REVIEWER NOTES If you change the values and increase the integrity of

ETHICS the individual, you will change their ethics

Modoule 1 - Ethics
Module 2 - The Ethical Dimension of Human
“It takes many good deeds to build a good reputation Existence
and only one bad one to lose it.”
-Benjamin Franklin Kinds of Valuation (AET)
1. Aesthetic Valuation - good or bad in art
Reputation - that took decades to build can be and beauty
threatened by a single event. 2. Etiquette Valuation - polite and impolite
behavior
Code of Ethics – Must be Specific 3. Technical Valuation - the right and wrong
and Clear way or method of doing thing

Six Pillars of Character Ethics and Morals

T- Trustworthiness ➢ Not ethical - (amoral) not belonging to the
R - Respect sphere of ethical valuation.
R- Responsibility ➢ Not ethical - (immorla/unethical) not
F - Fairness measuring up to the requirement or standard
C - Caring of morality.
C - Citizenship
Ethics as a Branch of Philosophy
What is Ethics About? ➢ Morals - (practical) referring to personal
➢ Ethics is about how we BEHAVE, about the moral belief, attitudes and conduct.
standards we hold ourselves to ➢ Moral - (theoretical) referring to a conceptual
➢ Ethics is about how we treat each other description of something as belonging to the
(RELATIONSHIPS), even those we don’t sphere of ethics as a moral science/study.
know
➢ The term “ethics can be spoken of as the
Ethics vs. Morals discipline of studying and understanding
Morals = personal view of values ideal human behaviour and ideal way of
Ethics = how a moral person should behave thinking.
➢ It is an intellectual discipline belonging to
What prevents us from making philosophy.
the right ethical decisions?
Fear, guilt, and our own self-interests can ➢ Acceptable = ethical/moral
prevents us from doing the “ethical thing” ➢ Unacceptable = unethical/immoral
➢ Professional ethics = ethical/unethical
➢ Fear can mean we’re afraid of jeopardizing a conduct but not necessarily moral/immoral.
relationship or believe that harm will come to
Us Philosophy derived from the Greek word:
➢ Guilt can be caused by psychological or Philia: “friendship” or “love”
spiritual conflicts Sophia : “wisdom”
➢ Self-interests can blind us to the negative
ramifications our actions can cause AREAS OF PHILOSOPHY
1. EPISTEMOLOGY asks what is our basis for
"Our actions determine what kind of person we are, determining what we know;
and our character is revealed by what we choose to 2. METAPHYSICS wonders as to what
do," Bruce Weinstein claims. constitutes the whole of reality;
3. AXIOLOGY refers broadly to the study of
At the heart of ethics… value often divided into AESTHETICS, which
Ethics are the integrity and values of an individual concerns itself with the value of beauty, and
 ETHICS, which concerns itself with the ➢ A moral theory is a systematic attempt to
value of human action. establish the validity of maintaining certain
moral principles.
Descriptive vs. Normative ➢ Theory is a system of thought and ideas.
DESCRIPTIVE ➢ It can also be referred to as a framework.
➢ A study of ethics reports how people, ➢ Framework as a theory of interconnected
particularly groups, make their moral ideas , and at the same time, a structure
valuation. through which we can evaluate our reasons
➢ This kind of study is often the work of the for valuing a certain decision or judgment.
social scientist: either a historian or
sociologist/anthropologists. The Thinkers
The Greek thinker Plato is credited as one of the
NORMATIVE pioneers of philosophy as his various writings bring up
➢ A study of ethics, as is often done in and discuss carefully and creatively some of the
philosophy or moral theology, engages the questions that later thinkers will find be of lasting
questions: What could or should be significance to humankind.
considered as the right way of acting?
➢ Normative discussion prescribes what we In The Apology of Socrates written by Plato,
ought to maintain as our standards or bases Socrates makes the claim that it is the greatest good
for moral valuation. for a person to spend time thinking about and
discussing with others those questions on goodness
Issue, Decision, Judgment, and Dilemma and virtue.
➢ Moral issue is a situation that calls for moral
valuation. Like most other ancient philosophers, Plato maintains
➢ Issue is often used to refer to those a virtue-based eudaimonistic conception of ethics.
particular situations that are often the source That is to say, happiness or well-being (eudaimonia)
of considerable and inclusive debate. is the highest aim of moral thought and conduct, and
➢ Moral decision is a situation confronting an the virtues (aretê: ‘excellence’) are the requisite
individual where a choice of what act to skills and dispositions needed to attain it.
perform is required.
➢ When a person is an observer who makes SOURCES OF AUTHORITY
an assessment on the actions or behavior of Ethics are based on the idea that the standards of
someone, he/she is making a moral valuation are imposed by a higher authority that
judgment. commands our obedience.
➢ Going beyond the matter of choosing right ● The Authority of the law
over wrong, or good over bad, and ● The Authority of one’s religion
considering instead the more complicated ● The Authority of one’s own culture
situation wherein one is torn between
choosing one of two goods or choosing LAW
between the lesser of two evils; this is ➢ Law is one’s guide to ethical behavior.
referred to as a moral dilemma. ➢ Ordinances – city or baranggay
➢ Positive law refers to the different rules and
Reasoning regulations that are posited or put forward by
A person’s fear of punishment or desire for reward an authority figure that require compliance.
can provide him a reason for acting in a certain way. ➢ Law is enforced by way of a system of
sanctions administered through persons and
Beyond rewards and punishments, it possible for our institutions.
moral valuation – our decisions and judgments – to be ➢ Law as the basis of ethics has the benefit of
based on principle. providing us with an objective standard that
is obligatory and applicable to all.
Principle is defined as rationally established grounds ➢ One point to be raised is the prohibitive
by which one justifies and maintains her moral nature of law.
decisions and judgment.
 ➢ The law does not tell us what we should do; ➢ Follow presumption of culture as simple,
it works by constraining us from performing clearly defined substance or as something
acts that we should not do. fixed and already determined.
➢ The fact that one can make a negative
value judgment of the practice that there is SENSE OF THE SELF
no violation of the law is already a hint that 3 THEORIES ABOUT ETHICS
one can look to something beyond the law 1. SUBJECTIVISM
when making our ethical valuations. ➢ Its starting point is the recognition that
➢ The law does not oblige people to help the individual thinking (the subject) is at
others in need. the heart of a moral valuations
➢ DEONTOLOGY : the theory or study of ➢ She is the one confronted with the
moral obligation. situation and is burdened with the need
to make a decision or judgment.
RELIGION ➢ The individual is the sole determinant of
➢ It expresses a claim that many people of a what is morally good or bad, right or
religious sensibility find appealing and wrong.
immediately valid: the idea that one is
obliged to obey her God in all things. 2. PSYCHOLOGICAL EGOISM
➢ As a foundation for ethical values, this is ➢ is a theory that describes the
referred to as a divine command theory. underlying dynamic behind all human
➢ Religion is not simply prohibitive, but it also actions.
provides ideals to pursue. ➢ This theory does not direct one to act in
➢ Taking religion as the basis of ethics has the any particular way, instead, it points out
advantage of providing us with not only a set that there is already and underlying
of commands but also a Supreme Authority basis for how one acts.
that can inspire and compel our obedience in ➢ It strong points: simplicity, plausibility,
a way that nothing else can. and irreputable.
➢ The Divine can command absolute ➢ “Human beings are naturally
obedience on one’s part as the implications self-centered, so all our actions are
of her actions involve her ultimate destiny. always motivated by self interest.

