IMPLEMENTATION OF ELECTRONIC METAL DETECTOR

BY

BABATUNDE ISRAEL OLUWASEGUN

BSP/EEE/ND/21/006

A PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, SCHOOL OF
ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY, BEST SOLUTION POLYTECHNIC
AKURE, ONDO STATE.

IN PARTIAL FUFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD

OF NATIONAL DIPLOMA (ND) IN ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS
ENGINEERING.

NOVEMBER, 2023

I
 DECLARATION

I, BABATUNDE ISRAEL OLUWASEGUN, affirm that this project report titled

"Implementation of Electronic Metal Detector," presented to the School of Engineering
Technology, is a genuine documentation of my independent work. This effort was undertaken
by me as part of the conditions for obtaining a National Diploma (ND) in Electrical Electronics
Engineering. I have duly acknowledged all sources of information through proper references.

………………………….. ……………………..

Signature Date

II
 CERTIFICATION

This certificate acknowledges that BABATUNDE ISRAEL OLUWASEGUN bearing

Matriculation Number BSP/EEE/ND/21/006 in the Department of Electrical Electronics
Engineering, has successfully developed the project titled "Implementation of Electronic
Metal Detector ." This effort is a significant contribution towards meeting the criteria for the
National Diploma award.

…………………………….. …………………………

MR JOSEPH JOEL.G SIGN/DATE

SUPERVISOR

…………………………….. …………………………

MR OLUGBUYI. O SIGN/DATE

HEAD OF DEPARTMENT

……………………………. ………………………….

ENGR. IJAROTIMI. O SIGN/DATE

EXTERNAL SUPERVISOR

III
 DEDICATION

I dedicate this project to God Almighty my creator, my strong pillar, my source of inspiration,
wisdom, knowledge and understanding. He has been the source of my strength throughout this
project and on His wings have I soared.

I also dedicate this to my parents who encouraged me all the way and whose encouragement
have made sure that I give all it takes to finish that which I have started. May the blessings of
God be with them now and always.

IV
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I express my gratitude to the Almighty for granting me the strength to successfully complete
this project within the scheduled timeframe. I am also thankful for the thorough supervision
and valuable advice provided by my supervisor, MR JOSEPH JOEL.G which significantly
contributed to the project’s success. Additionally, I appreciate the support and guidance from
the Head of the Department of Electrical Electronics Engineering, MR. OLUGBUYI E.O
throughout my research work. My heartfelt thanks extend to all the staff and lecturers in the
department for their role in shaping me as an individual and contributing to my growth in
society and Nigeria as a whole. Words cannot fully capture my appreciation for your care and
support. Special thanks to my parents, MR And MRS. BABATUNDE; may God continually
bless you all. Thank you sincerely.

V
 ABSTRACT
This project presents the implementation of a metal detector system for non-invasive identification of
metallic objects in diverse environments. The core component include a coil antenna generate a magnetic
field upon the application of an alternating current, interacting with nearby metal objects. The result
induced signal is amplifier to improve sensitivity, and a threshold. The project also include a power supply,
control interface and user feedback mechanisms. This basic metal detector serves as a foundation for
further enhancements, such as discrimination features for specific metal identification. This project consist
of five chapters, chapter one is introduction to the research/project. Chapter two: is the literature review of
related works. Chapter three: this chapter deals with the methodology and components used for the system.
Chapter four is all about the system implementation and results of tests carried out on the system. Chapter
five: chapter five is the conclusion and recommendations.

VI
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title
Declaration i
Certification ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgements iv
Abstract v
Table of content vi
List of figures ix
List of tables x
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the project 1
1.2 Statement of the problem 1
1.3 Aims and objectives for security metal detector project 2
1.4 Scope of the project 2
1.5 Significant of the project 3

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction 4

2.2 History and Development of Metal Detector 4

2.3 Current Trends 6

2.4 Mode of Operation of Metal Detector 8

2.5 Types of Metal Detector 9

2.6 Uses of metal Detector 10

2.7 Security Screening with Metal Detector 11

2.8 Review of Components used for the Project 13

2.8.1 Buzzer 13

2.8.2 Capacitor 15

VII
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction 25

3.2 Description of the Components used for the Project 27

3.2.1 Oscillators 27

3.2.1.1 Resistor 28

3.2.1.2 Capacitor (100microfarad, 1microfarad) 28

3.2.1.3 Transistor (2N3904) 29

3.2.1.4 Transmitter Coil 30

3.2.1.5 Copper Wire 31

3.2.1.6 Receiver Coil 32

3.2.1.7 Light Emitting Diode (LED) 33

3.2.1.8 Battery 34

CHAPTER FOUR: TEST AND RESULTS

4.1 Testing 36

4.2 Tools for Testing 36

4.3 Result 37

4.4 Discussion 38

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion 41

5.2 Recommendation 41

5.3 limitation of the project 42

REFERENCE 43

VIII
LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE TITLE PAGE NUMBER

Figure 2.1 Block diagram of power supply 7

Figure 2.2 Transformer 7

Figure 2.8.1 Buzzer 14

Figure 2.8.2 Capacitor 15

Figure 2.8.3 Capacitor Internal Structure 17

Figure 2.8.4 Capacitor Materials 22

Figure 3.1 Block Diagram of Metal Detector 25

Figure 3.2 Circuits Diagram of Metal Detector 26

Figure 3.2.1.1 Resistor 28

Figure 3.2.1.2 Capacitor 28

Figure 3.2.1.3 Transistor 29

Figure 3.2.1.5 Copper Wire 31

Figure 3.2.1.7 Light Emitting Diode 34

Figure 3.2.1.8 Battery 34

Figure 4.1 An Electronic Metal Detector 38

IX
LIST OF TABLES

TABLE TITLE PAGE NUMBER

Table 4.1 Bill of Engineering Measurement 39

X
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Project

The project aims to design and construct an electronic metal detector, a device widely employed
for detecting the presence of metallic objects in various environments. Metal detectors find
applications in diverse fields, including security, archaeology, and hobbyist treasure hunting.
This project focuses on creating a functional and efficient metal detection system that utilizes
electronic components to sense and indicate the presence of metallic materials.

The device operates on the principle of electromagnetic induction, where changes in the
magnetic field induced by nearby metal objects are detected and processed to provide a user-
readable output. By employing a combination of a search coil, operational amplifiers, and other
electronic components, the metal detector translates subtle changes in the electromagnetic field
into signals that can be audibly or visually interpreted. The primary goals of this project include
achieving sensitivity in metal detection, optimizing discrimination against unwanted signals,
and providing a user-friendly interface. The construction involves assembling electronic
components on a printed circuit board (PCB) and incorporating a power supply, display unit,
and control features. As we delve into the intricacies of the circuit design and construction
process, the project aims to offer a comprehensive understanding of the principles behind
electronic metal detection and serve as a practical guide for enthusiasts and learners in the field
of electronics

1.2 Statement of the problem

The demand for effective electronic metal detectors has become increasingly pronounced
across various sectors, encompassing security protocols, archaeological endeavours, and
recreational pursuits. Despite the prevalence of metal detection technology, existing devices
often grapple with inherent limitations related to sensitivity, discrimination accuracy, and user
interface intuitiveness.

One prevalent issue is the difficulty in achieving optimal sensitivity to detect a wide range of
metallic objects, especially those with low conductivity or buried at varying depths.
Additionally, discrimination accuracy, which refers to the ability to distinguish between
different types of metals, is a challenge in many current designs. This is particularly crucial in

1
applications where specific metal identification is essential, such as archaeological excavations
or security screenings.

Moreover, the user interface of conventional metal detectors may not always align with the
needs of diverse user groups. In some cases, operational complexities and lack of user-friendly
features can hinder the effectiveness and accessibility of these devices.

