4

Wolves and Werewolves in Greek

Thought

Richard Buxton

O ne o f the most prom ising developm ents in the recent study o f

myth has been the em phasis placed on the ‘logic o f the concrete’.
T his phrase, borrowed from Levi-Strauss’s investigation o f la
pensee s a u v a g e refers to the tendency o f ‘prim itive’ forms o f classi­
fication — as deployed, for instance, in myths and rituals — to be
articulated in terms o f empirical categories (raw /cooked, wild/
tam e, in the bush/in the village, etc.) and tangible things in the
real world (honey, oak-trees, gold, etc.). In the present paper I
take the exam ple of one thing in the world — the w olf — to show
how this sort of thinking operated in ancient Greece. In section 1 . I
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exam ine a variety of contexts in which wolves appear. M y aim is to

dem onstrate how the com plex reality o f the w olf tended to be
pared down in the tradition to a small num ber o f characteristics
which were ‘good to think w ith ’ ,2 and how even writers o f a
‘scientific’ type were influenced by features o f the w olf as depicted
in m yth. In section 2. I use the specific exam ple o f the w erew olf to
indicate how Greek wolves were ‘good to think w ith’ in one par­
ticular m yth-and-ritual com plex; and I make som e more general
points about ways in which myth and ritual can be seen to com ple­
m ent and yet to contrast with each other.

1. Greek Wolves, Real and Imagined

Before m ankind’s system atic attempts to exterm inate it, the grey
w olf (canis lupus) was a trem endously widespread predator .3 In
N orth Am erica it was found coast to coast; in the Old W orld it

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 Wolves and Werewolves in Greek Thought

extended from Britain south to Spain and Portugal, east across

Europe to R ussia, C hina and Japan. In the N ew W orld grey
w olves are now virtually extinct except in Alaska: extensive use of
strychnine in the nineteenth century, and a decline in the popula­
tion of the w o lfs prey (especially caribou), have contributed
towards the decline. A com parable though less drastic sequence o f
events has occurred in Europe. By 1800 wolves were extinct in the
British Isles .4 A ccording to a major investigation published in
1975 by the International U nion for the C onservation o f Nature
and Natural R esou rces ,5 wolves are now extinct in France,
Belgium , the N etherlands, D enm ark, East and W est G erm any,
Switzerland, Austria and Hungary; virtually extinct in Finland,
Norw ay and Sweden; and endangered in Portugal, Spain, Italy,
Bulgaria, C zechoslovakia, Poland and the U S S R . T o judge by
figures for w olf kills, the population o f wolves in Greece is fairly
stable. Kills stand at about 6 0 0 - 7 0 0 per year, the bulk o f them
being in M acedonia, but som e also in Epirus, Thessaly and
Thrace. U nfortunately no reliable inference can be made about
the size o f the whole w olf population o f Greece on the basis of
figures for kills.
T he animal responsible for the decline o f the w olf is m an. W hy
this hum an hostility to the wolf? N orm ally wolves prey on large,
hoofed beasts — the ungulates: caribou, bison, antelope, deer,
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m oose, elk. W hen these are scarce the w olf turns to smaller
m am m als such as m ice and rabbits, or to m an ’s dom esticated
herds. It is the fact that since the N eolithic period man has raised
stock which has brought him into conflict with the wolf.
It is no surprise, then, that in classical antiquity we find
num erous references to the w olf as a cruel, predatory enem y.
Plutarch (Sol. 23.3) reports that ‘the A thenians were from o f old
great enem ies o f w olves, since their country was better for
pasturage than for growing crops’. So Solon introduced a law that
‘the m an who brings in a w olf is paid five drachmas; for a wolf-
cub, one drachm a ’ .6 (According to D em etrios o f Phaleron, five
drachmas was the price o f an ox, one drachma that o f a sheep.)
W olves were proverbial for cruelty; hence O restes’ words about
his own and his sister’s implacability: ‘like a raw-minded wolf, our
disposition, which we get from our m other, cannot be appeased’
(Aesch. Cho. 421 - 2 ) . Already in H om er the w olf is seen as deadly
and bloodthirsty, as in the fam ous sim ile about the M yrm idons (II.
16.156ff).
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 Wolves and Werewolves in Greek Thought

In representing wolves as cruel adversaries o f man Greek

thought was sim ply reflecting the stark fact o f the com petition
between the two species. But other qualities ascribed by Greek
tradition to wolves begin to take us away from a direct transcrip­
tion o f ‘reality’. It will be convenient to concentrate on the two
m ost prom inent qualities: wolves co-operate; and they belong
outside.
T he perception o f wolves as co-operative does far more than
sim ply reflect the existence o f wolf-packs. In a range o f historical
periods and in m any different types o f source, from the technical to
the poetical to the anecdotal, the point is developed and elabor­
ated. X enophon (Hipparch. 4.19-20) describes how, in attacking a
convoy, som e drive off the guard while others seize the plunder.
An epigram in the Palatine A nthology tells o f a traveller who
jum ped into the N ile to escape wolves: ‘but they continued the
chase through the water, each holding on by its teeth to another’s
tail. A long bridge o f w olves was formed over the stream, and the
self-taught stratagem o f the sw im m ing beasts caught the m an ’
(9.252).7 Aelian too describes how wolves co-operate at a kill
(NA 8.14), and he also has the tail story: when wolves cross a river
‘they fasten their teeth in one another’s tails . . . and swim across
without harm or danger’ (NA 3.6). T h eie is alas no reliably
recorded evidence o f w olf behaviour o f this kind — the w olf is in its
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own right a particularly powerful sw im m er .8 T he im portant thing

is that wolves were perceived as acting co-operatively.
T he tradition o f lupine co-operation is a long one. T he gram ­
marian T im otheos o f Gaza (5/6th century AD) observes in his On
Animals9 that, when two wolves coincide at a kill, ‘the shares are
eq u al ’ .10 O nce more it is instructive to consider the situation at an
actual kill. In Greece today — and it is unlikely that things were
very different in antiquity — large kills are rare, so the issue o f
sharing does not arise. (You d o n ’t share a m ouse.) W hen a large
kill is m ade, the cubs will usually be allowed in first, and thereafter
there is a definite now-equality: dom inant animals (i.e. those
highest in the ‘pecking’ order) get first go, and so on down the
line. But what is true is that there is a structured aspect to a kill, so
that the notion o f co-operation has a basis in actual behaviour.
M yth ‘clarifies’ an asym metrical order into equality.
It is a small step from the idea that wolves treat each other as
equals to the idea that wolves are all alike; and this step was also