CULTURE 3. ETHICAL EGOISM

➢ Culture refers to ways of thinking and valuing ➢ differs from psychological egoism in that
that are different from one person to another. it does not suppose all other actions are
➢ Culture refers to the beliefs, values, behavior already inevitably self-serving.
and material objects that, together, form a ➢ It prescribes that we should make our
people's way of life. own ends, our own interests, as the
➢ Culture determines how we view the world single overriding concern.
around us ➢ We may act in a way that is beneficial to
➢ Culture includes the traditions we inherit and others, but we should do that only if it
pass on to the next generation ultimately benefits us.
➢ Culture: totality of our shared language, ➢ This theory acknowledges that everyone
knowledge, material objects, and behavior ought to put herself at the center.
➢ CULTURAL RELATIVISM what is ethically
acceptable or unacceptable is relative, or
that is to say, dependent on one’s culture. Module 3 - Resolving Ethical Dilemmas
➢ It conforms to what we experience, which is
the reality of the difference in how cultures Dr. Liljedahl highly recommends using an ethical
make their ethical valuations. decision making model and documenting the steps
➢ It is premised on the reality of difference. in the thinking process. She believes that this
➢ We are in no position to render any kind of is an essential step in forensic documentation
judgment on the practices of another culture and litigation prevention.
or of even our own culture.
What does it mean to be ethical? 6. Enumerate the consequences of making
➢ The World English Dictionary says In each decision.
accordance with principles of conduct that 7. Make the decision.
are considered correct, especially those of a 8. Implement the decision.
given professional or group
➢ Merriam-Webster says Conforming to
accepted standards of conduct Module 4 - Natural Law Theory
➢ Knowing the difference between right and
wrong, and choosing the right Main Points to Know:
➢ Having virtue, good moral reasoning
➢ Having a positive, good value system, which Plato writes dialogues rather than philosophical
might include doing good things in the world, treatises. Hence, most of his philosophical
be hard working, be honest, treat others as positions are voiced through the character of
you want to be treated, be loyal to your Socrates. Even though Socrates was Plato's
family. actual teacher, the positions and doctrines
traditionally attributed to Socrates are actually
CLINICALLY-RELATED ETHICAL DECISION Plato's account of his teacher. Socrates never
MAKING MODELS wrote anything.

