· THE STRUCTURE OF FIELDING IS JOSEPH At'1DREHS

HENRY FIELDING'S JOSEPH ANDREHS:

A STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

By

ANDRE\·J JOHN POTTINGER, B.A.

A Thesis

Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies

in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements

for the Degree

Master of Arts

McMaster University

November 1971
~~STER OF ARTS (1971) HcMASTER UNIVERSITY
(English) Hamilton, Ontario

TITLE: Henry Fielding IS Joseph Andrm-m: A Structural

Analysis

AUTHOR: AndreH John Pottinger, B.A. (Keele University)

SUPERVISOR: Dr. B.N. Rosenblood

NUHBER OF PAGES: vi, 85

SCOPE AND PURPOSE: The scope and purpose of the thesis is

to discover how the ~asic structures and
patterns of action in a fiction may them-
selves contribute to the meaning of the
work.

An analysis is offered of this process,

and of the meanings conveyed, as they are
found in JoseJ>_~_ A~dreHs.

ii
 P·REFACE

The purpose of this thesis is to off~r a coherent account of

some of the structures of Henry Fieldi~g's first novel, Joseph Andrews.

The need for such an account arises for a number of reasons. First,

the concentration of Fielding's modern commentators seems to have been

tmduly directed towards analysis of his fiction in terms of an ethical

system offering guides to action in particular circumstances. l It·may

well be true that such a system existed in Fielding's mind,and that it

does give a degree of form to Joseph Andrews. It is not true, however,

that the novel is read today for such direct instruction alone. In

fact, I should say it is hardly read at all for this reason, let alone

enjoyed. Other critics 2 have attempted to offer an analysis of Field-

ing's artistry and humour in Joseph Andrews; but, to my mind, neither

group has taken sufficient note of Fielding's admiration for classical

literature and the ideals that literature embodied.

The argument of this thesis, however, is not designed with the

. \
aim of den1grating the work of any other critic, as all have contributed

lCf. Martin C. Battestin, The Moral Basis of Fielding's Art: A Study

of "Joseph Andrews ll; ; Connecticut: Wesleyan University Press, 1964; and
Sheldon Sacks, Fiction and the Shape of Belief: A Study of Henry Field-
ing with Glances at SW'ift, Johnson and Richardson, Berkeley and Los Ange-
les: University of California Press, 1964.

2Cf. Homer Goldberg, The Art of "Josep}1 Andrews",Chicago: Univer-

sity ot" Chicago Press, 1969; and Andrew Hright, Henry Fielding: Mask and
Feast, Berkeley and Los Angeles: . University of California Press, 1966.
greatly to my understanding of the novel. It is designed to show hov7

Fielding '-8 use of a classical convention, that of romance, gives not

only a formal plot structure to the novel, but also a scale of meanings

and values that the author may use for his own special purposes of both

education and entertainment.

These special purposes are satirical and comic: they make the

reader laugh. But it seems to me that no critic has fully appreciated

the manner in 'vhich the satirical and humorous elements of the novel ar-

ise from a unique form of tension bet\o1een the convention of romance and

the figures in the novel who are opposed to the values that this conven-

tional form embodies. I attempt to shm'1 hOH the classical structure of

romance functions as a mythic pattern in ~oseph k~~~ws, and so gives

some of the objects 0.£ satiric attack a special meaning for the reader.

The result of offering such an analysis for the student of lit-

erature is that Jose~~~dre~~ can be seen comprehensively as a 'classic-

ist' novel. Giv~n an understanding of the mythic nature of the classical

convention that gives the fiction its underlying structure, it is possible

to see more clearly what the real objects of Fielding's satire are, and

consequently,. exactly 'l1hat kind of ethical system is embodied in the

novel. If we understand the 'classicist' aesthetic, and the manner in

which it is exemplified in Joseph Andrews, it is possible to resolve

some of the probiems of accounting at the same time for the humour, as

well as the obvious ethical concerns, of the novel.

The most interesting result of such an analysis is that a coher-

ent account can be offered not only of the structural integrity of the

iv
.work, an account of its order, but also of the character and behaviour

of its most outstanding figure, Parson Adams. The organisation of the

thesis is designed, in fact, to lead to an examination of the way in

'which the meanings and values carried by the structures analysed, are

highlighted by this amiable figure of the parson.

The first chapter gives an outline of the classicist aesthetic;

the second offers an outline of the way in Hhieh the romance convention

dominates the structure of the Hork; the third chapter deals ~vith Field-

ing's special personal and classicist forms of satire, and the ",ay in

which he uses the convention of romance to generate both II r idicule li and

"detestation"; and the last chapter presents an account of the role

played by Parson Adams.

I should like to express my gratitude to Dr. B.N. Rosenblood of

the Department of English for his guidance at all stages in the composi-

tion of this thesis. I am grateful, too, for the comments made by Prof-

essor Purnell, also of the Department of English, ,.,hich have been of

considerable help in the final organisation of the thesis.

Hy thanks are also due to my ~vife for her excellent typing that

does the content of the thesis more than justice.

v
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE
CHAPTER I 1

CHAPTER II 10

CHAPTER III 30

CHAPTER IV 58

BIBLIOGRAPHY 84

vi
 CHAPTER I

He must divest himself of the prejudices of his age and

country; he must consider right and wrong i.n their ab-
stracted and invari.able state; he must disregard present
laws and opinions, and rise to general and transcendent-
al truths, which will always be the same. 1

Throughout the analysis of Joseph Andre\"s '"hich is offered in

the following pages, I rely upon a concept that I call 'the classicist

ethic' .2 An outline of what I take this to mean is therefore appropriate

at. this point.

The classicist ethic is centred on a special view or understand-

ing of man. The individual \"ho subscribes to this viewpoint sees human

nature as essentially unchanging. In different societies and at differ-

ent times in history. men may differ superficially; but beneath the ven-

eer formed by social and psychological conditioning, one man is, in all

important respects, very similar to his fellm.,. He is similar, primarily,

because he is made up of the same basic components: a rational faculty,

and a set of specific drives or inclinations.

The classicist further believes that these components may be

harmonised in accord with an ideal pattern, or norm. This ideal is one

lSamuel Johnson, Rasselas (1759), Ch. 10.

2For the account ,vhich fol1mvs I am heavily indebted to the work

of Halter Jackson Bate in From Classic to Romantic: Premises of Taste
in Eighteenth-Century England. Nmv York: Harper and ROH, 1961.

1
 "

.of order, in which the inclinations and drives may be controlled or dir-

ected by the rational faculty, the only faculty capable of perceiving such

an ideal. Only this rational faculty, in fact, is capable of both perceiv-

ing and achieving the ideal 'end' or purpose ,of a man. Moreover, ,not only

is the reason capable of such control according to an ideal norm; it is

also bound to direct the individual towards the achievement of it: "Hum-

anism, from Plato through the Renaissance, in general subscribes to the

contention that .what may be called the 'will' is dependent upon the 'rea-

son' , 'and is determined by it. To know the good is to do it: not to do it

arises from a misapprehension of precisely what the good is • fll

The ethical end of a man is not, then, definable in terms of any-

thing that migh~ be called a system of rules for conduct: it is simply

an ordered harmony of elements within the individual which, once achieved,

will necessarily lead a man to act ~vell. Before a man can achieve the

ideal, however, he must first perceive it by diligent study of human nat-

ure; and such perception is not easy w'hen he is continually confronted by

the veneer of social and psychological conditioning. The man who wishes,

therefore, to perceive the ideal must first penetrate behind this veneer,

and find tvhat is genuinely and unchangingly true of all men as 'well as of

himself.

If, for the classicist, fiction and literature in general have

an ethical function, it is to represent such basic and general truths of

human nature in order to give the reader 'insight' into his own 'being.

If the overall image of man presented by the writer is true, in the sense

lWalter Jackson Bate, EP~cit., p. 22.

 3

given above, then the reader will, by means of his own rational faculty,

perceive the ideal towards which he must strive. There is no question

of any truly classicist literature which conforms to the view of man I

have outlined, presenting any system of precepts or direct guides to the

conduct of any individual in particular circumstances:

Aristotle had stated that the subject of poetry, though necessarily eth-
ical in purpose, was less the exposition of moral theory than the revel-
ation of "the manners of men"; and Renaissance critics, as in Scaliger's
admonition that "the poet teaches character through actions," generally
reiterated this distinction. Joseph Trapp, lecturing at Oxford early in
the eighteenth century, stressed the ethical end of poetry as illustrat-
ive and not as didactically explanatory; and a similar emphasis is not
uncommon in other English critics of theday.l

This attitude to literature is behind Samuel Johnson's famous

critical dictum that "nothing can please many, and please long, but just

-representations of general nature tl ;2 and it is the same view or aesthetic

that lies behind Fielding's comments on the nature of a novel that is

worthy of close reading:

[It] consists in a vast Penetration irttohuman~ature, a deep and pro-

found Discernment of all the Mazes, Windings, and Labyrinths, which per-
plex the Heart of man to such a degree, that he is himself often incapa-
ble of seeing through them; and • • • this is the greatest, noblest, and
rarest of all the Talents which constitute a Genius. 3

The scope, then, of classicist orientated literature, and speci-

fically fiction, is not analogous to history, where the objects of study

are particular individuals of particular times and places. The fact, or

lWalter Jackson Bate, Ope cit., p. 6.

2Rasselas, (1759), Ch. 10.

3 The Preface to David Simple , The Works of Henry Fielding,

London, 1843, p. 630.
 4

truth, that is conditional upon its place in history is not, in the clas-

sicist sense, generally true: "Truth in poetry, means such an expression

as conforms to the general nature of things: falsehood, that which, hm.,-

ever suitable to the particular instance in viet-I, doth yet not corres-

pond to such general nature. ,,1

It is difficult to doubt that it is this same classicist ethic,

and aesthetic, to tvhich Fielding saw himself conforming ,.,hen he ,.,rote

Joseph Andre\"s. Writing of historians he says:

But though these ,.,idely differ in the narrative of facts; some ascribing
victory to the one; and others to the other party; some representing the
same man as a rogue, 'vhile others give him a great and honest character;
ye.t all agree in the scene ,.,here the fact is supposed to have happened;
and where the person, ,.,ho is both a rogue and an honest man, lived. NOv1
with us biographers the case is different; the facts we deliver may be
relied on,- though He often mistake the -ag-e~and country ,.,herein they hap-
pened: for though it may be ,wrth the examination of critics, whether
the shepherdChtysostom, who, as Cervantes informs us, died for love of
the fair Harcella, who hated him, v7as ever in Spain, ",ill any' one doubt
but that suth a silly fellm., hath really existed?2

His belief in the classicist concept of general truth is made

even more clear a fe"1 lines later:

But • • • is' not such a book as that which records the achievements of
the renmvnecl Don Quixote, more worthy the name of a history than even
Mariana's; for w'hereas the latter is confined to a particular period of
time, and to a particular nation; the former is the history of the 'vorld
in general, at least that part ,.,hich is polished by 1m.,s, arts, and sci-
ences; and of that from the time it was first polished to t~s day; nay,
and f6rwards as long as it shall so remain. 3

lRichard Hurd, quoted in ~-1alter Jackson Bate, ~ cit., p. 8.

2Henry Fielding, Joseph Andrews, New York: Holt, Rinehart and

Winston, 1967, pp. 177-178. All future references by page number or
chapter alone are to this edition.

3Ibid., p. 179.
 5

Fielding's 'vords in the Preface to JoseEh Andrelols respecting the

genre of the comic, to ,vhich he saw the work as belonging, are almost a

paraphrase of those quoted earlier from Rasselas: "Indeed • . • \ve should

ever confine ourselves strictly to nature, from the just imitation of

which \vill floH all the pleasure 've can this way cqnvey to a sensible

reader. III -Such a vie\v of literary truth and the function of a classic-

ist author, inevi tab ly looks back to the great ,yorks of Greece and Rome.

There, given a belief in human nature as unchanging, the eighteenth-cen-

tury classicist could find the complete range of general truths already

expressed \vith a genius and propriety that could only be equalled, neve-r-

bettered. Gilbert Highet points out what this body of ancient I i tera-

ture and art offered to its eighteenth-century admirers:

First, it supplied themes, which ranged all the way from tragic sto-
ries to tiny decorative motifs on a vase, a wall, or a cabinet . • • •
Secondly, it supplied forms - the forms of tragedy, comedy, satire,
character-sketch, oration, philosophical dialogue, Pindaric and Horatian
ode, and many more.
Hare important, it acted as a restraining force • • • • The men and
womeil of that period felt the dangers of passion, and sought every pro-
per means of controlling it. 2

If, then, as the quotations from Joseph Andrews would seem to

indicate, Fielding does subscribe to this classicist aesthetic when writ-

ing his "comic epic poem in prose",3 he could legitimately look back to

lpreface, Joseph Andrews, p. xviii-xix.

2Gilbert Highet, The Classical Tradi tion: Greek and Roman Influ-
ences on Hestenl Literature, New York: Oxford University Press, 1966,
p. 291.

3Preface, Joseph AndrevlS, p. xviii.

 6

. the writings of the ancients and find a storehouse of structures that

had, over a period of centuries, proven themselves capable of embodying

the general truths of human nature that he was concerned to display once

more. It is the contention of this thesis t~at he did use such a struct-

ure for Joseph Andrews, whether he borrowed that structure consciously

or not.

As we are now aware, these structures are mythic in nature and,

as such, capable of embodying just such a universal form of truth as the

class{cist seeks. l It therefore seems strange to me that although a num-

ber of critics 2 have paid considerable attention to the conventional, or

classical, structures used in Joseph Andrews, none of them has, to my

knowledge, considered these structures as themselves contributing some

of the general truths of human nature that Fielding describes himself as

presenting. It seems even stranger, in the light of such stated attit-

udes to literature made by Fielding, that some commentators can persist

in seeing conventional,figures like Joseph and Lady Booby as "complex

human beings".3 The classicist aesthetic specifically rejects as valuable

II deal with the mythic meanings of the romance convention in the

following chapter.

2For example, Arthur L. Cooke, "Henry Fielding and the Writers of

Heroic Romance", PML1\, LXII (1947),984-994.

3Mauric~ Johnson, Fielding's Art of Fiction, Philadelphia: Uni-

versity of Pennsylvania, 1961, p. 58. F. Homes Dudden, Henry Fielding:
His Life, Works, and Times, Connecticut: Archon Books, 1966, I, 383,
expresses a similar vie~v: "Secondly, a word must be said on the his tor-
ica1 value of Fielding's book, as presentip.g a realistic picture of the
life of the English country-side in the first half of the eighteenth
century."
 7

literature any work which makes the portrayal of particular people of a

particular place and time its main concern. If Fielding's main aim had

been to portray, like Defoe in Moll Flanders, the 'low' society of eight-

eenth-century England (and therefore had created 'realistic' characters)

he would have been in flagrant breach of the doctri,ne to which the quo-

tations above show him as conforming.

Furthermore, the classicist's attitude tmvards such 'realism' is

not stimulated solely by his regard for general as opposed to particular

truth. Hhile ,concerned to imply an ideal image of the ordered man, he-

saw personal inclinations, or passions~ as the opponents of reason. l In

one particular society like eighteenth-century England~ certain passions

may be allowed more sway over the r"eason than in another. As his aim is

to shmv hmv the passions in general struggle ''lith the reason for-domin---

ance and control of the indj_vidual~ in Vlhatever time and \vhatever place,2

to portray one particular society is a limited function - and a desertion

of the classicist's aesthetic duty.

Critics who see Joseph AndreVls as realistic in the sense given

above tend to appreciate the comedy of eighteenth-century low life and

to analyse the ethical concerns of the novelist as primarily social cri-

ticism, thus failing to note Fielding's primary concern ",ith human nature

lSee quotation from Highet, ~it., on p. 5 above.

2k1y fiction has to have characters and -a setting, and Joseph

kldre"lS happens to be set in the ,vorld wi th 'vhich Fielding was mos t fam-
iliar, and he does, of course, have identifiable attitudes towards his
mm milieu. But this 'vorld is not, as I hope to show, his major concern.
 8

in genera1. l An alternative to this view, equally one-.sided, is to

read Joseph Andrews as a moral essay designed as propaganda for a parti-

cular moral code. 2 Such a vie~l, as equally opposed to the classicist

ethic as the other, tends to ignore the comedy. As Martin Battestin

wri tes : "The job of defining the moral basis of Fi.e1ding' s art inevi tab-

ly involves a shift of focus away from comedy.,,3

That Fieldingts major concern is not to criticise eighteenth-

century English society in particular, nor its low life; nor to present

a moral essay advocating a specific code of behaviour in the guise of

fiction, with little conventional comedy, is sufficiently clear in the

fo11oo;'1ing passages:

Thus I believe we may venture to say Mrs. Tow-wouse is coeval with our
____ . _~_lawyer: __and though perhaps, during the changes which so long an exis t-
ence must have passed through, she may in her turn have stood behind the
bar at an inn; I will· not scruple to affirm, she hath likewise in the
revolution of ages sat on a throne. In short, where extreme turbulency
of temper, avarice, and an insensibility of human misery, with a degree
of hypocrisy, have united in a female composition, Mrs. Tow-wouse was
that woman; and where a good inclination, eclipsed by a poverty of spirit
and understanding, hath glimmered forth in a man, that man hath been no
other than her sneaking husband. 4

Nay, I will appeal to common observation, whether the same companies are
not found more full of good-humour and benevolence, after they have been
sweetened for 0'10 or three hours with entertainments of this kind, . than
when soured by a tragedy or a grave 1ecture. 5

lCf. Geo.rge Sherburn, "Fielding's Social Outlook", Philological

Quarterly ~UXV, January 1956, 1-23.

