UNIT II: Network Infrastructure: Network Infrastructure – Local Area

Networks – Wide Area Network – Intranet, Extranet and Internet – TCP/IP

Reference Model – Domain Name Systems – Internet Industry Structure.
Information Distribution and Messaging: File Transfer Protocol Applications –
Electronic Main – World Wide Web Server – HTTP – Web servers
Implementations.

The Network allows computers to connect and communicate with different

computers via any medium
. LAN, MAN, and WAN are the three major types of networks
designed to operate over the area they cover. There are some similarities and
dissimilarities between them. One of the major differences is the geographical
area they cover, i.e. LAN covers the smallest area, MAN covers an area larger
than LAN and WAN comprises the largest of all.

LAN or Local Area Network connects network devices in such a way that
personal computers and workstations can share data, tools, and programs. The
group of computers and devices are connected together by a switch, or stack of
switches, using a private addressing scheme as defined by the TCP/IP
protocol. Private addresses are unique in relation to other computers on the
local network. Routers are found at the boundary of a LAN, connecting them
to the larger WAN.
Data transmits at a very fast rate as the number of computers linked is limited.
By definition, the connections must be high-speed and relatively inexpensive
hardware (Such as hubs, network adapters, and Ethernet cables). LANs cover a
smaller geographical area (Size is limited to a few kilometres) and are
privately owned. One can use it for an office building, home, hospital, school,
etc. LAN is easy to design and maintain. A Communication medium used for
LAN has twisted-pair cables and coaxial cables. It covers a short distance, and
so the error and noise are minimized.
Early LANs had data rates in the 4 to 16 Mbps range. Today, speeds are
normally 100 or 1000 Mbps. Propagation delay is very short in a LAN. The
smallest LAN may only use two computers, while larger LANs can
accommodate thousands of computers. LAN has a range up to 2km. A LAN
typically relies mostly on wired connections for increased speed and security,
but wireless connections can also be part of a LAN. The fault tolerance of a
LAN is more and there is less congestion in this network. For example A
bunch of students playing Counter-Strike in the same room (without internet).
Advantages:
 Provides fast data transfer rates and high-speed communication.
 Easy to set up and manage.
  Can be used to share peripheral devices such as printers and
scanners.
 Provides increased security and fault tolerance compared to WANs.
Disadvantages:
 Limited geographical coverage.
 Limited scalability and may require significant infrastructure
upgrades to accommodate growth.
 May experience congestion and network performance issues with
increased usage.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) –

MAN or Metropolitan area Network covers a larger area than that covered by a
LAN and a smaller area as compared to WAN. MAN has a range of 5-50km. It
connects two or more computers that are apart but reside in the same or
different cities. It covers a large geographical area and may serve as an ISP
(Internet Service Provider). MAN is designed for customers who need high-
speed connectivity. Speeds of MAN range in terms of Mbps. It’s hard to
design and maintain a Metropolitan Area Network.

The fault tolerance of a MAN is less and also there is more congestion in the
network. It is costly and may or may not be owned by a single organization.
The data transfer rate and the propagation delay of MAN are moderate.
Devices used for transmission of data through MAN are Modem and
Wire/Cable. Examples of a MAN are part of the telephone company network
that can provide a high-speed DSL line to the customer or the cable TV
network in a city.
Advantages:
 Provides high-speed connectivity over a larger geographical area
than LAN.
 Can be used as an ISP for multiple customers.
 Offers higher data transfer rates than WAN in some cases.
Disadvantages:
 Can be expensive to set up and maintain.
  May experience congestion and network performance issues with
increased usage.
 May have limited fault tolerance and security compared to LANs.

