Applied Aerodynamics

AIRCRAFT AND PARTS

AERODYNAMICS

 Two Greek words: aerios, concerning the air and dynamis, which means force.

 Aerodynamics is the study of forces and the resulting motion of objects through the air.

 Humans have been interested in aerodynamics and flying for thousands of years, although flying
in a heavier-than-air machine has been possible only in the last hundred years.

TYPES OF AIRCRAFT

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AIRCRAFT CONTROLS

Primary Control Surfaces.

 Aileron.

 Elevator.

 Rudder.

Secondary Control Surfaces.

 Slat (Auxiliary Aerofoil).

 Flap.

 Air Brake.

BASIC STRUCTURE OF AN AIRCRAFT

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AIRCRAFT CONTROLS

ATMOSPHERE

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BASIC ELEMENTS OF ATMOSPHERE

ELEMENTS OF ATMOSPHERE TEMP VS HEIGHT

DENSITY VS HEIGHT

PRESSURE VS HEIGHT

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A. TEMPERATURE : Altitude increase, temp falls initially at a steady state. After a certain height,
temp remains const with further increase in altitude. The range of altitudes within which the
temp falls steady is called troposphere. The point at which the temp ceases to fall is called
tropopause (approx over 11 km). The region where temp remains const is called stratosphere
(approx upto 30 km). Above stratosphere, the temp raises again.

 PRESSURE. Pressure falls steadily with increasing altitude.

• DENSITY. Density also falls as altitude increases but less rapidly than pressure.

• COEFFICIENT OF VISCOSITY. The coefficient of viscosity depends only on its temp and
decreases with temp.

• KINEMATIC VISCOSITY. Same as coefficient of viscosity.

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• SPEED OF SOUND. It depends on temp and proportional to the square root of the absolute
temp. (340 m/s).

AIR SPEED AND GROUND SPEED

Air Speed. The speed at which a body moves through the air or at which the air moves past a body
is called the air speed.

Ground Speed. The speed at which a body moves over the ground is called the ground speed.

LOCAL AND FREE STREAM CHARACTERISTICS

 When aircraft moves through stationary mass of air, it disturbs the air of atmosphere.

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 At a large distance from the aircraft (ahead or behind), where the properties of air is similar
with the International Standard Atmosphere and the flow is unaffected by the presence of the
aircraft is called the free stream characteristics.

 In the vicinity of the aircraft, the air flow properties are very much affected which would be
dissimilar than the properties as per International Standard Atmosphere. The changed
properties of air near the vicinity of aircraft is called the local stream characteristics.

ATMOSPHERIC LAYERS

A. TROPOSPHERE. 25,000 to 54,000 ft altitude. Manned flights are confined within this region.
Temp decreases with the increase of altitude.

B. STRATOSPHERE. Up to 100,000ft from troposphere. Temp remains const.

C. MESOSPHERE. Up to 250,000 ft from Stratosphere.

D. THERMOSPHERE. Up to 2,640,000 ft from Mesosphere.

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NOTE: The ionosphere is a region covering parts of mesosphere and part of thermosphere.

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Applied Aerodynamics
THEOREMS
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
PARAMETER DESCRIPTION DIMENSION
UNIT AND DIMENSION
MASS - M
UNIT. It is the quantity of
measurement. LENGTH - L

DIMENSION. It is a TIME - T
quantity like mass, shape,
length, height. It ACCELERATION VELOCITY/TIME LT-2
categorizes a unit.
FORCE MASS × MLT-2
UNIT & DIMENSION------- ACCELERATION

-3
DENSITY MASS/VOLUME ML
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VISCOSITY VELOCITY ML-1T-1
GRADIENT
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REYNOLD’S NUMBER

R = ρVL/μ is called the REYNOLD’S NUMBER. Scientist Reynold observed that density, viscosity,
velocity of fluid and diameter of the tube played an important part to determine whether the flow
would be laminar or turbulent. He combined the influence of all these factors in a non dimensional
parameter which is called REYNOLD’S NUMBER (R). If R is small, the flow is laminar; if R is relatively
large the flow is turbulent; if R has some intermediate value, the flow might be laminar or turbulent
depends on condition of experiment.

WIND TUNNEL

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SCALE EFFECT

• The result of wind-tunnel experiment on models may mislead for various reasons. One of the
principal cause is scale effect.