Two major perspectives Plato advances a teleological conception of

1. Positive Ethical Models morality, "we live the good life insofar as we
➢ The focus is on pursuing highest ideals perform our distinctively human function well."

2. Defensive Ethical Models The soul is divided into three parts: appetitive,
➢ The focus is on thinking of the worst spirit, and reason. Each part helps us to fulfill
scenario,avoiding punishment. critical needs, but in Plato's view, only the
rational part of the soul is fit to rule.
Steps Identify the problem
1. Consider the significance of the context and In order to live a virtuous life, it is necessary for
setting the individual to cultivate balance in his/her soul.
2. Identify and utilize ethical and legal Thus, persons ruled by appetite or spirit
resources (emotion) are "out of balance" and their actions
3. Consider personal beliefs and values are apt to provoke personal or social
4. Develop possible solutions to the problem disharmony.
5. Consider the potential consequences of
various solutions Appetite: In cases where appetite rules (oligarchic
6. Choose and implement a course of action and tyrannical characters fit here) individuals are at
7. Assess the outcome and implement changes the mercy of the their biological or material whims.
as needed
Spirit: The emotional, passionate side of our
character is centered on the idea of status on a
Steps: Determine whether the matter truly involves social level. Ambition, desire for honor and glory,
ethics. moral indignation, and cravings for admiration, all
1. Consult guidelines already available that fit under the umbrella of spirit. Love relationships
might apply as a possible mechanism for fit into this category as well. Our interactions with
resolution. others provide core experiences that influence
2. Pause to consider, as best as possible, all our emotional development.
factors that might influence the decision you
will make it. Reason: The intellectual, thinking part of the soul
3. Consult with a trusted colleague. that must weigh options, decide between
4. Evaluate the rights, responsibilities, and alternatives, and "suppress dangerous urges.“
vulnerability of all affected parties. Plato clearly puts reason in control of the soul
5. Generate alternative decisions. because it acts as good counsel seeking
understanding and insight before acting. Rational
individuals possess a strong contemplative What is a virtue?
faculty. They think before they act and are A virtue is a habit of excellence, a beneficial
unlikely to take rash action in any given situation. tendency, a skilled disposition that enables a person
to realize the crucial potentialities that constitute
Plato contends that each one of us performs/does proper human flourishing (eudaimonia).
one thing best. We each have one best skill and it is
the development of this skill that is of paramount What is a habit? A disposition to think, feel, desire,
importance in creating a harmonious existence. If we and act in a certain way without having a tendency to
do not have insight into what we do best, the chances consciously will to do so.
of achieving a balanced soul are likely reduced.
Hence the Socratic imperative, "know thyself." What is a character: The sum-total of one’s habits,
tendencies, and well-being.
Just Society: First ask yourself: is it possible to have
a just society? What would it look like? How would we Four cardinal virtues: temperance, courage,
direct education, the economy, leisure, and social prudence, and justice. Piety (reverence to the gods) is
resources? What is fair? sometimes considered a fifth virtue.