Wide Area Network (WAN) –

WAN or Wide Area Network is a computer network that extends over a large
geographical area, although it might be confined within the bounds of a state
or country. WAN has a range of above 50 km. A WAN could be a connection
of LAN connecting to other LANs via telephone lines and radio waves and
may be limited to an enterprise (a corporation or an organization) or accessible
to the public. The technology is high-speed and relatively expensive.
There are two types of WAN: Switched WAN and Point-to-Point WAN. WAN
is difficult to design and maintain. Similar to a MAN, the fault tolerance of a
WAN is less and there is more congestion in the network. A Communication
medium used for WAN is PSTN or Satellite Link. Due to long-distance
transmission, the noise and error tend to be more in WAN.
WAN’s data rate is slow about a 10th LAN’s speed since it involves increased
distance and increased number of servers and terminals etc. The speed of
WAN ranges from a few kilobits per second (Kbps) to megabits per second
(Mbps). Propagation delay is one of the biggest problems faced here. Devices
used for the transmission of data through WAN are Optic wires, Microwaves,
and Satellites. An example of a Switched WAN is the asynchronous transfer
mode (ATM) network and Point-to-Point WAN is a dial-up line that connects
a home computer to the Internet.
Advantages:
 Covers large geographical areas and can connect remote locations.
 Provides connectivity to the internet.
 Offers remote access to resources and applications.
 Can be used to support multiple users and applications
simultaneously.
Disadvantages:
 Can be expensive to set up and maintain.
 Offers slower data transfer rates than LAN or MAN.
 May experience higher latency and longer propagation delays due to
longer distances and multiple network hops.
 May have lower fault tolerance and security compared to LANs.

INTERNET INTRANET EXTRANET

The Internet
1. The Internet is a public and global communication network that provides
direct connectivity to anyone over a local area network (LAN) or Internet
Service Provider (ISP).

2. The Internet is a public network that is connected and routed over gateways.
End users are connected to local access providers (LANs or ISPs), who are
connected to the Internet access providers, to network access providers, and
eventually to the Internet backbone.

3. Since access to the Internet is open to all, there is a lack of control that may
result in an unruly proliferation of information.

The Intranet:

1. An intranet is a corporate LAN or wide area network (WAN) that uses

Internet technology and is secured behind company’s firewalls (see security and
protection).

2. The intranet links various servers, clients, databases, and application

programs like Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP). Although intranets are
developed on the same TCP/IP protocol as the Internet, they operate as a private
network with limited access.

3. Only authorized employees are able to use it. Intranets are limited to
information pertinent to the company and contain exclusive and often
proprietary and sensitive information. 2

4. The firewalls protect the intranets from unauthorized outside access; the
intranet can be used to enhance the communications and collaboration among
authorized employees, customers, suppliers, and other business partners.

5. Since the intranet allows access through the Internet, it does not require any
additional implementation of leased networks. This open and flexible
connectivity is a major capability and advantage of intranet. Intranets provide
the infrastructure for many intrabusiness commerce applications.

The Extranet

1. An extranet, or “extended intranet”, uses the TCP/IP protocol network of the

Internet, to link intranets in different locations.

2. Extranet transmission is usually conducted over the Internet, which offers

little privacy or transmission security.

3. Therefore, when using an extranet, it is necessary to improve the security of

connecting portions of he Internet. This can be done by creating tunnels (see
paragraph on security and protection) of secured data flows, using cryptography
and authorization algorithm.

4. The Internet with tunneling technology is known as a virtually private

network (VPN).

5. Extranets provide secured connectivity between corporation’s intranets and

the intranets of its business partners, material suppliers, financial services,
government, and customers.

6. Access to intranets is usually limited by agreements of the collaborating

parties, is strictly controlled, and is only available to authorized personnel. 7.
The protected environment of the extranet allows groups to collaborate, sharing
information exclusively, and exchanging it securely.

8. Since an extranet allows connectivity between businesses through the

Internet, it is an open and flexible platform suitable for supply chain
management.

9. To increase security, many companies replicate the database they are willing
to share with their business partners and separate them physically from their
regular intranets.

What Is the OSI Model

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model describes seven layers that
computer systems use to communicate over a network. It was the first standard
model for network communications, adopted by all major computer and
telecommunication companies in the early 1980s

The modern Internet is not based on OSI, but on the simpler TCP/IP model.
However, the OSI 7-layer model is still widely used, as it helps visualize and
communicate how networks operate, and helps isolate and troubleshoot
networking problems.

