function is to point at
graphic objects shown on a refreshed CRT and to locate positions within the
displayed area.
The pen is provided with a light emitting source. Also a special monitor
that is capable of getting affected when subjected to illumination, is used to
track the movement of light pen over it.
 CAD 1.13

The light pen is more applicable for free hand-sketching process

involved in profile designing and artistic works. The resolution of a light pen
is poor as compared to that of a tablet and cursor. But it is the only device
that is primarily suited for pointing at graphic objects by physically touching
the screen surface.
Analogue Devices
These devices sense some physical quantities such as speed,
acceleration, force, position, direction, distance and rotation and then convert
it into a numeric quantity that the computer can accept. Most of the input
devices used are analogue to digital convertors. Some of the analogue devices
are digitizers, joy-sticks, tracker ball and dial.
(a) Digitizer: It is an input device which electronically transmits to
computer the location of any point within an identified area. It consists of a
table or board and a probe with a pen or cursor which can be moved over
the surface. A switch on the pen or cursor enables the user to register x, y
coordinates at any desired position. This device is used to digitize existing
paper drawing or to create new free hand designs, which is achieved by
mapping each area in tablet to corresponding area in the monitor. Thus, on
tracing a particular path or curve in the digitizer, a corresponding curve is
generated on the monitor.

0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4

Pe n

D igitizer Tablet w ith Pen M onitor

Fig. 1.2
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(b) Mouse: It is a
cursor positioning device,
which movement on a
friction surface causes the
cursor to move in the
screen. Mouse originally
used a ball rolling on a
surface to detect motion
but in modern mouse,
optical sensors are used to
detect the motion.
(c) Tracker Ball: It
Fig. 1.3 Tracker B all Inpu t D evice
can be also considered as
an inverted mouse. The
operating principle of traker ball is very
similar to that of a mouse. In mouse, the
ball is rotated due to friction between the
ball and rolling surface but in track ball,
the user rolls the ball directly.
Joy Stick: The main difference
between track ball and joy stick is only
the construction difference. Joy stick
consists of a semi spherical ball provided
with a handle for manipulation of the
ball position. As the handle is moved,
the semispherical ball connected with the Fig. 1.4 Joystick inp ut Device
handle also rotates and rest of sensing
and tracking operation is similar to that of a mouse.
(e) Thumbwheels: It is a cursor positioning device consisting of two
thumbwheels to control the horizontal and vertical position of the cursor. By
rotating the corresponding wheels by hand, movement of cursor can be
obtained.
 CAD 1.15

Keyboard Device: An alphanumeric keyboard inputs alphabets, numerals

and other characters by sending digital codes to the computer. These
characters are engraved or printed on the keys and each press of a key
typically corresponds to a single written symbol. However, in order to produce
some specific symbols, it requires pressing and holding several keys
simultaneously or in sequence.
Output Unit
The main purpose of an output divice is to provide feedback to the
user about the results of a process performed by the system. To produce a
hardcopy of the results of a process, several devices such as printer, plotter
etc are used.
1. Printer: It is an output device which converts data from a computer
and prints it in reliable form an paper. Printers are also used for rough copy
generation in some CAD systems. Printers are not suitable for generating
engineering drawings due to their limitation in resolution and capability of
reproducing dimensional drawings. There are a number of different categories
of printers such as line printers, laser printers, serial printers etc which are
used as output devices in computer or CAD systems.
(ii) Plotter: A plotter is an output device, used in a CAD system to
generate hard copy of the drawings produced with the use of automated
drafting system. It consists of a pen which can move over the tracing sheet
to produce the drawing. Based an the arrangement, the plotters are classified
into two types:
(i) Flat Bed Plotter (or) XY plotters.
(ii) Drum Plotter.
(i) Flat Bed Plotter: The plotter
image drafting logic is similar to that of
the image creation technique followed by
vector scan display. The image is
identified as set of geometric shapes,
which the pen is made to follow on the
paper to draw the shape. It consists of
Fig. 1.5 X -Y Plotter
two slides with one mounted over the
1.16 Computer Aided Design and Analysis - www.airwalkbooks.com

