1) Ionic bonding occurs between ions with differing electronegativity where one atom donates electrons to the other.
2) Ionic bonds form between metals and nonmetals and involve the transfer of electrons from electropositive to electronegative elements.
3) Ionic crystals have minimum energy at an optimal bond length where attractive Coulombic forces are balanced by repulsive forces between overlapping electron clouds.
1) Ionic bonding occurs between ions with differing electronegativity where one atom donates electrons to the other.
2) Ionic bonds form between metals and nonmetals and involve the transfer of electrons from electropositive to electronegative elements.
3) Ionic crystals have minimum energy at an optimal bond length where attractive Coulombic forces are balanced by repulsive forces between overlapping electron clouds.
1) Ionic bonding occurs between ions with differing electronegativity where one atom donates electrons to the other.
2) Ionic bonds form between metals and nonmetals and involve the transfer of electrons from electropositive to electronegative elements.
3) Ionic crystals have minimum energy at an optimal bond length where attractive Coulombic forces are balanced by repulsive forces between overlapping electron clouds.
1) Ionic bonding occurs between ions with differing electronegativity where one atom donates electrons to the other.
2) Ionic bonds form between metals and nonmetals and involve the transfer of electrons from electropositive to electronegative elements.
3) Ionic crystals have minimum energy at an optimal bond length where attractive Coulombic forces are balanced by repulsive forces between overlapping electron clouds.
1 Mechanism of adhesion Geckos, harmless tropical lizards, have very sticky feet (one of which is shown in the center-left photograph) that cling to virtually any surface. This characteristic makes it possible for them to rapidly run up vertical walls and along the undersides of horizontal surfaces. In fact, a gecko can support its body mass with a single toe!
2 BONDING AND PROPERTIES
ISSUES TO ADDRESS... • What promotes bonding? • What types of bonds are there? • What properties are inferred from bonding?
3 Atomic Structure (Freshman Chem.) • Atom – • electrons – 9.11 x 10-31 kg • protons • Neutrons } 1.67 x 10-27 kg • Atomic number • = # of protons in nucleus of atom • = # of electrons of neutral species
• Atomic mass • expressed as the sum of the masses of protons and neutrons within the nucleus. • number of neutrons (N) may be variable → isotopes • Atomic mass unit = 1 amu = 1/12 mass of 12C ( scale established based on C ) • Atomic wt (1 mole of substance) = wt of 6.023 x 1023 molecules or atoms
• 1 amu/atom or molecule (element) = 1g/mol (compound)
C 12.011 H 1.008 etc. 4 Atomic Structure • Valence electrons determine all of the following properties
• Chemical • Electrical • Thermal • Optical
5 Electronic Structure • Electrons have wavelike and particulate properties. • This means that electrons are in orbitals defined by a probability. • Each orbital at discrete energy level determined by quantum numbers.
Quantum # Designation n = principal (energy level-shell) K, L, M, N, O (1, 2, 3, etc.) l = subsidiary (orbitals) s, p, d, f (0, 1, 2, 3,…, n-1) ml = magnetic 1, 3, 5, 7 (-l to +l) ms = spin ½, -½
6 Electron Energy States Electrons... • have discrete energy states • tend to occupy lowest available energy state.
4d 4p N-shell n = 4
3d 4s
Energy 3p M-shell n = 3 3s
2p L-shell n = 2 2s
1s K-shell n = 1 Adapted from Fig. 2.4, 7 Callister 7e. Electronic Configurations ex: Fe - atomic # = 26 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d 6 4s2
4d 4p N-shell n = 4 valence electrons 3d 4s
Energy 3p M-shell n = 3 3s
2p L-shell n = 2 2s Adapted from Fig. 2.4, Callister 7e.
1s K-shell n = 1
8 Electron Configurations • Valence electrons – those in unfilled shells • Filled shells more stable • Valence electrons are most available for bonding and tend to control the chemical properties
• example: C (atomic number = 6)
1s2 2s2 2p2
valence electrons
9 SURVEY OF ELEMENTS • Most elements: Electron configuration not stable.
Valence (outer) shell
usually not filled completely.
Why?
Adapted from Table 2.2,
Callister 7e.