OSI was introduced in 1983 by representatives of the major computer and

telecom companies, and was adopted by ISO as an international standard in
1984.

OSI Model Explained: The OSI 7 Layer

We’ll describe OSI layers “top down” from the application layer that directly
serves the end user, down to the physical layer.
7. Application Layer

The application layer is used by end-user software such as web browsers and
email clients. It provides protocols that allow software to send and receive
information and present meaningful data to users. A few examples of
application layer protocols are the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), File
Transfer Protocol (FTP), Post Office Protocol (POP), Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol (SMTP), and Domain Name System (DNS).

6. Presentation Layer

The presentation layer prepares data for the application layer. It defines how
two devices should encode, encrypt, and compress data so it is received
correctly on the other end. The presentation layer takes any data transmitted by
the application layer and prepares it for transmission over the session layer.

5. Session Layer

The session layer creates communication channels, called sessions, between

devices. It is responsible for opening sessions, ensuring they remain open and
functional while data is being transferred, and closing them when
communication ends. The session layer can also set checkpoints during a data
transfer—if the session is interrupted, devices can resume data transfer from the
last checkpoint.

4. Transport Layer

The transport layer takes data transferred in the session layer and breaks it into
“segments” on the transmitting end. It is responsible for reassembling the
segments on the receiving end, turning it back into data that can be used by the
session layer. The transport layer carries out flow control, sending data at a rate
that matches the connection speed of the receiving device, and error control,
checking if data was received incorrectly and if not, requesting it again.

3. Network Layer

The network layer has two main functions. One is breaking up segments into
network packets, and reassembling the packets on the receiving end. The other
is routing packets by discovering the best path across a physical network. The
network layer uses network addresses (typically Internet Protocol addresses) to
route packets to a destination node.
2. Data Link Layer

The data link layer establishes and terminates a connection between two
physically-connected nodes on a network. It breaks up packets into frames and
sends them from source to destination. This layer is composed of two parts—
Logical Link Control (LLC), which identifies network protocols, performs error
checking and synchronizes frames, and Media Access Control (MAC) which
uses MAC addresses to connect devices and define permissions to transmit and
receive data.

1. Physical Layer

The physical layer is responsible for the physical cable or wireless connection
between network nodes. It defines the connector, the electrical cable or wireless
technology connecting the devices, and is responsible for transmission of the
raw data, which is simply a series of 0s and 1s, while taking care of bit rate
control.

Advantages of OSI Model

The OSI model helps users and operators of computer networks:

 Determine the required hardware and software to build their network.

 Understand and communicate the process followed by components
communicating across a network.
 Perform troubleshooting, by identifying which network layer is causing
an issue and focusing efforts on that layer.

The OSI model helps network device manufacturers and networking

software vendors:

 Create devices and software that can communicate with products from
any other vendor, allowing open interoperability
 Define which parts of the network their products should work with.
 Communicate to users at which network layers their product operates –
for example, only at the application layer, or across the stack.
The TCP/IP Reference Model
TCP/IP means Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol. It is the
network model used in the current Internet architecture as well. Protocols are
set of rules which govern every possible communication over a network. These
protocols describe the movement of data between the source and destination or
the internet. They also offer simple naming and addressing schemes.

Protocols and networks in the TCP/IP model:

Overview of TCP/IP reference model

TCP/IP that is Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol was

developed by Department of Defence's Project Research Agency (ARPA, later
DARPA) as a part of a research project of network interconnection to connect
remote machines.

The features that stood out during the research, which led to making the TCP/IP
reference model were:

 Support for a flexible architecture. Adding more machines to a network

was easy.

 The network was robust, and connections remained intact untill the
source and destination machines were functioning.

The overall idea was to allow one application on one computer to talk to(send
data packets) another application running on different computer.