other enabling motion in two direction X and Y. Both the slides are
perpendicular to each other representing X and Y directional movements. The
slide is mounted with a pen which is driven by a stepper motor connected
through a toothed belt arrangement. From the CAD system, the direction and
distance of movement is sent to the stepper motor based on the image to be
plotted. Multiple pens with different colours can be used to represent various
layers in the plotted drawing.
Drum Plotter: It uses the some plotting
logic as discussed in flat bed plotters. It
consists of a cylindrical drum which can
rotate about its axis. A slide is provided
on the drum which is movable in a
direction parallel to the axis of the drum.
The pen is placed over the slide and the
tracing sheet is placed along the periphery Fig. 1.6 Dru m Plotter
of the drum. The rotation of drum and the
slide movement helps the pen to access all parts of the tracing sheet. By
using drum plotter, very large drawings can be plotted easily.
Graphic Display Devices
It is the most important piece of equipment in a CAD system. Most
of the graphics display devices are based on the CRT (Cathode Ray Tube).
Other display technologies use liquid crystal displays and plasma panel.
Some of these types of displays are:
 Plasma display,
 Light Emitting Diode (LED) display,
 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) display,
 Electro Luminoscent Panel etc.
Memory Unit
In CAD system, the memory unit holds all data, instructions and results
temporarily. A CAD system needs primary memory (Random Access Memory
or RAM) for enabling faster processing of commands and secondary memory
such as magnetic storage disk to store the CAD softwares and CAD database.
 CAD 1.17

1.10 DESIGN PROCESS

Design process is an activity that facilitates the realization of new
products and processes through which technology the human needs and
aspirations are satisfied.
Design process cannot be summarized in a formula. It can be the work
of an individual or efforts of a group of people. Design process is not straight
forward but it is an iterative process. It means that after processing every
step of design process, one should go to the previous steps.
There are many ways of defining the steps in a traditional design
process.
In 1983, Shigley defined the design process in six steps.
A typical block diagram for the classical or conventional design
approach, as defined by Shigley, is shown in Fig 1.6.
1. Recognition of need
The design process involves initially in identifying the need. The
product begins with a need based on market survey and customer’s demand.
The data is collected via observation and/or a detailed survey. There may be:
 Adoption of existing design
 Modifications in the existing design
 Completely new design
2. Problem definition
In the problem definition, the designer’s task is defined and criterion
for the performance of designed product is specified. The designer collects
different information about the existing products of similar type, about the
market potential, about the manufacturing constraints, about the legal
requirements and standards and so on. The specifications, constraints and
design criteria may be:
Specifications: Such as power required, life of product, efficiency,
reliability, cost, temperature range, etc.
Constraints: (i.e) Maximum and minimum values of the specifications.
1.18 Computer Aided Design and Analysis - www.airwalkbooks.com

R e co gnitio n of N ee ds

P ro blem D efinitio n

M od ification S ynthe sis M od ification

A n alysis a n d O p tim iza tion

D e sign R e view

P re sen tation

Fig. 1.6 C onven tion al D esig n P rocess

Criteria: Used to decide the goodness of the design amongst the alternative
design process, e.g, for shaft design, the strength and stiffness criteria should
be specified, diameter of the shaft based on certain theory of failure.
3. Synthesis
Synthesis is nothing but the conceptualization. Synthesis forms a design
solution to satisfy the need. The end goal of synthesis is a conceptual design
of the product. In this phase, sketches of different components and assembly
are drawn. The feedback received from the marketing professionals also help
to build up a strong concept of design. Synthesis requires a sound technical
background, creativity and experiences of the designer.
 CAD 1.19

4. Analysis and optimization

Analysis must be followed for every synthesis. Analysis is a highly
iterative process and requires good mathematical knowledge. Analysis means
critically examining an already existing or proposed design to judge the
suitability for the task that is to be performed by the designer. Analysis
determines whether the performance complies with the requirements or not.
The different types of engineering analysis are stress-strain analysis, kinematic
analysis, dynamic analysis, vibration analysis, thermal analysis, fluid-flow
analysis, etc.
Optimization means the best possible solution for the given objectives.
All possible solutions are analyzed and optimum is selected. After every phase
of design process, the designer may go to the previous steps and modify them.

5. Design review
Design review is nothing but evaluation. Evaluation means measuring
the design against the specifications set in the problem definition. It usually
involves prototype building and testing of the product to ascertain operating
performance or factors such as reliability. The result of evaluation phase may
yield a satisfactory design or it may lead to further modifications in the design
parameters. The changes into the prototype assembly are incorporated during
continued testing of the product. This process is repeated until satisfactory
performance of the component and assembly is achieved.