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 Wolves and Werewolves in Greek Thought

taken in Greek belief. T hus we find in A esop (343 Perry) a story

about a battle between the dogs and the wolves. T he dog general
was unw illing to engage the enem y because they (the wolves) were
all alike, while the dogs — som e being C retan, some M olossian,
som e Thracian, not to m ention the variations in colour — were all
different. O nce more the underlying notion is that the wolves will
prove successful by virtue o f being able to co-operate more closely
than their adversaries.
Like the co-operative wolf, the w olf as outsider has a grounding
in observable reality. N ot only do wolves in general roam in areas
which seem to hum ans to be outside the confines o f hum an terri­
tory, but the lone w olf — having dropped out o f or been expelled
from a pack as a result o f w ounding in a fight or infirm ity, and
thus being a kind of outsider even am ongst a com m unity o f out­
siders — is a recognised part o f w olf ecology, known to antiquity as
to us (e.g. Aristot. HA 594a30). H ow ever, as with co-operation,
the point is developed so that the w olf becom es a powerful im age
for the m an apart from other m en. In his poem about a person in
exile Alkaios writes as follows: T live a life in the wilds, longing to
hear the agora . . . I am in exile, living on the boundary . . . here
I settled alone as a lykaimiais’ (L obel/P age 1 3 0 .1 6 -2 5 ). T he last
word is a puzzle, and the interpretation ‘a wolf-thicket m an ’ is far
from certain .11 But for an association with exile, wildness and soli­
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tariness a com pound o f lykos, ‘w o lf’, is highly appropriate .12 There

is a similar logic in Pausanias’ aetiology for the shrine o f Apollo
Lykios at Argos, according to which, when D anaos arrived as an
outsider in A rgos, he found a w olf killing the leader o f a herd o f
cattle. ‘It occurred to the A rgives that G elanor’ — D anaos’ rival
for the throne — ‘was like the bull, and D anaos like the wolf; for as
the w olf will not live with m en, so D anaos up to that tim e had not
lived with them [i.e. the A rgives]’ — because he had com e from
Egypt ( 2 .1 9 . 3 - 4 ) . 13 A nother mythical exile who had to do with
wolves was Atham as (Apollod. 1.9.2). H avin g killed his son
through H era’s m adness and been banished from Boeotia, he was
told by an oracle to dwell where he should be entertained by wild
beasts. T his he duly did when he found wolves ‘distributing
am ongst them selves portions o f sheep’. H ere a hum an settlement
replaces sharing-betw een-w olves. T hus on .the one hand wolves
prefigure hum an society: to share is to be part o f a com m unity. On
the other hand they contrast with it as barbarity contrasts with

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 Wolves and Werewolves in Greek Thought

civilisation: what they are sharing, after all, is raw m eat. T he

A tham as story neatly em braces both the principal features o f the
mythical w olf in Greece: as co-operator, it illum inates the hum an
condition by similarity; as outsider, it illum inates it by contrast .14
So far m y account has been synchronic, and has d raw n together
m aterial from a variety o f sources without differentiation on
grounds o f date or context. T o what extent do we need to m odify
that approach in view o f the evidence?
W e m ay start with the matter o f historical developm ent. T he
m ost recent scholarly treatment o f the w olf in ancient G reece, that
by C . M ainoldi, puts forward the argum ent that Greek perception
o f the w olf underwent one major change over time: from being ‘le
m odele de l ’animal fort’ in the H om eric poem s, the w olf subse­
quently becam e m arginalised as an em blem o f savagery and,
above all, o f dolos, trickery . 15 T he post-H om eric association
between the w olf and dolos is indeed certain: in Pythian 2 Pindar
expresses the wish: ‘M ay I love m y friend; but against m y enem y I
shall make a secret attack, like a wolf, treading now here now there
on m y crooked paths’ ( 8 3 -5 ) ; a Platonic letter describes a false or
tricky friendship as lykophilia (318e); A elian knows how w olves can
make up for a lack o f strength by feigning a frontal attack, darting
aside and leaping on the back o f the victim (NA 5.19); and perhaps
the w olf’s best dolos is his similarity to a dog, as stated in P lato’s
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Sophist (2 3 1 a ).16 H ow ever, not only in the Euripidean Rhesus but

also in the Iliad does the spy D olon wear a wolfskin during his
cunning night exploit (II. 10.334; Eur. Rhes. 204ff);17 and it is
hardly coincidence that O d ysseus’ grandfather, who had been
given by H erm es outstanding skill ‘in theft and in o ath ’ — the
latter on the principle that whoever has power over bonds has
power also to break them — is in the Odyssey nam ed as A uto lykos
(19.394ff). In short, the idea that trickery is a later developm ent in
the Greek im age o f the w olf seem s to me unjustified. N ot only
that: in m y view no developm ent in that im age can be isolated and
located chronologically until we reach the zoological studies o f
Aristotle.
Differentiation by context, on the other hand, is possible and
revealing. In H om eric epic the em phasis (with the exception o f the
D olon episode) is on w olves as a collectivity, fierce in the fight and
so suitable for com parison to warriors. In the field o f political
philosophy Plato characteristically uses the violent aspect o f the

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 Wolves and Werewolves in Greek Thought

w olf to think about tyranny .18 In fable the w olf appears frequently,
often with em phasis on its cunning, and often too being presented
in contrast with the d o g .19 In such contexts, and in others — for
instance the passages from Choephoroi and Pythian 2 cited earlier —
the w olf is used as a m eans for expressing som ething about hum an
behaviour. But there is another sort o f context which illustrates
even m ore strikingly just how pervasive were the patterns o f
thought em bedded in m yth. I refer to works which were explicitly
about anim als, and which we m ight variously ascribe to the cate­
gories ‘folklore’ and ‘zoo lo g y ’. As we shall see, the distinction is
not unproblem atic.
W e m ay begin with a report by Plutarch:

A ntipater in his book On Animals asserts that wolves give birth at

the tim e w hen trees that bear nuts or acorns shed their flowers:
when they eat these, their wom bs are opened. But if there is no
supply o f these flowers, their offspring die within them and
cannot see the light. M oreover those parts o f the world that are
not fertile in nut-trees or oak-trees are not troubled by wolves.
(Qu. Nat. 38)

T h is is a fine exam ple o f how Greek thought could com bine a

traditional pattern o f ideas with shrewd empirical observation.
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O ur first reaction is perhaps to find a ‘logic o f m yth ’ behind

A ntipater’s account, since there was in at least one region an
acknowledged religious link between acorns and wolves: Arcadia.
A rcadians are perceived as acorn-eaters, hence as pre-civilised ;20
Arcadians are also worshippers o f Zeus Lykaios, in whose cult
both w olves and oak-trees figure (see below); wolves are outside
civilisation, and so are associated with acorn-eaters, who are
before it. But there is sound zoology here too. W olves do indeed
share a habitat with nut- and oak-trees. G ood years for nuts and
acorns m ean plentiful supplies o f the small animals eaten by
w olves, and this plenty m eans in turn that w olves produce large
litters. But when food is scarce, there is in foxes and rabbits a
higher proportion o f aborted foetuses than in tim es o f plenty, and
it is likely that the same is true for wolves. A ntipater’s assertion
thus provides evidence for a remarkable coincidence between
traditional and em pirical m odes o f thought.
W e m ight expect a priori that if any ancient authority is going to

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privilege the em pirical against the traditional, it will be Aristotle.

