Chapter 1

Chemistry and
Chemistry:
Measurement
The Study of Change
Chapter 1

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Contents and Concepts

An Introduction to Chemistry
We start by defining the science called chemistry and
introducing some fundamental concepts.

1. Modern Chemistry: A Brief Glimpse

2. Experiment and Explanation
3. Matter: Physical State and Chemical Constitution

1|2

1
Physical Measurements
Making and recording measurements of the
properties and chemical behavior of matter is
the foundation of chemistry.

4. Measurements and Significant Figures

5. SI Units
6. Derived Units
7. Units and Dimensional Analysis (Factor-Label
Method)

1|3

What is Chemistry?

2
  Chemistry is the study of matter and its changes.
Everything that we do involves chemistry.

 Matter is anything that has mass and occupy a

space.

liquid nitrogen gold ingots silicon crystals

1|5

Why is it that important to study

chemistry?
(a) Health and Medicine (b) Materials and Technology
− Sanitation systems − Polymers, liquid crystals
− Surgery with anesthesia − Molecular computing?
− Vaccines and antibiotics

(c) Energy and the Environment (d) Food and Agriculture

− Fossil fuels − Genetically modified
crops
− Solar energy
− “Natural” pesticides
− Nuclear energy
− Specialized fertilizers
1|6

3
 The Downside
 Side effects

 Pollution

 Illness

 Disease

 Weapons of mass destructions

(atomic and nuclear bombs)

1|7

The Study of Chemistry

Macroscopic Microscopic

Things we can see, touch, Things that we cannot experience without

and measure. modern technology and imaginations.

1|8

4
 The Scientific Method
The scientific method is a systematic
approach to research.

Scientific hypotheses are tentative

explanations for observed data (qualitative or
quantitative). These hypotheses are tested by
designing and performing further experiments.
“I think ……is happening”

A scientific theory is a set of tested hypotheses that explain

natural phenomena. Theories are always tentative and may change as
observations of nature change.

A scientific law is a brief statement summarizing large amounts of

scientific data (Law of Gravity, Law of Conservation of Mass/Matter).
Many scientific laws can be stated mathematically (Boyle’s Law (PV =
k))
1|9

Classifications of Matter

There are two principal ways of classifying matter:

(1) By its physical state as a solid, liquid, or gas

(2) By its chemical constitution as an element,

compound, or mixture

1 | 10

5
 The Three States of Matter
Gas: molecules are far away
from each other.

Solid: molecules are close

together with little freedom
of motion.

Liquid: molecules are

close together but not
held rigidly in a fixed
position.

1 | 11

Chemical Constitution

Matter

Mixtures Separation by Pure

substances
physical methods

Homogeneous Heterogeneous Compounds Separation by

Elements
mixtures mixtures
chemical methods

1 | 12

6
Mixture is a combination of two or more substances
in which the substances retain their distinct identities.
eg: air
-Homogenous mixture – composition of the mixture is
the same throughout; also called a solution.
eg: soft drink, milk, air, etc.

-Heterogeneous mixture – composition is not uniform

throughout. It consists of physically distinct parts, each
with different properties.

eg: cement,
iron filings in sand

1 | 13

Mixtures can be separated into their pure components

by physical means.

Magnet

1 | 14

7
Substance is a form of matter that has a definite
composition and distinct properties. eg: H2O, O2.

Substances can be either elements or compounds.

 An element is a substance that cannot be separated into
simpler substances by chemical means.
 114 elements have been identified

 A compound is a substance composed of atoms of two or

more elements chemically united in fixed proportions.
 Compounds can only be separated into their pure components
(elements) by chemical means.

1 | 15

1 | 16

8
 Physical or Chemical?
 Physical properties are those properties of a substance
that can be observed without changing the substance.
eg: color, mass, weight, phase state

 A physical change is a change in the form of matter but

not in its chemical identity.
eg: ice melting, sugar dissolving in water

 Physical changes are usually reversible.

 No new compounds are formed during a physical change.

1 | 17

Physical or Chemical?
 Chemical properties are those properties of a
substance that can only be studied by forming new
substances.
eg: Fe gets rusty (Fe react with oxygen to form iron oxide)

 A chemical change alters the composition or identity of

the substance(s) involved (Chemical Change = Chemical
Reaction).
 Chemical changes are usually irreversible.
 New compounds are formed during a chemical change.

eg: hydrogen
burns in air to
form water 1 | 18

9
Example:
Potassium is a soft, silvery-colored metal that melts at 64°C.
It reacts vigorously with water, with oxygen, and with chlorine.
Identify all of the physical properties and chemical properties
given in this description.