Recognizing these challenges, our project sets out to address these shortcomings by designing
and constructing an electronic metal detector that goes beyond current limitations. We aim to
enhance sensitivity for detecting a wide spectrum of metals, improve discrimination
capabilities to accurately identify various metals, and integrate a user-friendly interface for
seamless operation. Through this undertaking, we aspire to offer a versatile and cost-effective
solution that caters to the nuanced requirements of users across different fields, ultimately
contributing to more effective and accessible metal detection technology.

1.3 Aims and Objectives for Security Metal Detector Project:

Develop a security-focused metal detector with heightened sensitivity to reliably detect even
small metallic objects, ensuring effective threat detection in security screening scenarios.
Design the metal detector for quick response times, allowing for efficient screening of
individuals and belongings in high-traffic security checkpoints. Create an intuitive user
interface that requires minimal training for security personnel, promoting seamless integration
into security protocols and enhancing operational efficiency.

Objectives:

Implement a multi-zone detection system to identify the location of metallic objects on the
person or within belongings, aiding security personnel in pinpointing potential threats. Explore
seamless integration with existing security systems, allowing for synchronized operations and
data sharing to enhance overall security infrastructure. Design the metal detector to comply
with relevant regulatory standards and security protocols, ensuring its suitability for use in
various security-sensitive environments.

1.4 Scope of the Project

Investigation into the specific requirements and challenges of metal detection in security
applications, including airport screenings, public events, and secure facilities.

2
1.5 Significance of the Project:

1. Enhanced Security Measures:

- The project contributes to enhancing security measures by developing an advanced metal

detector with improved sensitivity and discrimination capabilities, reducing the risk of
unauthorized metallic items passing through security checkpoints.

2. Efficient Threat Detection:

- The designed metal detector aims to provide security personnel with a more efficient tool
for threat detection, ensuring rapid and accurate identification of metallic objects, thereby
enhancing overall security protocols.

3. Minimization of False Alarms:

- By implementing discrimination algorithms, the project aims to minimize false alarms,

reducing the disruption caused by unnecessary security alerts and improving the operational
efficiency of security screening processes.

4. User-Friendly Operation:

- The creation of a user-friendly interface facilitates easier integration into security protocols,
requiring minimal training for security personnel. This contributes to smoother operations at
security checkpoints and promotes effective use of the metal detection technology.

5. Versatility in Security Applications:

- The project’s outcomes have the potential to be applied across various security-sensitive
environments, including airports, public events, government facilities, and critical
infrastructure, contributing to a more versatile and adaptable security technology.

6. Compliance with Standards:

- Ensuring compliance with regulatory standards and security protocols, the project aligns
with industry norms, enhancing its applicability and acceptance in different security contexts.

3
 CHAPTERS TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction:

The literature review in this chapter offers a comprehensive exploration of existing knowledge
and research relevant to the design and construction of electronic metal detectors, with a
specific focus on applications in security contexts. By delving into key scholarly works,
research articles, and technological advancements, this review aims to establish a foundation
for understanding the current landscape of metal detection technology and its implications for
security measures.

The introduction provides an overview of the fundamental principles underpinning metal

detection, including electromagnetic induction and signal processing techniques. As we
navigate through the literature, particular attention is given to studies addressing the intricacies
and challenges encountered in security applications. This encompasses critical examinations
of metal detectors utilized in various settings, such as airport screenings, public events, and
facilities requiring heightened security measures.

The purpose of this literature review is threefold: first, to elucidate the theoretical
underpinnings of electronic metal detection; second, to discern the successes and limitations of
current technologies; and third, to identify gaps in the existing body of knowledge. By
synthesizing insights from prior research, this chapter aims to inform the methodology and
design choices of our proposed electronic metal detector, ensuring that our project builds upon
the strengths and addresses the limitations observed in contemporary metal detection
technology, particularly in security applications.

2.2 History and Development of Metal Detectors:

The evolution of metal detectors spans over a century, marked by significant advancements and
diversification in their applications. Here’s a brief overview of key milestones in the history
and development of metal detectors:

Late 19th Century:

4
 - The concept of metal detection traces back to the late 19th century when physicist
Heinrich Wilhelm Dove observed changes in electromagnetic fields around metallic
objects. However, practical applications were not yet realized.

Early 20th Century:

- In the early 20th century, the invention of the vacuum tube paved the way for the
development of rudimentary metal detectors. These early models were large,
cumbersome, and lacked the sensitivity required for effective metal detection.

1930s:

- Dr. Gerhard Fischer, a German immigrant to the United States, is often credited with
creating the first functional metal detector in the 1930s. Fischer’s invention used
vacuum tubes and oscillating magnetic fields to detect metal.

World War II:

- Metal detectors gained prominence during World War II when they were employed for
locating landmines. The technology matured during this period, with the advent of
portable and more efficient designs.

Post-World War II:

- After the war, metal detectors found applications in the fields of archaeology and
geophysics. Early models were large and used cumbersome vacuum tubes, limiting
their mobility.

1960s:

- The invention of the transistor in the 1950s revolutionized metal detector design. In the
1960s, Charles Garrett introduced the first successful transistorized metal detector,
significantly reducing size and improving portability.

1970s:

- Advances in integrated circuits and microprocessor technology in the 1970s led to

further miniaturization and improved performance. Discrimination features were
introduced, allowing detectors to differentiate between various metals.

1980s and 1990s:

5
 - The 1980s and 1990s witnessed the commercialization of metal detectors for
recreational use, such as treasure hunting and gold prospecting. These detectors often
featured more sophisticated discrimination capabilities and ergonomic designs.

21st Century:

- The 21st century brought about continued advancements, including digital signal
processing, improved sensitivity, and enhanced discrimination algorithms. Metal
detectors became integral in security applications, with widespread use in airports,
public spaces, and critical infrastructure.

2.3 Current Trends:

- Modern metal detectors leverage advanced technologies, including pulse induction and
very low-frequency technologies. They offer increased sensitivity, faster response
times, and improved discrimination, making them indispensable tools in security,
archaeology, and various industries.

The history and development of metal detectors exemplify a journey from conceptualization to
widespread applications across diverse fields, showcasing continual innovation and refinement
in response to evolving technological challenges and societal needs.

A typical metal detector: used for detecting buried coins, gold, or landmines consists of a
circular horizontal coil assembly held just above the ground as shown in the figure to the right.
Other uses of more specialized metal detectors include usage in medicine, security etc. Metal
detectors have been used for diagnostic purposes since 1881. They have been utilised to
localise a myriad of foreign objects including bullets, intraocular metallic fragments,
swallowed coins and other foreign bodies and medical devices. Rapid detection of metallic
objects may facilitate diagnosis or treatment. Metal detectors are diagnostically useful because
of their low expense, lack of radiation exposure and ease of use. Other uses include demining
(the detection of land mines), the detection of weapons such as knives and guns, especially at
airports, geophysical prospecting, archaeology and 'treasure hunting'. Metal detectors are also
used to detect foreign bodies in food, and in the construction industry to detect steel
reinforcing bars in concrete and pipes and wires buried in walls and floors. Metal detectors
are finding applications all over the place as the ability to detect certain types of materials at
a distance become ever more crucial.

6
 Figure 2.1 A Typical Commercially Available Metal Detector

Figure 2.2 Plastic or Cardboard Form

Plastic and paper cardboard is commonly used in security handheld metal detectors because
they are lightweight, inexpensive, and easy to work with. They are also non-conductive, which
is important because the metal detector works by detecting the presence of metal objects.