• The main object of the experiment is to forecast the forces on a full-scale aeroplane when in the
air.

• If the difference between the size of the model and the full scale aeroplane, or between the
velocity of the wind tunnel test and the velocity of actual flight is large – the forecasted result seems
to be incorrect. This is called scale effect.

• The scale effect becomes more serious as the size and velocity of aeroplane tend to increase.

DIFFERENT THEOREM

RAYLEIGH’S FORMULA

Velocity of Sound in air is a function of air pressure, density and coefficient of viscosity.

EQUATION OF CONTINUITY

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Mass flow rate along a stream filament is constant. ρ 1V1A1=ρ2V2A2 ie ρVA=Const, along a stream
line.

STREAM LINE. A stream line is an imaginary line drawn in the field of flow such that the velocity
vector at any point on the line is always tangential to the line.

BERNOULLI’S THEOREM

Let, A1 and A2 are the X-sections at any Station-1 and Station-2.

ρ1, V1 and ρ2,V2 are the fluid density and velocity at these stations respectively.

For incompressible fluid, ρ1 = ρ2 = ρ.

So, from continuity equation, A1V1 = A2V2 = AV.

Work done by the pressure forces at Station-1 and 2,

W = P1A1V1δt – P2A2V2δt

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= AV(P1 – P2)δt .

Gain in K.E. = ½ ρ2A2V2δtV22 - ½ ρ1A1V1δtV12

= ½ ρAV(V22 - V12) δt

Gain in P.E. = gρ2A2V2δt h2 - g ρ1A1V1δt h1= g ρ AV(h2 – h1) δt

Work Done = Gain in K.E. + Gain in P.E.

i.e. AV(P1 – P2)δt = ½ρ AV(V22 - V12) δt + g ρ AV(h2 – h1) δt .

P1 + ½ ρV12 + ρg h1 = P2 + ½ ρV22 + ρg h2

P + ½ ρV2 + ρgh = Constant, along a streamline

VENTURI TUBE

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Applied Aerodynamics
BOUNDARY LAYER (BL)

Mainly two types of Boundary Layers :

A. LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYER. Here, the flow is steady and smooth. So the layer is very thin
and form drag is very small. Skin friction is also very small.

B. TURBULENT BOUNDARY LAYER. Here, the flow is unsteady and not smooth, but eddying. So
the layer is thicker and profile drag will be much higher.

NOTE. During transition (in between laminar & turbulent), the BL is initially laminar, but as one
moves downstream, a point is reached where laminar flow breaks down and the BL becomes
turbulent. This phenomenon is called transition and the region in which it occurs is called the
transition region.

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CIRCULAR CYLINDER WITHOUT CIRCULATION CIRCULAR CYLINDER WITH

CIRCULATION

HOW LIFT IS PRODUCED?

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AIR FLOW SEPERATION FROM AEROFOIL SECTION

AIR OPERATED INSTRUMENTS

TYPES OF PRESSURE

STATIC PRESSURE. Pressure exerted by the air due to it’s weight.

DYNAMIC PRESSURE. Pd = K.E. = ½ ρV².

TOTAL PRESSURE

Total Pressure = Static Pressure + Dynamic Pressure

i.e. Pt = Ps + Pd

or, Pt = Ps + ½ ρV2

where Dynamic Pressure is ½ ρV2.

AIR OPERATED INSTRUMENTS

 Altimeter.

 Air Speed Indicator (ASI).

 Vertical Velocity Indicator (VVI).

 Mach meter.

PITOT STATIC TUBE

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PRINCIPLE OF ALTIMETER

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ASI

VVI

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MACH METER

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ERRORS AND CORRECTIONS

A. Instrument Error: Imperfection of design and manufacture of instrument. Very small. Varies
from one instrument to another.

B. Position Error (Pressure Error): Next Slide.

C. Compressibility Error: At higher speed, the dynamic pressure is not simply ½ρ V 2. Exceeds by a
factor (1 + ¼ M2 + - - - - - -) where M is the free stream Mach number. So air speed indicator will
over-read.

POSITION ERROR (PRESSURE ERROR)

 Depends on attitude i.e. speed of the aircraft.

 It is of two types:

- Static Pressure Measurement.

- Pitot (total) Pressure Measurement.

 Pitot-static tube may be mounted in a position on the aircraft where flow is affected by the
presence of the aircraft.
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 The recorded static pressure will be the local and not the free stream value.