Physical Property Chemical Property

Soft Reacts with water
Silvery-colored Reacts with oxygen
Melting point (64°C) Reacts with chlorine

1 | 19

Extensive and Intensive Properties of Matter

 An extensive property of a material depends upon how
much matter is being considered.
• mass
• length
• volume

 An intensive property of a material does not depend upon

how much matter is being considered (not additive).
• density
• temperature
• color

1 | 20

10
 Matter continue…

Matter is anything that has mass and also volume.

 Mass is the measure of the amount of matter in an

object.
 Weight is the measure of the gravitational force for the
matter in an object.

1 | 21

Measurement

The comparison of a physical quantity with a fixed standard

of measurement—a unit.

For example:
Centimeter
Kilogram

1 | 22

11
 Measurements

Accuracy – how close a measurement is to the true value

Precision – how close a set of measurements are to each other

accurate precise not accurate

& but &
precise not accurate not precise
1 | 23

Scientific Notation
The number of atoms in 12 g of carbon:
602,200,000,000,000,000,000,000
6.022 x 1023
The mass of a single carbon atom in grams:
0.0000000000000000000000199
1.99 x 10-23

A x 10n 1 ≤ A < 10

n is a positive or
negative integer
1 | 24

12
 Scientific Notation
568.762 0.00000772
move decimal left move decimal right
n>0 n<0
568.762 = 5.68762 x 102 0.00000772 = 7.72 x 10-6

Addition or Subtraction
1. Write each quantity with 4.31 x 104 + 3.9 x 103 =
the same exponent n

2. Combine A1 and A2

3. The exponent, n, remains

the same Ans = 4.70 x 104
1 | 25

Scientific Notation

Multiplication (4.0 x 10-5) x (7.0 x 103) =

1. Multiply A1 and A2 (4.0 x 7.0) x (10-5+3) =
28 x 10-2 =
2. Add exponents n1 and n2 2.8 x 10-1

Division 8.5 x 104 ÷ 5.0 x 109 =

1. Divide A1 and A2
(8.5 ÷ 5.0) x 104-9 =
2. Subtract exponents n1 and n2 1.7 x 10-5

1 | 26

13
 Prefixes

1 | 27

Scientific Notation and Metric Prefixes

Because each of the metric prefixes has an equivalent

power of 10, the prefix may be substituted for the power
of 10.

For example: 7.9 x 10-6 s, (10-6 = micro, 

7.9 x 10-6 s 7.9 s

14
More Examples:
Write the following measurements without scientific
notation using the appropriate prefix:

4.851 × 10-9 g 4.851 ng

3.16 × 10-2 m 3.16 cm
8.93 × 10-12 s 8.93 ps

1 | 29

Significant Figures

 To indicate the precision of a measured number

(or result of calculations on measured numbers),
we often use the concept of significant figures.

 Significant figures are those digits in a

measured number (or result of the calculation
with a measured number) that include all certain
digits plus a final one having some uncertainty.

1 | 30

15
 Significant Figures

20.15 mL
5.7 cm
(The tenths place is
estimated)

1 | 31

Significant Figures
 Any digit that is not zero is significant
1.234 kg 4 significant figures

 Zeros between nonzero digits are significant

606 m 3 significant figures

 Zeros to the left of the first nonzero digit are not significant
0.08 L 1 significant figure

 If a number is greater than 1, then all zeros to the right of the

decimal point are significant
2.0 mg 2 significant figures

 If a number is less than 1, then only the zeros that are at the end
and in the middle of the number are significant
0.00420 g 3 significant figures
 Numbers that don’t contain decimal points, the trailing zeros (zeros
after the last nonzero digit) may or may not be a significant.
40 g 1 or 2 significant figure(s) 1 | 32

16
 A x 10n 1 ≤ A < 10

n is a positive or
negative integer

Every digit included in A is significant

6.4 x 104 molecules two sig. fig.

Example
Write the following numbers in scientific notation:
0.000653 6.53 × 10-4
350,000 (two sig. fig.) 3.5 × 105
0.02700 2.700 × 10-2
1 | 33

Example
How many significant figures are in each of the following
measurements?

