Heat Transfer Operations Lab

(CHEN-3204)
Lab Manual
SUBMITTED TO:
ENGR. MUHAMMAD SULEMAN

SUBMITTED BY:

Instiute of Chemical and Environmental

Engineering
Khwaja Fareed University of Engineering &
Information Technology,
Rahim Yar Khan

1
 List of Equipment Heat Transfer Operation Lab

Sr. No. Name of Equipment

1 Free and Forced Heat Convection Unit

2 Computer Controlled Basic Unit for Heat Exchanger
3 Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
4 Turbulent Flow Heat Exchanger
5 Coil Vessel Heat Exchanger
6 Jacketed Vessel Heat Exchanger
7 Metal-to-Metal Heat Transfer Module
8 Ceramic Heat Transfer Module
9 Insulating Material Heat Transfer Module
10 Extended Surface Heat Transfer Module
11 Radiation Errors in Temperature Measurement Module
12 Plate Type Heat Exchanger
13 Unsteady State Heat Transfer Module

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 Weekly Lab Plan

Sr. No. Lab Sessions Marks

01 To identify the thermal conductivity of different metals samples (CLO1)
02 To identify the thermal conductivity of different ceramic samples (CLO1)

03 To identify the thermal conductivity of different insulating materials (CLO1)

04 To identify the heat transfer rate extended surface. Also, measure the
efficiency and effectiveness of the film (CLO2)
05 To measure the overall heat transfer coefficient of a turbulent flow heat
exchanger for parallel and counter-current flow (CLO2)
06 To demonstrate the effectiveness of a turbulent flow heat exchanger by the
ε-NTU method for parallel and counter-current flow (CLO2)
07 To measure the overall heat transfer coefficient of shell and tube heat
exchanger for parallel and counter-current flow (CLO2)
08 To demonstrate the effectiveness of shell and tube heat exchanger by ε-NTU
method for parallel and counter-current flow (CLO2)
09 To measure the overall heat transfer coefficient of plate-type heat exchanger
for parallel and counter-current flow (CLO2)
10 To demonstrate the effectiveness of plate heat exchanger by the ε-NTU
method (CLO2)
11 To measure the overall heat transfer coefficient of coil vessel flow heat
exchanger (CLO2)
12 To measure the overall heat transfer coefficient of jacketed vessel flow heat
exchanger for parallel and counter-current flow (CLO2)
13 To detect the relationship between power input and surface temperature in
free convection (CLO2)
14 To detect the relationship between power input and surface temperature in
forced convection (CLO2)

Course Learning Outcomes:

1. Able to perform heat conduction experiments to identify the thermal conductivity and
thermal resistance of different materials.
2. Practice working of different heat exchangers and measure the heat transfer rate, overall
heat transfer coefficient, effectiveness, and efficiency of different heat exchangers.

3
 Lab Rubrics for Heat Transfer Operation Lab
Scale Criteria 1 Criteria 2 Criteria 3 Criteria 4

Following Interaction with Results Q & A (Level of

procedure and group/Teamwork recording and understanding)
lab techniques Calculations
Outstanding Demonstrates Shows outstanding Able to perform Student
(9-10 superb leadership measurements demonstrates full
Marks) knowledge of qualities through and calculations knowledge by
lab procedures. shared accurately and answering
Measurements, participation and perfectly. question with
skills, or respect for others; explanation
techniques are keeps others on and elaboration,
both accurate task, managing without
and precise and time; Assumes referring to notes
may show responsibility for
innovation. effective
functioning of the
group.
Excellent Demonstrates Very good Student has Student is at ease
(7-8 Marks) sound participation; is correctly with expected
knowledge of respectful of measured all answer to
lab procedures. others and their parameters; question, with
Measurements, point of view; calculations done elaboration
skills, or makes sure that accordingly. but reading from
techniques are everyone gets a notes
accurate with turn
reasonable
precision.
Good Demonstrates Good Student has Student is
(5-6 Marks) good knowledge participation; correctly uncomfortable
of lab appears interested; measured most of with information
procedures. enthusiastic but the parameters, and is
Measurements, talks over and some able to answer the
skills, or teammates or may parameters question,
techniques are "hog" tasks; tries incorrectly; without
mostly accurate. to help group performed elaboration and
complete tasks; calculations without referring
correctly. to notes
Fair Demonstrates Minimal Student has Student has little
(3-4 Marks) general participation; performed grasp of
knowledge of Shows little incorrect information;
lab procedures. interest; doesn't measurement of student
Has some ideas pay attention to relevant answer the
of what to do. other group parameters and question about
Measurements, members; may performed subject, without
skills, or argue to get point calculations with elaboration
techniques are across; helps errors. but reading from
somewhat group only when the notes
inaccurate and asked;
very imprecise.

4
Poor Lacks the No participation; Student was Student does not
(1-2 Marks) appropriate sits on the unable to have grasp
knowledge of sidelines with no identify/measure of information;
the lab interaction; poor relevant student
procedures. Has teamwork parameters; and cannot answer
no idea what to perform question
do. calculations. about subject.
Measurements,
skills, or
techniques are
incomplete,
inaccurate
and/or
imprecise.

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 SAFETY RULES

• Eating, drinking, smoking, or use of cell phones is strictly prohibited inside the laboratory.
The use of laptops and tablets is only allowed for educational purposes. The working area
is to be kept clean and free of personal belongings.
• Proper clothes and shoes must be worn in the laboratory. Long hair should be restrained to
prevent contact with the moving parts.
• Be familiar with the location and use of the First Aid Kit, Fire Alarm, and Fire
Extinguisher.
• Safety goggles and hearing protection must be worn at all times, when appropriate.
• No laboratory experiment will be performed without the Laboratory Instructor.
• Before the lab equipment is switched on, valves and tubing connections should first be
checked by the Lab Instructor. Similarly, follow the standard procedure to shut down and
switch off the lab equipment.
• Lab Equipment found to be faulty in any way should be reported immediately and should
not be used until it is inspected and declared safe. Do not use damaged tubing, broken
clamps, or unauthorized accessories. Inform the instructor about such damaged
components.
• Use extension cords only when necessary and only temporarily
• Know the correct handling procedures for lab equipment, measuring instruments, and
accessories.
• Never make any changes to the operating procedures of the lab equipment. Always follow
the standard operating procedure as mentioned in the lab manual.
• Avoid filling water in the tanks of a hydraulic bench when the equipment is in operation.
• Do not splash water on the electrical connections of the lab equipment to avoid electrical
hazards. Keep the floor and equipment dry at all times.
• Immediately attend to spills of water and notify other students of the potential slipping
hazards

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 GENERAL RULES
• You must attend and complete all the experiments. Be on time.
• Read the lab manual carefully to understand the objectives of the experiment and the
procedure to experiment beforehand.
• Follow the lab syllabus and prepare the practical notebook according to the established
format.
• Complete any required pre-lab exercises before you come to the lab. If you come prepared
to the lab, it will also take you less time to complete an experiment.
• Always bring a hard copy of the lab manual with you.
• A make-up lab at a later date will be conducted in case of a public holiday or an official
university activity.
• In case of an absence from the lab with a prior intimation or an official excuse, you will be
allowed to perform the missed experiment in the make-up lab. But no special make-up lab
will be organized to cater to personal demands.
• There will be no make-up for any experiment you have missed unless you have an official
excuse.
• After you complete an experiment, you must disconnect the pressure tubing and other
accessories. Place the accessories and measuring instruments in their original places or
hand them over to the lab technician. Non-compliance may result in grade penalties.
• A practical notebook must be prepared according to the required format.
• Lab reports written in the practical notebook must be evaluated by the lab instructor no
later than one week after the experiment.
• Experiments will be performed in a group of not more than 5-6 students.
• Each student will write his practical notebook individually but the students will perform
the experiment and complete the results in groups.
• Any groups involved in copying the contents of and/or lab results will receive zero grades.
Those sharing their results or practical notebooks with other groups will also receive zero
grades.