10 The Periodic Table
give up 1e
inert gases give up 2e
accept 2e accept 1e give up 3e Verticals are Columns or groups: Similar valence electron structure, H He Adapted from chemical and physical Li Be O F Ne Fig. 2.6, properties Na Mg S Cl Ar Callister 7e.
K Ca Sc Se Br Kr Seven horizontal rows Rb Sr Y Te I Xe called periods Cs Ba Po At Rn Fr Ra
Readily give up electrons Readily acquire electrons to become + ions. 11 to become - ions. Electronegativity • Ranges from 0.7 to 4.0, • Large values: tendency to acquire electrons.
Adapted from Fig. 2.7, Callister 7e. (Fig. 2.7 is adapted from Linus Pauling, The Nature of the Chemical Bond, 3rd edition, Copyright 1939 and 1940, 3rd edition. Copyright 1960 by Cornell University. 12 Ionic bond – metal + nonmetal
donates accepts electrons electrons
Dissimilar electronegativities
ex: MgO Mg 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 O 1s2 2s2 2p4
[Ne] 3s2
Mg2+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 O2- 1s2 2s2 2p6
[Ne] [Ne]
13 Ionic Bonding • Occurs between + and - ions. • Requires electron transfer. • Large difference in electronegativity required. • Example: NaCl
Na (metal) Cl (nonmetal) unstable unstable electron
Na (cation) + - Cl (anion) stable Coulombic stable Attraction
14 net force FN between the two atoms
The origin of an attractive force FA depends on
the particular type of bonding that exists between the two atoms, as discussed shortly.
Repulsive forces arise from interactions
between the negatively charged electron clouds for the two atoms and are important only at small values of r as the outer electron shells of the two atoms begin to overlap
15 Ionic Bonding • Energy – minimum energy most stable • Energy balance of attractive and repulsive terms
Repulsive energy ER
− A − B Interatomic separation r EN = EA + ER = r rn Net energy EN
Adapted from Fig. 2.7, Callister 7e. (Fig. 2.7 is adapted from Linus Pauling, The Nature of the Chemical Bond, 3rd edition, Copyright 1939 and 1940, 3rd edition. Copyright 1960 by Cornell University.
17 Covalent Bonding • similar electronegativity share electrons • bonds determined by valence – s & p orbitals dominate bonding • Example: CH4 shared electrons H from carbon atom C: has 4 valence e-, CH 4 needs 4 more H: has 1 valence e-, H C H needs 1 more shared electrons Electronegativities H from hydrogen are comparable. atoms
Adapted from Fig. 2.10, Callister 7e.
18 Primary Bonding • Metallic Bond -- delocalized as electron cloud (X A −X B )2 − • Ionic-Covalent Mixed Bonding - % ionic character = 1− e 4 x 100 where XA & XB are Pauling electronegativities (tendency for an atom of a given chemical element to attract shared electrons when forming a chemical bond. ) Ex: MgO XMg = 1.3 XO = 3.5
(3.5 −1.3)2 − % ionic character = 1 − e 4 x (100%) = 70.2% ionic 19 SECONDARY BONDING Arises from interaction between dipoles
• Fluctuating dipoles
• Permanent dipoles-molecule induced
secondary -general case: + - bonding + -
secondary -ex: liquid HCl H Cl bonding H Cl
-ex: polymer Adapted from Fig. 2.14, Adapted from Fig. 2.13, Callister 7e. Callister 7e.
20 Properties From Bonding: Tm • Bond length, r • Melting Temperature, Tm r Energy
• Bond energy, Eo ro Energy r smaller Tm unstretched length ro r larger Tm Eo = Tm is larger if Eo is larger. “bond energy” 21 Properties From Bonding : • Coefficient of thermal expansion,
length, L o coeff. thermal expansion
unheated, T1 L L = (T2 -T1) heated, T 2 Lo
• ~ symmetry at ro Energy unstretched length ro r is larger if Eo is smaller.
E smaller o E larger 22 Summary: Primary Bonds Ceramics Large bond energy (Ionic & covalent bonding): large Tm large E small
Metals Variable bond energy
(Metallic bonding): moderate Tm moderate E moderate
Polymers Directional Properties
(Covalent & Secondary): Secondary bonding dominates small Tm small E large 23