Plato wrestles with the idea of justice in his most Three Central Themes:
famous work entitled, The Republic. A. Virtue (arete): A habit of excellence, a
beneficial tendency, a skilled disposition that
Plato views social justice exactly parallels his notion enables a person to realize the crucial
of individual justice. There are three parts of the soul potentialities that constitute proper human
and three corresponding divisions in the social order. flourishing.
The social order is constructed as follows: ➢ A habit is a disposition to think, feel, desire,
and act in a certain way without having a
Soul Society tendency to will consciously to do so.
Reason Philosopher- king ➢ “Character” may be defined as the
Spirit Auxiliaries/Guardians sum-total of one’s habits.
Appetite Craftsment/Artisans/Traders B. Eudaimonia (Human Flourishing;
Successful Living):
What is Virtue Ethics? C. Phronesis (practical wisdom): How?
Virtue Ethics emphasizes the development of ➢ Practice The Golden Mean: Be moderate in
character as its central theme rather than trying to all things to an appropriate degree; avoid
define 'goodness' or 'rightness'. It is a eudaimonistic both deficiency and excessiveness; cultivate
theory as it holds 'happiness' to be our highest goal. proper virtues that are deemed most worthy
According to Aristotle, we attain happiness by by your community;
cultivating both intellectual and moral virtue. We ➢ Mimic, follow the virtuous person.
become virtuous by habit: we deliberately and
consistently choose the mean between excess and Practical Wisdom (Phronesis):
deficiency until it becomes second-nature. A good person consistently does the right thing
at the right time, in the right way, and for the
“We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence, then, is right reason.
not an act, but a habit.”
~ Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics There is no rule for becoming good, or for
distinguishing good from bad, right from wrong.
Virtue = excellence:
● Intellectual virtue can be taught. Practical wisdom: ability to draw the right
● A good person succeeds at rational activity. distinctions and tell right from wrong.
● Moral virtue is acquired through excellent
habits. Virtue as a Mean:
● We become good by doing good things. ● We must give in to desire in the right
● We become virtuous by practicing virtuous circumstances, in the right way, for the right
acts. reason, etc.
● Practical wisdom allows us to find the mean.
 ● There’s no rule for doing this. coheres with the human essence or with the structure
● You must learn to see what is right of the universe (grounded in nature itself), perhaps
● Virtues are means between extremes because it was legislated by God.
● Virtues constrain desires
● But we may constrain too little or too much 2.
Insofar as natural law can be known by reason
In the virtuous person, desire and judgment agree alone, without special revelation, they provide
whereby the choices and actions will be free of the guidance for all humans, and when followed they
conflict and pain that inevitably accompany those who enhance the common good, but also render each
are akratic and/or enkratic: person morally responsible to a divine judge.

The akratic: “What do we mean by natural law? In its simplest

The akratic is the morally weak person who desires to definition, natural law is that ‘unwritten law’ that is
do other than what he knows ought to be done and more or less the same for everyone everywhere. To
acts on this desire against his better judgment. be more exact, natural law is the concept of a body of
moral principles that is common to all humankind and,
The enkratic: as generally posited, is recognizable by human
The enkratic is the morally strong person who shares reason alone. Natural law is therefore distinguished
the akratic agent’s desire to do other than what he from -- and provides a standard for – positive law, the
knows ought to be done, but acts in accordance with formal legal enactments of a particular society.” ~ Dr.
his better judgment. Jonathan Dolhenty