6. Presentation
Presentation means drafting. The final stage in design process is the
presentation and documentation of the design on paper. This forms an
interface between the design and the manufacture.
Production drawing shows various design parameters, machining
parameters, tolerances etc. The design is presented using the drawing, parts
list, materials, specifications, etc.
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1.11 DESIGN DATABASE

The data structure is created and manipulated by the software.
CAD systems are no more than computer programs perhaps using
specialized computing hardware. The software normally comprises a number
of different elements or functions that process the data stored in the database
in different ways. These are represented diagrammatically in Fig. 1.7 and
include elements for:

D a ta Function s

M odel
D a tab ase W orking D a ta D e fen itio n

Co mp one nt G eom etry

M odels M anip ulatio n
Input
D ra w in gs Associate d D a ta U ser
Picture
G ene ration O utpu t
M anufacturing

L ib rary U tilitie s
D a ta

D a ta B ase
M anag eme nt

Ap plicatio ns

Fig. 1.7 T he Arch itecture o f Computer Aided

 Model definition:
It is used to define the model and to add geometric elements to a
model of the form of a component.
 Model manipulation:
To move, copy, delete, edit or otherwise modify elements in the design
model.
 Picture generation:
It is used to generate images of the design model on a computer screen
or on some hard-copy device.
 CAD 1.21

 User interaction:
To handle commands input by the user and to present output to the
user about the operation of the system.
 Database management:
For the management of files that makeup the database.
 Applications:
These elements of the software don’t modify the design model, but
use it to generate information for valuation, analysis or manufacture.
 Utilities:
Parts of the software that do not directly affect the design model, but
modify the operation of the system in some way.
For example, To select the colour to be used for display, or the units
to be used for construction of a part model.
These features may be provided by multiple programs operating on a
common database or by a single program encompassing all of the elements.
One of the fundamental reasons for implementating a CAD system is
to create a manufacturing database to overcome the difficulties of conventional
methods which were time consuming and involved duplication of effort by
the design and manufacturing personnel.
The manufacturing database is an integrated CAD/CAM data base. It
contains the application models, designs, drawings, assemblies, and
alphanumeric information such as bills of materials, parts lists and text. It
also includes much of the interactive graphics software such as graphics
commands, function means and plotter output routines. The database is located
in the computer memory (primary storage) and secondary storage. The
Fig. 1.8 shows how the CAD/CAM database is related to design and
manufacturing in a typical production - oriented company.
1.22 Computer Aided Design and Analysis - www.airwalkbooks.com

Inte ractive
G ra ph ics

G eom etric En gineering D e sign R e view Au toma ted

M odelin g An alysis of D ra fting
CAD
Evaluation

D a ta Ba se

Too l a nd Co mp uter Pro du ction

NC
CAM Fixture Aided Process Planning a nd
Pro gram m ing
D e sign Planning Sched uling

Pro du ction

Fig. 1.8 R elatio nship of CAD/CAM Database to Production

1.12 GRAPHIC STANDARDS

Graphic standards allow the exchange of images and pictures and
govern the interface between the user and the CAD system.
The complexity of CAD/CAM systems, makes the database exchange
problem complicated. Transferring data between dissimilar CAD/CAM
systems must embrace the complete product description stored in its database.
Four types of modeling data make up this description such as: shape, non
shape, design and manufacturing data - Shape data consists of both
geometrical and topological information as well as part or form features -
Non shape data includes graphical data such as shaded images and model
global data as measuring units of the database and resolution of storing the
database numerical values.
 CAD 1.23

Therefore, there is a need for the portability of the geometric model

among different hardware platforms.
Computer graphics standards grew from low-level, device-dependent
collections of subroutines supplied by graphics hardware manufacturers into
higher-level, device-independent packages designed to introduce a measure of
portability to application programs. These packages consist of a series of sub
routines to set up graphics windows and viewports and to draw simple
graphics primitives with in them. Some of the standards for computer graphics
are discussed here.

1.12.1 Special Interest Group on graphics (Siggraph CORE)

CORE provided a standardised set of commands to control the
construction and display of graphics images and was independent of hardware
or of language. So a program written using CORE could be run on any
system that had implemented the standard. In earlier version, CORE provided
for line drawing both two-dimensional and three-dimensional graphics, but
the later version includes raster operation such as area fill.

1.12.2 Graphics Kernel System (GKS)

GKS is based on a number of elements that may be drawn in an
image, known as graphical primitives.
The basic set of primitives are:
POLYLINE – To draw multi-element line
POLYMARKER – To draw points
FILLAREA – For Raster fill operations
TEXT – Words
Graphical Kernal System draws graphical elements into a window
defined using a real-valued user coordinate system and transformed into a
viewport defined using Normalized device coordinates (NDCs) in which
coordinates values are defined to lie within the range 0  x  1 and
0  y  1. The viewport is mapped to the device coordinate system of the
display hardware by specifying the device characteristics in a work station
definition. This allows the programmer using GKS to write for a variety of
hardware with out marking substantial alterations to the program.
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Multiple windows and viewports may be defined using the commands