Plastic and paper cardboard can be used to make the housings of metal detectors. The housing
protects the electronic components from dust and moisture and also provides a comfortable
grip for the user.

Plastic and paper cardboard can also be used to make the coils of metal detectors. The coils are
the components that generate the alternating magnetic field that is used to detect metal objects.
The use of plastic and paper cardboard in security handheld metal detectors makes them

7
affordable and easy to manufacture. It also makes them lightweight and easy to use, which is
important for security personnel who must use the detectors for long periods of time.

Overall, plastic and paper cardboard are important materials for the construction of security
handheld metal detectors. They are lightweight, inexpensive, and easy to work with, and they
provide the necessary properties for the detectors to function effectively.

2.4 Mode of operation of metal detector

The operation of a metal detector involves a systematic process designed to detect the presence
of metallic objects in its vicinity. Central to this operation is the emission of an electromagnetic
field, typically generated by a coil or set of coils within the device. This emitted field interacts
with any metallic objects within its range, inducing eddy currents in the metal. The resulting
disturbance in the electromagnetic field serves as the initial signal indicating the potential
presence of metal.

Subsequently, the metal detector employs amplification circuitry, often utilizing operational
amplifiers (op-amps), to enhance the weak signal generated by the metal object. This
amplification is essential for ensuring the detection of even small or deeply buried metallic
items. Depending on the design, some metal detectors incorporate discrimination features at
this stage, allowing the device to differentiate between various metals based on their
conductivity. Discrimination is particularly useful in filtering out signals from non-ferrous
metals.

Following signal processing and discrimination, the enhanced signal is converted into an output
that is perceivable by the user. This output can take the form of an audible alert, such as a tone
or series of beeps, a visual indicator on a display screen, or a combination of both. Users, often
security personnel or hobbyists, interpret these audio or visual cues to identify the presence and
approximate location of the detected metal object.

User interaction is a key aspect of the metal detector's operation, with individuals adjusting
settings like sensitivity or discrimination based on the specific application or environmental
conditions. In some cases, metal detectors may offer calibration options to account for factors
such as soil mineralization, ensuring optimal performance in different scenarios.

Crucially, the metal detector continuously monitors its surroundings for changes in the
electromagnetic field as it is moved. This allows for the identification of different metal objects

8
in the vicinity, providing a real-time assessment of the environment. Whether used for security
screening, treasure hunting, or industrial applications, the mode of operation described forms
the foundation for the diverse functionalities of metal detectors across various fields.

2.5 Types of Metal Detectors:

1. Beat Frequency Oscillation (BFO):

- Description: Utilizes two coils—one to transmit and one to receive signals. When metal
disrupts the electromagnetic field, it causes a change in frequency.

- Applications: Common in entry-level and hobbyist detectors due to simplicity.

2. Very Low-Frequency (VLF):

- Description: Employs two coils like BFO but operates at higher frequencies. Capable of
discriminating between different metals based on their conductivity.

- Applications: Widely used in various settings, including coin shooting, relic hunting, and
jewellery detection.

3. Pulse Induction (PI):

- Description: Emits pulses of current through a single coil. Measures the time delay for the
pulse to decay after hitting a metal object.

- Applications: Ideal for detecting in highly mineralized soil, making them suitable for beach
and underwater treasure hunting.

4. Multi-Frequency (MF) or Multiple Frequency (MF):

- Description: Operates at multiple frequencies simultaneously, combining advantages of

VLF and PI detectors.

- Applications: Offers versatility, used in various environments for both general and
specialized metal detecting.

5. 3D Imaging Detectors:

- Description: Incorporates advanced signal processing and imaging technologies to provide

a three-dimensional representation of the buried objects.

9
 - Applications: Valuable in archaeological and professional applications where precise object
identification and location are critical.

6. Industrial Metal Detectors:

- Description: Designed for industrial applications, these detectors are often conveyor-belt
mounted and used to identify and remove metal contaminants from products in manufacturing
processes.

- Applications: Commonly used in food processing, pharmaceuticals, and other industries to

ensure product quality and safety.

7. Walk-Through Metal Detectors:

- Description: Large-scale detectors used for security screening at entrances. Emit

electromagnetic fields and alarm when metal is detected.

- Applications: Primarily employed in security settings such as airports, government

buildings, and events.

activity.

2.6 Uses of Metal Detectors:

1. Security Screening:

- Application: Walk-through metal detectors are widely used in airports, government

buildings, and public events to screen individuals for concealed metal objects, enhancing
security measures.

2. Treasure Hunting and Hobbyist Exploration:

- Application: Metal detectors are popular among hobbyists and treasure hunters for locating
coins, jewellery, relics, and other valuable items buried in the ground.

3. Archaeological Excavations:

- Application: Archaeologists use metal detectors to locate and uncover artefacts, coins, and
metal structures buried beneath the ground, aiding in historical research.

10
4. Construction Industry:

- Application: Metal detectors are employed in the construction industry to detect buried
utility lines, pipes, and other metal objects before excavation, preventing damage and ensuring
worker safety.

5. Beachcombing:

- Application: Beachgoers and hobbyists use waterproof metal detectors to search for lost
jewellery, coins, and other metallic items in sandy and underwater environments.

6. Industrial Quality Control:

- Application: Industrial metal detectors are integrated into production lines to identify and
remove metal contaminants from food, pharmaceuticals, textiles, and other products, ensuring
quality and safety.

7. Gold Prospecting:

- Application: Specialized gold detectors are used by prospectors to detect small gold nuggets
or flakes in rivers, streams, and gold-rich areas.

2.7 Security Screening with Metal Detectors:

Security screening with metal detectors is a fundamental practice employed across various
settings to enhance safety and prevent potential threats. The process involves the use of
specialized electronic devices that can detect the presence of metal objects on individuals or
within their belongings. Here’s a more detailed explanation of its applications:

1. Airport Security:

- Process: Passengers and their belongings go through walk-through metal detectors and may
undergo additional screening with handheld metal detectors. This ensures that no prohibited
items, such as weapons or dangerous objects, are carried onto flights.

2. Government Buildings and Facilities:

- Process: Entrances to government offices, military facilities, and other secure locations are
equipped with metal detectors. Visitors and employees pass through these detectors to detect
any concealed metal objects that could pose a security risk.3. Public Events and Venues:

11
 - Process: Security checkpoints at public events use metal detectors to screen attendees. This
is crucial for preventing unauthorized items, including weapons, from entering crowded venues
and ensuring the safety of everyone present.

4. Transportation Hubs:

- Process: Bus terminals, train stations, and other transportation hubs utilize metal detectors
to screen passengers and their luggage. This contributes to the security of public transportation
systems and prevents potential threats.

5. Prisons and Correctional Facilities:

- Process: Metal detectors are employed at entry points to prisons to detect and prevent the
smuggling of contraband, such as weapons or other prohibited items, into correctional facilities.

6. Courthouses:

- Process: Individuals entering courthouses pass through metal detectors as part of security
measures. This helps maintain a secure environment during legal proceedings and prevents
potential security threats.

7. Schools and Educational Institutions:

- Process: Some educational institutions implement metal detectors at entrances to enhance

security. This screening process aims to detect and prevent the entry of weapons or dangerous
objects into the school environment.

8. Critical Infrastructure:

- Process: Entrances to critical infrastructure sites, such as power plants or communication

centres, are equipped with metal detectors to ensure only authorized individuals enter and to
prevent potential security breaches.

9. Border Crossings:

- Process: At border checkpoints, metal detectors are used to screen individuals and vehicles
for concealed weapons or illicit materials. This contributes to national security by preventing
the entry of potential threats.

12
10. Corporate Offices and High-Security Buildings:

- process: Some corporate offices and high-security buildings use metal detectors at entrances
to enhance security. This screening process helps protect employees, visitors, and sensitive
information.