Deontological Ethics: “Since law must always be some dictate of reason,

In sum, we should choose actions based on their natural law also will be some dictate of reason. In fact,
inherent, intrinsic worth; evangelical approaches to it is law discovered by human reason. Our normal and
ethics are deontological because it presupposes natural grasp of the natural law is effected by reason,
Scripture as revelation. that is, by the thinking mind, and in this service
reason is sometimes called ‘conscience.’” ~ Jonathan
“Deontological” comes from the Greek word Dolhenty, “An Overview of Natural Law Theory.”
“deon”, meaning that which is binding, in particular
a binding duty. So, you are bound to your duty. Dr. Dolhenty goes on to say:
“We, in all our human acts, inevitably see them in their
It holds that acts are right or wrong in and of relation to the natural law, and we mentally pronounce
themselves because of the kinds of acts they are and upon their agreement or disagreement with the
not simply because of their ends or consequences. natural law. Such a pronouncement may be called a
‘judgment of conscience.’ The ‘norm’ of morality is the
- The ends do not justify the means. natural law as applied by conscience. Lastly, we can
- A good end or purpose does not justify a bad say that the natural law is the disposition of things as
actions. known by our human reason and to which we must
- You are duty-bound; binding is not dependent conform ourselves if we are to realize our
on consequences, no matter if it is painful or proper end or ‘good’ as human beings.”
pleasurable.
3. The idea initially arose among the Jews,
Natural Law Theory: Greeks, and Romans, esp. promoted by
“I do not feel obliged to believe that the Judaism and Stoics. But it came to the
same God who has endowed us with sense, foreground in the Christian tradition as
reason, and intellect has intended us to thinkers drew from both philosophy and the
forgo their use.” Bible to devise a theory of morality and
~ Galileo Galilei. politics that could be understood to be
universally applicable.
1.
It is moral law presumed to be grounded in nature Natural Rights: Entitlements with which
itself. A natural law is a norm for ethical behavior humans are endowed by nature or by virtue
that is deemed binding on all humans because it of their status as being human.
Consider: THE EMPHASIS ON THE OVERALL GOOD
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) states, “one part of what ➢ WE OFTEN SPEAK OF “UTILITARIAN”
is politically just is natural, and the other part SOLUTIONS IN A DISPARAGING TONE,
legal. What is natural has the same validity BUT IN FACT UTILITARIANISM IS A
everywhere alike, independent of its seeming so DEMANDING MORAL POSITION THAT
or not. What is legal is what originally makes no OFTEN ASKS US TO PUT ASIDE
difference [whether it is done] one way or SELF-INTEREST FOR THE SAKE OF THE
another, but makes a difference whenever WHOLE.