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 Experiment 01
Objective

To identify the thermal conductivity of different metals samples

Apparatus

The apparatus shown in Fig. 1, consists of an input heat section, several central sections of metallic
material with different thermal conductivities, and a refrigeration section. The input heat section
is provided by a cylindrical metal bar for the realization of a series of experiments on heat transfer.
While the other one consists of two different disks (diameter = 25 mm) that allows studying the
influence of the heat transfer in different metals. These sections are provided with a number of
temperature sensors included with the unit. To maintain the temperature gradient constant, a water
cooling circuit, whose flow rate can be measured with a sensor, has been included on one side of
the model.

Fig. 1 Metal-to-Metal Heat Transfer Module

1. Heating Element 2. Test metal Specimens
3. Cooling System 4. Temperature sensors

Theory

Introduction
Heat is the form of energy that can be transferred from one system to another as a result of
temperature differences. The science that deals with the determination of the rates of such energy
transfers are heat transfer. There are three different types of heating transfer processes or modes:
conduction, convection, and radiation.

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Conduction
Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more energetic particles to adjacent less adjacent
particles of a substance as a result of interactions between the particles. Conduction can take place
in solids, liquids, or gases. In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the collisions and diffusion
of the molecules during their random motion. In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations
of the molecules in a lattice and the energy transport by free electrons.

Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction

Fourier’s law of heat conduction can be stated as, “The rate of heat conduction through a plane
layer is proportional to the temperature difference across the layer and the heat transfer area, but
is inversely proportional to the thickness of the layer”. That is,

(𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎)(𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒)
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∝
𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠

∆𝑇
𝑄 = −𝑘𝐴
∆𝑥

Where the constant of proportionality ‘k’ is the thermal conductivity of the material and dT/dx is
the temperature gradient, which is the slope of the temperature curve on a T-x diagram (the rate of
change of T with x), at location x. The heat transfer area A is always normal in the direction of
heat transfer.

Thermal Conductivity
Thermal conductivity of a material can be defined as the rate of heat transfer through a unit
thickness of the material per unit area per unit temperature difference. The thermal conductivity
of a material is a measure of the ability of the material to conduct heat. A high value for thermal
conductivity indicates that the material is a good heat conductor, and a low value indicates that the
material is a poor heat conductor or insulator.

In solids, heat conduction is due to two effects: the lattice vibrational waves induced by the
vibrational motions of the molecules positioned at relatively fixed positions in a periodic manner
called a lattice, and the energy transported via the free flow of electrons in the solid. The thermal
conductivity of a solid is obtained by adding the lattice and electronic components. The lattice
component of thermal conductivity strongly depends on the way the molecules are arranged. For
example, diamond, which is a highly ordered crystalline solid, has the highest known thermal
conductivity at room temperature. Unlike metals, which are good electrical and heat conductors,
crystalline solids such as diamond and semiconductors such as silicon are good heat conductors
but poor electrical conductors. As a result, such materials find widespread use in the electronics
industry. Moreover, pure metals have high thermal conductivities but the thermal conductivity of
an alloy of two metals is usually much lower than that of either metal. Even small amounts in a
9
pure metal of “foreign” molecules that are good conductors themselves seriously disrupt the flow
of heat in that metal.

The kinetic theory of gases predicts and the experiments confirm that the thermal conductivity of
gases is proportional to the square root of the absolute temperature T, and inversely proportional
to the square root of the molar mass M. Therefore, the thermal conductivity of a gas increases with
increasing temperature and decreasing molar mass.

The mechanism of heat conduction in a liquid is complicated by the fact that the molecules are
more closely spaced, and they exert a stronger intermolecular force field. The thermal
conductivities of liquids usually lie between those of solids and gases. The thermal conductivity
of a substance is normally highest in the solid phase and lowest in the gas phase. Unlike gases, the
thermal conductivities of most liquids decrease with increasing temperature, with water being a
notable exception. Like gases, the conductivity of liquids decreases with increasing molar mass.
Liquid metals such as mercury and sodium have high thermal conductivities and are very suitable
for use in applications where a high heat transfer rate to a liquid is desired, as in nuclear power
plants.

Fig. 2 Thermal Conductivity of Various Metals at Room Temperature

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Experimental Procedure

1) Place two of the test sections in the intermediate area

2) Ensure that all the temperature sensors and heating element have been connected
3) Make a water flow circulate through the cooling system with SC-2 at 2 l/min
4) Set the voltage of the heating resistor to 10W with the power controller
5) Wait until the temperature reading on the sensor becomes stable
6) Repeat the previous steps for different heating powers i-e 15,20,30,50W
7) Exchange the position of test sections and repeat the experiment
8) Use Fourier’s Law, to calculate the thermal conductivity by keeping the distance between
temperature sensors is 10 mm
Observations and Calculations

Specimen 01:
Specimen 02:
Temperature Q (W)
Sensors

T1

T2

T3

T4

∆T/∆x

T5

T6

T7

T8

T9

T10

∆T/∆x

11
Do it yourself?

1. Mechanism of Heat Transfer

2. Conduction mode of heat transfer
3. Fourier Law
4. Heat Flux

Lab Performance (10) Viva Voce (10) Lab Report (10) Signature

12
 Experiment 02
Objective

To identify the thermal conductivity of the different ceramic samples

Apparatus

The Ceramic Heat Transfer Module consists of an input heat section, several central sections of
ceramic material with different thermal conductivity, and a refrigeration section. The input heat
section is a cylindrical ceramic bar to carry out a series of heat transfer experiments. While the
other one consists of two ceramic disks (diameter = 25mm) that allow studying the influence of
heat transfer in different ceramic materials. These sections are provided with a series of takings
for the connection of a series of temperature sensors included with the unit. To maintain the
temperature gradient constant, a water cooling circuit, whose flow rate can be measured with a
sensor, has been included on one side of the model.

Fig. 2 Ceramic Heat Transfer Module

1. Heating Element 2. Test Specimen
3. Cooling System 4. Temperature sensors

Experimental Procedure
1) Place one of the test sections in the intermediate area
2) Ensure that all the temperature sensors and heating elements have been connected
3) Make water flow circulate through the cooling system with SC-2 at 2 l/min
4) Set the voltage of the heating resistor to 10W with the power controller
5) Wait until the temperature reading on the sensor becomes stable
6) Repeat the previous steps for different heating powers i-e 15,20,30,50W
7) Exchange the position of test sections and repeat the experiment
13
 8) Use Fourier’s Law, to find out the thermal conductivity by keeping the distance between
temperature sensors is 10 mm
Observations and Calculations

Temperature Q (W)
Sensors

10 20 30 50

T1

T2

T3

T4

T5

T6

T7

T8

T9

T10

∆T/∆x

Specimen Calculation:

Do it yourself?

1. Thermal Conductivity
2. Effect of temperature on the thermal conductivity of Solids, Liquids, and gases
3. Variable Thermal Conductivity

Lab Performance (10) Viva Voce (10) Lab Report (10) Signature

Experiment 03
Objective

To identify the thermal conductivity of different insulating materials

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Apparatus

This module is provided with a metal cylindrical bar and consists of three different parts: 1st part
is the area where the contact of the heating element is located. It has 4 temperature sensors and an
insulating layer. 2nd part or central part is the interchangeable insulating elements: one cylinder
made of Bakelite, one cylinder made of nylon, and one cylinder made of Teflon, with three
temperature intakes for each one. 3rd part is the efficient cooling system is included. It works with
flowing water, which guarantees a constant heat gradient in the system. It has 4 temperature intakes
and an insulating layer.