11. Event Security:

- Process: Major events, conferences, and conventions implement metal detectors at

entrances to ensure the safety of attendees. This security measure prevents potential threats and
contributes to a secure environment during the event.

12. Theme Parks and Amusement Centres:

- Process: Entrance points to theme parks and large entertainment centres may use metal
detectors to screen visitors for prohibited items. This helps maintain a secure environment
within the venue.

Security screening with metal detectors plays a vital role in maintaining safety and security
across diverse settings, providing a proactive and effective method for identifying and
preventing potential threats.

2.8 Review of components used for the Project

2.8.1. Buzzer
A.C buzzer is an electrical device commonly used to produce sound. Light weight, simple
construction and make it usable in various applications like car/truck reversing indicator, main
resumption alarm, burglary alarm etc.

13
 Figure 2.8.1 Buzzer

Piezo Buzzer

Buzzer comes in various types; piezo buzzer is an electronic device commonly used to produce
sound. Light weight, simple construction and low price make it usable in various applications
like car/truck reversing indicator, computers, call bells, security system etc. Piezo buzzer is
based on the inverse principle of piezo electricity discovered in 1880 by Jacques and Pierre
Curie. It is the phenomena of generating electricity when mechanical pressure is applied to
certain materials and the vice versa is also true. Such materials are called piezo electric
materials. Piezo electric materials are either naturally available or manmade. Piezo ceramic is
class of manmade material, which poses piezo electric effect and is widely used to make disc,
the heart of piezo buzzer. When subjected to an alternating electric field they stretch or
compress, in accordance with the frequency of the signal thereby producing sound. The image
above shows a very commonly used piezo buzzer also called piezo transducer operating at DC
voltage. Encapsulated in a cylindrical plastic coating, it has a hole on the top face for sound to
propagate. A yellow metallic disc which plays an important role in the producing sound can be
seen through the hole.
This one is petite but loud! Drive it with 3-30V peak-to-peak square wave. To use, connect one
pin to ground (either one) and the other pinto a square wave out from a timer or microcontroller.
For the loude stones, stay around 4 KHz, but works quite well from 2KHz to 10KHz.For extra
loudness, you can connect both pins to a microcontroller and swap which pin is high or low
('differential drive') for double the volume.

14
2.8.2 Capacitor

A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component

used to store energy electrostatically in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary
widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator);
for example, one common construction consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer of
insulating film. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common
electrical devices.

When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field
develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative
charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is
characterized by a single constant value, capacitance. This is the ratio of the electric charge on
each conductor to the potential difference between them. The SI unit of capacitance is the farad,
which is equal to one coulomb per volt.

The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor,
hence capacitor conductors are often called plates, referring to an early means of construction.
In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and also
has an electric field strength limit, the breakdown voltage. The conductors and leads introduce
an undesired inductance and resistance.

Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing
alternating current to pass. In analogue filter networks, they smooth the output of power
supplies. In resonant circuits they tune radios to particular frequencies. In electric power
transmission systems, they stabilize voltage and power flow.

Figure 2.8.2: Capacitor

15
History
October 1745, Ewald Georg von Kleist of Pomeranian in Germany found that charge could be
stored by connecting a high-voltage electrostatic generator by a wire to a volume of water in a
hand-held glass jar. Von Kleist's hand and the water acted as conductors and the jar as a
dielectric (although details of the mechanism were incorrectly identified at the time). Von Kleist
found that touching the wire resulted in a powerful spark, much more painful than that obtained
from an electrostatic machine. The following year, the Dutch physicist Pieter van
Musschenbroek invented a similar capacitor, which was named the Leyden jar, after the
University of Leiden where he worked. He also was impressed by the power of the shock he
received, writing, "I would not take a second shock for the kingdom of France."

Daniel Galatz was the first to combine several jars in parallel into a "battery" to increase the
charge storage capacity. Benjamin Franklin investigated the Leyden jar and came to the
conclusion that the charge was stored on the glass, not in the water as others had assumed. He
also adopted the term "battery", (denoting the increasing of power with a row of similar units
as in a battery of cannon), subsequently applied to clusters of electrochemical cells. Leyden jars
were later made by coating the inside and outside of jars with metal foil, leaving a space at the
mouth to prevent arcing between the foils. The earliest unit of capacitance was the jar,
equivalent to about 1 Nano farad.

Leyden jars or more powerful devices employing flat glass plates alternating with foil
conductors were used exclusively up until about 1900, when the invention of wireless (radio)
created a demand for standard capacitors, and the steady move to higher frequencies required
capacitors with lower inductance. A more compact construction began to be used of a flexible
dielectric sheet such as oiled paper sandwiched between sheets of metal foil, rolled or folded
into a small package.

Early capacitors were also known as condensers, a term that is still occasionally used today.
The term was first used for this purpose by Alessandro Volta in 1782, with reference to the
device's ability to store a higher density of electric charge than a normal isolated conductor.

Theory of operation
A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region. The
nonconductive region is called the dielectric. In simpler terms, the dielectric is just an electrical
insulator. Examples of dielectric media are glass, air, paper, vacuum, and even a semiconductor
depletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-

16
contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from any external electric
field. The conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges on their facing surfaces, and the
dielectric develops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that one
coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device.

An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of

charge ±Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them:

Because the conductors (or plates) are close together, the opposite charges on the conductors
attract one another due to their electric fields, allowing the capacitor to store more charge for a
given voltage than if the conductors were separated, giving the capacitor a large capacitance.

Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to vary.
In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:

Figure 2.8.3: Capacitor Internal Structure

Hydraulic analogy

17
In the hydraulic analogy, a capacitor is analogous to a rubber membrane sealed inside a pipe.
This animation illustrates a membrane being repeatedly stretched and un-stretched by the flow
of water, which is analogous to a capacitor being repeatedly charged and discharged by the flow
of charge.

In the hydraulic analogy, charge carriers flowing through a wire are analogous to water flowing
through a pipe. A capacitor is like a rubber membrane sealed inside a pipe. Water molecules
cannot pass through the membrane, but some water can move by stretching the membrane. The
analogy clarifies a few aspects of capacitors:

• The current alters the charge on a capacitor, just as the flow of water changes the position
of the membrane. More specifically, the effect of an electric current is to increase the
charge of one plate of the capacitor, and decrease the charge of the other plate by an
equal amount. This is just like how, when water flow moves the rubber membrane, it
increases the amount of water on one side of the membrane, and decreases the amount
of water on the other side.
• The more a capacitor is charged, the larger its voltage drop; i.e., the more it "pushes
back" against the charging current. This is analogous to the fact that the more a
membrane is stretched, the more it pushes back on the water.
• Charge can flow "through" a capacitor even though no individual electron can get from
one side to the other. This is analogous to the fact that water can flow through the pipe
even though no water molecule can pass through the rubber membrane. Of course, the
flow cannot continue the same direction forever; the capacitor will experience dielectric
breakdown, and analogously the membrane will eventually break.
• The capacitance describes how much charge can be stored on one plate of a capacitor
for a given "push" (voltage drop). A very stretchy, flexible membrane corresponds to a
higher capacitance than a stiff membrane.
• A charged-up capacitor is storing potential energy, analogously to a stretched membrane.

Energy of electric field

Work must be done by an external influence to "move" charge between the conductors in a
capacitor. When the external influence is removed, the charge separation persists in the electric

18
field and energy is stored to be released when the charge is allowed to return to its equilibrium
position. The work done in establishing the electric field, and hence the amount of energy
stored, is

Here Q is the charge stored in the capacitor, V is the voltage across the capacitor, and C is the
capacitance.