2Cf • Mar~in C. Battes tin , The Moral Basis of Fielding's Art, Con-
necticut:-Hesleyian University Press, .1959.

3Martin C. Battestin, Ope cit., Preface, p. xi.

4Joseph A.ndre~vs, pp. 180-181.

5Preface, Joseph Andrews, p. xix.

 9

By bearing in mind the classicist attitude to literature outlined

here as the account of Joseph Andrews proceeds, it is possible to avoid

adopting either of the ovo extreme views treated above. If this is done,

and it is remembered that the classicist work,of literature may be gen-

uinely ethical without advocating any particular system of ethics or

modes of behaviour applicable to particular situations, and that it can

be 'true to nature' without being 'realistic', it is possible to arrive

at a more coherent and consistent account than has hitherto been offered.

Such an account will only be achieved when due weight and consider'ation

are given to the interaction between the values implicit in the conven-

tiona1 classical structures that Fielding adopts, ,and the specific de-

tails of the action and narration which make his completed work unique.

I should like to make one more preliminary remark concerning the

adoption by a classicist like Fielding of a conventional structure. To

adopt such a structure is to 'conform ,to the classicist ethic in method

as well as in scope of subject matter. Such a method avoids allowing

the author's own invention or 'fancy' to dominate the literary work he

creates; and 'fancy' is not reason:

For the very nature of the universal, [the ideal of hope as found in the
romance convention, for example] in its transcendence and control over the
acc'identa1 and specific, exemplifies order and harmony; and the living
exhibition of order and the persuasive infiltration of it into man's mor-
al and mental character are both a vital aspect of the means by which art
-simultaneously "delights and teaches", and also an end for which it per-
forms these functions. It is ethical in furnishing both the process and
the aim. l

lWalter Jackson Bate, op. cit., p. 13.

 CHAPTER II

[TIle] love-story and the travel-adventures, chance meet-

ings and evasions and unexpected recognitions • • • are
not epic at all in quality, but belong to another Ii ter-
ary type. They are the stuff of romance. l

The concern of this chapter is to examine the convention of rom-

ance, and to show how it is used as the fundamental structure of joseph

Andrews. Such an examination is made far easier if it is possible, be-

forehand, to interpret co~erently the theoretical \V'ri ting of the author

found mainly in the-prefatory chapters to Books I and III, and in the

Preface itself. If a coherent interpretation can be achieved, these

theoretical sections should serve, wherever possible, as an aid to under-

standing the novel of \-lhich they are, after all, a part.

It is not, of course, the concern of this chapter to offer a

complete account either of Fielding's preface to Joseph Andrews, or of

the prefatory chapters to Books I and III. The aim here is to examine

what they contain of particular relevance to Fielding's use of the rom~

ance convention: and specifically, his description of Joseph Andrews as

belonging to the genre of epic as oppo?ed to that of romance:

Thus the Telemachus of the archbishop of Cambray appears to me of the

epic kind, as well as the Odyssey of Homer; indeed, it is much fairer
and more reasonable to give it a name common \v:i:th that species from
which it differs only ina single instance, than to confound it with
those which it resembles in no other. Such are those voluminous works,
commonly called Romances, namely, Clelia, Cleopatra,Astraea, Cassandra,

lGilbert Highet, op. cit., p. 343.

10
 11

the Grand Cyrus, and innumerable others. ~vhich contain, as I apprehend,

very little instruction or entertainment. l

The reasons for Fielding's preferring to class Joseph Andre\vs

with the epic are perfectly consistent with the classicist aesthetic

outlined in the previous chapter. "Those voluminous works, commonly

called Romances ll were seen by the classicist as decided deviations from

classical precedent and propriety. They provided livery little instruc-

tion or entertainment". The clue to interpreting this passage is. found

in Fielding's use of the words IIcommonly called". The average English

reader had come to associate the term "romance ll not with genuine clas-

sical models, but w·ith \vorks in modern languages ",hich departed from

classicist aesthetic values in a number of closely related ways. Homer

Goldberg writes that IIhe [Fielding] vlaS not embarrassed to acknmvledge

it [Joseph Andrews] a fiction, and he wanted to formulate for his reader

his conception of its basic form, not in its particularity but as a mem-

ber of a perceptible literary kind, and to distinguish that kind from a

variety of other species of writing vlith which it might be confused. 1I2

The classicist criteria from \vhich the ",ell-known 'romances'

departed were: 'truth to nature', 'order', and 'probability'. Fielding,

in fact, uses the words n nature "., "chaos II and "possibly" in a passage

from Chapter 2, Book III:

• • • I would by no means be thought to comprehend those persons of sur-

prising genius, the authors of immense romances, or the modern novel and

1Preface, Joseph Andre\vs, p. xviii:

21lComic Prose Epic or Comic Romance: The Argument of the Preface

to Joseph Andrews 'I , Philological Quarterly, XLIII, 2nd April, 196 /1, pp.
214-215.
 12

Atalantis writers; who, without any assistance from nature or history,

record persons who never were, or will be, and facts ~'lhich never did,
nor possibly can, happen: v1hose heroes are of their own creation, and
their brains the chaos whence all the materials are selected. l

Fielding is at one here with IIneo-classic critics", in objecting

primarily to the writers of romances as having forsaken the 'order' or

'unity of action' of an overall conventional pattern of action in favour

of unrestrained 'fancy', and for concent~ating on the sensational and

hence the improbable:

neo-classic critics continually cited the poetic romances of the

Middle Ages and of the Renaissance as characteristic of the inventive
use in structural form of "fancy" rather than Ilreasonll. The ~IJTiters of
such romances, said one critic, "'vere seized \'lith an irregular Poetick
-pllrenzy, and havfng Decency and Probability-:i.ri C6rifempt,-nll'd the
tvorld with endless Absurdities • • • • 2

Fielding clearly defines ~h Andrews negatively rather than

positively, describing the failings of th~ romances_ \'Jhich it does not

resemble far more graphically and tightly than he does the "epic" genre

of which he sees his ·~'lork, and that of t~e Archbishop of Cambray, as mem-

bers. He sees Josep'!.l Andre\vs and the Telemachus as epic, then, because·

they are 'true to nature', in the classicist sense outlined in the pre-

. viouschapter; and because they observe the 'order' regarded by the

classicist as the most prominent feature of a "TOrk like the llia<!., and

the most prominent lack in the Renaissance romance:

The often unfavorable attitude in neo-classic criticism tmmrds many of

. the more exuberant romances of the Renaissance was largely conditioned

lJoseph AndrevlS, pp .178-179.

2\valter Jackson Bate, Ope cit., p.37.

 13

by the importance attributed to a simple but closely interwoven unity of

action. The ordered construction of the Iliad, for example, presents a
strong contrast with the lack of it in such a poem as Spenser's Faerie
Queene 1

Finally, he also prefers to distinguish Joseph Andrews and the

Telemachus from the Renaissance romances because of the 'improbability'

of the latter. Although, as Arthur L. Cooke has shoylU, earlier writers

of romance had been as strict in their regard, in theory, for probability

as was Fielding, he quite rightly qualifies this point' in a footnote:

One must admit, however, that there may have been considerable difference
of opinion bet\yeen Fielding and the romance wTiters ,yith regard to the
exact location of lithe bounds of probabili tyll. Both insisted that the
writer of fiction must follow nature; but, if we may judge from their
mvn respective \yritings, they ,yould not have agreed as to just what was
natural and ,yhat was not. This disagreement in the interpretation of
the same critical terms largely accounts for the obvious differences
between the actual ,varks of Fielding and the romance 'o1riters. It is not
possible here to trace the gradual changes in the concept of probability
during the century from 1650 to 1750. It can only be said that in ge.n- .
eral there was a constant tendency to'to1ard a stricter interpretation of
the term • 2

A coherent interpretation of Fielding's use of the term 'epic'

in place of the term 'romance' as descriptive of Joseph Andrews can be

completed by noting that he is not ~oncerned to deny that his work is a

romance, but to emphasise the differences between it and certain previous

romances. These differences having been recognised, Fielding can admit

both the comic and serious romances 'o1hich conform to the classicist cri-

teria of 'order', 'unity of action', 'truth to nature' and respect for

the 'probable', as members of an all-inclusive genre - the epic, which is

"the counterpart of the term drama, designating • • • the whole realm of .

lWalter Jackson Bate, Ope cit., p. 16.

2Arthur L. Cooke, Ope cit., p. 989.

 14

narrative poetry, as distinct from the dramatic".l

Now, a comic romance is a comic epic poem in prose; differing from com-
edy, as the serious epic from tragedy: its action being more extended
and comprehensive; containing a much larger circle of incidents, and
introducing a greater variety of characters. It differs from the seri-
ous romance in its fable and action, in this; that as in the one these
are grave and solemn, so in the other they are light and ridiculous: it
differs in its characters by introducing persons of inferior rank, and
consequently, of inferior manners, vlhereas the grave romance sets the
highest before us: lastly, in its sentiments and diction; by preserving
the ludicrous instead of the sUblime. 2

Joseph Andrews is, then, a "comic romance" according to Fielding's

theory as interpreted here. The comedy will be discussed in 'the t~.,o fol-

lowing chapters, but the major concern at this point is the structure of

romance as found in the body of the narrative. The interpretation above

enables an examination of Fielding's use of the conventional structure

of romance in Joseph Andre\vs to be carried out in terms of his own words

in the Preface and Chapter 1, Book III, as 'veIl as in terms of the gen-

eral classicist ethic outlined in the first chapter of this thesis. The

Preface can thus serve as the aid to understanding the novel that it

should be.

In spite of Fielding's objections to certain particular romances

that had preceded ,his novel, there were, for the classicist, many 'ven-

erable' examples of the use of a romance structure; and it is the most

prominent features of the genuine classical romrulce structure which are,

in fact, cons is tently maintained in Joseph Andrev7s. Gilbert Highet offers

a useful list of the classical model's main characteristics:

lHomer Goldberg, op. cit., p. 199.'

2preface, Joseph Andre\vs, p. xviii.

 L

15
the long separation of two young lovers;
their unflinching fidelity through temptation and trial, and the miracul-
ous preservat~on of the girl's chastity;
a tremendously intricate plot, containing many subordinate stories with-
in other stories;
excit1ng incidents governed not by choice but by chance - kidnappings,
shipwrecks, sudden attacks by savages and wild beasts, unexpected
inheritance of great wealth and rank;
travel to distant and exotic lands;
mistaken and concealed identity: many characters disguise themselves,
and even disguise their true sex, girls often masquerading as boys;
and the true birth and parentage of hero and heroine are nearly al-
ways unknm·m until the very end;
a highly elegant style, with much speechifying, and many elaborate des-
criptions of natural beauties and works of art. l

The great majority of these features is faithfu11y reproduced in

Jose.-PE Andrews, and it is consequently possible to give a fair summary

of the novel's progress in these conventional terms alone. Such strict

adherence to convention reflects the classicist's search for general

truths; and Goldberg notes Fielding's rejection of 'realism' in the fol-

lowing terms: "If he echoed Richardson, andlilost writers of his time, in

claiming his work was grounded in 'truth' and 'nature' ,the truth he val-

ued was not the pretence of literal authenticity with which Richardson,

and Defoe before him, appeased the puritan distrust of fiction per se. n2

The changes Fielding makes in the conventional or symbolic pat-

. tern of action centred on Joseph and Fanny 'are, in fact, minimal. His

detailed treatment of this pattern is indeed unique, but he employs the

basic structure just as he inherits it, without significant alteration.

IGilbert Highet, Ope cit., p. 164.

2Homer Goldberg, The Art of "Joseph Andrews", Chicago: Univer-

sity of Chicago Press, 1969, pp. 5-6.
 16

The first of Highet's criteria is fulfilled in Joseph Andre\vs

by the DvO young lovers, Joseph and Fanny, and their separation through-

out much of the novel. Joseph is introduced amid elaborate encomiums on

his character and birth in the mock-heroic manner.J- . He is cast as a mod-

el of perfection in the true mould of romance in the face of Fielding's

apparent mockery, Perhaps the manner in \vhich Joseph's role as a genuine

hero is established from the very beginning can be illustrated by con-

sideration of the following passage:

Those \vho have read any romance or poetry, ancient or modem, must have
been informed that Love hath \vings: by which they are not to unders tand,
as some-young-Iadiesby mistake have dQn~,. that a lover can fly; the
\vriters, by this ingenious allegory, intending to insinuate no more than
that lovers do not march like horse-guards; in short, that they put the
bes t leg foremos t; which our Ius ty youth, \vho could \valk \01i th any man,
did so heartily on this occasion, that \vithin four hours he reached a
famous house of hospitality well known to the \vestern traveller, 2

In spite of the mocking tone to all of this, there is not the

slightest diminution of Joseph's role as romantic hero within the terms

of the conventional structure. Joseph can "walk with any man", and he

remains "our lusty youth",

lUnfortunately there is insufficient space here to discuss mock-

heroism at lemgth. It should be noted, however, that the mock-heroic
treatment of the classical structure throughout does modify the 'meaning'
of the conventional pattern somewhat, particularly in its deflation of
verbiage where words are used for stylistic purposes alone. Such treat-
ment does not, however, as I show later, detract from the integrity of
the conventional structure. Furthermore, in its implication of ultimate
resolution, the I),lock-heroic style is entirely 'appropriate' to the clas-
sical pattern of action embodied in romance. See the cyclic nature of the
movement from romance to comedy outlined by Frye below.

2Joseph Andre\olS, pp. 34-35.

 I'

A few lines earlier, soon 'after we first hear ~f Fanny, the two

of them are established as romantic hero and heroine, again in spite of

the mockery directed at the extreme and empty verbiage found in the spe-

cific romances of which Fielding disapproved:

Nothing can be imagined more tender than was the p~rtin·g between these
two lovers. A thousand sighs heaved the bosom of Joseph, a thousand
tears disti1ied from the lovely eyes of Fanny (for that was her name).
Though her modesty would only suffer her to admit his eager kisses, her
violent love made her more than passive in his embraces; and she often
pulled him to her breast with a soft pressure, which, though perhaps it
would not have squeezed an insect to death, caused more emotion in the
heart of Joseph, than the closest Cornish hug could have done. l

The love that Joseph and Fanny feel for one another is not falsi-

fied by this particular form of presentation, although there may well be

some attack upon the verbose exaggeration of what is a normal, if power-

fu1, human emotion.

The two young lovers, then, are separated. Fidelity, temptation,

trial, and the miraculous preservation of the heroine's chas ti ty come

second in Highet's list. Joseph is indeed tempted by Lady Booby, as he

confesses to his siste~Pame1a,in one of his hilarious 1etters 2 ; and his

fidelity is presumably given a stringent trial by the advances of the

chambermaid,Betty.3 In these instances Fielding derives considerable

comic effect by emphasising Joseph's 'chastity' or "virtue" rather than

his fidelity to Fanny. But in these cases, where conventional romantic

1JoseEh Andrews, p. 34.

2Ibid. , Book I, Ch. 10.

3I bid. , Book I, Ch. 18.

 18

love exists betYleen two persons, the distinction between fidelity deman-

ded by the romance structure and 'chastity' demanded by social conven-

tion, as a matter of form rather than as a genuine ideal, becomes a dif-

ference in motives and not in deeds. Joseph acts entirely in accord ~~ith

the romance convention by refusing Lady Booby, and.Betty, and Slipslop;

and there can be no question that Fielding's emphasis upon the word "vir-

tue ll ca~ts aspersions primarily upon the motives behind Pamela's obsess-

ive preoccupation Ylith the word. From Fielding's point of view as a

classicist it must have appeared that for Pamela, in Richardson's novel,

her "vil:tue"~as~olelyasocial e-xpedientwhich she might use to he-r

advantage, rather than being a true 'ideal' in the classicist sense.

-The ramifications of this dis tinction, however, belong to the

follmving chapter, and it is sufficient here to note that the ideal con-

ventional values of fidelity and chastity are maintained in the figures

of Joseph and Fanny.

Highet's third category, that of "intricacy", is exemplified by

the numerous meetings between characters as they cross each other's paths

time and time again; and by the interpolated symbolic stories that echo

Cervantes. The predominance of chance, or 'fortune', over choice in the

causation of events also 'runs through the structure of the novel from

beginning to end, although Fielding appears to have a specialised view of

fortune: it is qimply the unpredictable. He is, as ~~as noted above,

not prepared to admit what he terms the "improbable" into his fiction.