24 mL

3001 g

0.0320 m3

560 kg

1 | 34

17
 Rounding
Look at the left-most digit to be dropped:

1. If this digit is 5 or greater, add 1 to the last digit to be

retained and drop all digits farther to the right.

1.2151 1.22 (rounded to three Sig. Fig)

2. If this digit is less than 5, simply drop it and all digits

farther to the right.

1.2143 1.21 (rounded to three Sig. Fig)

1 | 35

Significant Figures

Addition or Subtraction

The answer cannot have more digits to the right of the decimal
point than any of the original numbers.
89.332
+1.1 one significant figure after decimal point
90.432 round off to 90.4

3.70 two significant figures after decimal point

-2.9133
0.7867 round off to 0.79

1 | 36

18
 Significant Figures
Multiplication or Division

The number of significant figures in the result is set by the original

number that has the smallest number of significant figures

4.51 x 3.6666 = 16.536366 = 16.5

3 sig figs round to

3 sig figs

6.8 ÷ 112.04 = 0.0606926 = 0.061

2 sig figs round to

2 sig figs
1 | 37

Examples
Perform the following mathematical operations, and express
each result to the correct number of significant figures.

a. 4.184 x 100.62 x (25.27 – 24.16) =

Ans = 467

b. (9.04 – 8.23 + 21.951 + 81.0) =

3.1416

Ans = 33.04

19
 c. 1.285 x 10-2 + 1.24 x 10-3 =

Ans = 1.409 x 10-2

d. (7.1 x 104) x (2.2654 x 102)=

Ans = 1.6 x 107

Significant Figures
Exact Numbers

An exact number is a number that arises when you

count items or when you define a unit.

 For example, when you say you have nine coins in a bottle,
you mean exactly nine.

 When you say there are twelve inches in a foot, you mean
exactly twelve.

 Note that exact numbers have no effect on significant

figures in a calculation.
1 | 40

20
Examples
The average of three measured lengths; 6.64, 6.68 and 6.70?

6.64 + 6.68 + 6.70

= 6.67333 = 6.67 = 7
3
Because 3 is an exact number

Temperature Scales

K = oC + 273.15

273.15 K = 0 oC
373.15 K = 100 oC

oF = 9 x oC + 32
5
32 oF = 0 oC
212 oF = 100 oC

1 | 42

21
Example:
Convert 172.9 oF to degrees Celsius.

oF = 9 x 0C + 32
5

Ans = 78.28 0C
1 | 43

More Examples:
(a) Solder is an alloy made of tin and lead that is used in
electronic circuits. A certain solder has a melting point of
224°C. What is its melting point in degrees Fahrenheit?

(b) Helium has the lowest boiling point of all the elements at
2452°F. Convert this temperature to degrees Celsius.

2 1344
1344 oC

(c) Mercury, the only metal that exists as a liquid at room

temperature, melts at 238.9°C. Convert its melting point to
kelvins.
2 512.0 1 | 44

22
 International System of Units (SI)

This system has seven SI base units, the SI units from which all
others can be derived

1 | 45

Derived Units
Combinations of fundamental units.
For example:
distance m
Speed  
time s
Volume  length  width  height  m3

Quantity Definition of Quantity SI Unit

Area length × length m2
Volume length × length × length m3
Density mass per unit volume kg/m3
Speed distance per unit time m/s
Acceleration change in speed per unit time m/s2
1 | 46

23
 Density

m
Mass per unit volume d
V

SI for d is kg/m3

Common units
solids g/cm3
liquids g/mL
gases g/L

1 | 47

Example:
A piece of metal weighing 194.3 g is placed in a graduated
cylinder containing 242.0 mL of water. The volume of water
now reads 260.5 mL. Calculate the density of the metal.

Ans = 10.5 g/cm3

1 | 48

24
Dimensional Analysis Method of Solving Problems

1. Determine which unit conversion factor(s) are needed

2. Carry units through calculation
3. If all units cancel except for the desired unit(s), then the
problem was solved correctly.

given quantity x conversion factor = desired quantity

desired unit
given unit x = desired unit
given unit

1 | 49

Example
The speed of sound in air is about 343 m/s. What is this speed
in miles per hour?
conversion units
meters to miles

seconds to hours

1 mi = 1609 m 1 min = 60 s 1 hour = 60 min

Ans= 767 mi/h

1 | 50

25
Example
The density of magnesium metal is 1.74 g/cm3. Calculate its
density in kg/m3 ?

1 | 51

26