SET WINDOW n, x1, x2, y1, y2 and SET VIEWPORT n, x1, x2, y1, y2,
where n is the window/viewport number, and x1, y1 and x2, y2 the lower
left and upper right corners respectively of the window or viewport.
Display characteristics for primitives, such as line-style and thickness,
colour, text font and text angle, are defined by attributes, the values of which
are set using the SET command. GKS also allows attributes to be bundled,
that is grouped together and modified as a single entity.
The other features of the GKS standard include the handling of user
interaction (using a variety of input devices, and comprising facilities for
menu selection, element selection from the screen and numerical data entry)
and a wide range of levels of operation for input and output.
On the other side, GKS is not satisfactory for dynamic graphics, nor
as a tool for programming large graphics applications, and hence a variety
of alternative approaches have been developed.

1.12.3 Programmer’s Hierarchial Interactive Graphics System

(PHIGS).
This is a standard for rendering 3D computer graphics. The PHIGS
standard itself has evolved from GKS and CORE, and has the features that
are derived from each of the earlier standards.
1.12.4 Open Graphics Library
Open Graphics Library is also named as open GL developed by Silicon
Graphics Inc (SGI). PHIGS subsequently led to the rise of open GL through
a combination of features and process.
Open GL comprises a set of several hundred procedures and functions
that allow a programmer to specify the objects and operations involved in
the production of colour graphical images of three dimensional objects.
It provides a means of drawing and rendering geometric objects like
points, line segments, polygons and of specifying how they should be
coloured, and how they should be mapped from the model space to the screen.
 CAD 1.25

Open GL does not require high performance display hardware to be present,

but it does require a frame buffer - memory that stores the raster display bitmap.
Open GL draws directly into the frame buffer but also allows the use
of multiple buffers where, for eg. one buffer is displayed while second is
being updated.
Open GL integrates with X and may use the X server to execute
commands, but if the program is running on the same machine as
high-performance graphics hardware, the X server can be bypassed to obtain
the highest performance.
Bitmaps
The lowest level in the computer graphics hierarchy is the pixel raster
displayed on a graphics device. One bit per pixel allows only
‘black-and-white’ images. Colour bitmaps commonly assign 4, 8 or 24
bits/pixel to give 16 or 256 colours or 256 levels of each of the red, green
and blue colour guns respectively.
The simplest way of storing a bitmap is simply to write the numbers
that the pixels represent to the file, together with a header giving information
about the file. Above mentioned are the bitmap storage formats that have
been developed over the years for a variety of purposes.
1.12.5 Other Graphics Standards
Those standards concerned with the images that are a collection of
graphic primitives are:
 Computer Graphics Metafile (CGM). This establishes a format for
device independent definition, computer storage and transfer of
vector graphics and images.
 Computer Graphics Interface (CGI). This provides a interface for
the CGM primitives. It describes an idealized abstract graphics
device (known as a virtual device) capable of accepting input and
generating, storing and manipulating pictures.
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Those standards concerned with images stored as bitmaps are

 Graphics Interchange Format (GIF)
 Tag Image File Format (TIFF or TIF)
 Windows Bitmap Format (BMP)
 Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG)
 Soft File Format (PCX) etc

1.13 DATA EXCHANGE STANDARDS

The increase in CAD applications in many parts of the engineering
industry has been accomplished by growth in product variety and broadening
of the range of companies involved in the design of a particular product.
The two methods of exchanging the data among the different
CAD/CAM systems are shown in Fig. 1.9.

S ystem 5 S ystem 5

S ystem 1 S ystem 3 S ystem 1 S ystem 2

N a tural
D a ta Ba se
S ystem 2 S ystem 4 S tructu re

S ystem 3 S ystem 4

S ystem 6

(a) D irect Translators (b) Indirect Translato rs

Fig. 1.9 M ethod of Exchang ing D ata A mo ng C A D

Direct translators convert data directly in one step. Indirect translators

utilize some neutral file format, which reflects the neutral database structure,
with each system having its own pair of processor to transfer data to and
from this neutral format.
 CAD 1.27

The purpose of GKS and other similar standards is to allow graphics

to be drawn on a display device by an application program.
For example, a CAD system might generate graphics primitives from
the CAD model, and display them on the screen using GKS procedure calls.
In this process, there are three levels of representation. The CAD model itself
comprises geometric, annotation and other entities stored in the CAD system
data structure. This model is converted by the CAD system into a series of
graphics primitives, and these are then displayed on the screen using the
graphics procedures, typically by setting the values of the pixels in a
rectangular raster array. The raster array is represented by a region of
computer memory known as a bitmap. The three representation levels are
shown in Fig. 1.10.