For chance or fortune, therefore, Fielding substitutes the machinations

of great and small interlocking ~.Jheels where it is impossible for the

 19

observer or actor \vho is personally involved in the acfion to grasp the

necessary consequences of any particular set of deeds: "The world may

indeed be considered as a vast machine, in which the great wheels are

originally set in motion by those vThich are very minute, and almost imper-

ceptible to any but the strongest eyes ."1 The effe.ct of this upon the

actor \d thin the conventional pattern is not, of course, altered in the

slightest by this change from chance to the unpredictable. loJhat Highet

says of the classical convention of romance still applies to Joseph And-

re\vs: "The hero and heroine are buffeted about by events \vithout deser-

ving it - as young people always feel that they themselves are buffeted'-

and yet no irremediable damage happens to them, they are united while

they are still fair and young and ardent and chaste. "2

To all intents and purposes then, Fielding preserves the conven-

tion of having choice dominated by the unexpected. Also, still according

to precedent, the hero and heroine are eventually revealed to be of a

higher station in life than hitherto expected, in spite of Fielding's

avowed intent to deal \vi th 10yl characters rather than high personages. 3

Moreover, although he is prepared to use the concealed and ndstaken iden-

tities as a source of comedy and satire, none of this negates his usage

of the convention for what it traditionally is.

True to the convention, the real identities of the hero and hero-

ine are not revealed till the very end.

lHenry Fielding, Tom Jones, Book V, eh. 4.

2Gilbert Highet, EP. cit., p .. 165.

3Preface, Joseph Andre\vs, p. xviii.

 20

Fielding's most obvious deviation from the classical schema out-

lined by Highet comes not in the pattern of relationships established

between the characters, nor in the kind of experiences presented, but in

the location of the action. The hero and he~oine do not travel to dis-

tant and exotic lands, but apparently !emain in England. Fielding makes

this one of the distinguishing factors in his Preface between the genre

of the comic and the serious romance: Joseph and Fanny are set amongst

characters who are, for the reader, everyday English figures, rather than

amongs't the princes and aristocracy of a distant land. He may thus pre-

serve "the ludicrous instead of the sublime".

It is quite clear, however, that the avoidance of the exotic for

his mise-en-sc~ne does not vitiate the fundamental structure of the ro-

mance convention as long as thCit setting is not a principal object of

study.l The work remains a romance, though not of the "serious" variety.2

It remains so because, for the central figures, Joseph and Fanny, there

is still a journey to be undertaken through a world that is strange to

them. For these two characters, young as they are, the world through

which they journey is as bewildering as any foreign country could be.

lAS I pointed out in an earlier footnote, 'the novelist must have

somewhere to locate his action. As long as the particular time and place
is not a major focus of his attention he may still preserve a classicist
~concern for the general and timeless truths of human nature.

2William B. Coley, "The Background of Fielding's Laughter", ELH,

XXVI, June 1959, p. 232, writes that "for Fielding, as for Augustans gen-
erally, seriousness in literature was not a simple matter. The modern
emphasis on Fielding's seriousness may obs,cure not only the nature, of the
witty mode evolved for treating grave subjects but also the nature ,of the
important rhetorical pressures present in the background of such a mode."
 21

The important factor for the conventional pattern is the journey itself,

not the location, and that it should be bewildering for the protagonists.

After all, if Fielding's statements quoted in the first chapter of this

thesis are any guide,. the people one meets (and it is people who are the

objects of the classicist's study) are very much the same in all import-

ant respects wherever one travels in "the world in general, at least that

part which is pol:tshed by laVls, arts, and sciences; and of that from the

time it was first polished to this day; nay, andfoDvards as long as it

shall so remain. "1

Because the fundamental charactetfstic of the convention is· a

general pattern of action, not a particular location, the experiences of

Joseph and Fanny are no less emblematic or charged with symbolic meaning

within the terms of the romance convention even though the milieu is not

'high' •

The conventional structure outlined by Highet above is, then,

left more or less inviolate by Fielding. The same values and meanings

carried by this structure 'viII, consequently, be found in Joseph AndrevlS

much the same as they v7ill be found in A Winter's Tale or Clitophon and

Leucippe; and this lvhether the convention of romance is treated seriously

or not; whether or not the author consciously intends such an effect. 2

1 Jos~J?h Andre~·,s, p. 179.

2It should be clear that no claims whatsoever are being advanced

in this thesis as to vlhether Fielding held the same interpretation of
Jos~ Andrelvs as I do. Where I use his theory of the novel as explana-
tion, I d9 so vlhere it is possible to interpret it as conforming to my
view of the work, and because he says lvhat I 't·lish to say far better than
I can·.
 ---,
I
/"
22

These values and meanings derive from the mythic nature of the struct-

ure. Given that the convention of romance is preserved as at least a

basic structural element in the characters and action of Joseph Andre~-Js,

it is nOv1 necessary to describe these values, and meanings.

As was shoYTn earlier, the classicist wishes to demonstrate the

nature of some ideal or non-transitory realm of our experience and being,

and thus to present some special form of general trut~ common to all men

of all times and places. The adoption of a conventional or mythic pat-·

tern is therefore almost an artistic prerequisite for the classicist

writer of fiction. He is interested in precisely the kind of meaning

and value that a mythic structure can embody. Such structures do con- (
stitute a system of enduring truths common to all men - just the kind of
/

trutha as was shmvn in the previous chapter, sought by a classicist like

Fielding. The .'truths' embodied in mythic structures are, just as the

classicist desires, different in kind from the transitory, socially cre-

.-..ated values, and the empirical truths of his OYTn, or anybody else's,

particular time or country.

The romance convention can be viewed in two major, and slightly

different, aspects in terms of the mythic meanings and values embodied

there: the first of these is that where the syrnholicpatternof action

serves to represent certain e"xperiences that genuinely are common to all

men of whatever time and place. The second aspect is found where the

structure, or convention, is seen to represent not some of the actual

experiences of mankind, but his subconscious fears and drives. The first

of these is associated with a view of myth as closely related to ritual,

 23

_while the second is associated lvi th myth viewed as a very special species

of dream. It is lvorth outlining these t,vo viewpoints as briefly as pos-

sible, and then to continue by showing how the romance convention in gen-

eral, as outlined by Highet above, and the s tory of Joseph and Fanny in

particular, is thought to operate on the mind of the reader.

The ritual view is \vell summarised by Philip Hheehvright:

there is, I judge, a more general character of primitive ritual,

of lvhich the drama of the death and rebirth of the vegetation god is a
particular though ve~~ basic exemplification. That character, in the
theory of the anthropologist Arnold van Gennep, is the total experience,
in \vhich man and nature harmoniously join, of transition. (Van Gennep
uses the French word passage.) Every change or-human condition - birth,
puberty, initiation, betrothal, marriage, pregnancy, paternity, _spe_ciali-
zation of occupation, death - is mythopoeically regarded as a passage
from a state of self that is dying to a state of self nmvly born. I

Hheelwright points out that in prim! tive cultures the movement

of an individual from one to another of these "conditions" was frequent:-

.ly accompanied by a specific ritual as he was initiated into the succeed-

ing state. v;rheehvright offers a possible system of categorisation for

the ritual procedures involved in such transitions: " • • • van Gennep

distinguishes three stages in the typical 'ceremonies oftransition-'

(rites de passage): the rites of separation, those of 'the margin' when

the celebrant finds himself in the darkness and anonymity of 'beoveen

two worlds', and those of attainment. 112

This schematisation brings to light certain elements of the ro-

mance convention in Joseph Andre\vs. The overall movement is centred on

------------------------------------------------------
Iphilip Hheehvright, "Notes on Mythopoeia", Myth and Literature:
Conte~porary Theory and Practice, ed. John B. Vickery, Lincoln: Univers-
ity of Nebraska Press, 1966, p. 64.

2Ibid ., p. 65.
the hero rather than on the heroine, who, according to this analysis,

tends to become a subsidiary figure; and it is a movement that can be

characterised as the passage from boyhood to manhood, from a role as

student to that of adult. Joseph is shown as a virtuous youth who tends,

as lve have already noted in the earlier part of this' chapter, to lack

the ability to discriminate between genuine ideals and the sterile, soci~

a1 rules of conduct. His sense of values is undeveloped and he relies

almost exclusively on the precepts of his sister and Parson Adams when

he finds it necessary to exercise his will by choosing to reject the ad-

vances of his employer; As I have already' argued, the distinction be-

tlveen Joseph's act of rejecting Lady Booby, and the precepts he cites in . I

order to justify that rejection, is very important to Fielding's satiric

purposes. As the romantic hero, Joseph must be faithful to his heroine,

and he is just that. Fielding achieves considerable comic effect, how-

ever, by having Joseph offer excuses for his fidelity that reflect: an

essentially immature adherence to the values of Pamela, that, as a c1as-

sicist, Fielding vlaS bound to detest.

Following his rejection of Lady Booby, Joseph is banished from

the household lvhere he grew up and sent out into the "darkness and an011-

ymi ty of 'bet\veen t\vO \'lOr1ds' ". It is here that he encounters the weird

and exotic low-life characters who interact \,Jith one another to make his

passage to maturity fully educative. As he meets more and more of these

characters against whom he must struggle if he is to maintain his stature

of romantic hero, and pass from boyhood to. manhood and marriage \vith the Ii

heroine, joseph in fact progressively loses most of his reliance upon the
 25

precepts of Adams and Pamela, and begins to speak, as well as to act,

more in accord \'lith his role of the maturing young man. 1

Eventually, of course, and strictly in accord with the conven-

tion, Joseph attains his end of marriage with Fanny, and enters' the. adult

world. Th~ point to be noted here is that the romance convention, using

this mode of analysis, constitutes a dramatisation (ultimately derived

from ritual) of the common human exPerience of passage from youth to mat-

urity.· For the reader, then, the hero is genuinely heroic no matter to

what extent his role is surrounded by humour and burlesque. No matter

hm-1 stupid Joseph may appear to be as he is "buffeted about by events

beyond his controll!, the values or meanings carried by his role vIi thin

the conventional pattern continue to exist and serve in some sense -as a .
.

recognisable correlative for a common human experience.

This is so because the fundamental meanings and values embodied

in the structure of romance are determined primarily by the pattern of

action and the relationships established between the actors, not by the

treatment which the author gives to the structure to make the work as a

\-1hole uniquely his mom. As it is the concern of this thesis to under-

stand some of the meanings of the structural elements at work in Joseph

~drews, the emphasis here is upon an analysis of that dimension of

Joseph's character, for example, which embodies the same general truths

lDick Taylor Jr., "Joseph as Hero of Joseph Andre\-1s", Tulane

Studies in English, VII, Ne\'7 Orleans, 1957, pp. 91-109, has noted Joseph's
growing maturity. He makes, however, what I regard as the unjustified,
tacit assumption that Joseph is a full, 'rounded' character. Joseph can-
not be s~ reQarded since he acts solely in accordance wi th a predeter-
--- - - - - - ~ u - _ _ . _

mined pattern of action. He may lose a veneer of affectation but he may

never be regarded as exercising 'choice'.
 26

of human nature and human experience as are found in all examples of the

truly conventional romance structure through all time.

Northrop Frye, however) offers a table which is immensely useful

in the analysis given in this thesis, not only in this chapter, ~'lith res-

pect to the romance convention ,but also in the l-wo follow'ing chapters

where I discuss the structures of Fielding's satire, and the place of

Parson Adams in relation to both romance and satire. This table, given

below, catalogues the respective places of major literary genres within

a cyclic structure centred upon a hero who represents certain basic and

universai patterns of human thoughts, desires, and drives:

1. The da~m, spring and birth phase. Myths of the birth of the hero,
of revival and resurrection, of creation and (because th~ four phases
are a cycle) of the defeat of the pow'ers of darkness, winter and death.
Subordinate characters: the father and the mother. The archetype of
romance and of most dithyrambic and rhapsodic poetry.
2. The zenith, summer, and marriage or triumph phase. Myths of apothe-
osis, of the sacred marriage, and of entering into Paradise. Subordinate
characters: the companion and the bride. The archetype of comedy, past-
oral and idyll.
3. The sunset, autumn and death phase. Myths of fall, of the dying god,
of violent death and sacrifice and of the isolation of the hero. Sub-
ordinate characters: the traitor and the siren. The a~chetype of trag-
edy and elegy.
4. The darkness, ''linter and dissolution phase. Myths of the triumph of
these pm'lers; myths of floods and the return of chaos, of the defeat of
the hero, and CBtterdMmmerung myths. Subordinate characters: the ogre
and the witch. The archetype of satire • • • • 1

This schematisation highlights the journey' of the hero, and -the

relationships he establishes, from a slightly different angle than the

three-phase system outlined by Wheeh7right above. It charts the ten-

dency of human thoughts and emotions to £ollm'l certain recognisable

lNorthrop Frye, "The Archetypes of Literature", Myth and Litera-

ture, ed. John B. Vickery, Ope cit., p. 94.
 27

directions as one mode of imaginative experience leads to another. The

hero may) when seen in this light, still exercise his function as a rep·-

resentative for the reader (just as he does from the point of view of

the alternative schema given above). The other characters participating

in the conventional pattern must also be viewed not as members of a lvorld

'outside' the reader and encountered by him as he moves from youth to

maturity, but as representatives, like the hero, of thoughts, drives, and

emotions within his own psyche. Seen from this point of view, it is not

the hero alone \vho represents the reader, but the conventional structure

as a whole. This W'i11 become clearer, however, and more important, \vhen-

the structure of Fielding's satire is examined in the following chapter.

According to this cyclic pattern, then, the conventional struct-

ure of romance as a unit represents an imaginaifve movement mmy from·

"chaos", "darkness", "dissolution lf and "defeat", tQ\vards their opposites:

order, light, c.omplE!tion and lftriumph". The dominant ideal of the con-

vention W'hen viewed in this way might be crudely described as that of

'hope'. The perspicacious reader recognises from the very beginning of

the novel that Joseph I s ques t \vill be successful and that a conventional

pattern \vill culminate in harmony and marriage, though it may not be

knoW'n with whom at so early a stage.

Such a pre-ordained pattern can very accurately represent the

universal tendency of the human mind to fantasise the gratification of

a desire for satisfaction and contentment (the achievement. of which is

.typical of the comic literary genre); and it can at the same time rep-

resent the fantasy of overcoming the "chaos" and "darkness" involved in

 28

the "defeae t of those aims. The romance structure thus, has, naturally

as it were, a foot in the camps of both satire and comedy.

It is unnecessary to describe in detail how the story of Joseph

and Fanny conforms to this movement from satire to comedy representative

of the hopeful human mind. It has already been shQwn that their story

conforms to the classical model set out by Highet, and it should be read-

fly apparent that this model, in its turn, conforms to the criteria for

movement away from frustration and disorder to satisfaction and order

described by Frye. It is of paramount importance, however, for the purp-

ose of this thesis, that the general and basic meanings and values of

Joseph's quest shown in this chapter are clearly understood.

It has been shown, first, that mythic structures fulfill the re-

quirements of the classicist writer in providing patterns of action and

character that represent a kind of timeless general truth of human nature.

This representative function may be interpreted in either of the two ways

outlined above, but both interpretations emphasise the cornmon and general

nature of the human truth embodied by the romance conven"tion.

One of these interpretations highlights the na'ture and value of

growth and education through experience of "difficulty and trial; the pre-

servation of the will to struggle and overcome the universal problems of

adolescence. The other interpretation highlights the nature and value

of human hope as.a basic element in our make-up.

Finally, a mythic structure such as the conventional romance pat-

tern not only presents, according to the second interpretation above,

certain general truths of human nature, but it also functions as an image

 29

of the human mind. This image, if true in the classicist sense, impl-

ies to the reason of .the reader the ideal, hClrmonious balance of elements

within the whole human being at the very r<;)Qt of the classicist ethic.

The 'ends' highlighted by these two interpretations of the convention

are the achievement of satisfaction and full human maturity. Such 'ends',

of course, are themselves almost synonymous for the classicist lvith the

achievement of this ideal balance of elements Hi thin his mvn psyche that

he seeks through study of both art and nature.

Consequently, it should be apparent that any opposition to the

achievement of theseesseritially ethical ends, symbolised by marriage

and the other comic images, is an object of the classicist's satire, even

if that opposition itself comes within this conventional pattern. This

is so according to either of the t\VO analyses of the conventional struct-

ure offered in this chapter.

 CHAPTER III

to fol10\>1 Nature in giving us a draught of human

Life, and of the manners of Men • • • is, not to draw
after particular Nen, Hho are but Copies and imperfect
Copies of the great universal Pattern; but to consult
that innate Original, and that universal Idea, which the
Creator has fix'd in the minds of ev'ry reasonable Crea-
ture. l

It is as woell to recall here the fundamental and limited object-

ive of this thesis: a coherent account of the structure of Joseph And-·

rews. In the previous chapter the conventional pattern of action found

in the general scheme of the hero's journey ,vas seen to be that of ro-

mance; and an interpretation of the meaning embodied in such a COllvell-

tional ~tructure ,vas offered. It 'vas also pointed out that the kind of

meaning carried by mythic structures like that of romance corresponds to

the 'enduring truths of a general nature" sought by a classicist writer

like Fielding.

This kind of analysis tends, admittedly, to focus upon what Jo-

seph Andrews has in common with other literature, rather than upon ,vhat

makes it unique; and so will any analysis that isolates individual sub-

structures from the overall object of study, the novel as a whole. In a

thesis of this length, hmveveor, it is impossib Ie to treat ,vi th the respect

they deserve Fielding's irony and 'vi t; his extraordinary skill in the

vivid character sketch and the mock-heroic style; or the function and

IJohn Dennis, Reflections upon a Late Pillapsody Called an Essay

on Criticism, (1711), quoted in Walter Jackson Bate, op. cit., p. 10.