A nd in som e cases we do indeed find him carefully recording data
which subsequent zoological research has corroborated: ‘poly-
dactylous quadrupeds (such as the dog, lion, wolf, fox and jackal)
all bring forth their young blind, and the eyelid does not separate
until som e tim e after birth’; ‘the penis is bony in the fox, wolf,
marten and w easel’. M ore rarely, statem ents o f a straight­
forwardly zoological kind are sim ply wrong, e.g. ‘the neck is
flexible and has a num ber o f vertebrae in all animals except the
w olf and the lion, in which the neck consists o f one bone o n ly ’ .21 In
fact all m am m als have seven bones in the neck; but, interestingly,
som e w olves suffer from severe arthritis o f the spine, and it is
possible that A ristotle’s information resulted from observation of
an anim al so afflicted — it is on general grounds not im probable
that infirm w olves offered greater opportunity for close scrutiny
than healthy ones.
In addition to findings o f the sort just m entioned, though,
Aristotle has other things to say about the wolf; and here the
m ythical representation o f the animal becom es visible once m ore.
At one point he describes it as gennaios (thorough-bred), agrios
(wild) and epiboulos (schem ing) ( Hist. An. 4 8 8 b l7 ). At another the
direction o f the enquiry seem s to be affected by the threatening
and predatory figure cut by the w olf in popular belief, when he
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tackles the m atter o f w olves eating people. But the specific contri­
bution m ade by Aristotle to this (apparently) endlessly intriguing
issue — he asserts that only lone w olves eat m en, not w olves in
packs (Hist. An. 594a30) — is zoologically plausible: the lone wolf,
which by definition lacks the support o f the pack, is likely to have
restricted access to prey, and so m ight in extrem ity have to resort
to hum an m eat .22 In fact, even where A ristotle’s zoological
researches are explicitly influenced by the m ythical tradition, what
is remarkable is the coolness o f his judgem ent:

An account is given o f the sh e-w o lf s parturition which com es

very near the fabulous [pros muthon], viz. that there are just
twelve days in the year during which all w olves bring forth their
young. T h e reason for this, they say, is found in a fable, which
alleges that it took twelve days to bring Leto from the land o f the
H yperboreans to D elos, during which tim e she had the appear­
ance o f a she-w olf because she was afraid o f H era. W hether

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twelve days really was the tim e or not has not yet been definitely
established by observation; that is merely what is asserted. (Hist.
An. 5 8 0 a l4 )

It m ay be added that the situation is identical today: we know

nothing about the exact birth-periods o f European wolves; but it is
zoologically certain that there will be a restricted period for birth,
and it is unlikely that this w ill be more than 2 - 3 weeks. As with
A ntipater’s assertion m entioned above, the coincidence between
m yth and em pirical observation is notable; and so too is the ability
o f Aristotle to set h im self apart from the tradition and to reflect
critically upon it.
A few conclusions may be drawn from the material presented in
this section. (1) Som etim es Greek perception o f the w olf directly
reflects the facts o f hum an and lupine existence: hum ans com pete
with w olves for food, so w olves appear in myth as cruel foes. (2) In
other respects traditional thought works on reality by selective
em phasis and ‘clarification’: w olves share a kill equally, they are all
alike. (3) T he tradition is not uniform: in different contexts dif­
ferent aspects o f the w olf are stressed, though within the broadly
similar im age shared by all. (4) Aristotelian zoology represents a
marked contrast to the m ythical tradition. But the distinction
between folklore and zoology is not rigid: we find excellent zoology
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in anecdote, and m ythological patterns and concerns in zoology.

2. The Werewolf of Arcadia

H avin g tried to give a general overview o f the place o f the w olf in

Greek thought, I turn now to one particular aspect o f the subject:
the cult and m yth o f the Arcadian werewolf. T his com plex o f
religious practice and b elief constitutes the single m ost striking
instance o f the w olf as ‘good to think w ith’ surviving from ancient
Greece.
W e begin with a point o f term inology. It seem s sensible to dis­
tinguish between werewolfism and lycanthropy. T he former may
be defined as the belief that people are able to turn into wolves; the
latter denotes a psychotic disorder according to which one believes
that one has oneself turned into a w olf .23 C om pared with the enor­
m ous num ber o f w erew olf and lycanthropy cases recorded for

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 Wolves and Werewolves in Greek Thought

m edieval Europe ,24 evidence for such phenom ena in antiquity is

rare. (W e are o f course at liberty to wonder how representative our
sample is, but all we can do is to operate with what information we
have.) Instances o f lycanthropy are few and late, but M arkellos o f
Side significantly reports that sufferers experienced their
sym ptom s at night (in February) and in cem eteries, i.e. in a
context rem oved both tem porally and spatially from that o f normal
life — we recall that the Petronian w erew olf m etam orphosed by
m oonlight and on a road beside som e grave-m arkers .25 Stories o f
ancient w erew olf belief are again scarce, although there is this time
a certain am ount o f material from Greece. O nce more we should
note the typical geographical rem oteness, as with the N euri,
adjacent to the Scythians in H erodotos’ narrative: ‘T he Scythians,
and the Greeks settled in Scythia, say that once a year every one o f
the N euri is turned into a wolf, and after rem aining so for a few
days returns again to his former shape’ (H dt. 4.105). That the
N euri are located by H erodotos next to the A ndrophagi is wholly
logical : in accordance with a pattern o f thought com m on in Greece
and in a vast num ber o f other cultures, marginal peoples are per­
ceived as behaving in ways inverse to those favoured by the
‘central’ p eop le .26 W hether the story about the N euri is entirely a
product of this sort of inverse projection, or whether an actual
ritual lies behind it, is im possible to decide; but the existence o f an
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initiatory rite de passage is perfectly plausible, either on the assum p­

tion that the participants literally adopted w olf-disguise ,27 or on
the view that one who temporarily withdraws ‘ou tside’ is m eta­
phorically wolfish.
T h e Neuri were outside, but the Arcadians were before — in
fact, before the m oon, proselenoi;28 and Arcadia was the location of
the w erew olf cult best known to us from the Greek world. Even
today M ount Lykaion has a rem ote and slightly eerie beauty; how
m uch more eerie in antiquity since, so it was said, a rite o f canni­
balism was practised there. Pausanias refuses to discuss it (8.38.7);
but Plato speaks of a rite in which hum an innards are m ixed with
parts o f other anim als, and the person who tastes the hum an must
turn into a w olf {Rep. 565d). O ne does not need to go all the way
with A rens’ ultra-sceptical approach to anthropophagy 29 to be
doubtful about at least some reports o f institutionalised canni­
balism: as Servius puts it, ‘in sacred rites that which is sim ulated is
accepted as reality’ (on Aen. 2.116). W hen K ourouniotis dug the