Fig. 3 Insulating Material Heat Transfer Module

1. Heating Element 2. Test Specimen
3. Valve to control cooling water flow

Experimental Procedure

1) Place one of the test sections in the intermediate area

2) Ensure that all the temperature sensors and heating elements have been connected
3) Make water flow circulate through the cooling system with SC-2 at 2 l/min
4) Set the voltage of the heating resistor to 10W with the power controller
5) Wait until the temperature reading on the sensor becomes stable
6) Repeat the previous steps for different heating powers i-e 15,20,30,50W
7) Exchange the position of test sections and repeat the experiment
8) Use Fourier’s Law, to find out the thermal conductivity by keeping the distance between
temperature sensors is 15 mm
Observations and Calculations

Specimen:
Temperature Q (W)
Sensors

15
 10 20 30 50

T1

T2

T3

T4

T5

T6

T7

T8

T9

T10

∆T/∆x

Do it yourself?
1. Fourier law of heat conduction
2. Insulation and type of insulations based on material
3. Critical thickness of insulation
4. Log mean temperature difference

Lab Performance (10) Viva Voce (10) Lab Report (10) Signature

16
 Experiment 04
Objective

To identify the heat transfer rate extended surface. Also, measure the efficiency and
effectiveness of the film.

Apparatus

The Extended Surface Heat Transfer Module consists of a resistor embedded in a copper cylinder,
completely isolated except from one circular face where a fin is attached. The fins are
interchangeable, providing two different materials: metal and stainless steel, and three different
cross-section shapes: square, circular and hexagonal. The temperature along the fin is monitored
by 10 thermocouples, and one additional thermocouple is used to monitor room temperature.

Fig. 4 Extended Surface Heat Transfer Module

Experimental Procedure

1. Insert the circular cross-section fin in the support, being the fin in contact with the resistor
2. Fix the fin tip to the support, making sure that the insulator is correctly placed
3. Start the resistor. Monitor the temperatures until a steady state is reached
4. Calculate values of θ = (T-T)/(Tb-T) using the appropriate equations for the fin used in
the experiment
5. Plot the natural logarithm of θ vs position ‘x’
6. Determine the convection coefficient h for each location where the temperature T is
measured.
7. Calculate the heat transfer from the fin
8. Calculate the efficiency and effectiveness of the fin

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Observations and Calculations

Q (W)

T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6

T7
T8
T9
T10
T11
∆T/∆x
h
Qfin
ε

Do it yourself?
1. Newton law of cooling
2. Convective Heat Transfer coefficient
3. Heat transfer from finned surfaces
4. Fin Efficiency

Lab Performance (10) Viva Voce (10) Lab Report (10) Signature

18
 Experiment 05
Objective
To measure the overall heat transfer coefficient of a turbulent flow heat exchanger for parallel
and counter-current flow.
Apparatus

The turbulent flow heat exchanger consists of two concentric tubes. The hot water flows through
the inner tube and the cooling water flows through the space between the inner tube and the outer
tube. The exchanger has 4 equal sections where the heat transfer takes place, allowing us to
measure the intermediate temperatures in both fluids. The exchanger has 12 thermocouples located
strategically: 5 to measure the cold water temperature, 5 to measure the hot water temperature, and
2 to measure the temperature on the surface of the inner tube. Moreover, it has 2 purge valves to
release the air accumulated in the hot water circuit as well as in the cold water circuit.

Fig. 1 Turbulent Flow Heat Exchanger

Theory
Turbulent Flow Heat Exchanger

A typical turbulent flow (double-pipe) heat exchanger consists of one pipe placed concentrically
inside another pipe of a larger diameter with appropriate fittings to direct the flow from one section
to the next, as shown in Figure 1. One fluid flows through the inner pipe (tube side), and the other
flows through the annular space (annulus). The inner pipe is connected by U-shaped return bends
enclosed in a return-bend housing. Double-pipe heat exchangers can be arranged in various series
and parallel arrangements. The major use of the double pipe heat exchanger is for sensible heating
or cooling of process fluids where small heat transfer areas (up to 50 m2) are required. This
configuration is also very suitable for one or both of the fluids at high pressure because of the
smaller diameter of the pipes. The major disadvantage is that they are bulky and expensive per
unit of heat transfer surface area.

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Experimental Procedure

1) Position the valves of hot and cold circuits correctly to make flow parallel or counter-
current
2) Ensure that the water heating tank is full of water above the level switch AN-1
3) Switch on the pump and resistor
4) Switch on the heating element AR-1 and set the temperature of the heating tank T16 to
60 0C
5) Switch on the pump AB-1 and set the flow rate of the hot circuit to a suitable value. Also,
set the flow rate of the cold circuit until the system stabilizes to a temperature of 60 0C
6) Record the temperatures and water flow rates
7) Repeat the experiment by keeping the flow rate of the hot circuit (m1) constant and varying
the flow rate of the cold circuit (m2) for different water temperatures in the tank i-e
T16=500C, 550C
8) Finally, calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient for the turbulent flow heat exchanger
Observations and Calculations
For Parallel Flow

∆T1 = T1 − T6
∆T2 = T5 − T10
For Counter Flow

∆T1 = T1 − T10
∆T2 = T5 − T6

∆T1 − ∆T2
∆T𝑙𝑚 =
∆T
ln (∆T1 )
2

Overall heat transfer coefficient can be calculated as

q = U × A × ∆T𝑙𝑚
Where
W
U = Overall heat transfer coefficient ( )
m2 . K

𝑞 = 𝑚ℎ × 𝑐𝑝 × (𝑇1 − 𝑇5 )
A = Total area of heat exchanger in the inner side of the inner tube
𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑡 + 𝐷𝑒𝑥𝑡
A = πL ( )
2

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 Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4

T16

T1

T5

T6

T10

ṁh

ṁc

∆T1

∆T2

∆Tlm

Cp

Specimen Calculations:
Parallel Flow:

Counter Flow:

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Water Properties Table

Do it yourself?
1. Free Convection
2. Forced Convection
3. No Slip Condition
4. Viscous versus Inviscid Flow
5. Internal versus External Flow
6. Laminar versus Turbulent Flow

Lab Performance (10) Viva Voce (10) Lab Report (10) Signature

22
 Experiment 06
Objective

To demonstrate the effectiveness of a turbulent flow heat exchanger by the ε-NTU method for
parallel and counter-current flow

Apparatus

The turbulent flow heat exchanger consists of two concentric tubes. The hot water flows through
the inner tube and the cooling water flows through the space between the inner tube and the outer
tube. The exchanger has 4 equal sections where the heat transfer takes place, allowing us to
measure the intermediate temperatures in both fluids. The exchanger has 12 thermocouples located
strategically: 5 to measure the cold water temperature, 5 to measure the hot water temperature, and
2 to measure the temperature on the surface of the inner tube. Moreover, it has 2 purge valves to
release the air accumulated in the hot water circuit as well as in the cold water circuit.

Fig. 1 Turbulent Flow Heat Exchanger

Theory
NTU-Effectiveness Method for Analysis of Heat Exchanger

If the outlet temperatures of the exchanger are not known, to calculate the heat transfer rate from
the logarithmic mean temperature difference the problem should be solved by iteration, starting
from an approximate value of one of the temperatures. This method would be very slow. In these
cases, the NTU effectiveness method is preferred. First, the effectiveness is defined as the quotient
between the exchanged heat and the maximum that could be transferred in an infinite area
exchanger with countercurrent flow.