C A D R ep resen tation Level: Eq uivalen t Stand ards:

C A D D ata E xc h an ge S tan da rds

C A D E ntities
e .g : IG E S , S TE P

D e vice In d ep en de nt P icture
G ra ph ics P rim itive s D e sc ription s M eta file s,
e .g : C G M

Im a ge B itm ap B itm ap S tan da rds

e .g : G IF , TIF F

Fig. 1.10 R ep resen tation Levels in C om pu ter Graph ics.

1.28 Computer Aided Design and Analysis - www.airwalkbooks.com

1.14 DATA EXCHANGE FORMATS

1.14.1 IGES
IGES is the first standard exchange format developed to address the
concept of communicating product data among dissimilar CAD systems. It
involves in the exchange of data among the CAD systems. IGES itself is just
a document describing what should go into a data file. The software that
translates from the native database format of a given CAD system to the
IGES format is called a preprocessor. The software that translates in the
opposite way is called a post processor.
The preprocessor and postprocessor are also called translators and they
determine the success of an IGES translation. The database exchange using
IGES is shown in Fig. 1.11.

N a tiv e N a tiv e
P re proc essor IG E S P o stpro cess or
D a ta B a se D a ta B a se

S o urce S ystem Targ et S y stem

( S ys te m A ) A rch ival ( S ys te m B )
D a ta B a se

Fig. 1.11 D ata B ase E xchange u sin g IG ES

The source system is the originating or sending system and the target
system is the receiving one.
The archival database is a side benefit of IGES. Such archived database
could be kept for as long as needed. If system B in the Fig. 1.11 becomes
the source and system A becomes the target, then the processors reverse
positions.
IGES File structure
An IGES file consists of six sections which must appear in the order
as shown in the Fig. 1.12. The identification character, is also called the
section code. The flag section is used only with compressed ASC II and
binary format.
 CAD 1.29

Flag section (optional)

Start section
Combined in  Global section
compressed ASCII 
 Directory Entry section (DE)
format  Parameter Data section (PD)

Terminate section
Fig. 1.12 IGES file structure

Start section
This section is setup manually by the person initiating the IGES file.
This contains the information that may help the user at the destination, such
as the features of the originating system.

Global section
This section provides the 24 field parameters necessary to translate
the file, including the delimiter characters (1 and 2), sender’s identifier (3),
file name (4), ID of the software which generate file (5), version of IGES
processor (6), precision of integer (7 to 11) receiver’s identifier (12), model
space (13), units (14), name of the units (15), maximum number of line
thickness (16, 17), time file generated (18), smallest distance B(19), largest
coordinate value (20), person and organization creating file (21 and 22), IGES
version (23), drafting standards (24).

Directory section (DE)

This section is generated by IGES pre-processor. This section also
contains the entry for each entity in the file comprising a code representing
the entity type and subtype. Two lines comprising 18 fields of eight characters
are used for each entry.

Parameter data section (PD)

This section contains the entity-specific data such as coordinate values,
annotation text, number of spline data points and etc., Each entry has a pointer
in columns 66 - 72 to the directory entry for the entity. The first parameter
in each entry identifies the entity type from which the remaining parameters
may be derived.
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Termination section
This section marks the end of the data file. This section contains
subtotals of records for data transmission check purposes.
Some of the entities that are supported by initial graphics Exchange
specification are listed below.
Geometric entities
100 - Circular arc
102 - Composite curve
104 - Conic arc
106 - Copious data
108 - Plane
110 - Line
112 - Parametric spline curve
114 - Parametric spline surface

:

:
So on.

Error handling
While importing an IGES file, Error handling is very important. There
are two major error sources when processing IGES file: Program errors in
the processor and misinterpretation of the IGES standard itself.
The way an IGES processor reports error is - the preprocessor should
report the entity type, number of unprocessed entries, reasons for unprocessing
and other relevant database information of these unprocessed entities. IGES
should also report any invalid or missing data encountered in reading IGES
files especially those that were edited.
 CAD 1.31

1.14.2 STEP
This standard is formally named ‘Industrial automation system and
integration-product data representation and exchange’, although it is more
widely known by the information acronym STEP, which is abbreviated for
‘standard for the Exchange of product model data’.
STEP uses a formal model for the data exchange, which is described
using an information modeling language called EXPRESS, that was specially
developed for STEP. EXPRESS is both human readable and computer processable
and is used to specify the information models in STEP. In a STEP, the data is
described in the EXPRESS language, which then maps to the physical file.
STEP has a three layer architecture as shown in Fig. 1.13 that enables
multiple application views and implementations.