In the case of a fluctuating voltage V(t), the stored energy also fluctuates and hence power must
flow into or out of the capacitor. This power can be found by taking the time derivative of the
stored energy:

Current–voltage relation
The current I(t) through any component in an electric circuit is defined as the rate of flow of a
charge Q(t) passing through it, but actual charges—electrons—cannot pass through the
dielectric layer of a capacitor. Rather, an electron accumulates on the negative plate for each
one that leaves the positive plate, resulting in an electron depletion and consequent positive
charge on one electrode that is equal and opposite to the accumulated negative charge on the
other. Thus the charge on the electrodes is equal to the integral of the current as well as
proportional to the voltage, as discussed above. As with any anti derivative, a constant of
integration is added to represent the initial voltage V(t0). This is the integral form of the
capacitor equation:

Taking the derivative of this and multiplying by C yields the derivative form

The dual of the capacitor is the inductor, which stores energy in a magnetic field rather than an
electric field. Its current-voltage relation is obtained by exchanging current and voltage in the
capacitor equations and replacing C with the inductance L.

19
DC circuits

A simple resistor-capacitor circuit demonstrates charging of a capacitor.

A series circuit containing only a resistor, a capacitor, a switch and a constant DC source of
voltage V0 is known as a charging circuit. If the capacitor is initially uncharged while the switch
is open, and the switch is closed at t0, it follows from Kirchhoff's voltage law that

Taking the derivative and multiplying by C, gives a first-order differential equation:

At t = 0, the voltage across the capacitor is zero and the voltage across the resistor is V0. The
initial current is then I(0) =V0/R. With this assumption, solving the differential equation yields

where τ0 = RC is the time constant of the system. As the capacitor reaches equilibrium with the
source voltage, the voltages across the resistor and the current through the entire circuit decay
exponentially. The case of discharging a charged capacitor likewise demonstrates exponential
decay, but with the initial capacitor voltage replacing V0 and the final voltage being zero.

AC circuits
See also: reactance (electronics) and electrical impedance deriving the device specific
impedances

20
Impedance, the vector sum of reactance and resistance, describes the phase difference and the
ratio of amplitudes between sinusoidally varying voltage and sinusoidally varying current at a
given frequency. Fourier analysis allows any signal to be constructed from a spectrum of
frequencies, whence the circuit's reaction to the various frequencies may be found. The
reactance and impedance of a capacitor are respectively

Where j is the imaginary unit and ω is the angular frequency of the sinusoidal signal. The −j
phase indicates that the AC voltage V = ZI lags the AC current by 90°: the positive current phase
corresponds to increasing voltage as the capacitor charges; zero current corresponds to
instantaneous constant voltage, etc.

Impedance decreases with increasing capacitance and increasing frequency. This implies that a
higher-frequency signal or a larger capacitor results in a lower voltage amplitude per current
amplitude—an AC "short circuit" or AC coupling. Conversely, for very low frequencies, the
reactance will be high, so that a capacitor is nearly an open circuit in AC analysis those
frequencies have been "filtered out".

Capacitors are different from resistors and inductors in that the impedance is inversely
proportional to the defining characteristic; i.e., capacitance.

Capacitor types

Main article: Types of capacitor

Practical capacitors are available commercially in many different forms. The type of internal
dielectric, the structure of the plates and the device packaging all strongly affect the
characteristics of the capacitor, and its applications.

Values available range from very low (Pico farad range; while arbitrarily low values are in
principle possible, stray (parasitic) capacitance in any circuit is the limiting factor) to about 5kF
super capacitors.

Above approximately 1 microfarad electrolytic capacitors are usually used because of their
small size and low cost compared with other technologies, unless their relatively poor stability,

21
life and polarized nature make them unsuitable. Very high capacity super capacitors use a
porous carbon-based electrode material.

Dielectric materials

Figure 2.8.4: Capacitor Materials.

From left: multilayer ceramic, ceramic disc, multilayer polyester film, tubular ceramic,
polystyrene, metalized polyester film, aluminium electrolytic. Major scale divisions are in
centimetres.

Most types of capacitor include a dielectric spacer, which increases their capacitance. These
dielectrics are most often insulators. However, low capacitance devices are available with a
vacuum between their plates, which allows extremely high voltage operation and low losses.
Variable capacitors with their plates open to the atmosphere were commonly used in radio
tuning circuits. Later designs use polymer foil dielectric between the moving and stationary
plates, with no significant air space between them.

In order to maximize the charge that a capacitor can hold the dielectric material needs to have
as high a permittivity as possible, while also having as high a breakdown voltage as possible.

Several solid dielectrics are available, including paper, plastic, glass, mica and ceramic
materials. Paper was used extensively in older devices and offers relatively high voltage
performance. However, it is susceptible to water absorption, and has been largely replaced by
plastic film capacitors. Plastics offer better stability and aging performance, which makes them
useful in timer circuits, although they may be limited to low operating temperatures and
frequencies. Ceramic capacitors are generally small, cheap and useful for high frequency
applications, although their capacitance varies strongly with voltage and they age poorly. They
are broadly categorized as class 1 dielectrics, which have predictable variation of capacitance
with temperature or class 2 dielectrics, which can operate at higher voltage. Glass and mica

22
capacitors are extremely reliable, stable and tolerant to high temperatures and voltages, but are
too expensive for most mainstream applications. Electrolytic capacitors and super capacitors
are used to store small and larger amounts of energy, respectively, ceramic capacitors are often
used in resonators, and parasitic capacitance occurs in circuits wherever the simple conductor-
insulator-conductor structure is formed unintentionally by the configuration of the circuit
layout.

Electrolytic capacitors use an aluminium or tantalum plate with an oxide dielectric layer. The
second electrode is a liquid electrolyte, connected to the circuit by another foil plate.
Electrolytic capacitors offer very high capacitance but suffer from poor tolerances, high
instability, gradual loss of capacitance especially when subjected to heat, and high leakage
current. Poor quality capacitors may leak electrolyte, which is harmful to printed circuit boards.
The conductivity of the electrolyte drops at low temperatures, which increases equivalent series
resistance. While widely used for power-supply conditioning, poor high frequency
characteristics make them unsuitable for many applications. Electrolytic capacitors will self-
degrade if unused for a period (around a year), and when full power is applied may short circuit,
permanently damaging the capacitor and usually blowing a fuse or causing failure of rectifier
diodes (for instance, in older equipment, arcing in rectifier tubes). They can be restored before
use (and damage) by gradually applying the operating voltage, often done on antique vacuum
tube equipment over a period of 30 minutes by using a variable transformer to supply AC power.
Unfortunately, the use of this technique may be less satisfactory for some solid state equipment,
which may be damaged by operation below its normal power range, requiring that the power
supply first be isolated from the consuming circuits. Such remedies may not be applicable to
modern high-frequency power supplies as these produce full output voltage even with reduced
input.

Tantalum capacitors offer better frequency and temperature characteristics than aluminium, but
higher dielectric absorption and leakage.

Polymer capacitors (OS-CON, OC-CON, KO, AO) use solid conductive polymer (or
polymerized organic semiconductor) as electrolyte and offer longer life and lower ESR at
higher cost than standard electrolytic capacitors.

A Feed through is a component that, while not serving as its main use, has capacitance and is
used to conduct signals through a circuit board.

23
Several other types of capacitor are available for specialist applications. Super capacitors store
large amounts of energy. Super capacitors made from carbon aerogel, carbon nanotubes, or
highly porous electrode materials, offer extremely high capacitance (up to 5 kF as of 2010) and
can be used in some applications instead of rechargeable batteries. Alternating current
capacitors are specifically designed to work on line (mains) voltage AC power circuits. They
are commonly used in electric motor circuits and are often designed to handle large currents,
so they tend to be physically large. They are usually ruggedly packaged, often in metal cases
that can be easily grounded/earthed. They also are designed with direct current breakdown
voltages of at least five times the maximum AC voltage.