30
 31

tone of the narrator's role. All of these elements modify the overall

meaning of the novel somewhat, and all of them combine to make Joseph

Andrew's a unique personal creation.

The subject-matter of this chapter is, like that of the previous

one, a structural element of Joseph An.?re~vs - Fielding's satire. I at-

tempt to shmv how, both in theory and in practice, his satire is related

to the classicist ethic outlined in Chapter 1; and fur.thermore, how it

is intimately related in Joseph Andre,vs to the conventional structure of

romance treated in the last chapter. Again, then, the focus of analysis

is upon what is conventionaLand essentially impersonal :i.n Fielding's

art. It is my purpose here to discover first, how,these t,vo structures

interact 'vith one another so as toe~ress the 'enduring truths of a gen-

eral nature' that Fielding, as a classicist, presents; and second, what

the nature of these truths is. The details of the manner in '"h1ch Field-

ing 'fills in' these basic structures are, of course, unique; but if the

truths with vlhich he is concerned are genuinely common and universal - so

must be the structures he uses to embody them. Thus the figures and

their actions are examined in this chapter in terms of the conventional

romantic and satiric structures to which a part of each of them belongs;

and in terms of the tension, or dynamic, that exists between these two

structures. One should, of course, be mvare of the fact that each char-

acter and action is also a unique fictional creation in its own right.

My warrant for taking this general approach to his satire is found in

Fielding's own theory of ,,,hat he calls lithe Ridiculous":

The Ridiculous only, as I have before said, falls ~~i tl1in nlY province in
the present \-Tork. Nor will some explanation of this word be thought
 32

impertinent by the reader, if he considers how wonderfully it hath been

mistaken, even by writers who have professed it: for to what but such
. a mistake can "le attribute the many attempts to ridicule the blackest
villainies t and, '-That is yet worse, the most dreadful calamities? What
could exceed the absurdi ty of an author, who should wri te the comedy of
Nero, with the merry incident of ripping up his mother's belly?l

Just as Fielding wishes to distinguish his '-Tork from that of the

Renaissance writers of "those voluminous works, commonly called Romancesl1

by using the word l1epic ll , he is equally concerned to distinguish his own

special form of satire from that with "lhich his readers might most read-

ily associate the term. Rather than focussing satiric attention on spe-

d.fic examples of villainy and vice, Joseph An dre'-Ts. concentrates atten-

tion upon the frailties and foibles common to every man:

But perhaps it may be objected to me, that I have against my mvnrules

introduced vices, and of a very black kind, into this vlork. To 'vhich I -
shall ans'wer: first, that it is very di~ficult to pursue a series of
humah actions, and keep clear from them. Secondly, that the vices to be
found here are rather the accidental consequences of some human frailty
or foible, than causes habitually existing in the mind. 2

The final phrase here should be emphasised in order to draw at-

tention to Fielding's stated field of interest as a novelist. This field

is not that of particular, and perhaps rare, instances of evil, but gen-

eral and common tendencies of all human beings of every time and place

vlhich are, indeed, I1habitually existing in the mind ll • He is interested,

in Joseph Andre'-Ts, specifically in the general and human tendencies in

all of us to allow "vani ty ll a control over our actions '-Thich may, unin-
----.-...~~--.....-~-- .

tentionally, i~-icrto "nvfces";"au"ci" of" a'~~~y black kind ll •

lpreface ,Joseph Andre,vs, p. xx-xxi.

 33

·0 Vanity! how little is thy force acknowledged, or thy operations dis-

cerned! How wantonly dost thou deceive mankind under different disguis-
es! Sometimes thou dost wear the face of pity, sometimes of generosity:
nay, thou hast the assurance even to put on those glorious ornaments
which belong only to heroic virtue. Thou odious, deformed monster! whom
priests have railed at, philosophers despised, and poets ·ridicu1ed; is
there a wretch so abandoned as to own thee for an acquaintance in public?
- yet, how fe~., ~.,i11 refuse to enjoy thee in private? nay, thou art the
pursuit of most men through their 1ive$. The greatest vi11anies are dai-
ly practised to please thee; nor is the meanes t thief below, or the great-
est hero above thy notice. Thy embraces are often the sole aim and sole
reward, of the private robbery and the plundered province. It is to pam-
per up thee, thou harlot, that we attempt to withdraw from ·others ~.,hat we
do not "Tant, or to withhold from them what they do. All our passions are
thy slaves. Avarice itself is ·often no more than thy handmaid, ann even
Lust thy pimp. The bully Fear, like a coward flies before. thee, and Joy
and Grief hide their heads in thy presence. 1

The imperative of the classicist" aesthetic is constantly present,

urging the portrayal of what is cornmon to, and true of, all men, especia1-

1y his readers. "The only source of the true Ridiculous," argues Fie1d-

ing, "is affectation.,,2 Moreover, of the two possible sources of "af-

fectation", Fielding prefers to portray vanity rather than outright "hy-

pocrisy" (which he defines as "nearly allied to deceit"). This diStinc-

tion shows even more clearly that the concern of Joseph Andrews is first

with frailty common to all men rather than the exposure of particular

evil, and second, with a sympathetic view of man in general: Fielding's

view of man is not harsh and splenetic, seeing his fellows as inevitably

bound to viciousness and evil. Both aspects of this attitude remain

classicist in spirit: the first reflects the focus on generality; the

IJoseph Andrews, p. 55.

2preface, Joseph Andrews, p. xxi •.

 34

second conveys a belief in the possible educative function of fiction

\-lhereby the reader may better come to know himself, and hence act better

to achieve the ideal harmony of elements implied by a true vision of his

own overall nature.

As a classicist, Fielding takes as his model a tradition of sat-

ire distinct from the better known mode that stemmed from Horace:

Dryden, \-Those views v7ill be taken as those of the cri tical maj ori ty, des-
cribes a satiric tradition distinct from and collateral to the more fam-
iliar Horation. Knoun variously as "Henippean" or "Varronian", this
tradition appears to have been characterized by its use of the dialogue
form and a medley of verse and prose, mirth and seriousness. In the
early commentaries both Henippus and Varro are conventionally referred
to ~as practitioners of the spoudaiogeloion. Although little or nothing
remains of their work, classicists generally agree that a fair concep-
tion of it can be got from the 'Dialogues of the Dead' by Fielding's
acknm.,ledged mas ter in the comic, Lucian. 1

The operation of these tt.,o modes would seem to be entirely dif-

ferent. The object of satire in the Horatian mode seems to have been

particular and blatant evil in society. As I understand it, HoraHan

satire ridicu~es particularly vicious social behaviour, ,,,here the fic-

tiona"! characters and actions might be seen to have their concrete coun-

terparts in society itself. Fielding's own most successful plays were

constructed according to this pattern. The ridicule involved is directed

at certain ~types of people and actions outside the ,.,ork, in society; and

the reader, consequently, is rarely laughing at himself when presented

with satirised figures. 2

lWilliamB. Coley, .9P. cit., p. 241.

2This is not to say that Horatian 'satire concentrated on parti-

cular societies and men to the extent that Fielding did in his plays.
This mode of satire, hmvever, is noticeably more splenetic, and relies
 35

This type of satiric structure does not exist in Joseph Andre~vs,

unless a point is stretched to admit the symbolic,interpolated tales of

Wilson and Leonora.

The second mode, 'vhich might for the purposes of this chapter,

be called the 'Lucianic', is far more general in its scope and less sple-

netic in its vie\V of man, than the first, and better kno\Offi, Horatian.

Lucian's satire is characterised by Highet in the following terms: "His

tone is one of amused disillusionment. 'Lord!' he says, '\Vhat fools

these mortals be!' - but there is more gentleness in his voice and kind-

ness in his heart than we feel in his Roman predecessors."l It is this

Lucianic mode of satire that Fielding names "The Ridiculous in the

present work. [Joseph Andrews]." The object of Lucian's satire is "these

mortals", air of them, including his readers~ The reader, thus, laughs

at something in himself when he laughs a.t a figure in the fiction •. Al-

though Fielding has, as a classicist, "co'pied from the book of nature, "2

as the ·source of character and truth in his 'vork, he wishes to make it

clear that his satire is not Horatian in the sense of presenting exempl-

ars identifiable with particular contemporary evil, or even 'vith genuine

evil at all:

I question not but several of my readers \ViII know the' lawyer in the stage-
coach the moment they hear his voice. It is like,vise odds but the wit

upon presenting examples of evil tmvards which all men may indeed feel'
themselves drawn, in an attempt to prevent and eradicate such evil by ex-
posure to public "detestation".

lGilbert Highet, o~_ci~., p. 304.

2Preface, Joseph Andrews, p. xxiii.

 36

and the prude meet \vith some of their acquaintmlce, as \-lell as all the
rest of my characters. To prevent therefore any such malicious applica-
tions, I declare here once for all, I describe not men, but manners; not
an individual, but a species. Perhaps it will be answered, Are not the
characters then taken from life? To \.,hich I ans,.,er in the affirmative;
nay, I believe I might aver, that I have writ little more than I have
seen. The lm.,yer is not only alive, but hath been so these four thous-
and years; and I hope G-- will indulge his life as many ye t to come. He
hath not indeed confined himself to one profession; one religion, or one
country; but 'when the first mean selfish creature appeared on the human
stage, \vho made self the centre of the \.,hole creation, would give him-
self no pain, inc~r no danger, advance no money, to assist or preserve
his fellmv-creatures; then was our lawyer born; and \-lhilst such a person
as I have described exists on earth, so long shall he remain upon it.' It
is therefore doing him little honour to imagine he endeavours to mimic
some little obscure fellow, because he happens to resemble him in one
particular feature, or perhaps in his profession; whereas his appearance
in the world is calculated for much more general and noble pllrposes; nor
to expose one pitiful \vretch to the small and contemptible circle of his
acquaintance; but to hold the glass to thousands in their closets, that
they may contemplate their deformity, and endeavour to reduce it, and
thus by suffering private mortification may avoid ,public shame. This
places the boundary between, and distinguishes the satirist from the lib-
eller; for the former privately corrects the fault for the benefit-of the
person, ,like a parent; the latter publicly exposes the person himself, as
an example to others, like an executioner. l

rhe last sentence here distinguishes perfec~ly between Horatian

and Lucianic satire in terms of tone. The Horatian is Hlike an execut-

ioner!! where the Luc:ianic is nlike a parent ll • Having un'derstood the

basic differences between these two satiric modes ,however, it is nmv

more important to note how the Lucianic tradition may be related to the

interpretations of the romance convention offered tmvards the close of

the previous chapter. From this critical vie,vpoint, the most important

phrases in the pc;ssage last quoted are not only those in 'vhich Fielding

repeats the' classicist claim for 'truth to nature' but those in ,vhich he

makes it clear that the objects of his satire are universal tendencies

lJoseph AndreHs, p. 180.

 37

or characteristics possessed by every human being.

The "thousands in their closets ll clearly refers to all his read-

ers; \vh11e his attitude towards the lawyer, vThom he t·7ishes "G__ will in-

dulge his life as many yet to come l l , is not only Lucianic in fts parent-

al warm-heartedness, it also indicates the essential indestructability

of the forces opposing Joseph and Fanny in their conventionally romantic

movement tOvlards marriage. Such indestructability confirms the conclu-

sion arrived at in the previous chapter: that all characters like the

lawyer and Mrs. Tmv-t-1Ouse may be structurally regarded, just like Joseph

and Fanny, as acting roles in a predetermined pattern of action; and

that this pattern may itself be regarded as a general reflection of hu-

man nature,- or the human psyche.

Fielding, as a classicist, recognises that VIe all have selfish

tendencies like those found in the lawyer: it is human to do so. He

points out, therefore, _that although such figures as the lmvyer may op-

pose the progress of Joseph and Fanny towards the symbolic harmony of

marriage, they must, if the conventional pattern of action is genuinely

to represent the human mind, survive, as it 'vere, to fight again another

day. If serious damage is done to the lmvyer, or to the prude (to our

selfish and vain inclinations, if you will) the pattern loses its prop-

erty of reflecting the general nature of human beings. If the lavryer

in us is lost, \ve lose part of our humanity. The duty of a classicist

is not, as Lemuel Gulliver might think, to destroy or despise our passions

~'-.-,~ -
and desires, but to harmonise them under ~he auspices of the rational

faculty.
 38

The ideal that the eighteenth-century classicist wished to incu1-

cate through his literature was a harmonious balance -of elements contro1-

led by the reas on: liThe men and women of that period felt the dangers
--------------
of passion, and sought every proper means of ,controlling it." It was

noted in the conclusion of the previou~ chapter that the movement of the

romance structure from chaos and danger towards harmony and resolution

reflected this ideal classicist image of a man. It was also noted that

those figures within the conventional structure who opposed the achieve-

ment of these ends belonged to the satiric part of the cycle outlined by

Frye, from 'tV'hichthe romance hero and heroine must make their escape.

It should, therefore, be apparent that where the reader is presented with

, a figure in opposition to the ideal of harmony sought by Joseph and

Fanny, he is presented '-lith a symbol for some passion or inclination

within himself that is not sufficiently under the control of his ration-

al faculty. The genuinely satiric structures in Joseph Andrews will be

found, in fact, to focus upon jus t such symbols for passion, inclination

or social conditioning: "Much of the satire with which the eighteenth

century abounds has- as its purp()s-e the iilustration of -the chasm bet~-leen

universal nature and transient social custom."l

Again, however, it should be emphasised that the classicist- takes

what might be called a 'broad' view o~ human nature to which the Lucianic

mode of satire is especially appropriate. Satiric attack in this mode is

upon lack of order among psychic elements, and not upon vices that are

lWalter Jackson Bate, op. cit., p. 66.

 39

"causes habitually existing in the mind" and ,.,hich ought to be destroyed. l

Before entering upon an examination of the actual satiric struct-

ures in the body of Joseph Andrevls, it should be pointed out that Field-

ing drm-ls one more, very important distinction bet~.,een t,vo kinds of sat-

iric attack 'vithin the generally Lucianic form - the objects of detesta-

tion and the objects of ridicule. He distinguishes "affectation" pro-

duced by the universal characteristic of vanity as the object of ridicule

(no one is to be exempt in Joseph Andre,.,s from ridicule) and vices 1I0f

a very black kind • • • that • are never set forth as the objects of

ridicule, but detestation.,,2 tt is not perfectly clear whether Fielding

means to say that no figure in Joseph Andrews_ is to be detested, or that

only a particular group in the novel is to-be so regarded. It is possi-

ble, hm.,ever, to make a distinction ,.,ithin the body of the novel itself

between Joseph and Fanny, who may be the objects of occasional ridicule

due to their affectation, and those other figures vlho are not only af-

fecte·d but also opposed in some sense to the progress of the young couple

tmvards the discovery of their rightful places in the ,vorld. It is easier

lIt is unnecessary to point out in detail hm., important is the

continually implied comparison bet,"een Joseph Andrm.,s and Pamela as a
source of satire. It is sufficient to note here that, to the classicist,
the ethical beliefs expressed in Pamela must have seemed intensely 'nar-
row'. Pamela's preservation of her "virtue ll ,.,as solely determined by
social conv~ntion, ,.,hile her employer was viewed ,.,ith extreme distaste.
There ,.,as no recognition of the latter's essential humanity, or of
Pamela's real desire for social advancement.

2Preface, Joseph Andrews, p. xxiii.

 40

to illustrate this difference in satiric structures by examining one or

two examples in greater detail, than by attempting to define it in a

vacuum. Both forms, hm-7ever, derive their satiric impact from the pres-

ence of the conventional romance pattern of action centred on Joseph's

quest as the fundamental structural unit of the \york as a whole.

There is more than one type of character in ;Joseph Andrews, and

each of them may be the object of satire when acting or speaking in some

't>iay in 'opposition' to the ideal of harmony embodied by the romance con-

vention. The first category of character is formed by the figures that

Joseph encounters briefly on his journey,- and who might be described as

'humour' or 'vice' characters. Sheldon Sacks implicitly recognises the_

function of figures like the lawyer in the stage-coach and Hrs. Tmy-\vouse

as representatives for tendencies within every human being when he uses

the ,yord "traits":

These characters - rough approximations of those E.H. Forster calls "flat

characters" - are invariably self-explanatory: since they represent only
one trait or possibly two, their actions and words, limited to the situa-
tion that called forth their creation, simply display the traits they
embody. He meet them only once and usually they exhaust their usefulness
in conveying appropriate judgments of institutions, manners, people of
the \-,orld in \·,hich the action takes place. 1

Perhaps the most memorable sequence of such characters is found

in the famous stage-coach episode 2 in \-Thich our lawyer friend plays his

part. This chapter is, of course, basically a parody of the ~parable of

lSheldon Sacks, Fiction and the Shape of Belief: a Study of

Henry Fielding vli th Glances at S,vift, Johnson and Richardson, Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1964, p. 96.

2J oseph .Andre.vs, Book I, ell. 12.

 41

the Good Samaritan, ,,,here a number of characters like the 1a~]yer are pre-

sen ted vlho represent our mvn tendencies to selfishness and lack of com-

passion in a number of different disguises. Although some of the satiric

force obviously does derive from the association with the biblical story,

the fact that the wounded man is Joseph on his joun1ey towards Fanny,

adulthood· and restoration to his rightful place as Hil·s6n' s son, adds a

further important dimension to the satirical meaning of the incident.

