MODULE

ENGLISH (SECONDARY)
LITERARY CRITICISM
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By JOAN ADRIAN C. TABALANZA

“Literary criticism can be no more than a reasoned account of the

— D. H. Lawrence —
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INTRODUCTION
Literary criticism is the practice of studying, evaluating, and interpreting works of literature. It can

help readers to appreciate the beauty and complexity of literary works, as well as to understand the

historical, cultural, and social contexts that shape them. Literary criticism can also offer different

perspectives and insights on literature, based on various theories or approaches.

As future licensed professional teachers, you may wonder why you need to learn about literary

criticism. One reason is that literary criticism can enhance your skills in reading, writing, and

teaching literature. By applying different critical lenses to literary texts, you can develop your

analytical and critical thinking abilities, as well as your creativity and communication skills. You can

also enrich your understanding of literary genres, forms, and devices, and how they contribute to the

meaning and value of literature.

Another reason is that literary criticism can help you to engage your students in meaningful and

enjoyable learning experiences with literature. By introducing them to different ways of reading and

interpreting literature, you can foster their curiosity, interest, and appreciation for literary works. You

can also encourage them to express their own opinions and judgments about literature, and to

respect and learn from the views of others. Moreover, you can help them to connect literature to their

own lives and experiences, as well as to broader social and global issues.

In this course, you will learn about some of the major types of literary criticism, such as formalist,

archetypal, biographical, sociological, psychoanalytic, feminist, postcolonial, and ecocritical

criticism. You will also learn how to apply these critical approaches to various literary works, such as

novels, short stories, poems, plays, and essays. You will also learn how to write your own literary

criticism essays, using appropriate evidence and arguments to support your claims. By the end of

this course, you will have a deeper and broader knowledge of literary criticism and its relevance to

your future profession as teachers.

Literary Criticism

Objectives:

1. Demonstrate knowledge and applications of the basic approaches to problems in critical theory
from the classical to modern times as applied to literary works.

2. Draw implications of literary criticism and critical theory in English language and literature
teaching.

What is Literary Criticism?

Literary criticism is the practice of studying, evaluating, and interpreting works of literature. It can
apply to any argumentation about literature, whether or not specific works are analyzed. It can also
be influenced by various theories or movements, such as formalism, feminism, postcolonialism, and
ecocriticism. Literary criticism is not necessarily negative; it means a thoughtful critique.

Literary criticism has a long history that dates back to the classical period. Some of the earliest
examples of literary criticism are Plato's Republic and Aristotle's Poetics, which discussed the nature,
function, and value of poetry. The Sanskrit Natya Shastra also included literary criticism on ancient
Indian literature and drama. Later, classical and medieval critics often focused on religious texts and
applied methods of hermeneutics and textual exegesis.

Literary criticism can have different purposes and functions, depending on the context and the
audience. Some of the common functions of literary criticism are: to review books as they are
published and influence their reception; to express the shifts in sensibility that make revaluations of
literary works possible; to provide systematic theoretical discussion of literature's goals and
methods; to broaden a reader's understanding of an author's work by summarizing, interpreting, and
exploring its value; to offer different perspectives and insights on literature based on various critical
lenses; to develop one's skills in reading, writing, and teaching literature; to engage in meaningful and
enjoyable learning experiences with literature; and to connect literature to one's own life and
experiences, as well as to broader social and global issues.

Literary criticism can be divided into different types or approaches, depending on the criteria or
principles used to analyze literature. Some of the major types of literary criticism are: formalist
criticism, which focuses on the form, structure, and style of a literary work; archetypal criticism,
which identifies universal patterns and symbols in a literary work; biographical criticism, which
relates a literary work to the author's life and context; sociological criticism, which examines a
literary work in relation to society and culture; psychoanalytic criticism, which explores the
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psychological desires and neuroses of the characters and the author in a literary work; feminist
criticism, which challenges the patriarchal assumptions and representations in a literary work;
postcolonial criticism, which critiques the effects of colonialism and imperialism on a literary work;
and ecocritical criticism, which analyzes a literary work in relation to nature and ecology.