L ayer - III Ap plication P rotocols

C o nfo rm an ce Te stin g
+ Te st Su ites

L ayer - II R e so urce Info rm ation

M odels

Im p le me ntation
L ayer - I M etho ds

Fig.1.13 R elatio nship Between Layers

Ph ysica l of STEP Standard s
File
1.32 Computer Aided Design and Analysis - www.airwalkbooks.com

The first layer comprises techniques for the implementation of STEP,

in which the models are related to the EXPRESS language, and through this
physical file.
The second layer provides context - independent information such as
the description of the geometry, topology or product structure. Resource
models are so called because they provide Resource to the 3rd layer.
The third layer contains information related to a particular application domain
such as draughting or electrical product modeling. This layer describes constrained
subsets of the STEP standard which should ensure that the implementations by
different vendors are very much more compatible than IGES implementations.
This standard itself is so large that it is being developed incrementally
as a series of separate standards called parts. The parts, themselves are divided
into seven classes, as follows:
1. Introductory (parts 1-9)
Consists of overview and general principles
2. Description methods (parts 11-19)
Consist of parts related to the express language
3. Implementation method (parts 21-29)
Describes how EXPRESS is mapped to physical file and other storage
mechanisms.
4. Conformance Testing Methodology and Frame work (parts 31-9)
This provides the methods for testing implementations and test suites
to be used during conformance testing.
5. Integrated Resource (parts 41-99, 101-99)
This part includes generic resources such as geometry and structure
representation.
6. Application protocols (parts 201-99)
This part describe implementations of STEP specific to particular
industrial applications.
7. Abstract test suites (parts 301-99)
This part provides test suites for each of the application protocols.
 CAD 1.33

8. Application interpreted construct (parts 501)

This part describes various model entity constructs and specific
modeling approaches.
1.14.3 Difference between IGES and STEP
IGES was not developed using formal specification language, it was
not based on information modeling methodology. It does not clearly
distinguish between the logical specification of the standard, the application
requirements and physical specification for the storage data in exchange files.
IGES does not provide sufficient conformance clauses or test sets for
testing the implementations from different CAD vendors.
STEP improves on this in a number of respects.
1.14.4 CALS
Continuous Acquisition and Life cycle support is CALS. This data
exchange standard was produced with an aim of applying computer technology
to the process of specifying, ordering, operating, supporting and maintaining the
weapons systems used by the US armed forces, although it can be adopted by
any industry, not just defence industry. CALS was originally called
Computer-Aided Acquisition and Logistics support. This initiative led to the
publication of the military standard MIL-STD 1840 a, ‘Automated Interchange
of Technical Information’ in 1986 and revised in 1987.
The first stage of CALS prescribes standards for the exchange of
product data, and in particular for technical publications. The text of the
publications uses the standard generalized markup language (SGML), which
is a language for the marking up or tagging of ASCII text to separate the
logical elements of a document and to specify the processing functions to be
performed on those elements.
The tags that SGHL uses to identify document elements are ASCII
strings embedded in angled parentheses < > to distinguish them from the rest
of the document. CALS has developed a further standard which defines
subsets of IGES to be used for specific applications including technical
illustrations, engineering drawings, electronic engineering data, and geometry
for manufacture by numerical control machines. It is expected that CALS will
use the STEP standards for product data, and will also extend into such areas
as electronic hardware description and office document exchange.
1.34 Computer Aided Design and Analysis - www.airwalkbooks.com

1.15 VIRTUAL REALITY

Virtual Reality (VR) is the use of computer graphics and other
technologies to create a simulated environment in which the user interacts.
While computer graphics supplies the visual component of the experience via
a normal screen, a stereoscopic display, or head-mounted technology and a
variety of other devices can be used to allow the user to experience the
interaction. Like, a head tracking device can allow the scene to change when
the user moves their head, a force feedback joystick can be used when a
pilot is flying a VR simulator, or data gloves can be worn to touch and move
objects in the virtual world. The key is that the users have a sense of being
immersed in a virtual world in which they are engaged.
Scientists, theorists and engineers have designed dozens of devices and
applications to achieve this goal. In general VR should include:
 Three-dimensional images that appear to be life-sized from the
perspective of the user.
 The ability to track a user’s motions, particularly his head and eye
movements, and correspondingly adjust the images on the user’s
display to reflect the change in perspective.
1.15.1 Basic theory of Virtual Reality:
When real objects are observed, their internal details and back faces will
be obscured from view, shadows will be cast and surfaces will take on different
intensities and hues due to local lighting conditions. An image is a visual
representation of an object or scene, in that it represents selected properties of
the object to the viewer with varying degrees of realism. To represent the visual
complexities of the real environment as image attributes i.e., realistic image
synthesis has been one of the goals in computer graphics research since its
inception. The process of creating realistic images from models is called
rendering. The pursuit for realism inspired many significant breakthroughs in
modeling, rendering and display algorithms. Creation of realistic images is the
objective of Virtual Reality. So, Virtual Reality can be defined as the degree
to which the images of the simulated world are perceived to be real by the user.
Virtual Reality is also called Visual Realism.
Visual realism has two components
 Geometric realism - the virtual object looks like the real object.
 Illumination realism - refers to the fidelity of the lighting model.
 CAD 1.35