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 𝑞𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙
𝜀=
𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥

The maximum temperature difference possible suffered by one of the two fluids is (Thi-Tci), so
effectiveness will be:

𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇ℎ𝑜
𝜀= 𝑖𝑓 𝑚ℎ 𝐶𝑝 > 𝑚𝑐 𝐶𝑝
𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖

𝑇𝑐𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖
𝜀= 𝑖𝑓 𝑚ℎ 𝐶𝑝 < 𝑚𝑐 𝐶𝑝
𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖

The number of transfer units (NTU) is a dimensionless parameter widely used for the analysis of
heat exchangers and is defined as:

𝑈𝐴
𝑁𝑇𝑈 =
(𝑚. 𝐶𝑝 )𝑚𝑖𝑛

On the other hand, the capacity ratio (CR) is defined as:

(𝑚. 𝐶𝑝 )𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐶𝑅 =
(𝑚. 𝐶𝑝 )𝑚𝑎𝑥

Expressing  as a function of CR and NTU the following plot is obtained:

Fig. 2 CR vs NTU Plot

Experimental Procedure

1. Check that the valves of the hot and cold circuit are correctly positioned for the
performance of the practical exercise in countercurrent flow configuration, according to
the operation section.
2. Check that the water heating tank is full of water above the level switch AN-1.
3. Switch on the heating element AR-1 and set the temperature of the heating tank ST-16,
according to the operation section, to 45ºC.
4. Switch on the impeller pump AB-1 and set a flow rate for the hot circuit SC-1 or (C-1), as
it is indicated in the operation section.

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 5. Set a flow rate for the cold circuit SC-2 or (C-2), with VR-2, until the system stabilizes to
a temperature of 45ºC in ST-16.
6. Record the temperature measurements (ST-1, ST-2, ST-3, ST-7, ST-16) and water
flowrates SC-1 or (C-1) and SC-2 or (C-2) in the worksheet.
7. After recording the values, calculate the LMTD
8. Repeat steps 1 to 9 changing the direction of the working flow to work in parallel. Obtain
the value of the LMTD (ΔTlm) for parallel flow
9. Calculate the value of the overall heat transfer coefficient (U)
10. Calculate the efficiency with the NTU-ε method, and employ the chart from annex 2. For
that purpose, the NTU value (number of transfer units) and the Cr value must be known.
With these two values, the value of the exchanger efficiency (ε) will be easily obtained.
Observations and Calculations

The effectiveness can be calculated from the following equation;

𝑞𝑎𝑐𝑡
=
𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥

The maximum temperature difference possible suffered by one of the two fluids is (Thi-Tci), so
effectiveness will be:

𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇ℎ𝑜
𝜀= 𝑖𝑓 𝑚ℎ 𝐶𝑝 > 𝑚𝑐 𝐶𝑝
𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖

𝑇𝑐𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖
𝜀= 𝑖𝑓 𝑚ℎ 𝐶𝑝 < 𝑚𝑐 𝐶𝑝
𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖

The number of transfer units (NTU) is a dimensionless parameter widely used for the analysis of
heat exchangers and is defined as:

𝑈𝐴
𝑁𝑇𝑈 =
(𝑚. 𝐶𝑝 )𝑚𝑖𝑛

The capacity ratio (CR) is defined as:

(𝑚. 𝐶𝑝 )𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐶𝑅 =
(𝑚. 𝐶𝑝 )𝑚𝑎𝑥

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 Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4

T16

T1

T5

T6

T10

T11

T12

ṁh

ṁc

∆T1

∆T2

∆Tlm

qh

Cmin

Cmax

Cr

NTU

qact

qmax

26
Specimen Calculation

Discussion

Water Properties Table

Do it yourself?
1. Thermal Boundary Layer
2. Stanton number
3. Reasons for insulating
4. Optimum thickness of insulation

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27
 Experiment 07
Objective

To measure the overall heat transfer coefficient of shell and tube heat exchanger for parallel and
counter-current flow

Apparatus

The shell and tube heat exchanger consists of 21 tubes arranged as a square through which a water
flow from the hot circuit of the base unit circulates. The cold circuit water flows by the annular
side between the shell and the tubes. The exchanger has seven thermocouples distributed between
the hot and cold circuits, in which the temperature at the inlet, outlet, and intermediate points of
the exchanger are measured.

Fig. 1 Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

Hot water flows along a closed circuit. A heating element, AR-1, immersed in the tank, heat water
to a specific temperature, ST-16. Water leaves the tank and is impelled by a pump, AB-1. Part of
the water enters the exchanger and a minimum part returns to the tank through a bypass. There is
a valve in the bypass to regulate the hot water flow, VR-1. This valve is set to a flow rate
recommended by the manufacturer for the correct use of the unit. The water is cooled at the outlet
of the exchanger and returns to the heating tank. Before entering this heating tank, the fluid passes
through a flow sensor, SC-1 (flowmeter C-1), where the water flow of the hot circuit that flows
through the heat exchanger is measured.

28
 Fig. 2 Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger with Base Unit
The water of the cold circuit comes from the main network and crosses a regulation valve, VR-2,
through which the water flow of the cold circuit that enters the exchanger can be regulated. Water
of the cold circuit crosses a pressure regulator too, RP-1, programmed to 0.7 bar approx. to avoid
overpressures in the unit. Before entering the exchanger, water passes through a flow sensor SC-
2 (flowmeter C-2) to measure the cold water flow that enters the exchanger. Then, water enters
the exchanger, through which it is heated, leaves the exchanger, and is directed to the drain. Cold
water can enter the exchanger through both ends, to arrange flow in countercurrent the inlet will
be the opposite to that of the hot circuit.
Theory
Heat Exchanger
Heat exchangers are devices that facilitate the exchange of heat between two fluids that are at
different temperatures. Heat exchangers are commonly used in practice in a wide range of
applications, from heating and air-conditioning systems in a household to chemical processing and
power production in large plants. Heat transfer in a heat exchanger usually involves convection in
each fluid and conduction through the wall separating the two fluids.

There are different types of flow in a heat exchanger:

a. Parallel flow
b. Countercurrent flow
c. Crossflow
In parallel flow, the hot and cold fluids enter and leave through the same end and circulate in the
same direction. On the other hand, in countercurrent flow, the fluids enter and leave through
opposite ends and circulate in opposite directions. Figure 2 shows both types of flow.

29
 Fig. 3 Parallel Flow and Counter-current Flow
In compact heat exchangers, the two fluids usually move perpendicular to each other, and such
flow configuration is called cross-flow. The cross-flow is further classified as unmixed and mixed
flow, depending on the flow configuration. The cross-flow is said to be unmixed since the plate
fins force the fluid to flow through a particular interfin spacing and prevent it from moving in the
transverse direction (i.e., parallel to the tubes). The cross-flow is said to be mixed since the fluid
now is free to move in the transverse direction. Both fluids are unmixed in a car radiator. The
presence of mixing in the fluid can have a significant effect on the heat transfer characteristics of
the heat exchanger.

Fig. 4 Cross Flow

Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

The most common type of heat exchanger in industrial applications is the shell-and-tube heat
exchanger, shown in Figure 3. Shell-and-tube heat exchangers contain a large number of tubes
(sometimes several hundred) packed in a shell with their axes parallel to that of the shell. Heat
transfer takes place as one fluid flows inside the tubes while the other fluid flows outside the tubes
through the shell. Baffles are commonly placed in the shell to force the shell-side fluid to flow
across the shell to enhance heat transfer and maintain uniform spacing between the tubes. Despite
their widespread use, shell and tube heat exchangers are not suitable for use in automotive and
aircraft applications because of their relatively large size and weight. Note that the tubes in a shell-
and-tube heat exchanger open to some large flow areas called headers at both ends of the shell,
where the tube-side fluid accumulates before entering the tubes and after leaving them. Shell-and-
tube heat exchangers are further classified according to the number of shells and tube passes
involved. Heat exchangers in which all the tubes make one U-turn in the shell, for example, are
called one-shell-pass and two-tube-passes heat exchangers. Likewise, a heat exchanger that

30
involves two passes in the shell and four passes in the tubes is called a two-shell-passes and four-
tube-passes heat exchanger.