Primarily, it 'places' all these characters except the postillion

as fundamentally opposed to the success 6f Joseph's quest - all of them

would be mo·re or less content to leave Joseph dying. Such opponents,

,.,ithin the structure of the romance convention, must belong to the sphere

of satire as representatives of the chaos and disorder from which the ro-

mance hero must make his escape. Such a position (opposed to the success

of the romance hero) vlOuld not, of itself, hmvever, be sufficient to gen-

erate the kind of satire that Fielding outlined in his Preface as the

"Ridiculous I I .

In order to produce satire aimed at "affectation" Fielding does

not have to demonstrate that the figures representing "orie trait or pos-

sib1y t,vo" are opposed to Joseph's quest, although this does indeed

'place' them as the objects of "detestation ll when the actions they perf-

orm are designed to hinder progress tow'ards the ideal union of Joseph and

Fanny. He must, in fact, show that a gap exists between the real nature

of a character and the appearance \vhich that character presents to the

world:

Huch less are natural imperfections the object of derision; but when ug-
liness aims at the applause of beauty, or lameness endeavours to display
 42

agility, it is then that these unfortunate circumstances, which at first

moved our compassion, tend only to raise our mirth.
The poet carries this very far:

None are for being 'vhat they are in fault,

But for not being 'vhat they would be thought.

vlhere if the metre would suffer. the word Ridiculous to close the first
line, the though t Houldbe rather more proper • Great vices are the pro-
per objects of our detestation, smaller faults, of our pity; but affect-
ation appears tome the only true source of the Ridiculous. l

Hhen the lawyer in the stage-coach masks his selfishness with a

. fear of legal consequences he is not opposed to the successful continu-

ance of Joseph's quest - his arguments \vi1l help to save Joseph - but he

is clearly affected : there is a distinct gap be bo]een the appearance he

presents, of respect for the la,v, and his real nature of selfish fear and

lack of compassion: "From the discovery of this affectation arises the

Ridiculous,which always strikes the reader with surprise. and pleasure".2

In this context the. follovling observations of Martin Price are valuable:

The central theme in Fielding's work is the opposition beoo]een the flow
of soul - of selfless generosity - and the structures - screens, defences,
moats of indifference - that people build around themselves . The
0

flow is the active energy of virtuous feeling; the structures are those
forms that are a frozen travesty of authentic order • • • •• •• • •
............. ........... .. .. ~ ~ ~

Like the Augustan satirists, Fielding sees the preposterousness of

this evasion of goodness And the methods of evasion are his constant
0

objects of· scrutiny: the withdrmval into legality and dogma, the sophis-
try of bad faith, the careful preservation of a code too exalted to use. 3

lpreface, Joseph Andrews, pp. xxii-xxifi.

2 Ibid ., p. xxii.

3t1artin Price, To the Palace of Hisdom, Ne,v York: Doubleday,

1964, pp. 286-288.
 Such insight is useful as long as the "opposition beuv-een the

flow of soul • • • and the structures • • • that people build aroung them-=-_____

selves" is interpreted as referring to tendencies \vithin the mind of

every individual reader. That is, Price's remarks should be understood

in the Lucianic rather than the Horatian sense. Fielding is concerned

not to "vilify or asperse any one"l in particular, but to shmv hmv every-

body tends to mask his selfishness and lack of compassion under the stim-

ulus of vanity in ways that 'viII be socially acceptable. It is here

that satire upon affectation and ,vanity may be seen as inextricably con-

nected with the classicist ethic in general. Vanity, although a perman-

ent mid inevitable part of our make-up, is associated by its very nature

with the "transient social customll abhorred by the classicist when it

acts 'as a guide to action.

The prudish lady is presented by Fielding as totally dominated

in he'r actions by such custom'. She really does carry alcohol,· and she is

not genuinely offended by the presence of a naked man in the coach \vith

her. Yet "transient social custom", acting through her vanity, stimul-

ates her to adopt a mask, and not to act in accord with the ideal of com-

passion. She is thus the object of uv-o levels of satiric attack.

First, she is selfish and lacking compassion; she passes by the

wounded traveller. She is thus placed as opposed to the success of Jo-

seph's quest, being prepared to leave him dying. This opposition to the

ideal of the conventional romance structure makes her action the object

lpref ace j Joseph A.ndrmvs" p. xxiii.

 44

of "detestation ll , \-lhi1e her affectation of social rectitude makes her

the object of ridicule ~vhen we discover, for example, that she really

does carry alcohol.

The affectation may, just as Fielding states· in the Preface,

lead to "vices, and of the blackest kind". This will be true of every

reader \vho allows his action to be guided by vanity acting in perfect

accord 'vith IItransient social custom", and this, in its turn, must mean

all of us from time to time. The structure of romance defines the ob-

jects of "detestation" as actions ~'lhich oppose Joseph's movement towards

union with Fanny, and it is thus only through the interaction between

the romance and satiric structures that the reader learns that vanity

causing affectation in accord ,.,ith "tr.ansient social custom" may lead

him to act viciously.l The affectation is not vicious, although opposi-

tion to Joseph is.

It the distinction bet'veen these two levels of ridicule and out-

right satire is remember.ed, it is possible to elucidate one of the most

persistent problems for commentators like Mart:i.n Battestin, \vho reads the

novel as primarily an ethical system composed of precepts embodied in the

1Without the presence of the overall pattern of the romance struc-

ture such characters as the figure of the prudish lady might be inter-
preted solely as a representative for eighteenth-century English prudery
with no general function as representing vanity, selfishness and "trans-
ient social custtlm". She would arrive on the scene, and disappear from
it, having no recognisable connection with the other figures of the same
ilk. As a symbol for a "trait ll or tendency in the mind of every reader,
a function given her, according to the interpretation offered at the
close of the previous chapter, by the mythic pattern of the romance con-
vention in which she plays a part, she is intimately related structural-
ly witli all the other 'humour' characters \vho also have tIle same ftU1Ct-
ion.
 45

persons and speech of the central characters. The problem is simple:

it consists of the apparent contradiction involved in having Joseph, who

should be purely a heroic figure, made the obvious object of ridicule in

the early stages of the work.

Professor-Battestin argues·that Joseph is the archetype of "chas-

tity •.•• ''lith re.spect. to himself til advocated by the Latitudinarian prea-

chers like Isaac Barrm'l as one of the two cardinal moral precepts a man

should follow in his daily life. But no reader can take the passages in

which Joseph verbally defends his "virtue ll against the onslaughts of his

employer, Lady Booby, ''lith any seriousness. And yet, of course, it is

this very chas ti ty that, according to Professor Battes tin, Fielding

ought to be recommending to his reader as vlOrthy of emulation.

The structural analysis of satire offered in this chapter (dep-

endent as it j.s upon an understanding of the classicist ethic outlined

in Chapter 1, and the parallel analysis of the romance structure given

in the second chapter) makes it possible to offer a coherent explanation

IMartin C. Battestin, op. Cit., p. 26-27, offers the following

resume of his position: liThe true origin of Fielding's tHin protago-
nists in their capacity as moral exemplars in this Im'l-li.fe epic of the
road may be traced Hith confidence to the homilies, and in particular,
it would seem, to Isaac Barrm'l' s sermon 'Of Being Imitators of Christ.'
The sermons present four points of special significance: (1) the depic-
tion of the good man as hero: (2) the notion that the sum of his good-
ness is chastity (or virtue or temperance, the control of reason over
the passions) ,·lith respect. to himself, and charity_ with respect to soci-
ety; (3) the choice of Joseph and his rejection of Potiphar's wife to
exemplify the former, and of the pilgrim patriarch Abraham, the epitome
of human faith expressed in works, to represent the latter; and (4) the
analogy of the good man I s life in a world. of vani ty and vexation to a
pilgrimage through strange lands to his true home."
 46

of hm'l the reader can laugh at Joseph while Joseph may also maintain

his 'heroic' stature. In fact, like all the other 'humour' characters,

Joseph is indeed affected in the early stages of the novel, and consequ-

ently the object of the reader's laughter.

The major structural distinction drmm, and seen operating in the

stage-coach inciderrt, -first isolates the -objects of- ridicule as those

where humour arises from a recognition by the reader of a credibility

gap beD'leen a figure's underlying nature and a mask of affectation worn

in deference to "transient social custom". The objects of detestation

are in contrast to this and are found where a figure is actually opposed

in some sense, to the success of the romance quest.

According to the analysis offered up to this point, the figure

of Jpsep!1 is !ather a representative_for some tendency "habitually exist-

ing in the mind ll than any symbol or archetype of "chastity • • • with r.e-

gard to himself", even though it is part of his conventional role that he

remain faithful to his sweetheart. His chastity in the instance of at-

tempted seduetion by Lady Booby, ,-,here the reader laughs at his affected

sentiments, becomes, in fact, identical ''lith the fidelity demanded by his

role in the conventional pattern. In accord with the distinction out-

lined above, ridicule is directed at Joseph and aimed at the gap between

the facts of his nature (the ardent romantic hero, bound by the conven-

tional ideal to fidelity in his love for F~mny), and the- appearance that,

as an irrnnature adherent of his 'sister's' moral code, he presents to the

outside world. He, like the other humour characters, presents a mask of

affectation. The humour characters unlike Joseph, such as Mrs. TOvl='\vouse

 47

for example, represent general and -common psychic tendencies like IItem-

per, avarice, and an insensibility of human misery,"l in powerful opposi-

tion to the classicist ideal of a harmonious balance, within the indivi-

dual, under the control of reason embodied in the successful conclusion

of Joseph's quest. They are thus'both ridiculed and detested, where

Joseph is_only ridiculed. Such figures, according to the meaning -of the

romance structure outlined at the close of the previous chapter, belong

to the realm of satire, disorder and frustration from \l7hich the romance

convention as a whole represents the general human desire for escape.

Joseph~ _as the hero of this conventional-romance structure, cannot, there-

fore, possibly be the object of detestation or satire proper, although.

his affected sentiments like those of Pamela make him the object of ridi-

cule and laughter~

It is therefore possible to account for the humour at Joseph's

expense without hazarding his role~romantic hero in the slightest.

His affectation may be ridiculed \l7hile his actual behaviour remains per-

fectly consistent with his role as romance hero.- In fact, as I indicated

in the previous chapter, the answer to this apparent difficulty is that

it is-not Joseph's chastity per se that is attacked, and made to seem ri-

diculous, but his affected sentiments paralleling those of his sister,

Pamela.

To Fielding, as a classicist, Pamela's claim to genuine virtue

divorced from desire for advancement and IItransient social custom" must

IJoseph Andrews, p. 181.

 48

have seemed completely empty and hypocritical; and in fact, it may be

argued that \"henever Joseph's protestations of "virtue" are presented

by Fielding as the clear object of ridicule in the special sense given

above, \ole laugh not only at Joseph, the roman tic hero in us all, and his

affectation, but at the Pamelas of both Richardson's and Fielding's nov-

els •. The discrepancy bet\oleen Joseph's genuine fidelity to Fanny and his

affected emphasis upon his "vi·rtue" leads to ridicule of the figure ",ho

has given Joseph this affectation by means of her shining example, as

much as to ridicule of Joseph's O~1 affectation.

This oblique attack on Richardson's novel is a further subordin-

ate satiric structure, almost ·continuously present throughout the novel,

due to the relationship between Joseph and Pamela, and Pamela's actual

presence. Ridicule is directed at Pamela as much as at Joseph ,-lhen he

points out to Lady Booby that "that boy is the brother of Pamela, and

",ould be ashamed that the chastity of his family, \vhich is preserved in

her, should be stained in him."l

In the follmving passage Joseph is ridiculed for his verbal ad-

herence to the precepts of his sister when he should be expressing his

true role of fidelity to, and love for, Fanny. Pamela, hmvever, cannot

escape an equal responsibility for this affectation, as Joseph's ,,'ords

reflect her mvn emphasis upon chastity as the only virtue: "How ought

man to rej oice, that his chas ti ty is ahvays in his mvn po,,7er; that if he

hath sufficient strength of mind, he hath al\olays a competent strength of

IJoseph AndreHs, p. 25.

 49
body to defend himself, and cannot, like a poor ,veak ,voman, be ravished

against his \ViII! "I It is unfair to say that the ridicule here is only _

at the expense of Pamela. It is directed at the general tendency in us

all from time to time to defer to "transient social custom" as the giver

of ethical guidelines.

Joseph, however, is not 'affected to the same extent throughout

the novel, Hhile Pamela remains devoted to the dictates of society until

the very end. lilien she points out to Joseph that Fanny is too lowly born

to be considered a fit \Vife for,himhe respond~ ina manner totally in

keeping ,vith his real nature of romantic hero: III Sure, sister, you are

not in earnest; I am sure she is your equal, at leasL' - 'She was my

equal,' ans\vered Pamela; 'but I am no longer Pamela Andre\Vs, I am nm"

this gentleman's lady, and, as such, am above her. . • .' 112

Close analysis of the interaction between the romance and satiric

structures enables us to distinguish, then, the different modes of satire

(ridicule and detestation) to \"hich the humour characters are subject.

Those \Vho play conventional roles of support for the classical 'ideal of

comic resolution embodied in Joseph and Fanny's successful progress are

only r;Ldiculed. Opposition to this ideal leads to vice and therefore, to

satiric detestation. It also enables us to distinguish the special sati-

ric substructure produced by the pre'Sence of Pamela in the novel.

There is neither space nor necessity here to repeat this analyti-

cal process in detail \vherever in the novel our hero and heroine encounter

l~o~~l?~~E-cg-ews_, p. 73.

2Ibid ., p. 300.
 50

further different groups of humour characters. In all cases, the same ac-

count is found to apply in principle to the structure of Fielding's sat-

ire; although, of course, his irony, wit and brilliance of treatment may

'bring the characters to life' in a T,~ay no simple and unimaginative use

of conventional patterns alone will ever guarantee or even allOT,~.

Having structurally distinguished tHO kinds of character up to

this -point, Pamela, and the humour characters acting defined roles T,~ithin

the romance convention, it is now possible to examine a thl.rd. This kind

o·f character 'is found 'in the interpolated symbolic tales, always recog-

nised, according to M.D. Johnson, as reflecting the influence of Cervan-

. tes. 1 One of these tales, that told by Adams I son vlhen demonstrating

his reading ability to his parents' rich guests, is not of major interest.

It is almost Sterne-like in its rambling inconsequentiality, and I see

no way in Hhich it reflects any of the principal concerns of the novel.

In the case of the other two, such a connection is not difficult

to find, and they constitute an important source of support for the mean-

ings of both the detestation and the ridicule directed at the humour

ch.aracters vTho act out their roles T,~ithin the conventional pattern of

the romance story.

The figures at the centres of these symbolic tales have no parti-

cular role within the conventional pattern-.of the romance plot structure

. as outlined by Frye, and thus' cannot b_e seen as mythic representatives

for only one or two psychic tendencies or traits 2 in the mind of the

---.-----
IThe tales are also, of course, elements within the conventional
pattern of romance as described by Highet in Chapter 2 above.

2See the quotation from Sacks above.

 51

reader, or as actors in any ritualistically based overall plot st-ructure

representing a "rites de passa~" experience. Where the 'flat' charac-

ters playa predetermined part in an overall structure that reflects the

general human mind, Leonora and Hilson have a kind of personal history

placing them as individuals \-Tho can, like the reader, be imagined as ex-

ercising choice. l

Leonora's tale is best taken first, as it is considerably less

complex than - that of 'Wilson, and because an explication of- her story \vill

enable Hilson's to be more easily interpreted. Bearing in mind, then,

\.;That has been learnt of Fielding's distinction between detestation and'

ridicule in connection '.;Tith the hunlour characters, including Joseph,

Leonora's sto~~ is found to serve as an illustration of Fielding's prin-

cipa~ object in both forms of satiric attack. She is ruled out as an ob-

ject of satiric detestation by the fact that she plays no part in the

structure of-the convention itself, as outlined in the previous chapter,

(that is, she does not interact \.;Ti th the other characters). She is not

placed.in actual opposition to the ideal embodied in Joseph's personal

quest. Neverthele.ss, it is still possible for her to be the object of

ridicule, since a gap may exist between her true nature and the mask she

presents to the '.;TOrld. This gap undoubtedly exists for Leonora, but in

spite of this, she is not made the object of ridicule, as far as I can

I Adams, of course, is far from being a flat character, and he

too has a personal history of sorts that distinguishes him as a unique
. individual. But, as he does interact with those characters who 'belong'
to the conventional fOl'm in a \'lay that neither Leonora nor Hilson do, he
cannot be seen as an exemplar in quite the same v!ay. But 'ole shall come
to this in the final chapter.
 52

see, in the ~i!ay we have seen ridicule operating up to this point. Her

story is really dominated by a tone of pathos rather than one of either

satiric detestation or ridicule. The reason for this is, I feel, that

Leonora's tale is essentially open-ended in a way that the conventional

structure of the romance as a ~.;rhole is noL

It was argued earlier that the keynote of Fielding's satirical

and humorous attacks was, both in theory and in practice, that the human

-tendencies satirised should be regarded as fundamental to our very nature,

and that the figures representing them should consequently be seen as

always· surviving to 'fight again another' day'. Only the figures who in-

teract directly with those in the conventional pattern of action can be

thus detested or ridiculed, because both the convention itself, as a rep-

resel1tative for the general human mind, and the mock-heroism of the sty-

listic treatment, imply a resolution in 1;.;rhich no one is seriously injured

in any way. But Leonora is permanently injured. M.O. Johnson recognises

this factor of implied resolution as continually operating \V'here the fig-

ures play roles within the romance structure. Speaking of the scene in

which Adams gives Joseph cold comfort for his temporary.10ss of Fanny to

possible ravishing by the lustful squire, he says: liThe Christian and

classical precepts of Adams are inadequate for Joseph's comfort. But ~i!e

laugh at Joseph'·s distress; for in a comic romance it, is unlikely that

the heroine will be violated or killed. III It is, in fact, unlikely that

anyone w'ithin the structure of romance ,.;rill be violated or killed - even

~Maurice Johnson, -,-O.£P-,-'--,-c.::i.:::..t., p. 70.

