Notes for Attachment Theory

What is Attachment Theory? A Definition

The psychological theory of attachment was first described by John Bowlby, a psychoanalyst who
researched the effects of separation between infants and their parents (Fraley, 2010).

Bowlby hypothesized that the extreme behaviors infants engage in to avoid separation from a parent
or when reconnecting with a physically separated parent—like crying, screaming, and clinging—were
evolutionary mechanisms. Bowlby thought these behaviors had possibly been reinforced through
natural selection and enhanced the child’s chances of survival.

These attachment behaviors are instinctive responses to the perceived threat of losing the survival
advantages that accompany being cared for and attended to by the primary caregiver(s). Since the
infants who engaged in these behaviors were more likely to survive, the instincts were naturally
selected and reinforced over generations.

These behaviors make up what Bowlby termed an “attachment behavioral system,” the system that
guides us in our patterns and habits of forming and maintaining relationships (Fraley, 2010).

Research on Bowlby’s theory of attachment showed that infants placed in an unfamiliar situation and
separated from their parents will generally react in one of these ways upon reunion with the parents:

1. Secure attachment: These infants showed distress upon separation but sought comfort and
were easily comforted when the parents returned;
2. Anxious-resistant attachment: A smaller portion of infants experienced greater levels of
distress and, upon reuniting with the parents, seemed both to seek comfort and to attempt
to “punish” the parents for leaving.
3. Avoidant attachment: Infants in the third category showed no stress or minimal stress upon
separation from the parents and either ignored the parents upon reuniting or actively
avoided the parents (Fraley, 2010).
4. In later years, researchers added a fourth attachment style to this list: the disorganized-
disoriented attachment style, which refers to children who have no predictable pattern of
attachment behaviors (Kennedy & Kennedy, 2004).

It makes intuitive sense that a child’s attachment style is largely a function of the caregiving the child
receives in his or her early years. Those who received support and love from their caregivers are
likely to be secure, while those who experienced inconsistency or negligence from their caregivers
are likely to feel more anxiety surrounding their relationship with their parents.

However, attachment theory takes it one step further, applying what we know about attachment in
children to relationships we engage in as adults. These relationships (particularly intimate and/or
romantic relationships) are also directly related to our attachment styles as children and the care we
received from our primary caregivers (Firestone, 2013
The development of this theory gives us an interesting look into the study of child development.

History of the Attachment Theory

British psychologist John Bowlby was the first attachment theorist. He described attachment as a
"lasting psychological connectedness between human beings."1

Bowlby J. Attachment and Loss. Basic Books.

Bowlby was interested in understanding the anxiety and distress that children experience when
separated from their primary caregivers.

Some of the earliest behavioral theories suggested that attachment was simply a learned behavior.
These theories proposed that attachment was merely the result of the feeding relationship between
the child and the caregiver. Because the caregiver feeds the child and provides nourishment, the
child becomes attached.

Bowlby observed that feedings did not diminish separation anxiety.2 Instead, he found that
attachment was characterized by clear behavioral and motivation patterns. When children are
frightened, they seek proximity from their primary caregiver in order to receive both comfort and
care.

Understanding Attachment

Attachment is an emotional bond with another person. Bowlby believed that the earliest bonds
formed by children with their caregivers have a tremendous impact that continues throughout life.
He suggested that attachment also serves to keep the infant close to the mother, thus improving the
child's chances of survival.

Bowlby viewed attachment as a product of evolutionary processes.3 While the behavioral theories of
attachment suggested that attachment was a learned process, Bowlby and others proposed that
children are born with an innate drive to form attachments with caregivers.

Throughout history, children who maintained proximity to an attachment figure were more likely to
receive comfort and protection, and therefore more likely to survive to adulthood. Through the
process of natural selection, a motivational system designed to regulate attachment emerged.

The central theme of attachment theory is that primary caregivers who are available and responsive
to an infant's needs allow the child to develop a sense of security. The infant learns that the caregiver
is dependable, which creates a secure base for the child to then explore the world.