Fig. 5 Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

Temperature Distribution in Exchangers

In the parallel flow exchanger, the hottest zone of the hot fluid exchanges heats with the coolest
zone of the cold fluid at the inlet area. In the beginning, the heat transfer is big since the
temperature difference is great; but this difference falls very quickly along the exchanger,
approaching asymptotically zero. It is important to say that, for this type of exchanger, the outlet
temperature of the cold fluid never exceeds the outlet temperature of the hot fluid.

In countercurrent flow, the hottest zone of the hot fluid exchanges heats with the hottest zone of
the cold fluid and the coldest zone of the hot fluid with the coldest zone of the cold fluid. This
configuration gives a good heat transfer between the hot parts of both fluids at one end and the
cold parts at the other end. Besides, the outlet temperature of the cold fluid may exceed the outlet
temperature of the hot fluid.

31
Calculation of Heat Transfer Rate
Two important relations for the analysis of a heat exchanger are the overall energy balances, both
the hot fluid and the cold fluid. Neglecting the changes in potential and kinetic energy along the
exchanger, we have:

The general heat transfer rate from the hot fluid:

𝑞ℎ = ṁ1 𝑐𝑝ℎ (𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡,𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡,𝑜𝑢𝑡 )

The general heat transfer rate from the cold fluid:

𝑞𝑐 = ṁ2 𝑐𝑝𝑐 (𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑,𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑,𝑖𝑛 )

And the loss of heat transfer can be found out as

𝑞𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 𝑞ℎ − 𝑞𝑐

Where:
qh = Heat flow of the water in the hot circuit
qc = Heat flow of the water in the cold circuit
ṁ1 = Mass flow rate of water in the hot circuit
ṁ2 = Mass flow rate of water in the cold circuit
Thot,in = Inlet temperature of the water from the hot circuit to the exchanger, measured by ST-1
Thot,out = Outlet temperature of the water from the hot circuit of the exchanger, measured by ST-2
Tcold,in = Inlet temperature of the water from the cold circuit to the exchanger, measured by ST-7
in counter flow and by ST-3 in parallel flow
Tcold,out = Outlet temperature of the water from the cold circuit to the exchanger, measured by ST-
3 in counter flow and by ST-7 in parallel flow
cpc = Specific heat of water of the cold circuit to the mean temperature between the value of Tcold,out
and Tcold,in of the exchanger
cph = Specific heat of water of the cold circuit to the mean temperature between the value of Thot,out
and Thot,in of the exchanger
Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference
As it has been seen, the temperature difference between the fluids changes along the exchanger.
This is why it is advisable to define a mean temperature value (Tm).
From the analysis developed in most books about heat transfer, we can find that the appropriated
mean temperature difference is a logarithmic mean temperature difference (Tlm), defined in the
following equation:
∆𝑇1 − ∆𝑇2
∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 =
∆𝑇
ln (∆𝑇1 )
2

For counter flow:

32
 ∆𝑇1 = 𝑇ℎ,𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇𝑐,𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑇1 − 𝑇3
∆𝑇2 = 𝑇ℎ,𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑇𝑐,𝑖𝑛 = 𝑇2 − 𝑇7
For parallel flow:
∆𝑇1 = 𝑇ℎ,𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇𝑐,𝑖𝑛 = 𝑇1 − 𝑇3
∆𝑇2 = 𝑇ℎ,𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑇𝑐,𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑇2 − 𝑇7

Experimental Procedure

1. Check that the valves of the hot and cold circuit are correctly positioned for the
performance of the practical exercise in countercurrent flow configuration, according to
the operation section.
2. Check that the water heating tank is full of water above the level switch AN-1.
3. Switch on the heating element AR-1 and set the temperature of the heating tank ST-16,
according to the operation section, to 45ºC.
4. Switch on the impeller pump AB-1 and set a flow rate for the hot circuit SC-1 or (C-1), as
it is indicated in the operation section.
5. Set a flow rate for the cold circuit SC-2 or (C-2), with VR-2, until the system stabilizes to
a temperature of 45ºC in ST-16.
6. Record the temperature measurements (ST-1, ST-2, ST-3, ST-7, ST-16) and water
flowrates SC-1 or (C-1) and SC-2 or (C-2) in the worksheet.
7. After recording the values, calculate the LMTD
8. Repeat steps 1 to 9 changing the direction of the working flow to work in parallel. Obtain
the value of the LMTD (ΔTlm) for parallel flow
9. Calculate the value of the overall heat transfer coefficient (U) in the inner tube, for
countercurrent flow
Observations and Calculations

The overall heat transfer coefficient (U) can be calculated from the following equation;

𝑞ℎ = 𝑈𝐴∆𝑇𝑙𝑚

Where ∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 = Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference

33
 Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4

T16

T1

T2

T3

T7

ṁ1

ṁ2

qh

ΔTlm

Parallel Flow

Counter Flow

Do it yourself?
1. Heat Exchangers
2. Discuss different types of heat Exchangers with suitable diagram

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34
Water Properties Table

35
 Experiment 09
Objective

To demonstrate the effectiveness of shell and tube heat exchanger by ε-NTU method for
parallel and counter-current flow
Apparatus

The shell and tube heat exchanger consists of 21 tubes arranged as a square through which a water
flow from the hot circuit of the base unit circulates. The cold circuit water flows by the annular
side between the shell and the tubes. The exchanger has seven thermocouples distributed between
the hot and cold circuits, in which the temperature at the inlet, outlet, and intermediate points of
the exchanger are measured.

Fig. 1 Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

Hot water flows along a closed circuit. A heating element, AR-1, immersed in the tank, heat water
to a specific temperature, ST-16. Water leaves the tank and is impelled by a pump, AB-1. Part of
the water enters the exchanger and a minimum part returns to the tank through a bypass. There is
a valve in the bypass to regulate the hot water flow, VR-1. This valve is set to a flow rate
recommended by the manufacturer for the correct use of the unit. The water is cooled at the outlet
of the exchanger and returns to the heating tank. Before entering this heating tank, the fluid passes
through a flow sensor, SC-1 (flowmeter C-1), where the water flow of the hot circuit that flows
through the heat exchanger is measured.

36
 Fig. 2 Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger with Base Unit
The water of the cold circuit comes from the main network and crosses a regulation valve, VR-2,
through which the water flow of the cold circuit that enters the exchanger can be regulated. The
water of the cold circuit crosses a pressure regulator too, RP-1, programmed to 0.7 bar approx. to
avoid overpressures in the unit. Before entering the exchanger, water passes through a flow sensor
SC-2 (flowmeter C-2) to measure the cold water flow that enters the exchanger. Then, water enters
the exchanger, through which it is heated, leaves the exchanger, and is directed to the drain. Cold
water can enter the exchanger through both ends, to arrange flow in countercurrent the inlet will
be the opposite to that of the hot circuit.
Theory
NTU-Effectiveness Method for Analysis of Heat Exchanger

If the outlet temperatures of the exchanger are not known, to calculate the heat transfer rate from
the logarithmic mean temperature difference the problem should be solved by iteration, starting
from an approximate value of one of the temperatures. This method would be very slow. In these
cases, the NTU effectiveness method is preferred. First, the effectiveness is defined as the quotient
between the exchanged heat and the maximum that could be transferred in an infinite area
exchanger with countercurrent flow.

