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Content

 1.1 Turing model

 1.2 Von Neumann model
1.COMPUTER  1.3 Computer generations
 1.4 Subsystems and the role of subsystems
ORGANIZATION  1.5 Central Processing Unit
 1.6 Memory: main memory and cache memory
 1.7 Input/Output subsystems

Objectives

After studying this chapter, the student should be able to:

 Define models of computers.
 Describe the three components of a computer: hardware, data,
and software.
 Topics related to computer hardware.



Topics related to data.
Topics related to software.
1-TURING MODEL
 Generations of computers.
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1. Introduction 2. Data processors

 The idea of a universal computational  A computer acts as a black box that accepts input data, processes the data,
device was first described by Alan and creates output data (Figure 1.1).
Turing in 1937.
 This model could represent a specific-purpose computer (or processor) that is
 All computation could be performed designed to do a single job, such as controlling the temperature of a building
by a special kind of a machine, now or controlling the fuel usage in a car.
called a Turing machine.  However, computers, as the term is used today, are general-purpose
 The model on the actions that people machines. They can do many different types of tasks
perform when involved in
computation.
 Actions into a model for a
computational machine that has really
changed the world.
Figure -1.1 A single-purpose computing machine

3. Programmable data processors 4. The universal Turing machine

An extra element is added to the specific computing machine: the program.  A universal Turing machine, a machine
 A program is a set of instructions that tells the computer what to do with data. that can do any computation if the
The output data depends on the combination of two factors: the input data and the
appropriate program is provided, was the
program. first description of a modern computer.
 With the same input data, we can generate different output if we change the program.  It can be proved that a very powerful
 Similarly, with the same program, we can generate different outputs if we change the computer and a universal Turing machine
input data. can compute the same thing Figure - 1.3 Programmed
 A universal Turing machine is capable of Data Processor (PDP-1)
computing anything that is computable.

Figure -1.2 : A computer based on the Turing model: programmable data

processor
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1. Introduction
 The modern microcomputer has roots going
back to USA in the 1940’s.
 Of the many researchers, the Hungarian-
born mathematician, John von Neumann
(1903-57), is worthy of special mention.
 He developed a very basic model for
computers which we are still using today.

2-Von Neumann model

Figure - 1.4. John von
Neumann (1903-57). Progenitor
of the modern, electronic PC.

2. Von Neumann Model Subsystems 3. The stored program concept

Von Neumann model is divided into 4 subsystems :  The von Neumann model states that
 Memory is the storage area. This is where programs and data are stored during the program must be stored in
processing memory.
 Arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is where calculation and logical operations take place  This is totally different from the
 Control unit controls the operations of the memory, ALU, and the input/output architecture of early computers in
which only the data was stored in
 The input subsystem accepts input data and the program from outside the memory: the programs for their task
computer, while the output subsystem sends the result of processing to the outside
were implemented by manipulating a
world.
set of switches or by changing the
wiring system.
 The memory of modern computers Figure 1.6 The Manchester Mark I, the first
hosts both a program and its stored-program digital computer, 1949.
corresponding data

Figure 1.5 The Von Neumann model Subsystems

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1-3 COMPUTER COMPONENTS

4. Sequential execution of
We can think of a computer as being made up of three
instructions
 A program is made of a finite number of components: computer hardware, data, and computer software.
instructions. In this model, the control unit
fetches one instruction from memory, decodes
it, then executes it.
 One instruction may request the control unit to
jump to some previous or following instruction,
but this does not mean that the instructions are
not executed sequentially.