 53

the thief.

But as Has noted above, Leonora's story conforms to no such pat--

tern of romance, nor does she interact with the other characters in Jo-

se~h fuldrews. She cannot, therefore, be the object of satiric detesta-

tion or ridicule. Her story is an illustration. Her tale is one of

failure-and disappointment resulting from her desertion of the romantic

ideal of fidelity in favour of what the classicist would be bound to re-

gard as -the transitory attractions- of wealth, social position and physi-

cal appearance. These are exactly the same kind of values held by Pamela

and exalted by Richardson. I Should Fanny succumb to the offers of Beau

Didapper we would presumably have a novel with the same kind cif unhappy

conclusiori as that of Leonora T s tale. Fanny being \'lhat she is, how-ever,

an archetypal figure within the structure of romance, makes such an end-

ing impossible. In Richardson's Pamela, there is always the possibility

of an unhappy ending to parallel the conclu~ion ~f Leonora's story. The

feelings of the villagers who rang the church bells on hearing of Pamela IS

marriage were as much of relief as of joy!

IFor the elassicist, the concept of individual freedom is inex-

tricably linked w-ith the acceptance of a set of rationally conceived
ideals as guides to action, rather than submission to the dictates of
social convention or those of personal inclination. The gap between the
-ideal, like that embodied in -the structure of romance, and "transient
social custom" defines the difference betvleen freedom and determinism
for the classicist as much as it exposes the difference between a man
and a saint. Adherence to the ideal reco~lised by the rational faculty
offers to man the possibility of being both free and good, and still hu-
man. Adherence to the dictates of social or personal inclination, as
for Leonora, leads a man to determinism and to evil, whether premedita-
ted or not.
 54

Leonora's story helps the author illustrate the alternative to

acceptance of the enduring values embodied in the romance convention and

so aid in giving the reader a classicist insight into the ordering of

his passions and inclinations in day-to-day life. Leonora comes at the

extreme end of a scale of characters to the extent 'that she, as an indi-

vidual,allmvs her purely personal drive~ and inclinations to govern her

behaviour and allows social conditioning to become the most important

factor in her. make-up.

The outcome of Wilson's story is the opposite to the outcome of

Leonora's • Fielding, hcmever, uses Wilson indirectly as a part of the

romance structure. He is Joseph's father. But Wilson's life story it-

self has no such part to play, and can ultimately be understood as illus-

trative in the same ~vay as Leonora's.

Professor Battestin has called Hilson's tale the "synecdochic

epitome of the meaning and movement of the novel lll and in some 'vays it is

extremely important. From the structural point of vie,,] it should not,

however, be overemphasised to this extent. Professor Battestin clearly

does so because it is, like Leonora's story, a moral fable, and he ana-

lyses Jos~h Andre,vE?. as an "apologue,,2, or system of ethical recommenda-

tions given fictional form.

lMartiil O. Battestin, Ope cit., p. 119.

2Sheldon Sacks, .QP~~i_t_., p. 26, writes: "An apologue is a work

organized as a fictional example of the truth of a formulable statement
,or a series of such statements." Professor Battestin's "formulable state-
ment" is more or less that found on pp. 26-27 of his book, and quoted in
my footnote earlier in this chapter.
 55

Hilson's story is that of a man who has seen for himself the nat-

ure of the disparity betHeen the classicist's rationally conceived ideal

and purely transitory social values, and who has reformed his life in

accord with that ideal. The story of his misspent youth is an illustra-

tion of a life lived, like Leonora's, according to the empty values of

inclination and social custom. It is full of references to vanity and

personal inclination:

.- • .1 knO\\1 fe,v animals that vlOuld not take the place of a coquette; nor
indeed hath this company much pretence to any thing beyond instinct; for
though sometimes tve might imagine it tvas animated by the passion of van-
ity, yet far the greater part of its actions fall beneath even that low
motive; for instance, several'absurd gestures and tricks, infinitely
more foolish than tvhat can be observed in the most ridiculous birds and
beasts, and which would persuade the beholder that the silly tvretch t.,as
aiming at our contempt. Indeed its characteristic is affectation, and
this led and governed by ,.,him only: for as beauty, tvisdom, wit,. good-
nature, politeness, and health, are sometimes affected by this creature';"
so ,are ugliness, nonsense, ill-nature, ill-breeding, and sickness, like-
wise put on by it in their turn. Its life is one constant lie; and the
only rule by which you can form any judgment of them is, that they are
never tvhat they seem. l

Eventually, he recognises an ideal in the person of Harriet

Heartfree, and this recognition marks a turning point in his life. He

retires to the country to an almost;. idyllic life tvith his tvife and child-

ren, . and his happiness and satisfaction are finally to he made complete

by the restoration to him of his lost child, Joseph. The moral of this

tale is absolutely clear; it serves to illustrate once again ,.,hat are

the real objects of Fielding's attack when he employs the modes of sati-

ric detestation and ridicule on the characters ,.,ho have a definite place

within the romance convention. If there is an exemplary character in

IJ oseph Andret.,s, p. 201.

 56

Joseph Andre\vs that the reader is recommended to emulate, it is Wilson,

and not, as I hope to demonstrate in the final chapter, Parson Adams.

Before proceeding to the next chapter of the thesis, it is worth

repeating that there is a scale of characterisation based upon the man-

ner in which different types of figure exemplify the gap between an under-

lying real nature and a superficial appearance: the gap between truth

and affectation. The first group, the humour characters, act as they

- must '-lithin the conventional pattern, whether their role is, like Joseph's,

in conformity with the dominant ideal or in opposition to it. They have

no choice in being the pawns of vanity •. Leonora is equally consistent

in her adherence to the dictates of inclination, but she is, as a charac-

ter '-lith a distinct personality, like the reader and Hilson, capable of

recognising the ideal or fidelity and the order ,.,hich such an ideal im-

plies. The adoption by Hilson of the ideals of. marriage and fidelity as

a guide to his actions, in place of inclination and social conditioning,

illustrates the very change in attitude that the classicist 'Hiter must

hope for in his reader if his function as teacher is adequately performed.

\Vilson, unlike Leonora, recognises the ideal and conducts his life, as a

rational man must do, in accord with it; Adams belongs in a separate

niche to himself in this scale of character vie,.,ed in structural terms,

and in the- final chapter, an analysis is offered of his unique role in

the work.

The analysis of the romance convention undertaken in the previous

chapter revealed the manner in which the classicist's concern with gen-

eral and enduring truths of human nature was expressed in Joseph Andre'07s
 57

by means of a single overall structure. The parallel analysis given here

of the different modes of satire applied to the different types of charac-

ter in Joseph Andrews, highlights the classicist's concern w'ith his teach-

ing function. The concentration of Fielding's satire remains upon ,.,hat

is general-and enduring, upon the universal human tendency to allow van-

ity an unwarranted influence in guiding our actions. The effect of each

satiric structure is, indeed, to demonstrate "the chas,m between universal

-nature and transient social custom." 1 The connection of these structures

with that outlined in the previous chapter is found in the fact that) in

nearly all cases, it is opposition, in some sense, to the values apd

meanings carried by the romance convention that defines the chasm. The

convention embodies the value and meaning of the comic ideal, while the

satirised figures embody the IItransient social custom" as vanity moves

them to become affected.

-----------.---------------------------------- -----------------------------
IWalter Jackson Bate, op. cit., p. 6.6.
 CHAPTER IV

Yet to ",hom must ~ve hearken, if not to Abraham the pat-

riarch and archetype of charity and good nature?l

This'chapter offers an examination of the manner in which the

figure of Abraham Adams is related to some of the meanings and values

embodied in the romance and satiric structures analysed in the previous

chapters. It also serves as a concluding chapter to the thesis, because

it draws together and illustrates more clearly the precise nature of

those meanings and values, as well as completing a coherent account of

the novel as a whole.

It has been of the essence of this--account that Joseph Andre~vs

is a novel "'hose basic structures express, in the meanings they carry,

what has "been called the classicist ethic. At the root of this ethic is

found a view of man, or the reader, as capable of regulating his personal

inclinations by use of his reason, once he has achieved the necessa17,

con~rehensive degree of insight into his own nature. Such regulation

can only occur through true knmvledge, and the classicist writer ,,,as the-

oretically capable of giving this form of insight.

Any guidance of ac tion excep t by the reason through genuine

knmvledge of human nature is umvarranted. Hithout such knmvledge, one is

likely to be guided by transitory social convention or purely personal

inclination masquerading as rationality. Vanity is the prime mover within

IMaurice Johnson, op. cit., p. 79.

58
 59

every human being, stimulating man to accept as rational, a set of val-

ues and a mode of behaviour which, in fact, only makes him appear well

in the ~yes of his equally unenlightened fellows.

Vanity, and the 'passions' of selfishness and lack of compassion,

are some of the objects of Fielding's satiric attack. In order to show

the effects of vanity as frequently vicious, he places figures that op-

erate according to the stimulus of vanity as representatives for univers-

a1 human traits iri an overall fictional structure that represents the

human mind as a whole - the romance convention. The effects of vanity

are defined as vicious when these figures are seen to act as in some way

opposed to the successful completion of the conventional romance pattern.

The tone of most of Fielding's satire, however, is not splenetic.

The classicist view of man as expressed in Joseph Andrews is a tolerant

view. The satirist acts as a parent. Even when he detests the effects

of vanity in a man, he recognises it as a human quality and hopes to cor-

rect his reader by "holding a glass to thousands in their closets" that

they may be privately mortified.

Just as the hero of the romance structure must learn, symbolical-

ly, to lose affectation, so must the reader learn to know his inclinations

for what they are, and to drop his own mask of affectation, worn in defe-

rence to social convention. The values or meanings expressed by the ro-

mance and satiric structures are those of the struggle for knm.,ledge of

human nature through experience, and the struggle for the order brought

.by escape from the chaos of personal inclination and social custom.

There is also a consequent emphasis upon tolerance ..V,...,1 iliI""'"

Cl..LUtO;;
of all human qualities including, especially, the hope that gives man

the 'viII to struggle in these Hays. The figure of Abraham Adams is op-

posed to each of these values carried by the structures examined in the

previous chapters,and he is, consequently, a major butt of Fielding's

satire.

His opposition to the progress ()f Joseph and Fanny tmvards sym-

bolie maturity, and the resolution of all differences found in the comic

conclusion of the novel, is not, of course, in his actions themselves,

but in the personality and philosophy of life lying behind those actions.

The major feature of Adams' opposition to the values embodied by

the novel as a 'whole is his prodigious myopia. If, as has been argued,

knmvledge is an essential- preEequisite for· genuinely meral action--or

guidance, myopia is a dangerous characteristic, especially when it exists

to the extent lvhich it does in Abraham ·Adams.

Th,e effects of Adams.'. myopiaare··e.xpressed in threemaj or and

interconnected Hays, and all three are in some way opposed to the values

outlined above. First, Adams is an example of .the .classicist's theory.

that to knoH oneself, one must first knmi human nature in general. Adams

understands neither himself nor others. Second, and as a complement to

the first, his view of education itself is schoolmasterly, and opposed to

~he value of knowledge gained through experience. Third, and connecte~

with both previous· points", -Adams~ thinking i-s preceptualrather than

rati.onal. He prefers instruction to insight, and his philosophy of life

is thus totally in opposit:i,on to the classicist ideal of tolerance and

unders tanding.
 61

As these three modes of opposition are so intimately linked, it

is perhaps best to examine a number of passages in detail, rather than

make any atten~t to treat one mode at a time. In this way it is possible

to illustrate with greater clarity the manner in which the different

modes are interconnected in Joseph Andre,vs itself.

The narrator's first description of Adams is· clearly as important

as it is comprehensive:

He had applied many years to the most severe study,and had treasured up
a fund of learning rarely to be met ,dth in a university. He was, besi-
des, a man of good sense, good parts, and good nature; but was at the
same time as entirely ignorant of the ways of this world as an infant
just entered into it could possibly be •.. As he had never any intention
to deceive, so he never suspected such a design in others. He was gen-
erous, friendly, and brave, to an excess; but simplici ty 'vas his charac-
teristic: he did no more than Mr. Colley Cibber apprehend any such pas-
sions as malice and envy to exis t in mankind; which 'vas indeed less·
remarkable in a country parson, than in a gentleman who hath passed his .~~ .. --~ ..
life behind the scenes, - a place which hath been seldom thought the
school of innocence, and where a very little observation would have con-
vinced the great Apologist that those passions have a real existence in
the human mind. l

Adams is described as havin·g built up a great fund of book-learn-

ing, but this knm.Jledge alone is clearly -not enough to give him the in-

sight into human nature demanded by the classicist as a prerequisite for

moral action. Adams' lI s implici ty ll is singled out by the classicist

writer as his most prominent "characteristic", and this characteristic

is significantly att~ibuted equaily to a man commonly regarded as little

more than a literary buffoon - Colley Cibber.

For Fielding, as a classicist, the "book of nature" was the pro-

per object of study. "Simplicity" combined with IIsevere" bookishness

IJoseph Andrews, p. 6.
 62

cannot, therefore, be less than a culpable state. Without a knowledge

of human nature, a knowledge of all the passions that exist in a man, it

is impossible for a man to conceive of the ideal harmonious balance of

elements ,vithin himself for which the classicis t strives. It is this

ideal balance which is implied indirectly in Joseph Andre\-ls by the image

of the human make-up embodied in the conventional structure of romance.

Adams' simplicity, or myopia, is thus crucially opposed to the classicist

ethic of Jos~h Andrews as a.Hhole, and "lill be shovm to be so in great-

er detail as the \'lOrk progresses:

Not to apprehend the existence of such passions as malice and envy is a

considerable imperfection, \-leakening, as it does, the effectiveness of
virtue; the innocence that is Ullm-lare of the conflict betHeen its OHn
ideal motives and the resistant reality of the vlOrld in v7hich it must
act is in a continual state of blind confusion. Adams, moreover, is
unmvare of the conflict between his ideals and some of his m-1n moral
limi tations, particulariy vanity.. And Fielding, \-lhose heart is not so
soft as many of his l'ater readers Hho fell in love with the parson be-
lieved, subjects his man to a variety of ignoble, physical punishments'
to make the lesson quite clear. l

Adams is, in fact, presented by the narrator from the very out-

set as a figure \-1ho is to be seen in contrast to the predominant ethical

outlook, and ",ho may thus dramatise this ethic by his presence as an

'alternative'. It is for this reason that the examination of Adams forms

such a fitting conclusion to the kind of analysis offered in this thesis.