 The pitot pressure may be under-recorded because of incorrect alignment.

 This type of error is called Position Error.

MEASUREMENT OF AIR SPEED

A. IAS : The reading on the ASI is the indicated air speed.

B. RAS : When IAS is corrected by Pressure Error Correction (PEC) and Instrument Error Correction
(IEC), the result is known as rectified air speed.

C. EAS : EAS is obtained by adding the Compressibility Error Correction to RAS.

D. TAS : TAS is obtained by dividing the EAS by square root of the relative air density.

AIRCRAFT CONTROLS

An aircraft has three axis ; Longitudinal, Lateral and Normal axis. Three separate movements are

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performed with the help of three control surfaces about these three axis.

A. Elevator for control in Pitch (about Lateral axis).

B. Ailerons for control in Roll (about Longitudinal axis).

C. Rudder for control in Yaw (about Normal axis).

HIGH LIFT DEVICE

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MAIN & TAIL PLANE
MAIN PLANE (WING)

· Provides necessary lift to sustain the aircraft in a controllable flight condition.

· Provides the space for storage of fuel.
· Supports engines, landing gears & armament stores.
· Resists loads produced by various components (under carriage, engines, weapons and
aerodynamic loads).
· Transfer lift load to fuselage.

TAIL PLANE

· The tail plane has a stabilizing function. It’s main function is to supply any forces necessary to
counter residual pitching moments arising from inequalities of the two main couples.
· The tail plane is positioned some distance from the CG as such it can apply a large moment to
the aircraft.
· The area and lift of the tail plane is small compared with the main plane.
· An upward force on the tail plane will have a nose-heavy tendency and a downward force on the
tail plane will have a tail-heavy tendency.

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DIFFERENT TYPES OF WINGS (TOP VIEW)

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EFFECT OF SWEPT BACK WING ON CL & CD

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EFFECT OF L/D AND M ON DIFFERENT TYPES OF WING

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AEROFOIL TERMINOLOGY

Where,

‘XX’ is the Chord Line. ‘YY’ is the Camber Line.

‘c’ is the Chord Length. ‘α’ is the Angle of Attack.

‘t’ is the max thickness. ‘d’ is the max camber.

Chord Line: Straight line connecting leading edge and trailing edge.

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Chord Length: Length of chord line.

Mean Camber Line: Line drawn halfway between upper and lower surfaces.

Maximum Camber: Maximum distance between mean camber line and chord line.

Maximum Thickness: Maximum distance between upper and lower surfaces.

Leading edge Radius: Measure of sharpness of leading edge.

Angle of Attack. It is the angle between the wing chord line and the direction of the
flight path.

Aspect Ratio (AR). The aspect ratio of a wing is the span divided by the geometric mean
chord.

Thus, AR = b/c = b2/bc = b2/S .

Taper Wing. A tapered wing is one for which the chord near the tip is less than the
chord near the wing root. The taper ration is the ration of root chord to

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tip chord.

LIFT
DEFINITION. Lift is that component of total aerodynamic reaction which is perpendicular to the
flight path of the aircraft.

L = ½ρV²CLS.

LIFT VS ANGLE OF ATTACK

COEFFICIENT OF LIFT (CL)

It depends on the following :

A. Thickness-Chord Ratio, t/c.
B. Camberness of Aerofoil.

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C. Reynolds Number, ρV l/μ.

D. Nose Radious.
E. AOA.
F. Condition of Wing Surface.
G. Speed of Sound (Mach Number).
Factors Affecting Lift:

 Free stream velocity, V∞

 Free stream density, ρ∞
 Size of the aerodynamic surface, S
 AoA
 Shape of aerofoil
 Mach no., M PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
 Viscosity coefficient, µ∞

PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION WITH VARIATION OF INCIDNCE

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PITCHING MOMENT

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CENTER OF PRESSURE (CP)

2 It is a point on chordline through which line of action of Aerodynamic Force (AF) passes through
is called center of pressure (CP).

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2 No pitching moment about CP.

2 When angle of attack (AOA) or velocity of airplane changes, magnitude and

direction of AF changes - the location of the CP moves.

It is important for aircraft design. AC, unlike CP, does not move with changes of AOA.AC is at quarter
chord point (1/4) for Subsonic flight & at half chord point (1/2) for Supersonic flight.