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 Wolves and Werewolves in Greek Thought

site at the beginning o f this century he found no hum an b on es ,30

and, as W alter Burkert has pointed out, only a very few people are
going to know exactly what is in the casserole — the rest is sugges­
tion .31 But m ore profitable than speculation about the precise
contents o f the cauldron is som e consideration o f the sym bolism
and social context o f the ritual. And here we do get a clue from
Pausanias, who reports:

T h ey say that ever since the tim e o f Lykaon a man was always
turned into a w olf at the sacrifice to Lykaian Zeus — but not for
his whole life; because if he kept off hum an flesh when he was a
wolf, he turned back into a m an after nine years; if he tasted
hum an flesh, he stayed a wild beast for ever. ( 8 . 2 . 6 )

T he w olf stands for one who by his behaviour has set him self
beyond hum anity: so m uch is clear. But why did the Greeks enact
this cerem ony of ritual exclusion? Before we can attempt an
answer we m ust consider a ritual which sounds remarkably similar
to the Lykaion cerem ony. Pliny the Elder reports that, according
to the Arcadians, a m em ber o f the family o f A nthos was chosen by
lot, left all his clothes on an oak-tree, swam across a pool, went
away ‘into a deserted area’, and turned into a wolf. After nine
years, provided he had eaten no hum an m eat, he swam back
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across the pool, took up his clothes, and resumed hum an shape
(N H 8.81). A similar version is given by A ugustine (citing Varro),
though he refers m ore vaguely to ‘the A rcadians’ instead o f to a
specific family (Civ. Dei 18.17). T w o questions present themselves:
(1) H ow do we interpret the ritual described by Pliny? (2) H ow
does it relate to the cerem ony m entioned by Pausanias and Plato?

(1) P lin y’s ritual centres on two sym bolic gestures: stripping,
and crossing water. Both mark the transition from inside to out­
side, hum an to anim al. Stripping is associated with animal m eta­
m orphosis both in antiquity and later. Pam phile and Lucius in The
Golden Ass strip before their m etam orphoses take place (3 .2 1 ,2 4 ).
T he w erew olf in Petronius rem oves his clothes before changing
shape; and the crucial im portance o f the clothes for the transition is
indicated by the fact that the w erew olf ‘fixes’ them by urinating
around them , after which they turn to stone (62). N um erous
m edieval w erew olf legends confirm the role o f clothes as

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 Wolves and Werewolves in Greek Thought

boundary-m arker, as in M arie de France’s lay Bisclavret. A Breton

lord changes into a w olf three days a week; before doing so he
rem oves his clothes, without which he is deprived o f the m eans of
transition back to hum anity. H is wife and her lover steal his
clothes, but eventually the lord is able to recover them , and with
them his hum an form .32
W ater is another boundary between the hum an and wolfish
states. O nce m ore there are m edieval parallels: in 1580 Jean Bodin
recorded a story, set in L ivonia, in which crossing water is a pre­
lude to m etam orphosis (o f twelve days’ duration) into wolfish
form .33 O ne all-too-com m on reductionist tactic is to link such
phenom ena to the fact that rabies — a supposed ‘origin ’ o f were­
w olf belief — is characterised by hydrophobia: water thus quite
literally marks a barrier between man and w erew olf ( = rabies
victim ).34 But such a realist approach gets us nowhere in our
attempt to understand the sym bolic role o f the supposed ‘sym p­
tom ’ in its ritual con text .35 M ore plausibly one might regard the
Arcadian pool in a wholly content-free way as sim ply a boundary
between inside and outside; but that would be to ignore the place
o f water in general, and bathing in particular, in Greek cu lt .36
W ashing or bathing in water from a spring is an elem ent in several
important Greek rites de passage. After death the corpse was
stripped, washed and dressed in new robes as a prelude to being
Copyright © 2013. Taylor & Francis Group. All rights reserved.

‘carried o u t’; before m aking the transition back to normal life the
m ourners would them selves bathe. After a birth, m other and child
would bathe as a part o f the return to norm ality. Bride and groom
bathed before the marriage cerem ony. W7ashing, and som etim es
bathing and changing o f clothes, was required before the perfor­
m ance o f prayer or sacrifice, and preceded other forms o f access to
the sacred such as prophecy, incubation, and initiation into the
m ysteries .37 T h us crossing the boundary between sacred and non-
sacred space, and between sacred and non-sacred periods o f tim e,
is regularly accom panied by bathing. In one way the relevance o f
this to P lin y’s Arcadian ritual is clear enough, since entering and
leaving a sacred space is clearly part o f the sym bolic drama. But if
the ritual as a whole is a rite de passage, then bathing becom es that
m uch more appropriate .38
In recent years a good deal o f attention has been directed
towards rituals o f transition in ancient Greece. In particular there
have been investigations into the presence o f initiation rituals — or

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 Wolves and Werewolves in Greek Thought

survivals o f them — in archaic and later Greek culture .39 Fruitful

though much o f this work has proved, there has been an occasional
tendency to exaggerate the explanatory value o f initiation. It may
therefore be worth spelling out that som e rituals — consulting an
oracle, for instance — were self-evidently not initiatory, while
others — such as the cerem onies surrounding birth, marriage and
death — certainly shared with initiation rituals the pattern o f
separation/m arginalisation/reintegration but were equally cer­
tainly not initiatory in the way that, say, the ephebeia was. Yet in
spite o f those reservations it seem s to m e likely that the ritual
described by Pliny was indeed initiatory; at least, the evidence we
have is com patible with such a hypothesis. A m an — probably, as
we shall see, a young m an — underwent a rite o f separation, left
society and becam e tem porarily a non-person, subsequently
returned and, after a rite o f reintegration, rejoined the com ­
m unity, presum ably with a different (? adult) status. T he negative
im agery (wolf; in the wilds) characterising the lim inal period is just
what we should expect, given the anthropological parallels .40 O ne
aspect o f the sym bolism is particularly interesting: abstention from
hum an m eat. T h e ‘w o lf must retain one link with hum anity if his
eventual return is to be possible.