Different Layers of TCP/IP Reference Model

Below we have discussed the 4 layers that form the TCP/IP reference model:

Layer 1: Host-to-network Layer

1. Lowest layer of the all.

2. Protocol is used to connect to the host, so that the packets can be sent
over it.
3. Varies from host to host and network to network

Layer 2: Internet layer

1. Selection of a packet switching network which is based on a

connectionless internetwork layer is called a internet layer.
 2. It is the layer which holds the whole architecture together.
3. It helps the packet to travel independently to the destination.
4. Order in which packets are received is different from the way they are
sent.
5. IP (Internet Protocol) is used in this layer.
6. The various functions performed by the Internet Layer are:
o Delivering IP packets
o Performing routing
o Avoiding congestion

Layer 3: Transport Layer

1. It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.

2. Functions such as multiplexing, segmenting or splitting on the data is
done by transport layer.
3. The applications can read and write to the transport layer.
4. Transport layer adds header information to the data.
5. Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are
handled more efficiently by the network layer.
6. Transport layer also arrange the packets to be sent, in sequence.

Layer 4: Application Layer

The TCP/IP specifications described a lot of applications that were at the top of
the protocol stack. Some of them were TELNET, FTP, SMTP, DNS etc.

1. TELNET is a two-way communication protocol which allows

connecting to a remote machine and run applications on it.
2. FTP(File Transfer Protocol) is a protocol, that allows File transfer
amongst computer users connected over a network. It is reliable, simple
and efficient.
3. SMTP(Simple Mail Transport Protocol) is a protocol, which is used to
transport electronic mail between a source and destination, directed via a
route.
4. DNS(Domain Name Server) resolves an IP address into a textual address
for Hosts connected over a network.
5. It allows peer entities to carry conversation.
 6. It defines two end-to-end protocols: TCP and UDP
o TCP(Transmission Control Protocol): It is a reliable connection-
oriented protocol which handles byte-stream from source to
destination without error and flow control.
o UDP(User-Datagram Protocol): It is an unreliable connection-
less protocol that do not want TCPs, sequencing and flow control.
Eg: One-shot request-reply kind of service.

Merits of TCP/IP model

1. It operated independently.
2. It is scalable.
3. Client/server architecture.
4. Supports a number of routing protocols.
5. Can be used to establish a connection between two computers.

Demerits of TCP/IP

1. In this, the transport layer does not guarantee delivery of packets.

2. The model cannot be used in any other application.
3. Replacing protocol is not easy.
4. It has not clearly separated its services, interfaces and protocols.
Domain Name System (DNS) is a hostname for IP address translation
service.
DNS is a distributed database implemented in a hierarchy of name servers. It
is an application layer protocol for message exchange between clients and
servers. It is required for the functioning of the Internet.

What is the Need of DNS?

Every host is identified by the IP address but remembering numbers is very
difficult for people also the IP addresses are not static therefore a mapping is
required to change the domain name to the IP address. So DNS is used to
convert the domain name of the websites to their numerical IP address.
Types of Domain

There are various kinds of domain:

1. Generic
domains: .com(commercial), .edu(educational), .mil(military), .org(n
 onprofit organization), .net(similar to commercial) all these are
generic domains.
2. Country domain: .in (India) .us .uk
3. Inverse domain: if we want to know what is the domain name of the
website. Ip to domain name mapping. So DNS can provide both the
mapping for example to find the IP addresses of geeksforgeeks.org
then we have to type

Internet industry structure

Industry structure refers to the overall characteristics of a market or industry,

including the number and size of competitors, barriers to entry and exit, and the
nature of the products or services offered. A well-known framework for
analyzing industry structure is the five forces model developed by Michael
Porter, which identifies five forces that determine the competitive intensity and
attractiveness of an industry:

1. Threat of new entrants

2. Bargaining power of suppliers
3. Bargaining power of buyers
 4. Threat of substitutes
5. Rivalry among existing competitors
The internet and e-commerce have had a significant impact on these five forces,
leading to changes in industry structure in many industries. Here are some
examples:

1. Threat of new entrants: The internet has lowered barriers to entry

for many industries by reducing the need for physical
infrastructure and facilitating access to information and
customers. For example, online retailers like Amazon have
disrupted traditional brick-and-mortar retail by making it easier
for new entrants to enter the market and compete on price.
2. Bargaining power of suppliers: The internet has given suppliers
more options for reaching customers and reduced their
dependence on traditional distribution channels. This has given
suppliers more bargaining power, particularly in industries where
there are few dominant players. For example, in the music
industry, artists can now distribute their music directly to
consumers through platforms like iTunes, reducing their reliance
on record labels.
3. Bargaining power of buyers: The internet has also given buyers
more power by providing greater access to information and more
options for comparison shopping. This has made it more difficult
for companies to differentiate their products and has increased
price competition. For example, online travel agencies like
Expedia and Booking.com: The largest selection of hotels,
homes, and vacation rentals have made it easier for consumers to
compare prices and find the best deals, putting pressure on
airlines and hotels to lower prices.
4. Threat of substitutes: The internet has increased the availability
and variety of substitutes in many industries. For example, online
streaming services like Netflix have disrupted traditional
television and movie rental businesses by offering a wider
selection of content at lower prices.
5. Rivalry among existing competitors: The internet has increased
competition by making it easier for companies to enter new
markets and reach customers directly. This has led to increased
price competition and pressure to innovate. For example, the rise
of online marketplaces like Etsy and eBay has increased
competition among small businesses by making it easier for them
to reach a wider audience.
What is FTP (File Transfer Protocol)?
FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is a standard network protocol used for the
transfer of files from one host to another over a TCP-based network, such as the
Internet.

FTP works by opening two connections that link the computers trying to
communicate with each other. One connection is designated for the commands
and replies that get sent between the two clients, and the other channel handles
the transfer of data. During an FTP transmission, there are four commands used
by the computers, servers, or proxy servers that are communicating. These are
“send,” “get,” “change directory,” and “transfer.”

While transferring files, FTP uses three different modes: block, stream, and
compressed. The stream mode enables FTP to manage information in a string of
data without any boundaries between them. The block mode separates the data
into blocks, and in the compress mode, FTP uses an algorithm called the
Lempel-Ziv to compress the data.

What is FTP Useful For?

One of the main reasons why modern businesses and individuals need FTP is its
ability to perform large file size transfers. When sending a relatively small file,
like a Word document, most methods will do, but with FTP, you can send
hundreds of gigabytes at once and still get a smooth transmission.

The ability to send larger amounts of data, in turn, improves workflow. Because
FTP allows you to send multiple files at once, you can select several and then
send them all at the same time. Without FTP services, you may have to send
them one by one, when you could be accomplishing other work.

For example, if you have to transfer a large collection of important documents

from headquarters to a satellite office but have a meeting to attend in five
minutes, you can use FTP to send them all at once. Even if it takes 15 minutes
for the transfer to complete, FTP can handle it, freeing you up to attend the
meeting.
o HTTP stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol.
o It is a protocol used to access the data on the World Wide Web (www).
o The HTTP protocol can be used to transfer the data in the form of plain
text, hypertext, audio, video, and so on.
 o This protocol is known as HyperText Transfer Protocol because of its
efficiency that allows us to use in a hypertext environment where there
are rapid jumps from one document to another document.
o HTTP is similar to the FTP as it also transfers the files from one host to
another host. But, HTTP is simpler than FTP as HTTP uses only one
connection, i.e., no control connection to transfer the files.
o HTTP is used to carry the data in the form of MIME-like format.
o HTTP is similar to SMTP as the data is transferred between client and
server. The HTTP differs from the SMTP in the way the messages are
sent from the client to the server and from server to the client. SMTP
messages are stored and forwarded while HTTP messages are delivered
immediately.