DRAG
DRAG
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It is defined as that component of the total aerodynamics reaction which is parallel and opposite to
the flight path of aircraft.

So, Drag, D = ½ρV2 CDS .

SOME SALIENT FEATURES

1. In inviscid flow there is no drag what about the shape of the body.
2. But actually viscous effect can’t be neglected.
3. Because of the friction between the fluid & the surface of the solid the velocity near the surface
is zero.
4. It increases gradually as it moves away from the suface, This phenomenon is known as boundary
layer phenomenon. The nature of B/L can be used to find out the existence of drag.

TYPES OF DRAG
A. Zero Lift Drag (Parasite Drag).
- Surface Friction Drag.

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- Form Drag.
B. Lift Dependent Drag (Induced Drag).
- Induced Drag or Vortex Drag.
- Increment of Zero Lift Drag.
INDUCED DRAG CALCULATION OF TOTAL DRAG

MINIMUM DRAG

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AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE

POWER AVAILABLE AND POWER REQUIRED CURVE

THRUST – DRAG CURVE

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THRUST & POWER REQUIRED CURVES THRUST & POWER AVAILABLE CURVES

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PA & PR CURVE (PISTON AC)

PA & PR CURVE (JET AC)

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CEILING

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CLIMBING

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FLIGHT ENVELOPE

FLIGHT ENVELOPE (g - BOUNDARY)

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LIFT BOUNDARY WITH ALTITUDE

STABILITY
DEFINITION. STABILITY OF AN AIRCRAFT IS ITS ABILITY TO RETURN TO THE ORIGINAL PATH OF
FLIGHT WHEN EXTERNAL DISTURBANCE IS REMOVED. IT IS MAINLY OF TWO TYPES :

A. STATIC STABILITY. AN OBJECT HAS STATIC STABILITY IF, WHEN THE DISTUBRING FORCE
CEASES, IT STARTS TO RETURN TO THE EQUILIBRIUM POSITION. IT IS OF THREE TYPES :

1. POSITIVE STATIC STABILITY.

2. NEUTRAL STATIC STABILITY.

3. NEGATIVE STATIC STABILITY.

B. DYNAMIC STABILITY. IF AN OBJECT IS STATICALLY STABLE, IT WILL RETURN TO ITS ORIGINAL

POSITION, BUT IN DOING SO, IT MAY INITIALLY OVERSHOOT. IF THE AMPLITUDE OF THE
OSCILLATION DECREASES AND DIES OUT, IT IS SAID TO BE DYNAMICALLY STABLE. IT IS OF THREE
TYPES :
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1. POSITIVE DYNAMIC STABILITY.

2. NEUTRAL DYNAMIC STABILITY.

3. NEGATIVE DYNAMIC STABILITY.

A. LONGITUDINAL STABILITY. EQUILIBRIUM CONDITION AFTER A PITCHING DISTURBANCE.

B. DIRECTIONAL STABILITY. EQUILIBRIUM CONDITION AFTER A YAW DISTURBANCE.

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C. LATERAL STABILITY. EQUILIBRIUM CONDITION AFTER A ROLLING DISTURBANCE.

HIGH SPEED FLIGHT

A. ML<0.7 SUBSONIC RANGE. C. 1.3 < ML < 5 SUPERSONIC RANGE.

B. 0.7 < ML <1.3 TRANSONIC RANGE. D. ML > 5 HYPERSONIC RANGE.

DEFINITIONS :

MACH NUMBER (M). It is defined as the ratio of the fluid velocity to the speed of sound.
“M”=V/a.

FREE STREAM MACH NUMBER (M fs). This is the mach number of the flow, sufficiently remote
from an aircraft to be unaffected by it.

LOCAL MACH NUMBER (ML). When an aircraft flies at a certain M fs, the flow is accelerated in
some places and slowed down in others. The speed of sound also changes because the temp
around the aircraft changes. Hence,
Speed of flow at a point .
ML =
Speed of sound at the same point

CRITICAL MACH NUMBER (MCRIT). As Mfs increases, so local mach number also increases. That
Mfs at which any ML has reached unity is called the critical mach number.