Structure of capacitors

Capacitor packages: SMD ceramic at top left; SMD tantalum at bottom left; through-hole
tantalum at top right; through-hole electrolytic at bottom right. Major scale divisions are cm.

The arrangement of plates and dielectric has many variations depending on the desired ratings
of the capacitor. For small values of capacitance (microfarads and less), ceramic disks use
metallic coatings, with wire leads bonded to the coating. Larger values can be made by multiple
stacks of plates and disks. Larger value capacitors usually use a metal foil or metal film layer
deposited on the surface of a dielectric film to make the plates, and a dielectric film of
impregnated paper or plastic – these are rolled up to save space. To reduce the series resistance
and inductance for long plates, the plates and dielectric are staggered so that connection is made
at the common edge of the rolled-up plates, not at the ends of the foil or metalized film strips
that comprise the plates.

The assembly is encased to prevent moisture entering the dielectric – early radio equipment
used a cardboard tube sealed with wax. Modern paper or film dielectric capacitors are dipped
in a hard thermoplastic. Large capacitors for high-voltage use may have the roll form
compressed to fit into a rectangular metal case, with bolted terminals and bushings for
connections. The dielectric in larger capacitors is often impregnated with a liquid to improve
its properties.

24
 CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This section discusses the analysis, design and implementation of the metal detector. Factors
such as availability and accessibility of materials, durability, robustness and functionality of
the design such that the desired result is obtained at any time the system is energised. The
steps that were taken to design this project includes: (i) Selection of components (ii) Analysis
of the circuit (iii) Simulation of the circuit (iv) Circuit construction and testing.

Figure 3.1: Block Diagram of Metal Detector

25
 Figure 3.2: Circuits Diagram of Metal Detector

The circuit diagram above is of a four-transistor metal detector. It is a relatively simple circuit,
but it is still effective at detecting metal objects. The circuit works by generating a high-
frequency alternating current (AC) signal in the search coil. When a metal object is brought
near the search coil, it induces a current in the coil. This current causes a change in the
frequency of the AC signal. The change in frequency is detected by the circuit and used to
generate an alarm signal.

The circuit consists of the following main components:

• Search coil: This is a coil of wire that is used to generate the AC signal and to detect
the presence of metal objects.
• Transistors Q1, Q2, and Q3: These transistors form an oscillator circuit that generates
the AC signal.
• Transistor Q4: This transistor is used to amplify the alarm signal.
• Capacitors C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, and C6: These capacitors are used to filter the AC
signal and to generate the alarm signal.
• Resistors R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, R8, R9, R10, R11, R12, R13, R14, R15, and
R16: These resistors are used to set the operating conditions of the circuit.

26
The circuit works as follows:

1. The oscillator circuit, formed by transistors Q1, Q2, and Q3, generates a high-frequency
AC signal in the search coil.
2. When a metal object is brought near the search coil, it induces a current in the coil. This
current causes a change in the frequency of the AC signal.
3. The change in frequency is detected by capacitor C1 and resistor R1.
4. The detected signal is amplified by transistor Q4 and used to generate an alarm signal.
5. The alarm signal is fed to the phone jack, where it can be heard through headphones or
speakers.

The sensitivity of the metal detector can be adjusted by varying the value of resistor R3. A
higher value of R3 will make the detector more sensitive.

3.2 Description of the components used for the project.

Here is a more detailed list of the materials used:

3.2.1 Oscillator: The oscillator is built using transistor, capacitor connected in parallel as
shown in the circuit diagram above.

3.2.1.1 Resistors (10kΩ, 1kΩ)

Figure 3.2.1.1: Resistor

Description:

27
In a metal detector, a 10-kilohm resistor plays a crucial role as a component in the electronic
circuitry. This resistor, with a resistance value of 10,000 ohms, is likely integrated into specific
areas of the metal detector circuit to control current flow, set bias points, or establish voltage
levels. Its precise value is chosen to fulfil the requirements of the detector’s overall electrical
design. .

3.2.1.2 Capacitors (100nF, 1µF)

Figure 3.2.1.2: Capacitor

Description:

In a security handheld metal detector, a capacitor with a value of 100 nanofarads (100nF) is a
key electronic component employed in various aspects of the circuitry. This capacitor is
designed to store and release electrical energy, contributing to specific functions within the
metal detector’s electronic system.

3.2.1.3 Transistors (2N3904)

Figure 3.2.1.3: Transistor

Description:

28
The 2N3904 is a small signal NPN bipolar junction transistor commonly used in electronic
circuits, including those found in security handheld metal detectors. In the context of a metal
detector, the 2N3904 transistor is likely employed for amplification and signal processing.

Features:

1. Amplification: The 2N3904 transistor acts as an amplifying component, boosting the

strength of signals related to metal detection. This is crucial for improving the sensitivity of the
metal detector to small changes in the electromagnetic field caused by nearby metal objects.

2. Switching Functionality: NPN transistors like the 2N3904 can be used as electronic
switches. In a metal detector, they may play a role in controlling the flow of current or switching
between different modes of operation.

3. Signal Processing: The transistor contributes to signal processing within the metal detector
circuit. It may be involved in tasks such as filtering, amplification of weak signals, or
modulating the detector’s response to specific types of metal.

4. Biasing: Transistors often require a specific biasing voltage to operate correctly. The
2N3904, when appropriately biased, ensures stable and reliable amplification, contributing to
the overall performance of the metal detector.

5. Small Size: The compact size of the 2N3904 makes it suitable for integration into the
compact design of handheld devices like security metal detectors, allowing for efficient use of
space in the electronic layout.

6. Low Power Consumption: The 2N3904 is designed for low-power applications, helping
maintain energy efficiency in the metal detector, crucial for prolonged battery life in portable
devices.

3.2.1.4 Transmitter coil:

The transmitter coil is a crucial component in security handheld metal detectors, responsible
for generating an electromagnetic field that interacts with nearby metallic objects. This
interaction forms the basis for detecting the presence of hidden weapons or other contraband.

29
Description:

The transmitter coil is typically a circular loop of wire wound around a plastic or ceramic form.
When an electric current passes through the coil, it generates a magnetic field that extends into
the surrounding area. The strength of the magnetic field depends on the number of turns of wire
in the coil and the current flowing through it.

Features:

Frequency: The transmitter coil operates at a specific frequency, typically in the range of a
few kilohertz (kHz) to tens of kHz. This frequency determines the sensitivity of the detector to
different types of metals.

Inductance: The inductance of the coil is a measure of its ability to store energy in its magnetic
field. A higher inductance coil will produce a stronger magnetic field and increase the detection
range of the metal detector.

Shielding: The transmitter coil is often shielded to prevent electromagnetic interference

from other devices. This shielding helps ensure that the detector only responds to the magnetic
field generated by the coil itself.

Functions:

Field Generation: The primary function of the transmitter coil is to generate a uniform
electromagnetic field in the vicinity of the metal detector. This field serves as the basis for
detecting the presence of metallic objects.

Field Modulation: The transmitter coil’s magnetic field can be modulated, typically by
varying the current passing through the coil. This modulation allows the detector to distinguish
between different types of metals, enhancing its discrimination capabilities.

Field Interaction: When a metal object enters the electromagnetic field of the transmitter
coil, it alters the field’s properties. This alteration is detected by the receiver coil, which triggers
an alarm signal.