So what determines successful attachment? Behaviorists suggest that it was food that led to forming
this attachment behavior, but Bowlby and others demonstrated that nurturance and responsiveness
were the primary determinants of attachment.
Ainsworth's "Strange Situation"

In her research in the 1970s, psychologist Mary Ainsworth expanded greatly upon Bowlby's original
work. Her groundbreaking "strange situation" study revealed the profound effects of attachment on
behavior. In the study, researchers observed children between the ages of 12 and 18 months as they
responded to a situation in which they were briefly left alone and then reunited with their mothers.4

Based on the responses the researchers observed, Ainsworth described three major styles of
attachment: secure attachment, ambivalent-insecure attachment, and avoidant-insecure attachment.
Later, researchers Main and Solomon (1986) added a fourth attachment style called disorganized-
insecure attachment based on their own research.5

A number of studies since that time have supported Ainsworth's attachment styles and have
indicated that attachment styles also have an impact on behaviors later in life.

The Stages of Attachment

Researchers Rudolph Schaffer and Peggy Emerson analyzed the number of attachment relationships
that infants form in a longitudinal study with 60 infants. The infants were observed every four weeks
during the first year of life, and then once again at 18 months.

➢ Pre-Attachment Stage

From birth to 3 months, infants do not show any particular attachment to a specific caregiver. The
infant's signals, such as crying and fussing, naturally attract the attention of the caregiver and the
baby's positive responses encourage the caregiver to remain close.
 ➢ Indiscriminate Attachment

Between 6 weeks of age to 7 months, infants begin to show preferences for primary and secondary
caregivers. Infants develop trust that the caregiver will respond to their needs. While they still accept
care from others, infants start distinguishing between familiar and unfamiliar people, responding
more positively to the primary caregiver.

➢ Discriminate Attachment

At this point, from about 7 to 11 months of age, infants show a strong attachment and preference for
one specific individual. They will protest when separated from the primary attachment figure
(separation anxiety), and begin to display anxiety around strangers (stranger anxiety).

➢ Multiple Attachments

After approximately 9 months of age, children begin to form strong emotional bonds with other
caregivers beyond the primary attachment figure. This often includes a second parent, older siblings,
and grandparents.

Factors That Influence Attachment

While this process may seem straightforward, there are some factors that can influence how and
when attachments develop, including:

➢ Opportunity for attachment: Children who do not have a primary care figure, such as those
raised in orphanages, may fail to develop the sense of trust needed to form an attachment.
➢ Quality caregiving: When caregivers respond quickly and consistently, children learn that
they can depend on the people who are responsible for their care, which is the essential
foundation for attachment. This is a vital factor.

Attachment Styles

There are four patterns of attachment, including:

➢ Ambivalent attachment: These children become very distressed when a parent leaves.
Ambivalent attachment style is considered uncommon, affecting an estimated 7% to 15% of
U.S. children. As a result of poor parental availability, these children cannot depend on their
primary caregiver to be there when they need them.
➢ Avoidant attachment: Children with an avoidant attachment tend to avoid parents or
caregivers, showing no preference between a caregiver and a complete stranger. This
attachment style might be a result of abusive or neglectful caregivers. Children who are
punished for relying on a caregiver will learn to avoid seeking help in the future.
➢ Disorganized attachment: These children display a confusing mix of behavior, seeming
disoriented, dazed, or confused. They may avoid or resist the parent. Lack of a clear
attachment pattern is likely linked to inconsistent caregiver behavior. In such cases, parents
may serve as both a source of comfort and fear, leading to disorganized behavior.
➢ Secure attachment: Children who can depend on their caregivers show distress when
separated and joy when reunited. Although the child may be upset, they feel assured that
the caregiver will return. When frightened, securely attached children are comfortable
seeking reassurance from caregivers. This is the most common attachment style.