(2) T here are obvious sim ilarities with the Lykaion ritual: the
Copyright © 2013. Taylor & Francis Group. All rights reserved.

avoidance o f hum an m eat, the m etam orphosis into a wolf, the

period o f nine years. At the very least Pausanias and Pliny were
reporting rituals which shared som e o f the sam e sym bols. But were
they relating different aspects o f the same ritual ?41 Perhaps the
most persuasive account is that o f Burkert, according to w hom the
Plinian version reflects a w atered-dow n, ‘civilised’ form o f the
ritual which becam e confined to a single conservative fam ily .42 O n
this view we should im agine an earlier situation in archaic Greece
in which a w hole age-group o f young m en were initiated into
A rcadian adult society. Before they becam e fully-fledged citizens
they were obliged to undergo a period o f separation from society as
‘w olves’, i.e. outsiders. W hen they reached the age o f full social
adulthood they becam e true descendants o f Arkas, ‘T h e Bear’ —
Pausanias conveniently tells us that Arcadian warriors wore the
skins o f two anim als, the w olf and the bear (4 .1 1 .3 ). Supporting
the initiation hypothesis is the story (recorded by Pausanias, Pliny
and A ugustine )43 o f an Arcadian who returned after a nine-year

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 Wolves and Werewolves in Greek Thought

lupine absence to win the O lym pic boxing event: it was surely a
young man who went into the wilds.
T h e only problem with this interpretation seem s to m e the nine
years. W e could o f course take it as m erely sym bolic o f ‘a period o f
tim e’, and leave the matter at that .44 But if we take it at face value,
and if we see the ritual as applying, at least originally, to a whole
age-group o f young m en, then we have to give a reasonable answer
to the question, ‘W hat were they doing for nine years?’ — nine
years o f ‘das Leben als “ W olfe” in der W ild n is ’ .45 It is not quite
the sam e as w ithdrawing to the young m en ’s huts for a spell o f a
couple o f m onths before rejoining the tribe .46 If we want to regard
the Lykaion ritual as being originally an initiation cerem ony for an
entire age-group then we have to be sceptical about those nine
years, at least until they are explained in a way which m akes sense
in relation to the real life o f a historical Arcadian com m un ity .47 In
any case it is unwise to be too dogm atic about what happened on
M ount Lykaion. W e know, for instance, o f a ritual there con­
nected with m aking rain ;48 we know also that the opposition
sunlight/shadow was im portant ;49 and it is difficult, and probably
m isleading, to try to incorporate all this m aterial into a single
ritual com plex. But if we retain the idea o f an initiatory rite o f
passage we have at least a very plausible hypothesis for under­
standing the logic of the central w erew olf cerem ony.
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W e have not yet finished with M ount Lykaion, for associated

with it there was a m yth. T he most dram atically exciting account
o f Lykaon is in O v id ’s Metamorphoses Book 1, but the m ost sugges­
tive from the m ythological point o f view is in Pausanias ( 8 .1 - 2 ) .
According to his version, L ykaon’s father was Pelasgos, the first
m an who lived in Arcadia. Pelasgos introduced certain aspects o f
civilisation: shelters against the elem ents and clothing m ade from
sheepskins. M oreover he stopped his subjects eating leaves, grass
and roots, and introduced them instead to acorns. Lykaon con­
tinued the civilising process by founding a city and instituting
gam es in honour o f Zeus. At that tim e, because o f their justice and
piety, m en ate at the sam e table as the gods. But Lykaon carried
out the sacrifice o f a child on Z eus’ altar on M ount Lykaion; as a
consequence he was turned into a wolf.
O n e way o f com ing to grips with the Greek m yths is to identify
recurrent them es, and so to observe what Greeks felt to be im por­
tant. A major them e in the Lykaon m yth is the im portance o f

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 Wolves and Werewolves in Greek Thought

m aintaining proper relationships with the gods, and the dangers of

not so doing. C ountless other m yths make a similar point: punish­
m ent follows all kinds o f transgression against the gods, from
failure to honour them (H ippolytos, Pentheus) to ill-advised
rivalry (Arachne, M arsyas) to figurative or real violation
(Aktaion, T eiresias, Ixion). M ore specifically, the Lykaon myth
narrates the consequences o f abusing hospitality, and here it
resem bles the story o f Tantalos, another who was host to the gods
at a cannibalistic feast. But Lykaon is a bringer o f culture as well as
a crim inal, and the whole narrative in Pausanias is from another
point o f view the story o f the origins o f civilisation in Arcadia: after
relating what Pelasgos and Lykaon did he tells us that one of
L ykaon’s descendants, Arkas, will invent agriculture, bread-
m aking and w eaving (8 .4 .1 ). H ow ever, the m yth also makes clear
that h um anity’s cultural progress is not unalloyed: part and parcel
o f the hum an condition as we know it is that we no longer eat with
the gods.
There is a close analogy with H esio d ’s account o f what hap­
pened at M ekone, where Prom etheus’ attempted deception of
Zeus resulted in a definitive end to the com m ensality o f m en and
gods ( Theog. 535ff). But the difference is as striking as the sim i­
larity: in the Lykaon story the rupture between men and gods is
far more drastic. T his becom es evident if we look at som e o f the
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variants — another fruitful way o f uncovering the logic o f myth.

A ccording to A pollodoros L ykaon’s sons are the guilty ones, and
they (except the youngest) and their father are thunderbolted
(3.8); while H yginus speaks o f Lykaon turning into a w olf and his
sons being thunderbolted (176). T he im plications o f the equiva­
lence between thunderbolting and m etam orphosis into a w olf have
been drawn by B orgeaud .50 In the case o f thunderbolting, Z eus’
power is com pletely m anifested (cf. the fate o f Sem ele); in the case
o f m etam orphosis, the guilty party is not sim ply banished from
Z eus’ table, he is banished into anim ality. C oupling the two
versions we arrive at a doubly radical break between men and god:
m en recede below hum anity, go d ’s divinity is unanswerably
affirmed. O nly in future generations will hum an/divine relations
be on a firmer footing — at a more respectful distance.
A nother significant them e is the m etam orphosis itself .51 N ot
only is Lykaon like a wolf, he is, perm anently, a wolf. H ere again
is an enorm ously com m on pattern in Greek myth: a departure