Features of HTTP:
o Connectionless protocol: HTTP is a connectionless protocol. HTTP
client initiates a request and waits for a response from the server. When
the server receives the request, the server processes the request and sends
back the response to the HTTP client after which the client disconnects
the connection. The connection between client and server exist only
during the current request and response time only.
o Media independent: HTTP protocol is a media independent as data can
be sent as long as both the client and server know how to handle the data
content. It is required for both the client and server to specify the content
type in MIME-type header.
o Stateless: HTTP is a stateless protocol as both the client and server know
each other only during the current request. Due to this nature of the
protocol, both the client and server do not retain the information between
various requests of the web pages.

What is World Wide Web?

World Wide Web, which is also known as a Web, is a collection of websites or

web pages stored in web servers and connected to local computers through the
internet. These websites contain text pages, digital images, audios, videos, etc.
Users can access the content of these sites from any part of the world over the
internet using their devices such as computers, laptops, cell phones, etc. The
WWW, along with internet, enables the retrieval and display of text and media
to your device.
The building blocks of the Web are web pages which are formatted in HTML
and connected by links called "hypertext" or hyperlinks and accessed by HTTP.
These links are electronic connections that link related pieces of information so
that users can access the desired information quickly. Hypertext offers the
advantage to select a word or phrase from text and thus to access other pages
that provide additional information related to that word or phrase.

A web page is given an online address called a Uniform Resource Locator

(URL). A particular collection of web pages that belong to a specific URL is
called a website, e.g., www.facebook.com, www.google.com, etc. So, the World
Wide Web is like a huge electronic book whose pages are stored on multiple
servers across the world.

Small websites store all of their WebPages on a single server, but big websites
or organizations place their WebPages on different servers in different countries
so that when users of a country search their site they could get the information
quickly from the nearest server.

So, the web provides a communication platform for users to retrieve and
exchange information over the internet. Unlike a book, where we move from
one page to another in a sequence, on World Wide Web we follow a web of
hypertext links to visit a web page and from that web page to move to other web
pages. You need a browser, which is installed on your computer, to access the
Web.

What is an E-mail?
E-mail stands for Electronic Mail or Electronic Mailer. The most commonly
used feature of the networks in the field of communication is e-mail. It is the
transmission of messages from one computer to another. Communication can
take place between two to many users. It not only sends the message in text
format, but also we can add images, and documents in the form of PDFs,
videos, or other attachments.

The person who has to send a certain message is called the sender and the one
who receives it is called the receiver. In order to have successful
communication, each user should have a unique email address (it is just like
posts, where each post is sent to persons with a unique home address). The e-
mail address may look something like this

[email protected]

Mailing Format
The E-mail can be divided into three main components:

 Message Envelope
 Message Header
 Message Body

E-mail Format
Structure of Email
Types of Email
Emails are broadly classified into three categories:

Web Servers

Web pages are a collection of data, including images, text files, hyperlinks,
database files etc., all located on some computer (also known as server space)
on the Internet.

A web server is dedicated software that runs on the server-side.

When any user requests their web browser to run any web page, the webserver
places all the data materials together into an organized web page and forwards
them back to the web browser with the help of the Internet.

A web server is a dedicated computer responsible for running websites sitting

out on those computers somewhere on the Internet. They are specialized
programs that circulate web pages as summoned by the user. The primary
objective of any web server is to collect, process and provide web pages to the
users.
This intercommunication of a web server with a web browser is done with the
help of a protocol named HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol).

These stored web pages mostly use static content,

containing HTML documents, images, style sheets, text files, etc.

However, web servers can serve static as well as dynamic contents. Web
Servers also assists in emailing services and storing files.

Therefore it also uses SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) and FTP (File
Transfer Protocol) protocols to support the respective services.

Web servers are mainly used in web hosting or hosting the website's data and
running web-based applications.

The hardware of the web servers are connected to the Internet

that manages the data exchange facility within different connected devices.

In contrast, the software of web server software is responsible for controlling

how a user accesses delivered files. Typically, web server management is an
ideal example of the client/server model. Therefore, it is compulsory for all
computers that host websites (whether with state or dynamic web page
content) to have web server software.