WAVE PROPAGATION

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SHOCK WAVE

• Normal Shock Wave : High Subsonic Flight

• Oblique Shock Wave : Transonic & Supersonic Flight

• Expansion Waves : Supersonic Flight

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(Change In Aero-Thermodynamic Properties During Shock Wave)

NORMAL SHOCK WAVES

OBLIQUE SHOCK WAVES

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EXPANSION SHOCK WAVES

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SUPERSONIC WAVE CHARACTERISTICS SUMMARY

AEROPLANE MANOEUVERS
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FLIGHT OF AN aeroplane
• Straight and level flight
• Manoeuvres :-
All aeroplane :
1. Take-Off, 2. Climbing, 3. Flying Level, 4. Turning,
5. Gliding, 6. Landing
Aerobatics aeroplane :
1. Looping, 2. Spinning, 3. Rolling, 4. Nose Diving,
5. Inverted Flying, 6. Side Slipping and Skidding, 7. Stalling
STRAIGHT AND LEVEL FLIGHT IS aeroplane IN EQUILIBRIUM CONDITION

The Condition in which:

• The aeroplane is moving forward straight

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• At constant air speed
• Neither gaining nor losing height
EQUILIBRIUM UNBALANCED FORCES

åM = 0 at center of åF = 0, at center of
gravity gravity

0 pitching Thrust = drag

moment

0 yawing moment Lift = weight

0 rolling moment

TAKE OFF

TAKE OFF SEQUENCE

1. Align Head Wind/ RW Direction 5. Gain Airspeed

2. Fix Flap Position 6. Lift Off

3. Release Brakes 7. Attitude : Angle of attack…15 Deg

4. Rotation 8. Climb

SEGMENTS OF TAKE OFF

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IMPORTANT VARIABLES DURING TAKE OFF

• Take Off Velocity.

• Acceleration during Take Off.

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• Take Off Distance.

FACTORS AFFECTING TAKE OFF

• Aeroplane gross weight. • Wind direction and velocity.

• Engine thrust. • Runway slope.

• Temperature. • Runway surface.

• Pressure altitude.

EFFECT OF WEIGHT EFFECT OF WIND

If Weight is Increased I<-----------------Take off Distance---------------

>I
 Take Off Velocity Increases.

 More Mass to Accelerate.

 More Rolling Friction.

CLIMBING

• Possible, if power is more than S & L Flt

• More power req at greater heights

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• Lift decreases with air density, to be made up by, 1. Camber of wings, 2. AoA, 3. Wing area, 4.
Velocity

• These increase drag, so more power req.

• With height more power for level flt, so less for climbing and ultimately reaches ceiling.

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TURNING
1. Force towards center of curve is “centripetal” force.
2. Opposite & equal is “centrifugal” force.
3. Less centripetal force, more skidding.
4. More centripetal force, more side- slipping
5. Banking to correct degree desired.

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LOAD FACTORS ON AEROPLANE IN COORDINATED TURN

GLIDING

1. Free wheeling through space without engine power.

2. Most efficient aeroplane will glide the farthest

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3. As there is no thrust, straight and level flight not possible.
4. Gliding position; nose slightly down and part of wt acts as thrust.
5. Aim is to maintain flattest possible gliding angle.
6. 6. Gliding angle depends on L/D ratio, the higher the ratio, the flatter the angle.
7. 7. Thumb rule; glide a mile for a thousand feet height, i.e. L/D=5:1, Efficient 10:1
8. 8. Best gliding angle at max L/D for different aeroplane is different.
9. 9. AoA for max L/D ratio is between 3-6 deg.
10. 10. Each AoA corresponds a speed for an aeroplane, any variation will reduce gliding distance.

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Landing

IMPORTANT FACTORS IN LANDING

Landing speed

• Stall speed

• Minimum control speed

Deceleration during landing

• Friction force

• Braking force

Hazards of Hydroplaning

Distance required to stop the aeroplane after landing

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• Complex subject

• Landing charts in pilot’s handbook

STAGES OF LANDING

LANDING DECELERATION, VELOCITY, AND DISTANCE

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(Forces acting on an airplane during landing)

FACTORS AFECTING BRAKING ACTION

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• Tire Design

• Tread design & Condition

• Runway surface Material & Condition

• Amount of Braking applied

• Amount of Normal force between Tires & Runway.

EFFECT OF WEIGHT

If Weight Is Increased

• Landing Speed Increases.

• More Runway length is required to stop the aeroplane. (Without Airbrake, Thrust Reversal
etc)

• Decelerating Force remains same as more weight on the braking wheel.

EFFECT OF WIND (Same as the take off)

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