The difference that the classicist sees bet\-leen genuine knowledge

learnt from study of life as well as of books, and that learnt from books

alone, j,s perfectly dramatised by Fielding when he has Adams mistake the

IStuart H. Tave, The Amiable Humorist, Chicago: Chicago Univer-

sity U¥r..C'I"'t
L~~OO,
1ar-..n
~~vv,
.....
p. 1'.'
~~~.
 63

character of a gentleman \vho had promised first to house the travellers

overnigh t, and then to lend them horses to help them on their journey.

The gentleman, however, fails to keep his promises, offering weak excuses

as to his temporary inability to aid them. Adams accepts the excuses

for truth, and actually sees the gentleman as good-natured:

"Was ever any thing so unlucky as this poor gentleman? I protest I am

more sorry on his account than my mvn. You see, Joseph, how this good-
natured man is treated by his servants; one locks up his linen, another
physics his horses; and I suppose, by his being at this house las t _night,
the butler had locked up his cellar. Bless us! hmv good-nature is used
in this world! I protest I 'am more concerned on his account than my own. 111

When the gentleman is finally found to be 'unavailable' to see

the travellers, Adams persists in giving credence to his excuses. Field-

ing then places an example of knowledge of human nature gained from ex-

perience in the mouth of Joseph, and juxtaposes it with Adams' explicit

belief in book-learning:

"But surely, Joseph, your SUsp1c10ns of this gentleman must be unjust,

for \"hat a silly fellm.l mus t he be, 'vho would do the devil's work for
nothing! and canst thou tell me any interest he could possibly propose
to himself by deceiving us in his professions?JI - lilt is not for me,"
ans,,,ered Joseph "to give reasons for what men do to a gentleman of your
learning." - "You say right,1I quoth Adams; "kno~"ledge of men is only to
be learnt_ from books; Plato and Seneca {or that; and those are authors,
I am afraid, child, you never read." - "Not I, sir, truly,'.' answered Jo-
seph; "all I knm" is, it is a maxim among the gentlemen of our cloth, - -
that those masters who promise the most, perform the least; and I have
often heard them say, they have found the largest vails in those families
where they \vere not promised any. "2

As usual in Joseph Andrews, the difference between these t"10 pos-

ition8 is not resolved by argument : "Adamff Has -going- to anS\'ler, ~en

lJ oseph AndreHs, p. 166.

2Ibid.) p. 168.
 64

their host came in".l The validity of Joseph's position is made clear

through the presentation of action, just as Adams' position is vitiated

by the facts. It is in this sense that Joseph Andretvs is not a specifi-

cally didactic \vork. The truths of human nature are expressed in the

fictional structures, not in any explicit statements. Only Adams makes

such generalisations within the work itself, and the actions both of the

other characters and of himself prove their emptiness.

This juxtaposition of Adams' belief in book-learning as a guide

to understanding human nature, and the genuine understanding that comes

from exPerience of life, is continued when Adams confronts a retired sea-

man. The sailor eventually convinces Adams that the gentleman is not

everything he appears to be, but the parson persists in maintaining his

initial judgement by recourse once more to his book-learnt_ knowledge:

"And to confess the truth, notHithstanding the baseness of this character,

which he hath too well deserved, he hath in his countenance sufficient
symptoms of that bona indoles, that sweetness of disposition, which fur-
nishes out a good Christian:" - "Ah, master! master!" says the host, "if
you had travelled as far as I have, and conversed Hith the many nations
'where I have .traded, you \vould not give any credit to a-man's counten-
ance,. Symptoms in his countenance, quotha! I would look there~ perhaps"
to see t"hether a man had had the smallpox, but for nothing else. 1I2

The image of travelling is clearly used figuratively by Fielding

here as a metaphor for experience of life. (It is, after all, a symbolic

journey that gives the basic structure to Joseph Andrews_ as a \vhole.)

Adams responds w~th a clear statement of his position that once again

places him in opposition to the overall ethic of the novel. His

IJoseph AndreHs_, p. 169.

2I bid., p. 173.
 65

application of the book-learnt theory of physiognomy has proved disas-

trous tvhen put into practice; yet still he persists, and begins his re-

ply 'vith Hhat is again, from the classicist vieV1point, an outrageous

statement:

". • • the -travelling I mean is in books, the only ~lay of travelling by

which any knowledge is to be acquired. From them I learn 'vhat I asserted
just nOH, that nature generally imprints such a portraiture of ·the mind
in the. countenance, that a skilful physiognomist Hill rarely be deceived.
I presume you have never read the story of Socrates to this purpose, and
therefore I 'viII tell ;it you: A certain physiognomist asserted of Soc-
rates that he plainly discovered by his features that he 'vas a -rogue in
his nature. A character so contrary to the tenour of all this great man's
actions, and the generally received opinion concerning him, incensed the
boys of Athens so that they threw stones at the physiognomist, and would
have demolished him for his ignorance, had not Socrates himself prevented
them by -confessing the truth of his observations, and acknmvledging, that,
though he corrected his disposition by philosophy, he Has indeed naturally
as inclined to vice as had been predicted of him. Nmv, pray resolve me, -
Hmv should a man knmv this story, if he had not read it?tll

Thf;i conclusion to this sectionshoHs Adams continuing to laud

the value of learning quite in the face of the seaman's clearly recognis-

able genuine knowledge ·of the Horld as it really··-is. Hhere Adams takes

the ideal theory of clerical duty for reality, the sailor '-lill offer a

comment that shoHs Adams' myopia as ridiculous and out of keeping Hith

the facts:

". • • there is something more necessary than life itself, which is pro-
vided by learning; I mean the learning of the clergy. l,fuo clothes you
with piety, meekness, humility, charity, patience, and all the other
Christian virtues? ',fuo feeds your souls with the milk of brotherly love,-
- and diets them with all the dainty food of holiness, which at once clean-
ses them of all impure-carnal affections, and fattens them with the truly
rich ·spirit 6f grace?· Hho doth this?tI - "Ai, \vho indeed!tI cries the host~
"for I do not remember ever to have seen any such clothing, or such feed-
ing. tt2

IJosepll P.~drews, p. 174.

2Ibid., p. 175.
 --..,

66 \.

Characteristically, this dispute also is never finished on the

acaderllic level. Fielding again leaves the reader to draw the obvious

conclusion: "Adams w'as going to ans~.,er Hi th some severi ty, Hhen Joseph

and Fanny returned, and pressed his departure so eagerly, that he vlOuld

not refuse them".l

In detailed examination 'of this kind, it is possible to see how

the different facets of Adams" opposition

, to the overall ethic of _Joseph

Andre\vs are intimately related one to the other. His emphasis on book-

learnt knm.,ledge prevents him from seeing human beings for \.,hatthey

really are, and, consequently, from knowing the difference, in the con-

clusion to this episode, between his ideal theory of his own work as a

priest, and the actual practice neatly summarised by the seaman.

Adams' attitudes are heavily ridiculed in this passage, due to

the exis tence of the gap between what he pretends to be - absolutely \ \

,' , h)(9. \/ (,.< Ii"
knowledgeable - and w'hat he really is ~ absolutely innocent) or simple.
""""" '" /7

If a parallel examination is made of an episode that occurs later in the

novel, it is possible first, to locate more specifically the vanity in

Adan~' character that Fielding describes as his particular satiric object

in Joseph Andre\vs; and consequently to explain the ridicule in terms of

both the satiric structure outlined in the previous chapter, and the ro-

mance structure analysed in Chapter I.

As was noted in the first chapter, Joseph, as a representative

for the reader's hope of escape from the symbolic confusion of adolescence,

IJoseph Andre'tvs, pp. 175-176.

 67

undertakes a journey of experience from youth to maturity. By the stage

in the novel.at which the episode to be.considered here occurs, Joseph

is considerably advanced in his knmvledge of human nature, even more so

than in his brief dispute with the parson quoted above. This later epi-

sode once mor:e places Adams' belief in book-learnin·g against Joseph's

genuine knowledge gained from experience. This time, hmvever,· their

dispute is centred precisely on the nature and value of different educa-

tional methods. Adams' attitude to education reveals all three of the

\'lays in which he is opposed to the ideal of knowledge embodied in the

journey being undertaken by his young friend.

The episode begins immediately follm-ling the departure of the

journeying trio from the hospitality and tale-telling of Hilson, the

most prominent exempl~r in the novel. As Joseph and Adams ,valk· along- tb-

gether, the parson opens the dispute '''ith Joseph by claiming that he has

IIdiscovered the· cause of all the misfortunes \vhich befeil him [lUlson] 11 ,1

and he explains what he means by continuing: "a public school, Joseph,

was the cause of -all the calamities \"hich he afterwards suffered. Public

schools are the nurseries of all vice and i11lltlorality." Adams reveals

what he considers the function of education to be in the lines that follow:

"Joseph, you may thank the Lord you were not bred at a public school:
you \'lould never have preserved your virtue as you have. The first care I
al'vays take, is of a boy's morals; I had rather he should bea blockhead
than an atheist or a presbyterian. Ttlhat.. is all the learning of the world
compared to h·is immortal soui? Hhat shall a man take in exchange for his

IJoseph Andrews, .p. 222.

 68

soul? But the masters of great schools trouble themselves about no such
thing. I have knmvn a lad of eighteen at the university, ,vho hath not
been able to say his catechism; but for my own part, I always scourged a
lad sooner for missing that than any other lesson. Believe me, child,
all that gentleman's misfortunes arose from his being educated a t a· pub-
lic school. "1

This theory of education is flatly in contradiction with the be-

lief, symbolised by Joseph's journey, that a human can only become a mor-

a1 agent through knowledge of the world. The possibility is non-existent

of a man acting morally, in the classicist sense of having a rational

basis for his actions, ,vhen he is a "blockhead". In fact, Adams is con-

tradicting his mvn earlier stated beliefs in a number of ways in this

passage, as well as speaking in opposition to the classicist ethic of

the romance structure.

Hhen arguing ,vi th his fello"7 priest, Barnabas, Adams expressed.

the view that a "virtuous and good Turk, or Heathen, are more acceptable

in the sight of their Creator, than a vicious and wicked Christian,

though his faith \Vas as perfectly orthodox as st. Paul himself."2 When

he speaks to Barnabas he accepts that a "Heathen" can be a moral man.

Here, his definition of morality would seem to consist in action accord-

ing to certain Christian precepts learnt by rate. Joseph, to whom he ad-

dresses his remarks, is, in accord with his role as romance hero, strug-

gling precisely to outgrow such a reliance upon precept. The very nat":'

ure of Jose.eh Andrews itself is such as to present the reader 'vith a

lJoseph Andre,vs, pp. 222-223.

2Ibid., p. 68.
 69

true image of human nature. l The purpose of doing so is precisely to

enable the reader to escape from precepts .as guides to action; and to

rely instead upon a genuine understanding of an ideally ordered human

make-up tmvards Vlhich end he will be bound, by the same reason, to strive.

Joseph's reply to Adams is totally in accord Vlith this role of

hero on a journey of experience. It is based upon experience, and· ex-

tolls the value of experience • Joseph says:

Hyou knmv my late master,· Sir Thomas Booby, lvas bred at a public school,
and he 'vas the finest gentleman in all the neighbourhood. And I have of-
ten heard him say, if he had a hundred boys he 'vould breed them all at
the same place. It 'vas his opinion, and I have often heard him deliver
it, that a boy taken from a public school, and carried into the \vorld,
l\lill learn more in one year there, than one of a private education 'viII
in five. He used to say, the school initiated him a great \vay (I remem-
ber that Vlas his very expression), for great schools are little societ-
ies, 'vhere a boy of any observation may see in epitome what he \\lill after-
lvards find in the Vlorld at large. "2

The parson offers, as a response to this, a statement that, in

. the context of the meanings and values shmvn to be carried by the satiric

and romance structures, is at least as outrageous as his earlier remarks

on travelling:

!II prefer a private school, Vlhere boys may be kept in innocence and ig-
norance; for, according to that fine passage in the play of Cato, the
only English tragedy I ever read,

r If .knmvledge of the Vlorld mus t. make men villains,

May Juba ever live in ignorance.'

lParadoxically, hmvever, one of the most basic meanings shmvn to

be embodied by. the conventional structure ef romance is that books are no
substitute for experience and knmvledge gained froin study of the "book of
nature ll •

2Joseph AndreVls, p. 223.

 70

Who would not rather preserve the purity of his child than \vish him to
attain the Hho1e circle of arts and sciences? which, by the by, he may
learn in the classics of a private school; for I would not be vain, but
I esteem myself to be second to none, mil1i secundum, in teaching these
things; so that a lad may have as much-:-learning in a private as in a
public education. "1

First" he opposes knoi'11edge itself, the prerequisite for the mor-

a1 man, when he exto11s "innocence and ignorance", Second, he claims

that "the classics" alone idl1 be sufficient sources of knmv1edge if, by

chance, anybody should require it. He thus praises book-learning at

school, as opposed to Joseph's advocacy of a school where "a boy of any

observation may see in epitome ivhat he will aften-lards find in the Hor1d

at large. II Third, the parson shows his vanity quite clearly and con-

firms the hint given a little earlier before Joseph began to outline the

substance of his argument:

"It doth not become me,1l culsivered Joseph, "to dispute any thing, sir, with
you, especially a matter of this kind; for to be sure you must be allowed
by all the world to be the best teacher of a school in all our county."
- "Yes, that, II said Adams, "I believe, j.B granted me; that I may without
much vanity pretend to - nay, I believe I may go to the next county too
but z.loriari non est m~um. 112

As has been noted in the previous chapter, affectation produced

by vanity is Fielding's source of satiric ridicule. Detestation only ar-

ises \-lhen the affectation' leads a figure to become opposed to the actual

success of Joseph loS quest. Joseph may not notice Adams' vanity, but the

narrator suffers from no such deficiency:

1Joseph Andrews, pp. 223-224.

2 I bid.) p. '223.
 71

Indeed, if this good man had an enthusiasm, or what the vulgar call a
blind side, it was this; he thought a schoolmaster the greatest charac-
ter in the world, and himself the greatest of all schoolmasters; neith-
er of which points he ~.,ould have given "up to Alexander the Great at the
head of his army.l

When Joseph replies to the parson's outrageous claims for a pri-

vate education, that, again from his own experience, he can assure Adams

of the absolute inefficacy of any" particular educational method as a

corrective to an inherently vicious nature, or as a corrupter of the

virtuous, Adams loses his temper and elects to miss the main point of

Joseph's argument." He thus reveals that all his claims for the value

of education stem from a preoccupation with his own greatness as a school-

master: '''I say nothing, young man; remember, I say nothing; but if

Sir Thomas himself had been educated nearer home, and under the tuition

of somebody - remember, I mean nobody - it might have been be~er for

him.. "2

It is ~~orth paying very special attention to the statement above

by the narrator. It is central to the reader's whole conception of Par-

son Adams, and conclusively provides a rebuttal to those commentators

who, in the face of Adams' manifest opposition to the dominant structure,

and hence ethic, of the novel as a v7hole, persis t in treating Adams as

an exemplal~ character whose attitudes are in most cases those of the

author.

James Sutherland has a valuable point to make with special

I! oseph Andre~.,s, p. 225.

2Ibid., p. 224.
 72

reference to the episode in \.]hich Adams nearly loses his youngest child

by drm-ming: by losing control of his emotions, Adams contradicts in

his practic~ his o\'ffi earlier theoretical advice to Joseph. Mr. Suther-

land wri tes :

\.Jhat lies behind the episode is partly Fielding's perception (,.;hich he

shared \'lith S,07ift) of the way in \.;hich a man's profession is apt to b~­
come the man himself • • • . In his lengthy homily to Joseph, the parson
has been behaving professionally, using the j argon of his profession,
inculcating principles which are probably impracticable, and \"hich in
any case he cannot live up to himself. And then Fielding shm.;s us the
real man. 1

The form of this remark is substantially correct. Adams does,

in a sense, tend to act professionally when he offers his advice to

others, especially to Joseph and Fanny. He is not, hmvever, acting as

a clergyman primarily, but as a pedantic and myopic schoolmaster. It is

this profession of which he is most vain, of his ability as a teacher.

It is this particular form of vanity that leads him to yTant to publish

his sermons, arid to place an unjustified emphasis on book-learning as op-

posed to experience as a soui'ce of knmvledge. His belief that the key

to understanding human nature and to the correc't moral code is to be

found in books alone, rather than in experience and study of life as ,.;ell,

derives from his own vanity regarding his teaching abilities.

Adams is' the archetypal schoolmaster: he is al\.;ays ready 'vith

book-learnt precepts and maxims \vhich totally fail to correspond \.;ith

the experience of his student or to supply any real help with the business

of grm·1i.ng tmvards maturity and the resolution of personal and emotional

lJames Sutherland, English Satire, Cambridge, England: Cambridge

University Press, 1958, pp. 114-115.
difficulties. The figure of Adams, then, represents quite clearly the

outlook and values away from which the conventional pattern of romance

leads the reader. The romance convention may be seen as the representa-

tion of the actual experience of grow,th from youth to maturity, or as a

true image of a constantly repeated psychic drama in \vhich different hu-

man traits contend with one. another for control of the individual. In

either case~ Adams' precepts and maxims are at odds 'Hith the meanings of

romance. Since they indirectly spring from his overemphasis on the value

of book-learning, they belong, furthermore, to the realm of satiric ridi-

cule, to the' realm of affectation caused by vanity. In wishing to appear

well in the eyes of his contemporaries, he ,vil1 always offer a precept or

maxim learnt from "the most severe studyll of books, rather than from hu-

man nat ure '.1

The .. most important values carried by Joseph on his journey are

"',,- .-~

those of struggle, experience and hope. Whenever Adams' attitudes, stem-

ming ultimately from his myopia, are shown as opposed to these ideals,

the parson is the object of Fielding's satiric ridicule. The third epi-

sode I\vish to examine as an illustration of the ways in which Adams is

satirised, occurs fo1lmving the abduction of Fanny by the henchmen of

11 do not \vish to suggest, of course, that vanity is a dominating