Figure 1.7 Fetches Execute cycle

1.3.1 Computer hardware 1.3.3 Computer software

Computer hardware today has four components under the • The main feature of the Turing or von Neumann models
von Neumann model, although we can have different types is the concept of the program.
of memory, different types of input/output subsystems, and • Although early computers did not store the program in
so on. We discuss computer hardware in more detail in the computer’s memory, they did use the concept of
Chapter 5. programs.
• Programming those early computers meant changing the
wiring systems or turning a set of switches on or off.
1.3.2 Data • Programming was therefore a task done by an operator or
The von Neumann model clearly defines a computer as a engineer before the actual data processing began.
data processing machine that accepts the input data,
processes it, and outputs the result.
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Figure 1.6 Program and data in memory

History of Computers

Figure 1.7 History of Computers

1. Overview

3 - Computer
generations
Figure 1.8 Generation of Computers
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2. First Generation (1945-1956) 3. Second Generation Computers

 First Generation Computers were
(1959-1965)
working during the 1940-1956 with
proper maintenance of Vacuum  Second-generation computers
Tubes on those computers. Vacuum (roughly 1959–1965) used transistors
Tubes most useful to process the data instead of vacuum tubes. This reduced
in memory. the size of computers, as well as their
cost, and made them affordable to
 First generation computers use more power from small and medium-size corporations.
electricity and that produce high heat.
 Two high-level programming
 Those devices vulnerable to the attacks and get languages, FORTRAN and COBOL (see
malfunctions. Chapter 9), were invented and made
programming easier.
Figure 1.9 First Generation Computers

Figure 1.10 Second Generation Computers

4. Third Generation Computers 5. The fourth generation (1975–

(1965-1975) 1985)
 The invention of the integrated  The fourth generation (approximately
circuit (transistors, wiring, and other 1975–1985) saw the appearance of
components on a single chip) microcomputers.
reduced the cost and size of
computers even further.  The first desktop calculator, the Altair
 Minicomputers appeared on the 8800, became available in 1975.
market. Canned programs,
popularly known as software  Advances in the electronics industry
packages, became available. allowed whole computer subsystems to
 A small corporation could buy a fit on a single circuit board.
package, for example for
accounting, instead of writing its
own program.
Figure 1.11 Third Generation Computers Figure 1.12 The fourth Generation
Computers
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6. Fifth generation (Present and Beyond)

 Fifth Generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development,
though there are some applications such as voice recognition, that are being used today.
 The ability to translate a foreign language is also moderately possible with fifth generation
computers.
 The goal of fifth generation computing is to develop devices that respond to natural language
input and are capable of learning and self-organization.

4 - Subsystems and the role of

Figure 1.13
The Fith
Generation
subsystems
Computers

INTRODUCTION
 We can divide the parts that make up a computer into three broad
categories or subsystem: the central processing unit (CPU) , the main
memory, and the input/output subsystem.

5 - CENTRAL
PROCESSING UNIT
Figure 1.18 Computer hardware (subsystems)
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Introduction The arithmetic logic unit (ALU)

 The central processing unit (CPU) performs operations on data.  The arithmetic logic unit (ALU) performs
logic, shift, and arithmetic operations
 In most architectures It has three parts: an arithmetic logic unit (ALU), a
on data.
control unit, and a set of registers
 Logic operations: NOT, AND, OR, and
XOR.
 Shift operations: logic shift operations
and arithmetic shift operations
 Arithmetic operations: arithmetic
operations on integers and reals. Figure 1.20 Construction of an ALU

Figure 1.19 Central processing unit (CPU)

Registers The control unit

 Registers are fast stand-alone storage  The control unit controls the operation of each subsystem. Controlling is
locations that hold data temporarily. achieved through signals sent from the control unit to other subsystems.
Multiple registers are needed to
facilitate the operation of the CPU.

Figure 1.21 Construction of an Register Figure 1.22 Using an control unit

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Introduction
 Main memory consists of a collection of storage locations, each with a
unique identifier, called an address.
 Data is transferred to and from memory in groups of bits called words.