Both components have static and dynamic aspects. For example, an

image representing a human might look realistic but not behave realistically.
Likewise, static lighting may be achieved but shadows might not move in
conjunction with the corresponding images. Realistic image is not necessarily
more desirable as the ultimate goal of the image is to convey information.
An image that is free of the complications of the shadows and reflections
may be more useful than a photographic realism.
Visualization is a tool for both image understanding and image
synthesis (i.e., generating images from complex multidimensional data sets):
Visualisation is of two types:
 Visualisation in geometric modeling i.e., geometric models of
objects are displayed.
 Visualization in scientific computing ie results related to science
and engineering are displayed.
Applications of visualisation:
In geometric modeling:
 An effective and less expensive way of reviewing various design
alternatives.
 For determining spatial relationships in design applications.
 For design of complex surfaces, like as those in automobile bodies
and aircraft frames.
In scientific computing:
 For robot simulations and trajectory planning.
 For verification of NC tool paths.
 For displaying results of finite element analysis, heat-transfer analysis,
computational fluid dynamics and structural dynamics and vibration.
 In medical field for hip replacement operations.
Approaches or techniques for Virtual Reality:
The display of 3D objects and scenes on 2D screens is the main
problem in visualisation. In recent years, CAD systems have been developed
in their ability to simulate realistic viewing conditions. Some of the various
approaches to achieve Virtual Reality are:
1.36 Computer Aided Design and Analysis - www.airwalkbooks.com

 Parallel projections.  Hidden solid removal.

 Perspective projections.  Shading and colouring.
 Hidden line removal.  Computer animation.
 Hidden surface removal.
Parallel projections (especially orthographic projections) represent the
most elementary method to achieve Virtual Reality. In manual model
clean-up, the first step is to generate orthographic views. Then Virtual Reality
is added in each view, hidden lines are eliminated, solid lines are changed
to dashed lines and dimensions and texts are added. Depth information may
be lost when hidden lines are eliminated completely. In manual model
clean-up, the major advantage is that the user has control over which entities
should be removed and which should be dashed. But it being a tedious, time
consuming and error-prone process, it has big disadvantage. Manual model
clean up is commonly applicable to wire frame models.
Perspective projections are used mostly in architecture engineering and
construction. Here an object’s size is scaled in inverse proportion to its
distance from viewer.
An image in most computer graphics systems is made up of lines to
represent a particular object. In a given image, depending on the viewing
direction, the edges and surfaces of the object may be visible or invisible (hidden).
Removing these hidden edges and surfaces greatly improves the visualisation
of the objects. Hidden line (edge) removal involves depth and occlusion (i.e.,
anything that obstructs vision) while hidden surface removal involves normals.
Visibility Algorithms are applied to set of objects to remove hidden
parts to create a more realistic image. The development of these algorithms
is influenced by the types of graphic display devices (vector or raster) they
support and the type of geometric modeling they operate on wireframe,
surface or solid modeling.
Algorithms to remove hidden parts from an image cannot be applied to
wireframe or surface models directly but require an unambiguous data structure
that represent an object as orientable faces i.e., each face has a surface normal
with consistent direction. So, polyhedral objects are represented by orientable
flat polygons which can be obtained from wireframe, surface of solid model.
Various algorithms are devised to suit different needs and devices. The
factors that should be considered are complexity of the scene, type of objects
 CAD 1.37

in the scene, available equipment, and whether images are static or animated.
The visualization algorithms are categorised as
 Object - space methods
 Image - space methods
 Rastor algorithms  Vector algorithms
 Hybrid methods (combination of both object-space and image-space
methods)
The difference between working with objects (object space approach)
and working with images (image space approach) can be understood with the
following example. Consider a scene composed of n three dimensional opaque
flat polygons, each assumed to be an individual object.
Considering the objects pairwise, as seen from the centre of projection
(COP), a generic object space approach can be derived. Let us say, A and B are
two such polygons in the scene, then there are three possibilities [Refer Fig. 1.15].