Literary criticism can be practiced in different ways and formats. It can be published in essay or
book form, or presented orally or digitally. It can be academic or popular, depending on the level of
difficulty and sophistication. It can be descriptive or evaluative, depending on the degree of judgment
involved. It can be objective or subjective, depending on the stance of the critic. It can be close or
distant, depending on the scope of analysis. It can be comparative or contrastive, depending on the
relation between different literary works.

Literary criticism can also have different benefits and challenges for readers, writers, teachers, and
students of literature. Some of the benefits are: it can enhance one's appreciation and enjoyment of
literature; it can enrich one's knowledge and understanding of literature; it can foster one's curiosity
and interest in literature; it can develop one's analytical and critical thinking abilities; it can improve
one's creativity and communication skills; it can encourage one's expression of opinions and
judgments about literature; it can respect and learn from the views of others; it can help one to
connect literature to one's own life and experiences, as well as to broader social and global issues.
Some of the challenges are: it can be intimidating or confusing for some readers; it can be biased or
subjective for some critics; it can be limited or incomplete for some approaches; it can be conflicting
or contradictory for some interpretations; it can be outdated or irrelevant for some contexts.
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What is Critical Theory?

Critical Theory is a type of social philosophy that tries to understand and change society by revealing
and challenging the power structures that shape it. It has two meanings: a narrow one and a broad
one. The narrow meaning refers to a group of German philosophers and social theorists who were
part of the Frankfurt School, a school of thought that was influenced by Marxism and
psychoanalysis. The broad meaning refers to any philosophical approach that aims to liberate
human beings from all forms of oppression and domination.

Some of the main ideas of Critical Theory are:

1. Society is not a natural or fixed reality, but a human creation that can be transformed through
human action.

2. Society is shaped by historical and cultural factors, as well as by economic and political interests.

3. Society is divided into groups that have unequal access to power, resources, and opportunities.
These groups are often in conflict with each other, and some groups dominate and exploit others.

4. Society produces ideologies that justify and maintain the existing order and prevent people from
seeing the possibility of change. Ideologies are systems of beliefs, values, and assumptions that
influence how people think, feel, and act.

5. Society also produces forms of culture that reflect and reinforce the dominant ideologies. Culture
includes art, literature, media, religion, education, science, and everyday practices.

6. Society affects not only the external conditions of human life, but also the internal aspects of
human consciousness. People are shaped by their social environment, and they often internalize the
norms and values of the dominant groups. This can lead to alienation, repression, or false
consciousness.

7. Society can be changed by exposing and criticizing the hidden structures and ideologies that
oppress people, by raising people's awareness of their own interests and potential, by creating
alternative forms of culture and communication, and by organizing collective action for social
transformation.

Critical Theory has many applications in different fields of study, such as psychoanalysis, sociology,
history, communication theory, philosophy, and feminist theory. It also has connections to various
social movements that identify and challenge different dimensions of oppression, such as racism,
sexism, classism, colonialism, etc.
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Critical Theory is not a unified or fixed doctrine, but a diverse and evolving tradition that has many
different aspects and historical phases. It has been influenced by many thinkers and theories, such
as Karl Marx , Sigmund Freud , Georg Lukács , Antonio Gramsci , Max Horkheimer , Theodor Adorno ,
Walter Benjamin , Erich Fromm , Herbert Marcuse , Jürgen Habermas , Michel Foucault , Jacques
Derrida , etc.

Critical Theory is also a controversial and contested approach that has faced many criticisms and
challenges from different perspectives. Some of these criticisms are:

1. Critical Theory is too abstract and pessimistic, and it does not offer concrete solutions or positive
alternatives for social change.

2. Critical Theory is too relativistic and subjective, and it does not respect the objective truth or
validity of science or reason.

3. Critical Theory is too ideological and dogmatic itself, and it imposes its own values and
assumptions on other cultures or perspectives.

4. Critical Theory is too radical and utopian, and it ignores the complexity and diversity of human
societies and cultures.

Critical Theory is not a final or definitive answer to the problems of society, but a critical perspective
that invites further dialogue and debate. It is a way of asking questions rather than giving answers, a
way of challenging assumptions rather than accepting them, a way of seeking emancipation rather
than submission. It is a way of thinking critically about society and ourselves.
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Literary Criticism vs Theory

Literary criticism and literary theory are two related but distinct terms in the field of literature. Literary
criticism is the practice of studying, evaluating, and interpreting works of literature. ¹ Literary theory
is the different frameworks used to evaluate and interpret a particular work.