𝑞𝑎𝑐𝑡
𝜀=
𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥

The maximum temperature difference possible suffered by one of the two fluids is (Thi-Tci), so
effectiveness will be:

𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇ℎ𝑜
𝜀= 𝑖𝑓 𝑚ℎ 𝐶𝑝 > 𝑚𝑐 𝐶𝑝
𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖

37
 𝑇𝑐𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖
𝜀= 𝑖𝑓 𝑚ℎ 𝐶𝑝 < 𝑚𝑐 𝐶𝑝
𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖

The number of transfer units (NTU) is a dimensionless parameter widely used for the analysis of
heat exchangers and is defined as:

𝑈𝐴
𝑁𝑇𝑈 =
(𝑚. 𝐶𝑝 )𝑚𝑖𝑛

On the other hand, the capacity ratio (CR) is defined as:

(𝑚. 𝐶𝑝 )𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐶𝑅 =
(𝑚. 𝐶𝑝 )𝑚𝑎𝑥

Expressing  as a function of CR and NTU the following plot is obtained:

Fig. 2 CR vs NTU Plot

Experimental Procedure

1. Check that the valves of the hot and cold circuit are correctly positioned for the
performance of the practical exercise in countercurrent flow configuration, according to
the operation section.
2. Check that the water heating tank is full of water above the level switch AN-1.
3. Switch on the heating element AR-1 and set the temperature of the heating tank ST-16,
according to the operation section, to 45ºC.
4. Switch on the impeller pump AB-1 and set a flow rate for the hot circuit SC-1 or (C-1), as
it is indicated in the operation section.
5. Set a flow rate for the cold circuit SC-2 or (C-2), with VR-2, until the system stabilizes to
a temperature of 45ºC in ST-16.
6. Record the temperature measurements (ST-1, ST-2, ST-3, ST-7, ST-16) and water
flowrates SC-1 or (C-1) and SC-2 or (C-2) in the worksheet.
7. After recording the values, calculate the LMTD

38
 8. Repeat steps 1 to 9 changing the direction of the working flow to work in parallel. Obtain
the value of the LMTD (ΔTlm) for parallel flow
9. Calculate the value of the overall heat transfer coefficient (U) in the inner tube, for
countercurrent flow
10. Calculate the efficiency with the NTU-ε method, and employ the chart from annex 2. For
that purpose, the NTU value (number of transfer units) and the Cr value must be known.
With these two values, the value of the exchanger efficiency (ε) will be easily obtained.
Observations and Calculations

Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4

T16

T1

T2

T3

T7

ṁ1

ṁ2

∆T1

∆T2

∆Tlm

Cp

qc

Cmin

Cmax

Cr

NTU

qact

qreal

39
Do it yourself?
1. Co-current, cross, and counter-current flow
2. Fouling Factor
3. Analysis of Heat Exchanger

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Water Properties Table

40
 Experiment 09
Objective

To measure the overall heat transfer coefficient of plate-type heat exchanger for parallel and
counter-current flow

Apparatus

The Plate Heat Exchanger consists of a collection of stainless steel plates arranged in parallel. The
space between the plates forms a channel through which water flows. Hot and cold water channels
alternate along the exchanger so heat is transmitted by the thin plates. The heat exchanger has 4
thermocouples: 2 for measuring cold water temperature and 2 for measuring hot water temperature.

Fig. 1 Plate Type Heat Exchanger

Theory
Plate Heat Exchanger

A Plate Heat Exchanger consists of a set of corrugated metal plates confined in a shell. Each metal
plate has 4 ports or holes. The plates and the ports are sealed by joints at their edge to allow hot
and cold fluids to flow through narrow alternate passages formed between the plates. Heat transfers
through the thin plates, offering relatively low thermal resistance.

Elements of a Plate Heat Exchanger

Plates

Plates limit the flow of fluids through the path of the exchanger and provide the surface area for
heat transfer. The surface is corrugated to improve heat transfer. Corrugations break the limit layer,
causing turbulences with low Reynolds numbers, increasing the heat transfer coefficient
significantly.

41
Also, corrugations between adjacent plates come into contact at certain points forming Channels
of flow and increasing the stiffness of the thin plates. Most of the plates have chevron-patterned
corrugations. According to the angle of the chevron, a bigger or lower Heat Transfer Coefficient
may be provided.

Plates at the edges are not thermal plates, these plates do not transfer heat. They simply contain
the fluid and prevent contact with pressure plates which are generally made of tempered steel.
Thus, in a 20-plate Heat Exchanger, only 18 will be thermal plates.

Fig. 2 Plates with Chevron’s Angle

Joints

They prevent both fluids from mixing and prevent losses. They allow fluids to distribute between
alternate plates. Joints are made of just one piece to be adjusted in the slots around the perimeter
of the plate and around the holes of the ports. Joints are a key element in Plate Heat Exchangers
since the integrity of the unit depends on them.

Guide Bars

There are two Guide Bars, one at the top and the other at the bottom. Plates slide over them,
maintaining a proper position. These bars are longer than the set of plates to allow for the loosening
and sliding of the plates to be inspected and cleaned.

Experimental Procedure
1. Verify that the valves are opened and counter-current flow configuration is set.
2. Verify that the heating tank is filled with water over the level switch.
3. Turn on the pump and the resistance (equipment power supply).
4. Fix the tank temperature at 65ºC (ST16).
5. Set the hot water flow at 3 l/min approx. (SC1) and adjust the cold water flow until reaching
stationary operating conditions, keeping the temperature set in the tank constant

42
 6. Set the valves to change the direction of cold water flow to get a counter-current flow
configuration.
7. Verify that a temperature of 65ºC is maintained in the tank and that the same hot and cold
water flows set previously in step 5 are circulating.
8. Once the system is stabilized write down the temperature and flow measurements on the
experimental sheet.
9. Once the measures have been taken, you may calculate the experimental effectiveness, the
theoretical effectiveness of the NTU method, and the theoretical temperatures at the
exchanger outlet.
Observations and Calculations
For Counter Flow

∆T1 = Thi − Tci

∆T2 = Tho − Tco

For Parallel Flow

∆T1 = Thi − Tc𝑜

∆T2 = Tho − Tc𝑖

∆T1 − ∆T2
∆T𝑙𝑚 =
∆T
ln ( 1 )
∆T2

Overall heat transfer coefficient can be calculated as

q = U × A × ∆T𝑙𝑚

Where
W
U = Overall heat transfer coefficient ( )
m2 . K

𝑞 = 𝑚ℎ × 𝑐𝑝 × (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
A = Total area of heat exchanger in the inner side of the inner tube
A=N ×𝐿×𝑤
Where

N = Total number of tubes

L = Length of each plate
w = Width of each plate

43
 Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4

T16

T1

T2

T3

T7

ṁ1

ṁ2

∆T1

∆T2

∆Tlm

Cp

qh

Do it yourself?
1. Multi-pass and cross-flow heat exchanger
2. Use of a correction Factor
3. Thermal diffusivity
4. Heat Flux
5. Prandtl No.
6. Nusselt Equation
7. Grashoof No
8. Rayleigh No.

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44
Water Properties Table

45
 Experiment 10
Objective
To demonstrate the effectiveness of plate heat exchanger by the ε-NTU method
Apparatus
The Plate Heat Exchanger consists of a collection of stainless steel plates arranged in parallel. The
space between the plates forms a channel through which water flows. Hot and cold water channels
alternate along the exchanger so heat is transmitted by the thin plates. The heat exchanger has 4
thermocouples: 2 for measuring cold water temperature and 2 for measuring hot water temperature.

Fig. 1 Plate Type Heat Exchanger

Experimental Procedure
1. Verify that the valves are opened and counter-current flow configuration is set.
2. Verify that the heating tank is filled with water over the level switch.
3. Turn on the pump and the resistance (equipment power supply).
4. Fix the tank temperature at 65ºC (ST16).
5. Set the hot water flow at 3 l/min approx. (SC1) and adjust the cold water flow until reaching
stationary operating conditions, keeping the temperature set in the tank constant
6. Set the valves to change the direction of cold water flow to get a counter-current flow
configuration.
7. Verify that a temperature of 65ºC is maintained in the tank and that the same hot and cold
water flows set previously in step 5 are circulating.
8. Once the system is stabilized write down the temperature and flow measurements on the
experimental sheet.