people have laid down the rule, e.g., … that a ➢ UTILITARIANISM IS A MORALLY
goat rather than two sheep should be sacrificed.” DEMANDING POSITION FOR TWO
~ Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, Book V, 133. REASONS: ⎥ IT ALWAYS ASKS US TO DO
THE MOST, TO MAXIMIZE UTILITY, NOT
Aristotle also states in On Rhetoric, book TO DO THE MINIMUM. ⎥ IT ASKS US TO
1, chap. 13: SET ASIDE PERSONAL INTEREST.
“there is in nature a common principle of
the just and unjust that all people in some
way divine [discern], even if they have no THE DREAM OF UTILITARIANISM: BRINGING
association or commerce with each other.” SCIENTIFIC CERTAINTY TO ETHICS
➢ UTILITARIANISM OFFERS US A
POWERFUL VISION OF THE MORAL LIFE,
Module 5 - Utilitarianism ONE THAT PROMISES TO REDUCE OR
ELIMINATE MORAL DISAGREEMENT. ⎥ IF
PART ONE FUNDAMENTAL TENETS OF WE CAN AGREE THAT THE PURPOSE OF
UTILITARIANISM MORALITY IS TO MAKE THE WORLD A
BETTER PLACE; AND ⎥ IF WE CAN
BASIC INSIGHTS OF UTILITARIANISM SCIENTIFICALLY ASSESS VARIOUS
➢ THE PURPOSE OF MORALITY IS TO POSSIBLE COURSES OF ACTION TO
MAKE THE WORLD A BETTER PLACE. DETERMINE WHICH WILL HAVE THE
➢ MORALITY IS ABOUT PRODUCING GOOD GREATEST POSITIVE EFFECT ON THE
CONSEQUENCES, NOT HAVING GOOD WORLD; THEN ⎥ WE CAN PROVIDE A
INTENTIONS SCIENTIFIC ANSWER TO THE QUESTION
➢ WE SHOULD DO WHATEVER WILL BRING OF WHAT WE OUGHT TO DO.
THE MOST BENEFIT (I.E., INTRINSIC
VALUE) TO ALL OF HUMANITY. PART TWO:
STANDARDS OF UTILITY
THE PURPOSE OF MORALITY A HISTORY OF UTILITARIANISM
➢ THE UTILITARIAN HAS A VERY SIMPLE
ANSWER TO THE QUESTION OF WHY INTRINSIC VALUE
MORALITY EXISTS AT ➢ MANY THINGS HAVE INSTRUMENTAL
➢ ALL: ⎥ THE PURPOSE OF MORALITY IS VALUE, THAT IS, THEY HAVE VALUE AS
TO GUIDE PEOPLE’S ACTIONS IN SUCH MEANS TO AN END.
A WAY AS TO PRODUCE A BETTER ➢ HOWEVER, THERE MUST BE SOME
WORLD. THINGS WHICH ARE NOT MERELY
➢ CONSEQUENTLY, THE EMPHASIS IN INSTRUMENTAL, BUT HAVE VALUE IN
UTILITARIANISM IS ON CONSEQUENCES, THEMSELVES. THIS IS WHAT WE CALL
NOT INTENTIONS. INTRINSIC VALUE.
➢ WHAT HAS INTRINSIC VALUE? FOUR
FUNDAMENTAL IMPERATIVE PRINCIPAL CANDIDATES:
THE FUNDAMENTAL IMPERATIVE OF
UTILITARIANISM IS: ALWAYS ACT IN THE ● PLEASURE € JEREMY BENTHAM
WAY THAT WILL PRODUCE THE GREATEST ● HAPPINESS € JOHN STUART MILL
OVERALL AMOUNT OF GOOD IN THE ● IDEALS € G. E. MOORE
WORLD. ⎥ THE EMPHASIS IS CLEARLY ON ● PREFERENCES € KENNETH ARROW
CONSEQUENCES, NOT INTENTIONS.
JEREMY BENTHAM 1748-1832 ➢ THE ADVANTAGE OF ARROW’S
BENTHAM BELIEVED THAT WE SHOULD TRY TO APPROACH IS THAT, IN EFFECT, IT LETS
INCREASE THE OVERALL AMOUNT OF PEOPLE CHOOSE FOR THEMSELVES
PLEASURE WHAT HAS INTRINSIC VALUE. IT SIMPLY
IN THE WORLD. DEFINES INTRINSIC VALUE AS
WHATEVER SATISFIES AN AGENT’S
PLEASURE PREFERENCES. IT IS ELEGANT AND
DEFINITION: PLURALISTIC.
➢ THE ENJOYABLE FEELING WE
EXPERIENCE WHEN A STATE OF PART THREE:
DEPRIVATION IS REPLACED BY THE UTILITARIAN CALCULUS
FULFILLMENT.
➢ ADVANTAGES ⎥ EASY TO QUANTIFY ⎥ THE UTILITARIAN CALCULUS
SHORT DURATION ⎥ BODILY ➢ MATH AND ETHICS FINALLY MERGE: ALL