force in the personality of Adams. His "characteristic ll is simplicity,
or myopia. But it is a major belief of the classicist that vanity exists
in all men, and may only be adequately controlled through knmvledge of
human nature. The myopic Adams possesses no such knowledge, and is there-
fore subject to the universal "blind side" of his vain belief in his mVil
accomplishments as a schoolmaster. In terms of the structure, Adams is
ridiculed.
 74)
,
"
the lustful squire, when Joseph and the parson are tied to a four-post-

er bed, unable to free themselves:

"0 tell me," cries Joseph, "that Fanny \vill escape back to my arms, that
they shall again inclose that lovely creature ~ ,dth all her s\Veetness,
all her untainted innocence about her! II - 1I\\lby, perhaps you may," cries
Adams; "but I can't promise you what's to come. You must with perfect
resignation ,,!ait the event: if she be restored to 'you again, it is your
duty to be thankful, and so it is if she be not. Joseph, if you are
wise, and truly know your own interest, yo~will peaceably and quietly
submit to all the dispensations of Providence, being thoroughly assured,
that all the misfortunes, hOVl great soever, which happen to the right-
eous, happen to them for their mvn good. Nay, it is not -your interest
only, but your duty, to abstain from immoderate grief; which if you in-
dulge, you are not \vorthy the name of a Christian. "I

Adams' Christian-Stoicism is in direct opposition to the values

- ,

of struggle and hope eh~ressed here by Joseph. His advice to Joseph is

full of precepts that fail completely to take any account of human nat-

ure. His attitude is unsympathetic to Joseph's genuine suffering.- No

-- .~,

matter hmv a,vare the 'reader is that Joseph will emerge successfully to

claim a chaste bride, and that Adams never actually does anything to

hinder Joseph's progress, he must recognise here that this philosophy

of Adams' is as strongly in opposition to the overall ethic of Joseph

A!td~e]?s as that of B-arnabas ,the pedantic hypocrite.

l\lben lying injured, Joseph tells Barnabas that he cannot help

feeling the most powerful regret at parting for ever from Fanny, although

he cares little for his mvn life, Barnabas replies,

that any repining at th~ divine will was one of the greatest sins he
could commit; that he ought to forget all carnal affections, and think
of better things. Joseph said, that neither in this \'lOrld nor the next,
could he forget his Fanny; and that the thought, hmvever grievous, of

--_._--------
IJoseph fll1dreHS, p. "c."
LUU.
 75

parting from her for ever vlas not half so tormenting', as the fear of
what she would suffer, ~vhen she knew his misfortune. Barnabas said,
that such fears argued a diffidence and despondence very criminal; that
he must divest himself of all human passions, and fix his heart above. l

The advice that Adams and Barnabas respectively give Joseph is

extremely similar, to say the least. Mr. Adams I philosophy is thus as-

sociated with a man whose hypocrisy is recognised by all readers. This

casts aspersions upon Adams' myopia, of course, rather than suggesting

that the parson is himself hypocritical. Nevertheless, each of these

revelations by Fielding of the huge gap bet~veen Adams' true nature, and

the mask he ~vears of specious rationality he has picked up from his cop-

ious reading, makes the reader more clearly mvare of the tolerant clas-

sicist ethic to \vhich Adams' pedantic philosophy is opposed. This gap

between philosophy and true nature is most effectively dramatised in

the famous episode, mentioned earlier, of his child's near drowning.

Having just delivered a lecture to Joseph on the sinfulness of

immoderate grief, Adams shows just such grief himself when told of the

drowning of his _child. '~en the child is recovered, alive, Joseph

questions the parson:

""lell, sir," cries Joseph, Il and if I love a mistress as \vell as you your
child, surely her loss v10uld grieve me equally." - "Yes, but such love .
is foolishness, and ,vrong in itself, and ought to be conquered," answered
Adams; "it savours too much of the flesh." - "Sure , sir," says Joseph,
"it is not sinful to love my wife, no, not even to dote on her to dis-
traction!" - "Indeed but it is," says Adams. 2

Adams, then, within minutes of actually having experienced natural

lJos~h Andre\vs, p. 45,

2Ibid ., p. 309.
 76

human grief and hope springing from genuine love, is incapable of learn-

ing from eVen this experience: his philosophy and his life are almost

totally independent units. The ideal ~f the classicist ethic, of course,

is a perfect harmony of the t~vo, \'lhere a man's life is controlled by a

philosophy based on a genuine knowledge of human nature gained from ex-

perience of life itself. As Adams' sterile -philosophy is based on no

understanding either of others or of himself, it can offer him no aid in

guidi~g his actions. (He symbolically thr01vs his Aeschylus into the

fire when Fanny faints.) His obvious and lovable goodness, then, can

only be the result of naturally benevolent inclinations: "No matter h01v

implicitly heroic his quixotry at times may be, Adams resides largely in

a '\vorld \vhich his creator terms one of' inclinations '; and in Fielding I s

view inclinations correspond roughly to the inferior element in the

l-70rk-versus-faith controversy. 111 No bad schooling, as Joseph pointed

out to him, will corrupt the naturally benevolent man.

Adams consequently all-lays acts aright, and will ahvays cast his

precepts aside when his heart recognises the need of a fellow human be-

ing. But even -his mm philosophy, let alone that of the classicis t ~

will deny him any genuine responsibility for this natural goodness, plac-

ing as much emphasis as it does on "Providence". (When he saves Fanny

from rape he sees himself as sent by providence to her rescue.)

From the point of vie\v of the classicist, a myopic or simple man

guided by his inclinations, no matter hmv benevolent these may be, is a

lWilliam B. Coley, ~it., p. 249.

 77

dangerous mentor for our romance hero. Such a man is ahmys subject to
- -
his vanity, and consequently to affectation. joseph's journey is to

take him m'lay from the affected preceptual philosophy of Adams that

sterns from pride in his ovm learning, and tm'lards fln understanding of

life gained through experience, and symbolised by the harmonious conclu-

sion of the conventional romance structure. At the end of the novel

the reader feels that Joseph is ethically secure in a Hay Adams is not,

and unlikely ever to be.

Lemuel Gulliver found himself totally unable to relate success-

fully to his fellow men upon his recognition of man's animal nature for

the first time. Adams' myopia is probably too prodigious for such a

realisation ever to come to him, but precisely the same danger always

exists. Since the Hhole 'end' of moral action, is to relate success-

fully to one's fellm'l men, a 'forgiving' ethic, capable of taking account

-
of human passions and instincts, is essential from any point of vie\'l,

let alone that of the classicist. Adams has no such vie,'l, and his al-

most deliberate myopia precludes him from ever having one. The gap be-

t''leen the appearance he presents in his ,.jords, and his true, underlying,

benevolent nature remains a potent source of satiric ridicule from begin-

ning to end, and thus serves to highlight the overall ethic of the novel:

lJ\Vithout blurring the fundamental distinction betHeen the amiable pro-

tagonists and the many antipathetic ridiculous persons they meet, he

[Fielding] HQuld guide the reader to a progressively more sympathetic

. vie,'l of Joseph and a some''lhat less appealing impression of his old

 78

teacher. III

Before moving towards the conclusion of this chapter and the

thesis, I should like to make tvlO more points that illustrate the manner

in Hhich Fielding presents the figure of Adams as a contrast to the over-

all ethic of Joseph AndreHs. The first of these points concerns the

association between Adams and Pamela.

As was noted earlier, Joseph is the object of satiric ridicule

during the early -stages of the novel. This is particularly--ev-ident dur-

ing the episode Hhere he refuses the advances of Lady Booby. The reader

laughs at him because he is still reliant upon the valueless precepts of

his sister, Pamela, in Hords if not in deeds. He is, in other Hords,

affected. Adams is explicitly associated Hith Pamela in having given

~

Joseph ''lhat little education he has before he begins his symbolic jour-

ney of experience:

"Mr. Adams hath often told me that chastity is as great a virtue in a

man as in a \-loman. He says he never kne,o7 any more than his Hife, and I
shall endeavour to fo1lOto7 his example. Indeed, it is oHing entirely to
his excellent sermons and advice, together ''lith your letters, that I
have been. able to resist a temptation, which, he says, no man complies
with, but he repents in this ''lOrld, or is damned for it in the next ••
.
-. "2

• so perfectly modest was this young man; such mighty effects had
the spotless example of the amiable Pamela, and the excellent sermons

lRomer Goldberg, op. cit., p. 90. I am more or less in agreement

with Mr. Goldberg, although I should Hish to emphasise that Adams does
not change, and that there is evidence from the very first to see Adams
as the object of the classicist's satire. The effect on the reader, hO\o7-
ever, is, of course, cumulative.
 79

of Mr. Adams, wrought upon him.l

Adams' philosophy is as divorced from a genuine understanding of

human nature as is Pamela's. Joseph eventually becomes symbolically

capable of rej ecting Pamela's values, just as he grmoJs away from those

of Adams. If Pamela is a figure in Joseph Andrev7s ,oJhose values are

those of "transient social custom", then BO. are those that Adams expounds

in his sermons, no matter how far his actual behaviour may be good-nat-

ured. His behaviour belongs, consequently, to the \oJOrld of "inclina-

tions ll as much as do Pamela's, Leonora's, and Hilson's \oJhen a young man.

The second point I should like to make here -concerns Adams' ad-

mission of never having read any English tragedy besides that of Addison.

He quotes Addison in support of his argument that knowledge of the world

leads to villainy v7hen neither Joseph nor himself are villilins-inhis-

eyes or in those of the reader. More importantly, Adams' admission of

ignorance in this respect is reflected later in' the \vork when Joseph

chooses to quote from a tragedy:

They remained some time in silence; and groans and sighs issued from them
both; at length Joseph burst out into the follmoJing soliloquy:

!lYes, I will bear my sorrmvs like a man,

But I must also feel them as a man.
I cannot but remember such things w'ere,
And were most dear to me. 1I

Adams asked him \vhat stuff that was he repeated? To \vhich he answer-
ed, they were some lines he had gotten by heart out of a play. - !lAy,
there is no-thing but heathenism to be learned from plays, II replied he.
"I never heard of any plays fit for a Christian to read, but Cato and the
 80

Conscious Lovers •• "1

The parson's equation of morality ~vith precepts, rather than

with insight and experience, is strongly suggested here. His rejection

of Shakespeare as ,vorthy of study is unforgivable. This is especially

so since the four lines perfectly express Joseph's natural human fee1-

ingsduring this episode. Joseph's q!lotation from Shakespeare is quite

consistent 'vith the tolerance and understanding of the classicist ethic,

especially in its emphasis upon a comprehension of everything that makes

up a man, his feelings as w·e11 as his fortitude. In opposing the in-

sight into human nature that can be conveyed by means of the drama,

Adams opposes the very same aesthetic principles that underlie a c1assic-

is t ,york like Joseph Andrews.

Like the drama, Joseph Andre,vs works by means of represen ta tion:

we may interpret the meanings of Fielding's novel in innumerable different

l-laYs, but all must centre on the fundainental aesthetic principle of giv-

ing body to general truths of human nature through the interlocking of

fictional structures built of character and action. The classicist wri-

ter like Fielding must rely upon the reason of the reader to drmv the

appropriate conclusions as to hot-] he should act in the light of the in-

sight given him by his reading. Adams prefers philosophers' sha110'\1

dictates to the very special kind of poetic truth embodied in fiction,

whether Shakespearean tragedy or a novel.

This chapter, and the thesis, may be concluded by summarising

1Joseph p-..ndre\-ls" p. 261.

 81

the relationship of Adams, first, to the structures examined in the pre-

vious chapters, and second, to an overall view of man as expressed by

the structure of the novel as a whole.

First, Adams has no conventional role to play within the struc-

ture of romance. He does not, therefore, rightly belong to any predet-

ermined symbolic pattern of action. Like Leonora and Wilson; Adams can

be imagined as having the capacity to choose how he will act, as far as

any fiction allm-ls a character this possibility of freedom. He is, in

this sense, like the reader.

Adams is shoWn as failing to exercise this freedom, found by

Wilson. The primary values and meanings embodied by the romance struct-

ure are the images of education through experience, and of growth away

from reliance upon precept, and the symbolic chaos of adolescence, to-

wards symbolic maturity, security, and understanding of human" nature.

The ideals of "hope and struggle lie behind these images. The opposition

" of Adams' personality to such values and meanings highlights both the

nature of these enduring truths and the shortcomings of this "particular

'free I " agent.

Second, and reiated to this opposition, Adams is the object of

satiric ridicule. As his benevolent inclinations never prompt him to

act in~pposltI6n to Joseph and Fanny, he is never vicious, and, there-

" fore, never the object of satiric detestation. But, since Adams is myo-

pic with respect to human nature, he is subject to vanity, and hence,

to the indirect dictates of "transient social custom". He pretends to

be what he is not. This is immensely funny in his particular case,

 82

because, as he has no part in the conventional pattern, the reader can

laugh at him as a unique figure. He is not a reflection of a trait with-

in every reader, but a separate individual. The reader, therefore, does

not laugh at himself when he laughs at Adams. He laughs at the antics

of a figure who cannot grasp the vie\v of man embodied in the romance and

satiric structures amongst \vhich Adams, like the reader, is an intruder.

Adams gropes and stumbles from pillar to post amongst the mass

of images of human nature that Fielding assembles to represent an over-

all view of man for the education and entertainment of the reader.

Adams fails to lose his myopia, and is consequently subject to a barrage

of satiric ridicule. Through such a presentation, the vie,·, of man to

. which Adams is so opposed, and for the opposition to which he suffers so

much ignominy, is more clearly dramatised for the reader.

This overall view is, of course, unstatable. Joseph ~dre,~~ is

an experience for the reader, and not a s·et of lIisolable statements ll •

If Fielding performs the artistic function of the classicist with any

success, as indeed he does in Joseph Andrews_, he gives the reader insight

into his OHn nature by giving him an edifying experience of human nature

in general. I have offered an interpretation of Some broad and general

meanings carried by the structures of which the novel is built.

The isolation of these structures from the novel as a \vhole

sho\vs in \vhat \-,ays a fiction \vritten by a man with great respect for the

classics as ''larks of art, can embody truth \vithout stating it. From the

classicist point of view, values, too, can be embodied and not stated.

Some of them can be implied to the reason of the reader solely by means
 83

of the patterns and structures that an author intenveaves one ~vith an-

other. These values are not translatable into precepts, but may imply

an ideal order in Hhich ethic and aesthetic become one. Andrew Hright

makes this same point in an extremely eloquent manner, and I should like

to leave these ~vords as the conclusion to the thesis. He writes that

Fielding " ll1akes moralizins. secondary to art - and art has the ~vonder-

fully beneficent motive of idealizing morality by making the actions of

men into arrangements that are amusing and sometimes even beautiful. 111

lAndre\-l Hright, Henry" Fieldin~ Mask and Feast, Berkeley and

"Los fu1geles: University of California Press, 1966, p. 30.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Fielding, Henry. The History of the Adventures of Joseph Andrews and of

his Friend Mr. Abraham Adams. Hith introduction and notes by
Maynard Mack. Ne\v York: Holt, Rinehart and Hinston, 1967.

The 'vorks of Henry Fielding, Complete in One Volume, with Hemoir of the
.Author,by Thomas Roscoe. London: 1843.

Secondary Hateria1s

Bate, Halter Jackson. From Classic to Romantic: Premises of Taste in

Eighteenth-Centu.E.,Y England_. New York: Harper and Row, '1961:-

Battestin, Hartin C. The Hora1 Basis of Fielding's Art: A Study of

"Joseph Andrelvs IT. Hiddletmyn, Connecticut: Hesleyan University
Press, 1964.-

Coley, Hi11iam B. liThe Background of Fielding's Laughter ll , ELH" XXVI,

(1959), 229-252.

Cooke, Arthur L. IIHenry Fielding and the \vriters of Heroic Rom,ance",

PMLA, LXII, (1947),984-994.

Dudderi, F. Hoines. HenJ;Y' Fielding:, His Life, ,.forks, and Times. " 2 Vo1s.
Hamdeh, Connecticut: Archon Books, 1966.

Frye, Northrop. "The Archetypes of Literature", Hyth and Literature:

Contemporary Theory and Practice. 34 Essays. Ed. John B.
Vickery. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1969.

Goldberg, Homer. The Art of t1Joseph Andrews II • Chlcago: University of

Chicago Press, 1969-.---------'

---------- IIComic Pros'e Epic or Comic Romance: The Argument of the

Pr~face to Jos~h_Andre\·TslI, PQ, XLIII, (2nd April, 1964), 193-
215.

Highet, Gilbert. The Classical Tradition: Greek and ROlllan Influences

on Hestern Lit~~~it'~,ir-e. -Ne\.,'york: Oxford University Press, 1966.

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 85

Johnson, Maurice. Fieldj~' s _Art o.i.L~~ion: Eleven Essays on llShamela ll ,

llJoseph AndrevlS ll , IITom Jones l
!) and "Ame1ia ll • Phi1ade1phia:--
University of Pennsylvania Press, 1969.

Johnson, Samuel. Rasselas_. (1759).

Mack, Ed\vard C. IIPamela' s Step--daughters:- The Heroines of Smol1ett and

Fielding!!, CE, VIII, (1947),293-301.

Paulson, Ronald, ed. Fie1diI!-$: A Collection of Critical Essays, Engle-

-,.;rood Cliffs , N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1962.

Price, Hartin. To the Palace of \l1isdom. New York: Doubleday, 1964.

Sacks, Sheldon. Fiction and the Shape of Belief: A Study of Henry Field-
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Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1964.

Sherburn, George. tlFielding's _Social Outlook!!, PQ, XXXV, (January, 1956),

1-23.

Sutherland, James. English ll_atire. Cambridge, England: Cambridge Univ-

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Tave, Stuart M. The Amiable Humorist. Chicago: University of Chicago

Press, 1960.

Taylor, Dick, Jr. "Joseph as Hero of JoseJlh ~~rewsl!, Tulane Studies in

English, VII-, (New Orleans, 1957), 91-109.

Thornbury, Ethel M. Henry Fielding's Theory of the Comic Prose Epic.

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30 (Madison, 1931). -

Ha1ker, Hugh. English Satire and Satirists. NetV' Yorj;(: Octagon Books,
Inc., 1965.

Hatt, Ian. The Rise of the Novel: Studie~ in Defoe, Richardson and
Fielding. Berkeley and Los Angeles: Unive!sity of California
Press, 1967.

\fueelwright, Philip. !!Noteson Mythopoeia ll , Myth and Literature: Con-

temporary Theory and Practice. 3l~ Ess'ays. -Ed. John B. Vickery.
Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1969.

Hright, Andret.;r. Henry Fielding: Mask and Fe~st. Berkeley and LosAng-
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