46
 9. Once the measures have been taken, you may calculate the experimental effectiveness, the
theoretical effectiveness of the NTU method, and the theoretical temperatures at the
exchanger outlet.
Observations and Calculations
For Counter Flow

∆T1 = Thi − Tci

∆T2 = Tho − Tco

For Parallel Flow

∆T1 = Thi − Tc𝑜

∆T2 = Tho − Tc𝑖

∆T1 − ∆T2
∆T𝑙𝑚 =
∆T
ln (∆T1 )
2

Overall heat transfer coefficient can be calculated as

q = U × A × ∆T𝑙𝑚

Where
W
U = Overall heat transfer coefficient ( )
m2 . K

𝑞 = 𝑚ℎ × 𝑐𝑝 × (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
A = Total area of heat exchanger in the inner side of the inner tube
A=N ×𝐿×𝑤
Where

N = Total number of tubes

L = Length of each plate
w = Width of each plate

The effectiveness of heat exchanger can be given as:

𝑞𝑎𝑐𝑡
𝜀=
𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥

Where

𝑞𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 = 𝑚ℎ 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇ℎ𝑜 )

𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛 (𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖 )

47
 Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4

T16

T1

T2

T3

T7

ṁ1

ṁ2

∆T1

∆T2

∆Tlm

Cp

qc

Cmin

Cmax

Cr

NTU

qmax

qreal

48
Do it yourself?
• The effectiveness–NTU method

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Water Properties Table

49
 Experiment 11
Objective
To measure the overall heat transfer coefficient of coil vessel flow heat exchanger,
Apparatus
The coil vessel heat exchanger consists of a vessel and a coil. The vessel contains cold water heated
up by a coil within the cold water. Hot water flows through the coil. Also, the water in the vessel
is stirred by a propeller that produces an increase in heat transfer while spinning.

The overflowing drainage system that goes through the vessel is a tube that on its upper part allows
the cold water flow to exit during the process of continuous supply. The exchanger has five
thermocouples: 3 for measuring cold water temperature and 2 for measuring hot water temperature.

Fig. 1 Coil Vessel Heat Exchanger

Theory

Coil Vessel Heat Exchanger

The coil vessel heat exchanger consists of a vessel and a coil. The vessel contains cold water heated
up by a coil within the cold water. Hot water flows through the coil. The energy transfer with the
vessel fluid is carried using a coil immersed inside the vessel providing additional turbulence to
the vessel fluid as well. The vessel usually incorporates a stirrer to both increases the turbulence
of the liquid and improve the heat distribution thus these systems are known as stirring vessels.

50
The operation of the stirring vessels may be by batches or through continuous supply. When
operating in batches, the mass contained in the vessel is kept constant. Once heated or cooled up
to a certain temperature, the content may be emptied and filled to repeat the process. It also allows
the maintenance of fluid at a constant temperature of the fluid which may prove extremely useful
in many chemical processes. With continuous supply, there is an input and output to the
a permanent flow of the vessel. It is a continuous renovation process of the liquid in the vessel.

Experimental Procedure
1) Position the valves of hot and cold circuits correctly
2) Ensure that the water heating tank is full of water above the level switch AN-1
3) Verify that Valve AV-9 is opened while valve AV-10 is closed
4) Switch on the heating element AR-1 and set the temperature of the heating tank T16 to
60 0C
5) Start the stirrer
Switch on the pump AB-1 and set the flow rate of the hot circuit to a suitable value. Also,
set the flow rate of the cold circuit until the system stabilizes to a temperature of 60 0C
6) Record the temperatures and water flow rates
7) Repeat the experiment by keeping the flow rate of the hot circuit (m1) constant and varying
the flow rate of the cold circuit (m2) for different water temperatures in the tank i-e
T16=500C, 550C
8) Finally, calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient and effectiveness of the coil heat
exchanger
Observations and Calculations
∆T1 = T4 − T1
∆T2 = T5 − T3

∆T1 − ∆T2
∆T𝑙𝑚 =
∆T
ln (∆T1 )
2

Overall heat transfer coefficient can be calculated as

q = U × A × ∆T𝑙𝑚

Where
W
U = Overall heat transfer coefficient ( )
m2 . K

𝑞 = 𝑚ℎ × 𝑐𝑝 × (𝑇4 − 𝑇5 )
A = Total area of heat exchanger in the inner side of inner tube
𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑡 + 𝐷𝑒𝑥𝑡
A = πL ( )
2

51
 Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4

T16
T1
T2

T3
T4
T5
ṁ1
ṁ2
∆T1

∆T2
∆Tlm

A
Cp
q
U

Do it yourself?
1. Selection of heat exchangers

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52
 Experiment 11
Objective
To measure the overall heat transfer coefficient of jacketed vessel flow heat exchanger for parallel
and counter-current flow

Apparatus
The heat exchanger consists of a vessel enclosed within a jacket. The vessel contains cold water
that is heated by the hot water which flows through the jacket and returns to the tank. Also, the
water in the vessel is stirred by a propeller that produces an increase in turbulence and therefore
an increase in heat transfer when spinning.

The drainage system within the vessel consists of a tube that allows cold water to overflow into a
pipe and flow toward the exit only when the water has reached an adequate level within the tank.
The exchanger has 5 thermocouples: 3 for measuring cold water temperature and 2 for measuring
hot water temperature.

Fig. 1 Jacketed vessel Heat Exchanger

Theory
Jacketed Vessel Heat Exchanger

A heat exchanger is a device developed for heat transfer between two fluids at different
temperatures separated by a solid wall. They have multiple applications in engineering so there
are different models adapted to each application. Warming or cooling liquids contained in vessels
or reactors are required in many industrial processes. These vessels usually incorporate a stirrer
which increases the turbulence of the liquid and also improves heat transfer rates. These systems
are known as stirring vessels.

53
The energy transfer with the stirring vessel is carried out by a jacket that wraps around the vessel
on the outside, within which the heating or cooling fluid passes. Using limpet coils is a way to
modify the system. This is when a square cross-section coil is attached to the external surface of
the vessel. This may improve the control of flow distribution in regard to the jacket.
Experimental Procedure
1) Position the valves of hot and cold circuits correctly
2) Ensure that the water heating tank is full of water above the level switch AN-1
3) Verify that Valve AV-9 is opened while valve AV-10 is closed
4) Switch on the heating element AR-1 and set the temperature of the heating tank T16 to
60 0C
5) Start the stirrer. Switch on the pump AB-1 and set the flow rate of the hot circuit to a
suitable value. Also, set the flow rate of the cold circuit until the system stabilizes to a
temperature of 60 0C
6) Record the temperatures and water flow rates
7) Repeat the experiment by keeping the flow rate of the hot circuit (m1) constant and varying
the flow rate of the cold circuit (m2) for different water temperatures in the tank i-e
T16=500C, 550C
8) Finally, calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient and effectiveness of the jacketed heat
exchanger
Observations and Calculations
∆T1 = T1 − T3
∆T2 = T2 − T5

∆T1 − ∆T2
∆T𝑙𝑚 =
∆T
ln (∆T1 )
2

The overall heat transfer coefficient can be calculated as

q = U × A × ∆T𝑙𝑚

Where
W
U = Overall heat transfer coefficient ( )
m2 . K

𝑞 = 𝑚ℎ × 𝑐𝑝 × (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
A = Total area of heat exchanger in the inner side of the inner tube
𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑡 + 𝐷𝑒𝑥𝑡
A = πL ( )
2

54
 Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4

T16

T1

T2

T3

T4

T5

ṁ1

ṁ2

∆T1

∆T2

∆Tlm

Cp

Do it yourself?
1. Baffles
2. Tube pitch
3. Parameters for the selection of hot and cold on the shell side or tube side

Lab Performance (10) Viva Voce (10) Lab Report (10) Signature

55
Water Properties Table

56
 Experiment 13
Objective
To detect the relationship between power input and surface temperature in free convection
Theory
Heat transfer by simultaneous conduction and convection, whether free or forced, forms the basis
of most industrial heat exchangers and related equipment. The measurement and prediction of heat
transfer coefficients for such circumstances are achieved in the free and forced convection unit by
studying the temperature profiles and heat flux in an air duct with associated flat and extended
transfer surfaces. The vertical duct is so constructed that the air temperature and velocity can be
readily measured, and a variety of “plug-in” modules of heated solid surfaces of known dimensions
can be presented to the air stream for detailed study. A fan situated at the top of the duct provides
the air stream for forced convection experiments.