➢ CRITICISMS ⎥ CAME TO BE KNOWN AS CONSEQUENCES MUST BE MEASURED
“THE PIG’S PHILOSOPHY” ⎥ IGNORES AND WEIGHED.
HIGHER VALUES ⎥ COULD JUSTIFY ➢ UNITS OF MEASUREMENT:
LIVING ON A PLEASURE MACHINE ● HEDONS: POSITIVE
● DOLORS: NEGATIVE
JOHN STUART MILL 1806-1873
BENTHAM’S GODSON WHAT DO WE CALCULATE?
➢ BELIEVED THAT HAPPINESS, NOT ➢ HEDONS/DOLORS MAY BE DEFINED IN
PLEASURE, SHOULD BE THE STANDARD TERMS OF
OF UTILITY. ● PLEASURE
● HAPPINESS
HAPPINESS ● IDEALS
➢ ADVANTAGES ● PREFERENCES
● A HIGHER STANDARD, MORE SPECIFIC ➢ FOR ANY GIVEN ACTION, WE MUST
TO HUMANS CALCULATE:
● ABOUT REALIZATION OF GOALS ● HOW MANY PEOPLE WILL BE AFFECTED,
➢ DISADVANTAGES NEGATIVELY (DOLORS) AS WELL AS
● MORE DIFFICULT TO MEASURE POSITIVELY (HEDONS)
● COMPETING CONCEPTIONS OF ● HOW INTENSELY THEY WILL BE
HAPPINESS AFFECTED
● SIMILAR CALCULATIONS FOR ALL
IDEAL VALUES AVAILABLE ALTERNATIVES
G. E. MOORE SUGGESTED THAT WE SHOULD ● CHOOSE THE ACTION THAT PRODUCES
STRIVE TO MAXIMIZE IDEAL VALUES SUCH AS THE GREATEST OVERALL AMOUNT OF
FREEDOM, KNOWLEDGE, JUSTICE, AND BEAUTY. UTILITY (HEDONS MINUS DOLORS)
➢ THE WORLD MAY NOT BE A BETTER
PLACE WITH MORE PLEASURE IN IT, BUT HOW MUCH CAN WE QUANTIFY?
IT CERTAINLY WILL BE A BETTER PLACE ➢ PLEASURE AND PREFERENCE
WITH MORE FREEDOM, MORE SATISFACTION ARE EASIER TO
KNOWLEDGE, MORE JUSTICE, AND QUANTIFY
MORE BEAUTY. THAN HAPPINESS OR IDEALS
➢ MOORE’S CANDIDATES FOR INTRINSIC ➢ TWO DISTINCT ISSUES:
GOOD REMAIN DIFFICULT TO QUANTIFY. ● CAN EVERYTHING BE QUANTIFIED?
- SOME WOULD MAINTAIN THAT
PREFERENCES SOME OF THE MOST
➢ KENNETH ARROW, A NOBEL PRIZE IMPORTANT THINGS IN LIFE
WINNING STANFORD ECONOMIST, (LOVE, FAMILY, ETC.)
ARGUED THAT WHAT HAS INTRINSIC CANNOT
VALUE IS PREFERENCE SATISFACTION. EASILY BE QUANTIFIED, WHILE OTHER THINGS
(PRODUCTIVITY, MATERIAL GOODS) MAY GET
EMPHASIZED ON A RESPIRATOR, WHO PROBABLY HAS ONLY A
PRECISELY BECAUSE THEY ARE QUANTIFIABLE. FEW DAYS TO LIVE, AND WHO IS A PERFECT
- THE DANGER: IF IT CAN’T BE DONOR.
COUNTED, IT DOESN’T COUNT.
➢ ARE QUANTIFIED GOODS NECESSARILY WITHOUT THE TRANSPLANT, THE LEADER WILL
COMMENSURABLE? DIE; THE HOMELESS PERSON WILL DIE IN A FEW
- ARE A FINE DINNER AND A DAYS ANYWAY. SECURITY AT THE HOSPITAL IS
GOOD NIGHT’S SLEEP VERY WELL CONTROLLED. THE
COMMENSURABLE? CAN ONE TRANSPLANT TEAM COULD HASTEN THE DEATH
BE TRADED OR SUBSTITUTED OF THE HOMELESS PERSON AND CARRY OUT
FOR THE OTHER? THE TRANSPLANT WITHOUT THE PUBLIC EVER
KNOWING THAT THEY KILLED
“…THE PROBLEMS OF THREE LITTLE THE HOMELESS PERSON FOR HIS ORGANS.
PEOPLE DON’T AMOUNT TO A HILL OF WHAT SHOULD THEY DO? ⎥ FOR RULE
BEANS IN THIS CRAZY WORLD.” UTILITARIANS, THIS IS AN EASY CHOICE.
NO ONE COULD APPROVE A GENERAL RULE
➢ UTILITARIANISM DOESN’T ALWAYS HAVE THAT LETS HOSPITALS KILL PATIENTS FOR
A COLD AND CALCULATING FACE— WE THEIR ORGANS WHEN THEY ARE GOING TO DIE
PERFORM UTILITARIAN CALCULATIONS ANYWAY. THE CONSEQUENCES OF ADOPTING
IN EVERYDAY LIFE. SUCH A GENERAL RULE WOULD BE HIGHLY