30
Overall, the transmitter coil plays a vital role in the operation of security handheld metal
detectors, enabling them to effectively detect and identify concealed metallic objects.

3.2.1.5 Copper wire (22 gauge or thicker)

Figure 3.2.1.5: Copper Wire

Copper wire 22 gauge is commonly used in metal detectors because it is a good conductor of
electricity and is relatively inexpensive. It is also thin and flexible, making it easy to wind into
coils.

The number of turns of wire in the coil affects the strength of the magnetic field that is
generated. A coil with more turns will generate a stronger magnetic field, which will make the
metal detector more sensitive. However, a coil with more turns will also have a higher
resistance, which will reduce the current flow through the coil. This can reduce the range of
the metal detector

The diameter of the wire also affects the strength of the magnetic field. A thicker wire will
generate a stronger magnetic field than a thinner wire. However, a thicker wire will also be
more difficult to wind into a coil. The type of insulation on the wire also affects the performance
of the metal detector. Enamel insulation is a good choice for metal detectors because it is very
thin and does not add much bulk to the coil. However, enamel insulation can be scratched off,
which can expose the copper wire and cause a short circuit

31
In general, 22-gauge copper wire is a good choice for metal detectors because it is a good
balance of cost, performance, and ease of use. However, there are other factors to consider
when choosing wire for a metal detector, such as the size of the coil, the desired sensitivity, and
the desired range.

3.2.1.6 Receiver coil:

The receiver coil is an integral component of handheld metal detectors, complementing the
transmitter coil to detect the presence of metallic objects. It functions by sensing the
disturbance induced by metallic objects within the electromagnetic field generated by the
transmitter coil.

Description:

The receiver coil is typically a circular loop of wire, similar to the transmitter coil, but with a
smaller diameter. It is positioned in close proximity to the transmitter coil, creating an
overlapping electromagnetic field.

Features:

• Sensitivity: The receiver coil is designed to be highly sensitive to changes in the

electromagnetic field. This sensitivity enables it to detect the subtle disruptions caused
by nearby metallic objects.
• Resonant Frequency: The receiver coil is tuned to resonate at the same frequency as
the transmitter coil. This resonance enhances the coil’s ability to detect and amplify the
signals from the transmitter coil.
• Shielding: Like the transmitter coil, the receiver coil is often shielded to minimize
interference from external electromagnetic sources. This shielding ensures that the coil
only responds to signals from the transmitter coil and metallic objects.

Functions:

1. Field Detection: The primary function of the receiver coil is to detect the alterations in the
electromagnetic field caused by metallic objects. These alterations, induced by the
magnetic properties of metals, provide the signal for detection.

32
2. Field Amplification: The receiver coil amplifies the weak signals it receives from the
disturbed electromagnetic field. This amplification allows the detector to process and
interpret the signals effectively.
3. Signal Processing: The amplified signals from the receiver coil are fed into the metal
detector’s circuitry for processing and analysis. The circuitry extracts the relevant
information from the signals and triggers an alarm when a metallic object is detected.

Overall, the receiver coil plays a crucial role in handheld metal detectors, working in
conjunction with the transmitter coil to detect and identify metallic objects. Its sensitivity,
resonant frequency, and shielding effectiveness ensure its ability to operate reliably in various
environments.

3.2.1.7 Light Emitting Diode (LED): A light emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source
that emits light when current flows through it. Electrons in the semiconductor recombine with electron
holes, releasing energy in the form of photons. The color of the light (corresponding to the energy of
the photons) is determined by the energy required for electrons to cross the band gap of the
semiconductor. White light is obtained by using multiple semiconductors or a layer of light-emitting
phosphor on the semiconductor device.

Figure 3.2.1.7: Light Emitting Diode

33
3.2.1.8 Battery: 9-volt battery

Figure 3.2.1.8 : Battery

The battery in a handheld security metal detector is a critical component that provides the
power necessary for the device to operate. It typically consists of one or more cells that provide
a direct current (DC) voltage to the electronic circuitry.

Function:

The primary function of the battery is to store and supply electrical energy to the metal
detector’s circuitry. This energy is required to power the transmitter coil, receiver coil, sounder,
and other internal components.

34
Types of Batteries:

Handheld security metal detectors typically use one of the following types of batteries:

1. Alkaline batteries: Alkaline batteries are a common choice due to their long
lifespan and high energy density. They are relatively inexpensive and readily
available.
2. Rechargeable batteries: Rechargeable batteries, such as nickel-cadmium
(NiCd), nickel-metal hydride (NiMH), or lithium-ion (Li-ion), offer extended
use without the need for frequent replacement. They can be recharged multiple
times, reducing battery costs and environmental impact.

35
 CHAPTER FOUR

TEST AND RESULTS

4.1 Testing

This section explains the construction, testing procedures and tools used in carrying out in this
study. To build a basic handheld security metal detector, you will need the following materials:

• Oscillator: An oscillator is an electronic circuit that produces an alternating current

(AC) signal. This signal will be used to generate the electromagnetic field that will
detect metal objects.
• Transmitter coil: The transmitter coil is an inductor that is used to generate the
electromagnetic field. It is typically made of copper wire wrapped around a plastic or
cardboard form.
• Receiver coil: The receiver coil is another inductor that is used to detect changes in the
electromagnetic field. It is typically made of copper wire wrapped around a plastic or
cardboard form.
• Amplifier: The amplifier is used to boost the weak signal from the receiver coil so that
it can be detected by the sounder.
• Sounder: The sounder is a device that produces an audible alarm when the metal
detector detects a metal object. It can be a buzzer, speaker, or LED.
• Battery: The battery is used to power the oscillator, amplifier, and sounder. A 9-volt
battery is typically used.
• Enclosure: The enclosure is used to house all of the electronic components. It can be
made of plastic, cardboard, or any other suitable material.

4.2 Tools used for Testing

Digital Multi-meter: multi-meters are basically devices for measuring voltage, resistance of
resistors, continuity and current. It has two types; Analog and Digital multi-meter. The process
of implementing the design on a project board required the measurement of resistance at each
stage, voltage drop or gain, continuity, current and in some cases frequency measurement. Thus
measurements were done using a digital multi-meters.

Bread Board: A breadboard is a solderless device for temporary prototype with electronics
and test circuit designs. Most electronic components in electronic circuits can be interconnected

36
by inserting their leads or terminals into the holes and then making connections through wires
where appropriate.

Power Supply: A power supply is an electrical device that supplies electric power to an
electrical load. The primary function of a power supply is to convert electric current from a
source to the correct voltage, current, and frequency to power the load. The power supply unit
used for this project testing was a 12V battery.

Jump Wires: A jump wire (also known as jumper wire, or jumper) is an electrical wire, or
group of them in a cable, with a connector or pin at each end (or sometimes without them –
simply "tinned"), which is normally used to interconnect the components of a breadboard or
other prototype or test circuit, internally or with other equipment or components, without
soldering.

4.3 Results

Results of the Security Handheld Metal Detector Project:

The security handheld metal detector project underwent comprehensive testing, yielding
positive outcomes across various critical parameters. Firstly, during functional and sensitivity
testing, the metal detector successfully powered up, showcasing robust functionality.
Sensitivity tests demonstrated the device’s effectiveness in detecting a diverse range of metal
objects, affirming its reliable sensitivity levels. Moreover, discrimination testing highlighted a
notable feature of the metal detector—its ability to accurately differentiate between different
metals based on conductivity. This discrimination capability adds a layer of precision to the
device’s detection, enhancing its utility in security applications. In addressing false alarms,
observations during testing prompted adjustments to sensitivity and discrimination settings,
resulting in a reduction of false positives.