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 Wolves and Werewolves in Greek Thought

from the norm — often a transgression — is fixed for ever by a

change into a non-hum an state, frequently one (as with Lykaon)
appropriate to the nature o f the transgression or abnorm ality .52
Furtherm ore the fact that in the Lykaon myth (as usual in Greek
m etam orphoses) it is a god who effects the alteration is worth
bearing in m ind if the analogy between classical and m edieval
w erew olves threatens to becom e too insistent. In both cultures to
be a w olf signifies that one has forfeited hum anity and is obliged to
lead an ‘ou tside’ existence. But the m edieval werewolf, perceived
as being able to change his shape from the G od-given hum an form
with which he started, is typically represented as having that power
thanks to dem onic assistance. T h e conceptual background to
m edieval werewolfism is C hristianity .53
A ny Greek m yth should be responsive to an enquiry into its
them es. But som e m yths, thanks to the accidents o f survival and
the character o f the stories them selves, m ay take on added signifi­
cance when seen in juxtaposition with a ritual. T his is undeniably
the case with the m yth in question here, which exists in a virtually
sym biotic relationship with the w erew olf cerem ony o f M ount
Lykaion. O n the one hand the m yth ‘confirm s’ the ritual, giving it
greater resonance. Each tim e a man leaves the sanctuary to
becom e a wolf, that m an in a sense is Lykaon: in virtue o f the con ­
clusive banishm ent originally experienced by Lykaon, the
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exclusion dram atised in the ritual is that m uch more intense (or so
we m ay surm ise — the em otions involved in a ritual are hard
enough to assess in a contem porary context, let alone in one
sketchily known from antiquity). O n the other hand m yth and
ritual are contrasting sym bolic languages, the one tending to make
explicit and absolute that which the other leaves implicit and
tem porary. T h us the m etam orphosis o f Lykaon is perm anent,
w hile the exclusion dram atised in the ritual is tem porary and
reversible. O n e m ay note the parallel with the scapegoat: in myth
the designated individual is killed; in ritual m erely exp elled .54

A Modern Postscript

At certain points in this paper I have discussed the far from sim ple
relationship obtaining between traditions about and em pirical
observation o f the w olf in Greek antiquity. M y invoking o f

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 Wolves and Werewolves in Greek Thought

modern zoology as a control on some o f the ancient data may have

created an impression that nowadays we have an accurate and
tradition-free picture of the wolf. It is true that in this century the
.

science of ethology has made quite extraordinary strides; and

studies of wolf behaviour are no exception to this generalisation.55
But knowledge of such matters is very thinly diffused. In the
industrialised W est, at any rate, the wolf is present largely as a
residual folklore image. And in the mind as in terms of actual
population it seems to be on the decline: in urban folklore, as the
motorway has replaced the forest as the location of danger, so the
phantom hitchhiker threatens to oust the werewolf.56 But the con­
tinuing popularity of werewolf films and literature57 perhaps
suggests that this beast remains good to think with, since it calls
into question the boundary between human and ‘bestial’ . Even
ordinary wolves still cause public and media terror if they get out
of place. Above all there remains a fascination — the lupine
equivalent of the debate over cannibalism — with the question,
‘Do wolves make unprovoked attacks on human beings?’ 58 The
evidence seems in fact to be that, while rabid wolves will indeed run
amok and bite at random, normally wolves are too terrified of man
to attack even when hungry. It is o f course hard to substantiate
this, since it is often impossible to decide whether any given report,
particularly if it is not contemporary, involves a rabid or a non-
Copyright © 2013. Taylor & Francis Group. All rights reserved.

rabid wolf; and, to add to the confusion, feral dogs can easily be
mistaken for wolves.59 In any case, such cool evaluations of the
evidence seem flimsy when confronted with a powerful folklore
image. W hether that image will diminish or grow when all the real
wolves have been exterminated is beyond even guesswork.60

Notes

1. C . Levi-Strau ss, The Savage M ind (E n g . tr ., London, 1966).

2. O n the pedigree o f this expression see G . E. R . Lloyd, Science, Folklore and
Ideology (C am b rid ge, 1983) 8 , n 7.
3. For general discussions see L . D . M ech , The W olf: The Ecology and Behavior of.
an Endangered Species (New Y o rk , 1970) and E. Zim en, The Wolf: H is Place in the
Natural World (E n g . tr ., London, 1981).
4. C f. A. D en t, Lost Beasts o f Britain (L ond on, 1974) 9 9 - 134.
5. Wolves, ed. D . H . Pim lott (M orges, 1975).
6. R ew ards offered in late eighteenth-century France are set out in A. M olinier
and N. M o lin ier-M ey er, ‘ Environnem ent et histoire: les loups et l’hom m e en

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 Wolves and Werewolves in Greek Thought

France’ , Rev. d ’hist. mod. et con tem p., 2 8 (1981) 225-45, at 228; this is the only
serious attempt known to me which offers a historical ecology of the wolf in a
particular region. Bounties of £5 per head in Cromwellian Ireland: C. Fitzgibbon,
R e d H an d: The U lster Colony (London, 1971) 37.
7. Here and several times elsewhere I have followed or adapted the Loeb
translation.
8. For advice on all matters of wolf biology and behaviour mentioned in this
article I am indebted to Dr S. Harris of the Department of Zoology at Bristol
University.
9. M. Haupt, ‘Excerpta ex Timothei Gazaei libris de animalibus’ , H erm es, 3
(1869) 8, lines 27-9.
10. See M. Detienne and J. Svenbro, ‘Les loups au festin ou la cite impossible’ ,
in M. Detienne and J.-P. Vernant, L a Cuisine du sacrifice en p a ys grec (Paris, 1979)
215-37, on the parallel with ‘isonomic’ distribution between hoplites.
11. See D. L. Page, Sappho an d Alcaeus (Oxford, 1955) 205-6.
12. Connection between wolf and outlaw: Harry A. Senn, W ere-w o lf an d Vampire
in R om ania (New York, 1982) 16, and J. Bremmer, ‘The suodales of Poplios
Valesios’ , Z P E , 4 7 (1982) 133-47, at 141, n 35 (bibliog.).
13. On this passage see C. Mainoldi, L ’Image du loup et du chien dans la Grece
ancienne d ’Homere a Platon (Paris, 1984) 25-6. (Mainoldi’s study is careful and
extremely interesting.) Apollo Lyk(e)ios: F. Graf, Nordionische K u lte (Rome, 1985)
220- 6.
14. We may recall that the origins of Rome were perceived as lying with a
renegade band of young men, led by the foster-children of the she-wolf — outsiders
in co-operation; cf. A. Alfoldi, D ie Struktur des voretruskischen Rom erstaates
(Heidelberg, 1974), esp. 119-33.
15. Mainoldi, L T m a g e, 97- 103, 127.
16. Wolves and dogs similar: cf. also Diod. Sic. 1.88.6. But the perceived
relation between the two is complex and ambiguous. Although dog can be seen to
stand to wolf as tame to wild, the tameness of dogs is problematic. On the one
hand, they protect human civilisation by warding off wild beasts, and are domesti­
Copyright © 2013. Taylor & Francis Group. All rights reserved.

