MATB43 Lecture Notes

Introduction to Analysis

Contents
1 Basic Set Theory 2
1.1 Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Cardinality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

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 1 BASIC SET THEORY

1 Basic Set Theory

1.1 Sets

Definition 1.1.1 (Set). A set X is a collection of mathematically defined objects.

Example 1.1.1. X0 = ω = {0, 1, 2, . . . } or X1 = {2, ω} are examples of sets. Note that X1 indicates that
elements of sets could be sets themselves.

Given a set X, we write a ∈ X to denote that a is an element of X. If A is a subset of X, i.e. every element
of A is also an element of X, we denote this by A ⊆ X.

Definition 1.1.2 (Proper Subset). A proper subset A of X is a subset such that the set X \ A :=
{a ∈ X : a ∈
/ A} is non-empty. We denote this by A ⊂ X.

Theorem 1.1.1. The empty set ∅ is a subset of any set X.

Definition 1.1.3 (Almost Containment). A set A is almost contained in X if A \ X has finitely many
elements. We denote this by A ⊆∗ X.

Remark 1.1.1. If A is finite and X is any set, then A ⊆∗ X.

Example 1.1.2. Let A = {p : p prime} be the set of prime numbers and X = {n : ∃ k ∈ Z s.t. n = 2k + 1}
the set of odd integers. We can see that A \ X = {2} and so A ⊆∗ X.

We can combine sets to create new sets.

Definition 1.1.4 (Union and Intersection). Given a family F = {Xα : α ∈ J} where J is some indexing
set, we can construct two sets:
• The union [
Xα = {a : ∃β ∈ J s.t. α ∈ Xβ }
α∈J

• The intersection \
Xα = {a : a ∈ Xα ∀α ∈ J}
α∈J

Definition 1.1.5 (Disjoint Sets). Given two sets X, Y , they are said to be disjoint if X ∩ Y = ∅

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1.1 Sets 1 BASIC SET THEORY

Definition 1.1.6 (Cartesian Product). Given two sets X, Y , the cartesian product, denoted X × Y ,
is the set of all ordered pairs (a, b) such that a ∈ X, b ∈ Y . Symbolically,

X × Y := {(a, b) : a ∈ X, b ∈ Y }

Notation: Given two sets X, Y , we write

Y X := {f |f : X → Y }

to capture the set of all functions mapping X to Y .

We can make the following observation: a function f can be identified as a subset of X × Y where of course
dom(f ) ⊆ X and range(f ) ⊆ Y . The explicit identification is

f = {(x, f (x)) : x ∈ X}

We will now investigate an arbitrary cartesian product of sets.

Definition 1.1.7 (Cartesian Product). Given a family F = {Xα : α ∈ J} of sets, their cartesian prod-
uct is ( )
Y [
Xα := f f : J → Xα s.t. ∀β ∈ J, f (β) ∈ Xβ
α∈J α∈J

Q
Remark 1.1.2. If we have an element x in Xα , based on our definition for the product X × Y which involved
α∈J
ordered pairs, we can think of x as a sequence x = (x(α))α∈J where its αth coordinate, x(α) is an element of
Xα . (Recall that a sequence is really just a function that maps indices to an element)

Example 1.1.3. Take J = N = {1, 2, . . . }. One way we can picture

Q
Xα is by drawing each set Xα as a
α∈N
line

···

X1 X2 X3
Q
A specific choice of x ∈ Xα can be interpreted as a choice of x(α) from each Xα . On each line, draw a
α∈N
point representing our choice of coordinate for the corresponding set.

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1.1 Sets 1 BASIC SET THEORY

x(1) x
x(3)

···
x(2)

X1 X2 X3

[ the nth coordinate of the sequence x is an element of Xn . Hence x can be viewed as a function f : N →
So
Xn such that f (n) ∈ Xn and f (n) = x(n).
n∈N

Example 1.1.4. RR represents the set of all functions from R to R. Consider any arbitrary such function f .

f = {(x, f (x)) : x ∈ R} ⊆ R × R

You could view the same function as a sequence s whose xth coordinate s(x) is f (x). Note that we are using
the elements of R to do the labeling. Then s = (f (x))x∈R .

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1.2 Cardinality 1 BASIC SET THEORY

1.2 Cardinality
There is a very deep and formal notion of the “size” of a set. This is its cardinality. To proceed in this study,
we need to remind ourselves of bijectivity.
Recall that f ∈ Y X is bijective if for all y ∈ Y , there exists a unique x ∈ X such that f (x) = y. Existence
and uniqueness establishes surjectivity and injectivity respectively of f .

Definition 1.2.1 (Equinumerous Sets). Two sets X, Y are said to be equinumerous if there exists a
bijective map between them. We denote this by X ∼ Y .

Example 1.2.1. N ∼ Z. We construct a bijective map among these two sets. Let ϕ : N → Z be defined as
follows: (
n
n even
ϕ(n) = 2 n+1
− 2 n odd

Example 1.2.2. How about N ∼ N × N? We will soon learn a theorem that allows us to determine whether
this is true.

Definition 1.2.2 (Relation). For a set X, a relation on X is ANY subset of X × X.