6-MAIN MEMORY

Figure 1.23 Main memory

Address space Examples

 To access a word in memory requires an identifier. Although programmers  Example 5.1  Example 5.2
use a name to identify a word (or a collection of words), at the hardware  A computer has 128 MB of memory. Each
 A computer has 32 MB (megabytes) of
level each word is identified by an address. word in this computer is eight bytes. How
memory. How many bits are needed to
 The total number of uniquely identifiable locations in memory is called the many bits are needed to address any single
address any single byte in memory? word in memory?
address space. For example, a memory with 64 kilobytes and a word size of
 Solution The memory address space is 32
1 byte has an address space that ranges from 0 to 65,535.  Solution The memory address space is 128
MB, or 225 (25 × 220). This means that we MB, which means 227. However, each word is
need log2 225, or 25 bits, to address each eight (23) bytes, which means that we have 224
byte. words. This means that we need log2 224, or
24 bits, to address each word.

Table 6.1 Memory units

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Memory types Memory hierarchy

Two main types of memory exist: RAM and ROM.  Computer users need a lot of memory, especially memory that is very fast and inexpensive. This
demand is not always possible to satisfy— very fast memory is usually not cheap. A compromise
 Random access memory (RAM) needs to be made.
 The solution is hierarchical levels of memory.

 Read-only memory (ROM)

Figure 1.24 Hierarchical levels of memory.

Cache memory
 Cache memory is faster than main memory, but slower than the CPU and its registers.
 Cache memory, which is normally small in size, is placed between the CPU and main memory.

7 - INPUT/OUTPUT
SUBSYSTEM
Figure 1.25 Hierarchical levels of memory.
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Introduction Non-storage & Storage devices

 Non-storage devices allow the  Storage devices, although classified as I/O
CPU/memory to communicate with the devices, can store large amounts of information
 The input/output (I/O) subsystem in a computer is the collection of devices. T outside world, but they cannot store to be retrieved at a later time. They are cheaper
information. than main memory, and their contents are
 his subsystem allows a computer to communicate with the outside world and to store nonvolatile—that is, not erased when the
programs and data even when the power is off. power is turned off. They are sometimes
 Input/output devices can be divided into two broad categories: non-storage and storage referred to as auxiliary storage devices. We can
devices. categorize them as either magnetic or optical.

Storage devices (Magnetic or Optical) SSD – Solid State Disk

HDD disk CD-ROM  A solid-state drive (SSD uses NAND-based flash
memory, which retains data without power.
 It is also known as a solid-state disk or electronic
disk, though it contains no actual "disk" of any kind,
nor motors to "drive" the disks.
Storage devices  SSD technology uses electronic
Storage interfaces compatible
devices
with traditional block input/output (I/O) hard disk
drives, thus permitting simple replacement in
common applications, like SATA Express.
 SSDs are about 7 to 8 times more expensive per unit
of storage than HDDs.
Figure 1.27 Solid State Disk

Figure 1.26 Storage devices

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Introduction

 In this section, we explore how these three subsystems (CPU, main memory, and I/O) are
interconnected.
 The interconnection plays an important role because information needs to be exchanged
between the three subsystems.

8 - SUBSYSTEM INTERCONNECTION

Connecting CPU and memory Connecting I/O devices

 The CPU and memory are normally connected by three groups of connections, each called a bus: data  I/O devices are electromechanical, magnetic, or optical devices and also
bus, address bus and control bus. operate at a much slower speed than the CPU/memory.
 There is a need for some sort of intermediary to handle this difference.
Input/output devices are therefore attached to the buses through
input/output controllers or interfaces.
 There is one specific controller for each input/output device

Figure 1.28 CPU and memory

Figure 1.29 Connecting I/O devices

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SCSI controller to connect I/O FireWire controller to connect I/O

devices
Small Computer System Interface (SCSI is created in 1984): 32 components

devices
 IEEE Standard 1394: 400Mbps and 63 devices

Figure 1.30 SCSI controller Figure 1.31 FireWire controller

USB controller to connect I/O Addressing input/output devices

devices
 The CPU usually uses the same bus to read data from or write data to main memory and I/O
device. The only difference is the instruction.
 If the instruction refers to a word in main memory, data transfer is between main memory
and the CPU.
 If the instruction identifies an I/O device, data transfer is between the I/O device and the
CPU.
 here are two methods for handling the addressing of I/O devices: isolated I/O and
memory-mapped I/O.

Figure 1.32 USB controller