O bject S p ac e Im ag e Spa ce

Fig.1.1 4 O b ject Space a nd Im age Sp ace M eth ods

B A B B

(a) B Totally (b) A and B Totally are Visible (c) A and B Partially
O bscure A O bscure each O ther
Fig. 1.15 O bject Space Approach for Polygons
1.38 Computer Aided Design and Analysis - www.airwalkbooks.com

 B obscures A; only B is displayed.

 Both A and B are completely visible; both A and B are displayed.
 A and B partially obscure each other; visible parts of each polygon
must be calculated.
In this approach any required calculation of the visible part of a
polygon is regarded as a single operation and calculations are done iteratively.
One of the n polygons is compared pairwise with the remaining n  1
polygons. After comparison, the visible part (if any) of this polygon is known
and rendered. Now, the process is repeated with any other polygon of the
remaining n  1 polygons. In each step one polygon is compared, pairwise,
with the other remaining polygons, until only two polygons remain, which
are compared with each other. So, the complexity of this calculation is
o n2. From this we understand that the object space approach works best
for scenes that contain relatively few polygons.

 ! Pro jec tio n P lan e

Fig. 1.1 6 Im ag e S pace A pp roa ch (Z -buffer A lgo rithm )

As for the image space approach is considered, a ray from the COP
is passing through a pixel [Refer Fig. 1.16]. This ray intersects with each of
planes determined by the n polygons. Now the planes for which the ray passes
through a polygon are determined. For those planes, the intersection closest
to the centre of projection is found and the pixel is coloured with that shade
of the polygon. So, for a p  q display, the process has to be carried out
pqn times, giving o n. For each pixel more than one ray can be used to
increase the accuracy of the rendering. Generally, image space algorithms
perform much better but since they work at the fragment or pixel level, their
accuracy is limited by the resolution of the frame buffer.
 CAD 1.39

Shading and colouring:

W ire F ram e Mo del Sh ad ed M odel

Fig. 1.1 7 Sha ding

The visible faces of an object are found by hidden surface algorithms,

but further information is required to display the colour of the object. Both object
representation (geometry) and object illumination (lighting) are necessary for the
effective simulation of a 3D scene - Lighting effects include light reflections,
transparency, surface texture and shadows. Shading refers to the process of
altering the colour of an object surface polygon in the 3D scene based on its
angle on lights and its distance from lights to create a photorealistic effect.
A three dimensional model can be displayed by assigning different degrees
of shading to the surfaces. A virtual light source is assumed and various shading
techniques are available to determine strikes on each portion of the surfaces to
provide a realistic image of the object. The shading techniques are based on the
recognition of distance (depth) and shape as a function of illumination.
Unlike wireframe models, shaded models
 Convey shape information.
 Convey features such as surface finish or material type.
 Provide clear display of spatial relationships.
 Are easier to interpret because of resemblance to real objects.
An illumination model also called a lighting model or shading
model, is used to calculate the intensity of light that should be seen at a
given point on the surface of an object. These intensity calculations from the
illumination model are used by a surface rendering algorithm to determine
the light intensity for all projected pixel positions for the various surfaces in
a scene.
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Illumination model considers the following:

 Light attributes (intensity, colour, position, direction, shape)
 Object surface attributes (orientation, colour reflectivity, transparency,
etc.)
 Interaction among light and objects.
The two main ingredients of shaded images are colours and textures.
The display of realistic scenes is mostly in colour. Colours are used for
realism, aesthetics and to distinguish the different areas in the geometry of
an object. They help the designer to classify components in an assembly or
highlight the sectional views and dimensions of the model. The use of colour
in the graphics display allows significantly more information to be clearly
communicated to the viewer. So, to incorporate colour in the display, the
intensity equation is written as a function of colour properties of light sources
and object surfaces.

Computer Animation
To ‘animate’ literally means ‘to give life to’. The process of moving
something which can’t move by itself is called animation. It is a technique
for creating the illusion of motion with a series of static images. Animation
adds to graphics the dimension of time which vastly increases the amount of
information which can be transmitted. Conventional animation is defined as
a technique in which the illusion movement is created by photographing a
series of individual drawings on successive frames of film. Frames of
drawings created by artists is time consuming and has many limitations.
Computer animation is the use of computers to create animation.
Virtual entities may contain and be controlled by attributes such as location,
orientation and scale. Animation is the change of an attribute over time. It
generally refers to any time sequence of visual changes in a scene. To create
the illusion of movement, an image is displayed on the computer screen and
then quickly replaced by a new image that is similar to the previous image
but shifted slightly. To trick the eye and brain into thinking they are seeing
a smoothly moving object, the images should be drawn at around 12 frames
per second or faster. Computer animation demands higher frame rates as it
produces more realistic images with virtual reality techniques.