A Control Panel contains temperature measurement, power control, and fan speed control Circuits
with appropriate instrumentation. Temperature measurement, to a resolution of 1 °C is effected
using Thermocouple sensors with direct digital readout in 0C. Air velocity is measured with a
portable anemometer mounted on the duct. The power control circuit provides a continuously
variable, electrical output of 0-100 watts with a direct read-out in watts. Using the instrumentation
provided, free and forced convective heat transfer coefficients may be determined for

1) A flat surface
2) An array of cylinders (pinned heat sink)
3) An array of fins (finned heat sink)
Each module may be used independently on the bench, to establish free convection coefficients
for horizontal orientation.

Apparatus Overview

The Heat Transfer Unit consists of a vertical rectangular duct supported by a stand and a control
panel. A flat plate pinned or finned exchanger may be installed in the duct and secured by a quick-
release catch on each side. Each exchanger incorporates an electric heating element with
thermostatic protection against overheating. The temperature at the base of each exchanger is
monitored by a thermistor sensor with connecting lead. The exchanger in use may be viewed
through an acrylic window in the wall of the duct. An upward flow of air may be generated in the
duct with a variable-speed fan mounted at the top of the rectangular duct. Air velocity in the duct,
whether natural or forced, is indicated on a portable anemometer held in a bracket on the duct wall.
The anemometer sensor is inserted through the wall of the duct. Temperature sensors are provided
for the measurement of the in-going and out-going air temperatures together with the surface
temperatures of exchanger pins and fins. A digital readout indicates the temperature using a
57
thermistor probe connected to a flexible lead. These temperatures are determined by inserting the
probe through access holes in the duct wall.

A control panel incorporates a variable power regulator with a digital readout to control and
indicate power supplied to the exchanger on a test. The exchanger is connected to the panel via
the supply lead. A variable low-voltage D.C. supply is provided for the fan via the supply lead.
Power is supplied to the equipment via a supply lead connected to the control panel.

Unit Assembly

1. Air Duct 2. A frame of the unit

3. Acrylic Box 4. Test Section

5. Fan Speed controller 6. Control Panel

Procedure

1) Remove the fan assembly from the top of the duct.

2) Place the finned heat exchanger into the test duct.

58
 3) Set the heater power control to 20 Watts (clockwise).
4) Allow sufficient time to achieve steady-state conditions before noting the heated plate
temperature (TH) and ambient temperature (TA) in the table below.
5) Repeat this procedure at 40, 60, and 80 Watts.
6) Plot a graph of power against temperature (TH - TA).
Observations & Calculations

Temp. at the
Plates Temp (TH) Ambient Heater Temp. at
(TH – TA) Bottom
Input Power Time
(°C) Temp (TA) Temp. the Top
(Watts) (min) (°C) (T4)
(°C) (°C) T5 (°C)
(°C)

T1 T2 T3

20

40

60

80

Graph

Draw a graph between Temperature TH – TA (°C) and input power (watts)

59
Do it yourself?

1. Regenerative Heat Exchangers

2. Non- Regenerative Heat Exchangers

Reg. No. Lab Performance (10) Lab Report (10) Viva Voce (10) Signature

60
 Experiment 14

Objective

To detect the relationship between power input and surface temperature in forced convection

Theory

Heat transfer by simultaneous conduction and convection, whether free or forced, forms the basis
of most industrial heat exchangers and related equipment. The measurement and prediction of heat
transfer coefficients for such circumstances are achieved in the free and forced convection unit by
studying the temperature profiles and heat flux in an air duct with associated flat and extended
transfer surfaces. The vertical duct is so constructed that the air temperature and velocity can be
readily measured, and a variety of “plug-in” modules of heated solid surfaces of known dimensions
can be presented to the air stream for detailed study. A fan situated at the top of the duct provides
the air stream for forced convection experiments.

A Control Panel contains temperature measurement, power control, and fan speed control Circuits
with appropriate instrumentation. Temperature measurement, to a resolution of 1 °C is effected
using Thermocouple sensors with direct digital readout in °C. Air velocity is measured with a
portable anemometer mounted on the duct. The power control circuit provides a continuously
variable, electrical output of 0-100 watts with a direct read-out in watts. Using the instrumentation
provided, free and forced convective heat transfer coefficients may be determined for

1) A flat surface
2) An array of cylinders (pinned heat sink)
3) An array of fins (finned heat sink)
Each module may be used independently on the bench, to establish free convection coefficients
for horizontal orientation.

Apparatus Overview

The Heat Transfer Unit consists of a vertical rectangular duct supported by a stand and a control
panel. A flat plate pinned or finned exchanger may be installed in the duct and secured by a quick-
release catch on each side. Each exchanger incorporates an electric heating element with
thermostatic protection against overheating. The temperature at the base of each exchanger is
monitored by a thermistor sensor with connecting lead. The exchanger in use may be viewed
through an acrylic window in the wall of the duct. An upward flow of air may be generated in the
duct with a variable-speed fan mounted at the top of the rectangular duct. Air velocity in the duct,
whether natural or forced, is indicated on a portable anemometer held in a bracket on the duct wall.
The anemometer sensor is inserted through the wall of the duct. Temperature sensors are provided
for the measurement of the in-going and out-going air temperatures together with the surface
temperatures of exchanger pins and fins. A digital readout indicates the temperature using a
61
thermistor probe connected to a flexible lead. These temperatures are determined by inserting the
probe through access holes in the duct wall.

A control panel incorporates a variable power regulator with a digital readout to control and
indicate power supplied to the exchanger on a test. The exchanger is connected to the panel via
the supply lead. A variable low-voltage D.C. supply is provided for the fan via the supply lead.
Power is supplied to the equipment via a supply lead connected to the control panel.

Unit Assembly

1. Air Duct 2. A frame of the unit

3. Acrylic Box 4. Test Section

5. Fan Speed controller 6. Control Panel

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Procedure

1) Place the fan assembly onto the top of the duct.

2) Place the finned heat exchanger into the duct.
3) Set the heater power control to 50 Watts (clockwise). Allow sufficient time to achieve
steady-state conditions before noting the heated plate temperature (TH) and the ambient
temperature (TA).
4) Set the fan speed control to give a reading of 0.5m/s on the thermal
5) Anemometer allows sufficient time to achieve steady-state conditions. Record heated plate
temperature (TH) and ambient temperature (TA).
6) Repeat this procedure by setting the fan speed control to give 1.0m/s and 1.5m/s.
7) Plot a graph of air velocity against temperature (TH – TA)

63
 Observations & Calculations

Power Input = 50 W

Plates Temp (TH) Ambient Temp. at Temp. at

Air Velocity Time (TH – TA) Heater
(°C) Temp (TH) the Bottom the Top
(m/sec) (min) (°C) Temp.
(°C) (T4) (°C) T5 (°C)
(°C)

T1 T2 T3

0.5

1.0

1.5

Graph
Draw a graph between Temperature TH – TA (°C) and Velocity (m/sec)

64
Do it yourself?

1. Thermal radiation
2. Stefan Boltzman law
3. Heat Pipe

Reg. No. Lab Performance (10) Lab Report (10) Viva Voce (10) Signature

65