User interface evaluation revealed that the design was intuitively structured, with clear controls
and indications. User feedback further supported the positive reception of the interface,
underlining its user-friendly nature. Subsequent depth testing affirmed the metal detector’s
consistent and reliable performance in detecting metal objects buried at varying depths,
validating its depth capabilities. The project’s success extended to practical deployment
scenarios during field testing. Real-world testing in the designated environment showcased the
metal detector’s effectiveness in practical security applications, providing reliable detection of
concealed metal objects. Durability testing substantiated the device’s resilience to physical

37
stress and environmental conditions, reinforcing its robustness. Compliance testing verified
that the metal detector adhered to industry and regulatory standards, meeting the necessary
requirements for security devices. Finally, a meticulous review of documentation, including
user manuals and technical specifications, confirmed that the project’s documentation
accurately reflected the operation of the metal detector. In conclusion, the results affirm the
success of the security handheld metal detector project, showcasing a well-designed and
effective device that meets specified requirements and demonstrates reliability in various
testing scenarios.

Figure 4.1 An Electronic Metal Detector

4.4 Discussion

Short Discussion on the Security Handheld Metal Detector Project:

The security handheld metal detector project exhibited commendable success in its testing
phase. Notably, the device demonstrated reliable functionality, effectively detecting a diverse

38
range of metal objects with sensitivity adjustments for optimal performance. Its discrimination
capabilities, accurately distinguishing between different metals, enhance its precision in
security applications.

Addressing false alarms through sensitivity and discrimination adjustments showcased the
project’s adaptability to real-world scenarios. The user-friendly interface, positively received
by users, contributes to the device’s practicality. Depth testing confirmed the metal detector’s
consistent performance, and field testing validated its effectiveness in actual security
deployments. The project’s durability under various conditions underscores its robust design,
and compliance with industry standards ensures its suitability for security applications. The
concise and accurate documentation aligns with the device’s operational characteristics,
enhancing user understanding.

Table 4.1 Bill of Engineering Measurement

Components Code/Value Quantity Unit Price Estimated

Cost

Transformer 220V, 12V 1Pc 3,500 3,500

Voltage LM 7805 & 1+1Pc 200 200

Regulator LM7812

Capacitor (1000uF,22pf) 1+5=6pcs 5x5+15=35 1,200

Resistor (220Ω,1kΩ,10kΩ) 10pcs 10x10=100 100

Potentiometer 10k 2Pcs 200 200

Buzzer D.C 1 200 200

Connecting wire 10Ft 1000 1,000

39
LED (red) & 4Pc 20x4=80 80
(green)

Bread Board 1pc 950x1=950 950

PCB(Vera board) 2pcs 500x2=1000 1,000

Transistor 2N3904 8pcs 800 800

IC 555 timer 1pc 700 700

Copper coil 3000 3000

Battery 9v 1pc 100 100

Diode 1N40007 10pcs 20x5=100 100

Switch Push button 1pc 300 300

Power cord 1pc 400 400

Case Plastic 1pc 2500 2500

Miscellanies 5,000 5,000

TOTAL 21,330

40
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1. Conclusion and Recommendation

In conclusion, the security handheld metal detector project has achieved notable success,
demonstrating robust functionality and effectiveness across various testing parameters. The
device exhibited reliable sensitivity and discrimination capabilities, effectively detecting and
distinguishing between different metal objects. User feedback highlighted the intuitiveness of
the interface, contributing to the device’s practicality in security applications.

Adjustments made to sensitivity and discrimination settings addressed false alarms, enhancing
the device’s adaptability to real-world scenarios. Field testing validated its performance in
actual security deployments, confirming its efficacy in detecting concealed metal objects. The
project’s compliance with industry standards and durable design further underscore its
suitability for security applications.

5.2 Recommendations:

1. Continuous User Feedback Integration:

- Encourage a continuous feedback loop from end-users to identify any further refinements
or enhancements to the user interface and overall user experience.

2. Exploration of Advanced Discrimination Algorithms:

- Investigate the potential integration of advanced discrimination algorithms to further

improve the device’s capability to differentiate between specific types of metals.

3. Integration of Wireless Connectivity:

- Consider incorporating wireless connectivity features to facilitate seamless communication

with other security systems, enhancing overall security protocols.

4. Ongoing Calibration and Maintenance Protocols:

- Establish regular calibration and maintenance protocols to ensure the continued accuracy
and reliability of the metal detector over extended periods of use.

5. Research and Development for Enhanced Portability:

41
 - Explore research and development opportunities to enhance the portability of the device,
potentially reducing weight or exploring more ergonomic designs.

6. Collaboration with Regulatory Authorities:

- Maintain an open line of communication with regulatory authorities to stay informed about
any updates or changes in standards, ensuring ongoing compliance.

In summary, while the security handheld metal detector project has achieved success,
continuous improvement and adaptation to evolving user needs and industry standards are
recommended to further enhance its capabilities and maintain its effectiveness in diverse
security environments.

5.3 Limitations of the Project:

1. Detection Range:

- The detection range may be limited, and the effectiveness of the metal detector could vary
based on factors such as the size and composition of detected objects.

2. Environmental Factors:

- The project may be susceptible to environmental factors such as electromagnetic

interference, which could impact the accuracy of metal detection in certain conditions.

3. Power Consumption:

- Depending on the design, the metal detector may consume a significant amount of power,
potentially leading to limitations in battery life and requiring regular maintenance.

4. Complexity of Discrimination:

- Achieving perfect discrimination between all types of metals might be challenging, and
there may be limitations in accurately identifying certain alloys or materials

42
 REFERENCES

D. Bursky, "Low-Noise Amplifiers Maximize Receiver Sensitivity", Digikey.com,

G. L. Peterson, "Nikola Tesla--A man of comprehensive solutions," in

teslascience.org,2005.

http://electronics.stackexchange.com

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitor

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode_bridge

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rectifier

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer

http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/diode/diode_6.html

http://www.scribd.com

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode

I. Rezic and I. Steffan, 'ICP-OES determination of metals present in textile

materials', Microchemical Journal, vol 85, iss 1, pp. 46-51, 2007.

J. Ender, "Hulsmeyer Memorial Speech in the Town Hall of Cologne," in design-

technology.info,2002. L. Varshney, "Radar System Components and System
Design", Syracuse Research Corporation, North Syracuse, NY, 2002.

Line chart: http://www.rapidtables.com/tools/line-graph.htm,

43
 M. S. Sharawi and M. I. Sharawi, “Design and implementation of a lowcost VLF
metal detector with metal-type discrimination capabilities,” in Proceedings of
the IEEE International Conference on Signal Processing and Communications
(ICSPC ’07), pp. 480– 483, November 2007

Radar projectpresentation: http://www.slideshare.net/yousseframzy/coffee-can-

radar

Radar project: http://www.egr.msu.edu/classes/ece480/capstone/ProjectSummaries--

F11.htm#_ftn1
Radar Theory:
https://msi.nga.mil/MSISiteContent/StaticFiles/NAV_PUBS/RNM/310ch1.pdf

Radar Basics: http://radartutorial.eu/02.basics/rp07.en.html>.

Radar Project: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/6863647/?reload=true

Radar Project: http://spectrum.ieee.org/geek-life/hands-on/coffeecanradar

Resource: Build a Small Radar System Capable of Sensing Range, Doppler, and
Synthetic Aperture Radar Imaging Dr. Gregory L. Charvat, Mr. Jonathan H.
Williams, Dr. Alan J. Fenn, Dr. Steve Kogon, Dr. Jeffrey S. Herd

R. N. Narkhedkar and S.S. Lavate. Cotton contamination removal systems in blow

room. The Indian Texitle Journal; 2011. Available
www.indiantexilejournal.com.

44