cated to the extent of being regularly eaten (cf. N.-G. Gejvall, Lerna, vol. 1, The
Fauna (Princeton, 1969) 14- 18). On the other hand, dogs are potential killers and
may threaten man (n.b. Aktaion). On dogs see H. H. Scholz, D er H u n d in der
griechisch-rdmischen M agie und R eligion (Berlin, 1937); R. H. A. Merlen, D e Canibus:
D og and H ou n d in A n tiqu ity (London, 1971); N. J. Zaganiaris, ‘Le chien dans la
mythologie et la litterature greco-latines’ , Platon, 3 2 (1980) 52-87; Mainoldi,
L T m age. N.b. also T. Ziolkowski, Varieties o f Literary Them atics (Princeton, 1983)
Ch. 3 (‘Talking dogs: the caninization of literature’); and, for a brilliant analysis
of a medieval cult and leeend, I.-C. Schmitt, The H o ly Greyhound (Ene. tr.,
Cambridge, 1983).
17. Dolon the wolf: L. Gernet, The A nthropology o f Ancient Greece (Eng. tr.,
Baltimore, 1981) 125-39; F. Lissarrague, ‘ Iconographie de Dolon le loup’ , Rev.
Arch. (1980) 3-30. The attempt by Mainoldi, L T m a g e, 20, to explain away the
wolf/trickery link in the Doloneia is unconvincing.
18. E.g. R ep. 416a, 565e-66a; Phaedo 82a. Cf. Mainoldi, L T m a g e, 187-200,
and D. Lanza, 11 tiranno e il suo pubblico (Turin, 1977) 65-7.
19. List of references given by Mainoldi, L T m a g e, 209-10, n 12.
20. Cf. P. Borgeaud, Recherches sur le dieu Pan (Rome, 1979) 30-2.
21. Aristotelian references: Gen. An. 742a8 (eyelid); H ist. A n. 500b23 (penis);
Part. A n . 686a21 (neck); translations adapted from Loeb.
22. But see postscript.
23. Lycanthropy is not unknown to modern psychiatry, although it is very rare:

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see H. A. Rosenstock and K. R. Vincent, ‘A case of lycanthropy’ , A m . Journ.

P sychiatry , 1 3 4 : 10 (Oct. 1977) 1147-9.
24. G. Ronay, The D racula M yth (London, 1972) 15, gives a figure of 30,000
cases of lycanthropy investigated by the Roman Church between 1520 and the
mid-seventeenth century. On werewolf belief in early modern Europe see L. Harf-
Lancner, ‘ La metamorphose illusoire: des theories chretiennes de la
metamorphose aux images medievales du loup-garou’, Annales E S C , 4 0 (1985)
208-26. M. Summers, The W erew olf (London, 1933), may still be consulted,
though with great circumspection.
25. Galen, On M elancholy, ed. Kuhn, X IX , 719; text of Markellos in W. H.
Roscher, ‘Das von der “ Kynanthropie” handelnde Fragment des Marcellus von
Side’ , Ahh. der K on igl. Sachs. Ges. W is s ., phil.-hist. Cl., 17 (Leipzig, 1897)79-81.
Ancient lycanthropy: G. Piccaluga, Lykaon: un tema mitico (Rome, 1968)60ff; M.
Ullmann, ‘Der Werwolf. Ein griechisches Sagenmotiv in arabischer Verkleidung’ ,
W iener Zs. f . die K u n de des M orgenlandes, 6 8 (1976) 171 -84; Burkert, H N , 89 with
n 28. Burkert rightly states that lycanthropy is culturally determined, but his view
that it ‘no longer plays a role in modern psychiatry’ needs rephrasing as ‘a
significant role’ ; cf. my n 23. Petronius: Satyr. 61-2.
26. Cf. T. E. J. Wiedemann, ‘Between men and beasts: barbarians in
Ammianus Marcellinus’ , in Past Perspectives, ed. I. S. Moxon, J. D. Smart and
A. J. Woodman (Cambridge, 1986) 189-201. On the ‘other’ in Herodotos see F.
Hartog, L e M iro ir d ’Herodote (Paris, 1980); on perceived cultural differences
between ‘same’ and ‘other’ see T. Todorov, L a Conquete de I'Amerique (Paris, 1982).
27. Cf. K. Meuli, G esammelte Schriften (Basle, 1975), vol. 1, 160.
28. See Borgeaud, Recherches , 19-23.
29. W. Arens, The M a n -E a tin g M yth (New York, 1979).
30. E ph. Arch. (1904) 153-214, at 169. More on the excavation at Eph. Arch.
(1905) 161-78; Praktika (1909) 185-200.
31. Burkert, H N , 90.
32. Bisclavret: S. Battaglia, ‘II mito del licantropo nel Bisclavret di Maria di
Francia’ in his L a coscienza letteraria del medioevo (Naples, 1965) 361-89; M.
Copyright © 2013. Taylor & Francis Group. All rights reserved.

Bambeck, ‘Das Werwolfmotiv im B isclavret1, Zeitschr. f . Rom an. P h ilo l., 8 9 (1973)
123-47; F. Suard, ‘ Bisclauret [57V] et les contes du loup-garou: essai d’interpreta-
tion’ , in M elanges . . . offerts a Ch. Foulon, vol. II (Liege, 1980) 267-76.
33. D e la demonomanie des sorciers (Paris, 1580) 99.
34. For the werewolf-rabies equation see Ch. 12 of I. Woodward’s lurid book
The W erew olf D elusion (New York, 1979).
35. Equally beside the point is the attempt to explain the religious phenomenon
of werewolfism by reference to iron-deficiency porphyria (N ew Scientist, 28 Oct.
1982, 244-5). One may compare C. Ginzburg, The N igh t Battles (Eng. tr.,
London, 1983) 18, on the need to explain the beliefs of the Friulian benandanti ‘on
the basis of the history of popular religiosity not on that of pharmacology 01
psychiatry’ .
36. See M. Ninck, Die Bedeutung des W assers im K u lt und Leben der A lten , Philologus
Supplbd. 14.2 (Leipzig, 1921) 148ff, for the role of water in mythical
metamorphoses.
37. Death: R. Ginouves, Balaneutike (Paris, 1962) 239-64; R. Parker, M ia sm a
(Oxford, 1983) 35-6. Birth: Ginouves 235-8; Parker, 50-1. Marriage:
Ginouves, 265-82. Prayer, sacrifice: Ginouves, 311-18. Prophecy, incubation:
Ginouves, 327-73. Mysteries: Ginouves, 375-404.
38. There is a striking parallel with the rite of adult baptism in the early
Church. Many fonts had three steps leading down from one side and three steps
leading up out of the other side: the initiate thus crossed the font. (See. A.