Example 1.2.3. Let X = N. Take R = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 4), (4, 4)}

Example 1.2.4. Let X = P(N). This represents the set of all subsets of N, called the power set. i.e. A ⊆ X
if and only if A ∈ P(N). Define R ⊆ P(N) × P(N) to be that (a, b) ∈ R if a ⊆ b. Alternatively, we could
denote that (a, b) ∈ R by writing aRb. Note that a, b ∈ P(N), meaning a ⊆ N and b ⊆ N.

Definition 1.2.3 (Equivalence Relation). A relation R on a set X is called

• symmetric if aRb implies bRa for all a, b ∈ X

• transitive if aRb and bRc implies aRc for all a, b, c ∈ X

• reflexive if aRa for all a ∈ X
Any relation R that satisfies all three properties is called an equivalence relation.

Exercise 1.2.1. Which of these properties hold for the relation R in Examples 1.2.3 and 1.2.4?

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1.2 Cardinality 1 BASIC SET THEORY

Definition 1.2.4 (Partition). Given a set X, a partition of X is a set P ⊆ P(X) such that
1. for all x ∈ X, there exists Y ∈ P such that x ∈ Y

2. Y ∩ Z = ∅ for all distinct Y, Z ∈ P

Remark 1.2.1. If R is an equivalence relation on a set X, then R induces a partition on X as follows:

G
Ex := {y ∈ X : yRx} , X= Ex
x∈X

Ex4
Ex2
Ex1
Ex3 E x5

(The notation X ⊔ Y indicates a disjoint union. You might also see the notation X ∪˙ Y ) But why are we
introducing such a relation? The reason is that we are trying to naively define the notion of cardinality, which
captures the size of a set.
Remark 1.2.2. Ex can never be the empty subset. Why? That is because R is reflexive and hence, we have
(x, x) ∈ R, or commonly denoted by us xRx.
Loosely, you can think of a cardinal as a “number”. So cardinality is the cardinal associated to a set X,
denoted by |X|.

Example 1.2.5. If X = {2, ω, 3}, the cardinality is 3 even though ω is an element of the set which itself has
infinitely many elements.

Exercise 1.2.2. Let F be a family of sets. Show that being equinumerous ∼ is an equivalence relation on F.
Remark 1.2.3. Include a “certain” type of sets into F, the relation allows one way of defining cardinality
mathematically. However, that “certain” type of sets is beyond the scope of this course!

Now let us explore a theorem that will allow us to determine whether or not X ∼ Y for any two sets X, Y

Notations: Given two sets X and Y

1. f : X ,→ Y represents an injective map.
2. f : X ↠ Y represents a surjective map.
∼
3. f : X −
→ Y represents a bijective map.

Theorem 1.2.1 (Schröder–Bernstein). Suppose there are injective maps from A to B and B to A.
Then A ∼ B

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1.2 Cardinality 1 BASIC SET THEORY

Proof. Let f : A ,→ B and g : B ,→ A be the maps. Now if either f or g is surjective then we are done. Hence,
suppose that f [A] ⊂ B and g[B] ⊂ A. Let A0 = A and B0 = B. We will define a bijective map ϕ, from A
to B using the functions f and g −1 . Let A1 = g[B0 ] and B1 = f [A0 ]. For any x0 ∈ A0 \ A1 we will define
ϕ(x0 ) := f (x0 ). But, how do we cover the region B0 \ B1 using f ? The points lying in that region have NO
pre-images! Hence, we need to resort to the function g and its inverse g −1 , more specifically. First note that
g[B0 ] = A1 . For any b0 ∈ B0 let x1 = g(b0 ) . Hence, we can let A2 = A1 \ g[B0 \ B1 ] and consequently for any
x1 ∈ A1 \ A2 we can define ϕ(x1 ) := g −1 (x1 ) and let B2 = B1 \ f [A0 \ A1 ]. Note that up to now we were able
to map every element of A0 \ A2 in a 1 − 1 manner to elements of B0 \ B2 . We repeat the same process as we
did originally on A0 and B0 . If either f ↾ A2 or g ↾ B2 ( denote the restriction map!) then we we are done. If
not let B3 = f [A2 ] and A3 = g[B2 ]. For any x2 ∈ A2 \ A3 f (x2 ) ∈ B3 . So, we define ϕ(x2 ) := f (x2 ). Again
note that we have no pre-images for the elements b2 ∈ B2 \ B3 . Hence, we map b2 by g. Let x3 = g(b2 ) ∈ A3 .
Thereby we can map x3 by ϕ to ϕ(x3 ) := g −1 (x3 ). Let A4 = A3 \ g[B2 \ B3 ] and B4 := A3 \ f [A2 \ A3 ]. So far
we have mapped every element of A0 \ A4 in a 1 − 1 manner to elements of B0 \ B4 . Repeat the same process
again. This process can be captured by ϕ : A → B be defined as follows:
(
f (x) if x ∈ A2n \ A2n+1 f or some n ∈ ω
ϕ(x) = −1
g (x) if x ∈ A2n+1 \ A2n+2 f or some n ∈ ω