STAR TREK: THE WRATH OF KHAN

➢ THE NEEDS OF THE MANY OUTWEIGH Module 6 - Utilitarianism
THE NEEDS OF THE FEW—OR THE ONE.
Ethical Judgments
PART FOUR: ➢ Ethical philosophy differs from the sciences
ACT AND RULE UTILITARIANISM because it is normative or prescriptive, rather
than descriptive.
ACT AND RULE UTILITARIANISM ➢ In other words, ethics tell us how we ought to
➢ ACT UTILITARIANISM act or what we should do, while the sciences
- LOOKS AT THE CONSEQUENCES are more likely to observe how things are in
OF EACH INDIVIDUAL ACT AND nature or society.
CALCULATE UTILITY EACH TIME
THE ACT IS PERFORMED. Making Ethical Judgments
➢ RULE UTILITARIANISM Areas of Emphasis in Making Moral Judgements
- LOOKS AT THE 1. Purpose or Motive
CONSEQUENCES OF HAVING 2. Act, Rule or Maxim
EVERYONE FOLLOW A 3. Results or Consequences
PARTICULAR RULE AND
CALCULATES THE OVERALL Making Ethical Judgments in Utilitarianism
UTILITY OF ACCEPTING OR ➢ Utilitarianism says that the Result or the
REJECTING THE RULE. Consequence of an Act is the real measure
of whether it is good or bad.
AN EXAMPLE ➢ This theory emphasizes Ends over Means.
IMAGINE THE FOLLOWING SCENARIO. A ➢ Theories, like this one, that emphasize the
PROMINENT AND MUCH-LOVED LEADER HAS results or consequences are called
BEEN RUSHED TO THE HOSPITAL, GRIEVOUSLY teleological or consequentialist.
WOUNDED BY AN ASSASSIN’S
BULLET. HE NEEDS A HEART AND LUNG Bentham’s Formulation of Utilitarianism
TRANSPLANT IMMEDIATELY TO SURVIVE. NO ➢ Man is under two great masters, pain and
SUITABLE DONORS ARE AVAILABLE, BUT THERE pleasure.
IS A HOMELESS PERSON IN THE EMERGENCY
ROOM WHO IS BEING KEPT ALIVE ➢ The great good that we should seek is
happiness. (a hedonistic perspective)
 because they only know their own side of the
➢ Those actions whose results increase question. The other party to the comparison
happiness or diminish pain are good. They knows both sides.”
have “utility.” ➢ “As between his own happiness and that of
others, utilitarianism requires him to be as
Jeremy Bentham’s Hedonistic Calculus strictly impartial as a disinterested and
➢ In determining the quantity of happiness that benevolent spectator. In the golden rule of
might be produced by an action, we evaluate Jesus of Nazareth, we read the complete
the possible consequences by applying spirit of the ethics of utility. ‘To do as you
several values: would be done by,’ and ‘to love your
neighbor as yourself,’ constitute the ideal
➢ Intensity, duration, certainty or uncertainty, perfection of utilitarian morality.”
propinquity or remoteness, fecundity, purity,
and extent. Criticisms of Utilitarianism
➢ Bernard Williams criticizes the implied
Four Theses of Utilitarianism “doctrine of negative responsibility” in
1. Consequentialism: The rightness of actions is Utilitarianism.
determined solely by their consequences. ➢ Utilitarianism plays fast and loose with God’s
2. Hedonism: Utility is the degree to which an act commandments.
produces pleasure. Hedonism is the thesis that
pleasure or happiness is the good that we seek Mill’s Answer to the “Godless Theory” Criticism
and that we should seek. “If it be a true belief that God desires, above
3. Maximalism: A right action produces the greatest all things, the happiness of his creatures,
good consequences and the least bad. and that this was his purpose in their
4. Universalism: The consequences to be creation, utility is not a godless doctrine, but
considered are those of everyone affected, and more profoundly religious than any other. . .
everyone equally. . .whatever God has though fit to reveal on
the subject of morals must fulfill the
Two Formulations of Utilitarian Theory requirements of utility in a supreme degree.”
1. Principle of Utility: The best action is that
which produces the greatest happiness Mill’s “Rule” Utilitarianism
and/or reduces pain. “ . . . Mankind must by this time have acquired
2. Greatest Happiness: We ought to do that positive beliefs as to the effects of some
which produces the greatest happiness and actions on their happiness; and the beliefs
least pain for the greatest number of people. which have thus come down are the rules of
morality for the multitude, and for the
Two Types of Utilitarianism philosopher until he has succeeded in finding
1. Act: An Action is right if and only if it better.” Mill concludes, however, that we
produces the greatest balance of pleasure should always seek improvements.
over pain for the greatest number. (Jeremy
Bentham) Consequences of Unethical Practices
2. Rule: An action is right if and only if it ➢ Baucus & Baucus (2000)
conforms to a set of rules the general ➢ Singled out 67 companies out of the Fortune
acceptance of which would produce the 500 that had at least one illegal act – ex:
greatest balance of pleasure over pain for antitrust, product liabilities, discrimination
the greatest number. (John Stuart Mill) ➢ Performance of the convicted firms were
compared to unconvicted firms (five year
John Stuart Mill’s Adjustments to Utilitarianism after the fraud was committed)
➢ Mill argues that we must consider the quality ➢ Convicted firms experienced significantly
of happiness, not merely the quantity. lower return on sales (three year lag)
➢ “It is better to be a human being dissatisfied ➢ Multiple convictions are more disastrous
than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates ➢ Unethical activities can affect long term
dissatisfied than a fool satisfied. And if the performance
fool, or the pig, are of a different opinion, it is