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Khatchatrian, Les Baptisteres paleochretiens (Paris, 1962) nos. 83, 136, 194, 270 and
371.) The going down into the font was regarded as equivalent to Christ being
placed in the tomb, and the going up out of it was interpreted in terms of resurrec­
tion (e.g. Ambrose de Sacr. 3.1.2; cf. J. G. Davies, The Architectural Setting o f B aptism
(London, 1962) 22-3).
39. The major anthropological influence is A. van Gennep, Les R ites de passage
(Paris, 1909), with important amplification by V. Turner, The Forest o f Symbols
(Ithaca, 1967) 93-111. On Greece see H. Jeanmaire, Couroi et Couretes (Lille,
1939); A. Brelich, Paides e Parthenoi { Rome, 1969); J. Bremmer, ‘ Heroes, rituals
and the Trojan War’ , S tu di S torico-R el ., 2 (1978) 5-38; Burkert, G R , 260-4.
40. See Turner, Forest, esp. 96.
41. For the different views see Mainoldi, L ’Image, 31, n 11.
42. Burkert, H N , 88.
43. Paus. 6.8.2; Pliny 8.82; Aug. C iv. D e i 18.17.
44. Seven years as wolf: Giraldus Cambrensis, Topographia Hibernica 2.19; one
year: The M abin ogion , tr. J. Gantz (Harmondsworth, 1976) 105. Nine years as a
transitional period: Felix’s L ife o f Saint G uthlac, ed. B. Colgrave (Cambridge, 1956)
Ch. 18. Compare also Homeric ‘for nine days . . . but on the tenth . . .’ : Lex. des
fruhgr. E pos s.v. ennea, ennemar, N .J. Richardson, The H om eric H ym n to Demeter
(Oxford, 1974) 165-6.
45. Burkert, orig. edn of H om o Necans (Berlin, 1972) 105.
46. See B. Sergent, L ’H om osexualite dans la mythologie grecque (Paris, 1984) 51-2,
on two months as a common period for initiatory withdrawal.
47. Cf. J. Z. Smith, Im agining R eligion (Chicago, 1982) 60- 1, on the need not to
abandon ‘our sense of incredulity, our estimate of plausibility’ , in such matters.
48. Paus. 8.38.4. Piccaluga, L ykaon, interprets the entire cult activity on
Lykaion in terms of drought/water: the first item in her subject index is ‘acqua:
p a s sim ’ . But her desire to unify the heterogeneous data is over-zealous.
49. According to Pausanias (8.38.6) no person could enter the precinct of Zeus
Lykaios on normal, i.e. non-sacred occasions. If anyone, man or beast, did enter,
he cast no shadow — in other words, ceased to be alive. (A variant also recorded by
Copyright © 2013. Taylor & Francis Group. All rights reserved.

Pausanias makes this explicit: a person entering dies within a year.) Polybius
(16.12.7) and Plutarch (Q u. Gr. 39) confirm the shadow story. Evidently it marks
in an emphatic way the inside-sanctuary/outside-sanctuary boundary. But is there
more to it than that? In front of the altar of Zeus there were two pillars ‘towards the
rising sun’ , with gilded eagles upon them (Paus. 8.38.7). The detail is enigmatic
and, given the state of our knowledge, the sunlight, like the rain, must remain
peripheral to our reading of the werewolf rite.
50. Borgeaud, Recherches, 45-7.
51. On this see in general the Bude edition of Antoninus Liberalis,
M etam orphoses , by M. Papathomopoulos (Paris, 1968), and G. K. Gal insky, O v id ’s
‘M etam orph oses’ (Oxford, 1975).
52. Some examples in J H S , 700(1980), 30-5.
53. Augustine (C iv . D e i 18.18) ascribes all metamorphoses to demons, whohave
no power of creation but who change in appearance things created by God. Onphilo­
sophical disputes about the status of metamorphosis in medieval times see Ch. 2 of
Summers The W erew olf ; and cf. G. Ortalli, ‘Natura, storia e mitografia del lupo nel
Medioevo’ , L a C ultura, 11 (1973) 257-311, at 286f.
54. Cf. J. Bremmer, ‘Scapegoat rituals in ancient Greece’ , HSCP, 8 7 (1983)
299-320, at 315-18.
55. Cf. works referred to in notes 3 and 5.
56. SeeJ. H. Brunvand, The Vanishing Hitchhiker (New York, 1981).
57. See T. Gerhardt, ‘Der Werwolf im Groschenroman’ , Kieler Blatter zur

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 Wolves and Werewolves in Greek Thought

Volk.skun.de,9 (1977) 41 -54.

58. Respectable scholars take the matter up eagerly. Eduard Fraenkel, Horace
(Oxford, 1957), put in a stop-press footnote: ‘ I can now add that during the
exceptional cold spell of February 1956 a postman was attacked and eaten by
wolves . . . in the immediate neighbourhood of Horace’s farm' (186, n 3). Peter
Levi repeats the topos in the Penguin translation of Pausanias (Harmondsworth,
1971) 324, n 115.
59. Molinier and Molinier-Meyer, Environnement et histoire, analyse 45 attacks by
wolves on humans between 1797 and 1817 in six French departements. Their
guarded conclusion is that non-rabid wolves would attack children, especially
those looking after flocks. Less often, adults were attacked; and, according to these
authors, the attackers were not always rabid. But all adults fatally wounded or
‘partiellement devores’ were victims of rabid wolves. The authors estimate statis­
tically that the rabid wolf is twenty times more dangerous than the non-rabid wolf.
60. Versions of this paper have been read at Ioannina, Bristol, Oxford,
Swansea and at an annual meeting of the Classical Association at Nottingham. I
am indebted to the many colleagues who offered advice and criticism on each of
these occasions. I am also most grateful for help received from don Renato De
Vido, Professor J. G. Davies, and the editor of this volume.
Copyright © 2013. Taylor & Francis Group. All rights reserved.

79 revivals). Taylor & Francis Group.

Bremmer, J. N. (2013). Interpretations of greek mythology (routledge
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