Literary criticism can be seen as a form of applied literary theory, since it uses various concepts and
methods derived from different literary theories. ³ Literary theory, on the other hand, can be seen as a
form of abstract or general literary criticism, since it develops and tests various principles and
models for understanding literature.

Literary criticism and literary theory have a long and complex history that spans across different
periods, cultures, and disciplines. Some of the major literary criticism theories are:

1. Formalism: This theory focuses on the form and structure of a literary work, such as its language,
style, genre, and narrative techniques. It ignores the author's biography, historical context, and social
influences.

2. New Criticism: This theory emerged in the early 20th century and emphasized the close reading
and analysis of a literary text as an independent and self-contained entity. It rejected any external
sources of meaning, such as authorial intention, reader response, or historical background.

3. Marxism: This theory applies the ideas of Karl Marx and his followers to literature and culture. It
examines how literature reflects and shapes the material conditions, class relations, and ideological
conflicts of a given society. It also explores how literature can challenge or resist the dominant
ideologies and power structures.

4. Psychoanalysis: This theory draws on the theories of Sigmund Freud and his successors to
explore the unconscious motives, desires, and conflicts that influence the creation and reception of
literature. It analyzes how literature reveals the psychological processes of the author, the
characters, and the readers.

5. Feminism: This theory examines how literature represents and constructs gender roles, relations,
and identities. It also critiques how literature reinforces or challenges the patriarchal norms and
values of a given culture. It advocates for the recognition and empowerment of women's voices and
experiences in literature and society.

6. Postcolonialism: This theory studies how literature reflects and responds to the historical, cultural,
and political effects of colonialism and imperialism. It also explores how literature can resist or
subvert the colonial discourse and hegemony. It highlights the diversity and hybridity of postcolonial
cultures and literatures.
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These are only some of the many literary criticism theories that have been developed over time.
Literary theory is an ongoing and dynamic field that constantly produces new perspectives and
approaches for understanding literature. Some of the recent literary theory trends are:

1. Structuralism: This theory applies the methods of linguistics and anthropology to literature and
culture. It analyzes how literature is organized by underlying structures or systems of meaning, such
as myths, symbols, codes, or binary oppositions.

2. Poststructuralism: This theory challenges the assumptions and methods of structuralism. It

3. Deconstruction: This theory is a form of poststructuralist criticism that aims to expose and
undermine the contradictions, inconsistencies, and hierarchies that underlie any text or discourse. It
shows how any text can be read against itself or against other texts to reveal its aporias or gaps in
logic.

4. Reader-response: This theory focuses on the role of the reader in creating meaning from a literary
text. It argues that meaning is not inherent in the text but is produced by the interaction between the
text and the reader's expectations, experiences, emotions, and interpretations.

5. New Historicism: This theory combines literary criticism with historical analysis. It examines how
literature is influenced by and influences its historical context. It also explores how literature can
challenge or subvert the official or dominant versions of history.

6. Cultural Studies: This theory expands the scope of literary criticism to include other forms of
cultural production, such as media, popular culture, art, music, etc. It analyzes how culture reflects
and shapes social identities, relations, and power dynamics. It also investigates how culture can
resist or transform dominant ideologies and practices.
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History of Literary Criticism and Critical Theory

Literary criticism and critical theory are closely related terms that refer to the study, evaluation, and
interpretation of literature. Literary criticism deals with specific literary works and their meaning,
value, and quality, while critical theory deals with general questions and principles about literature
and its goals and methods.

The history of literary criticism and critical theory can be traced back to the classical period, when
philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle discussed the nature and function of poetry and developed
concepts such as mimesis, catharsis, and tragedy. The Sanskrit Natya Shastra also included literary
criticism on ancient Indian literature and drama.

In the Middle Ages, literary criticism and critical theory were influenced by religious texts and
traditions, such as the Bible, the Church Fathers, and scholasticism. Medieval critics applied
methods of hermeneutics and textual exegesis to interpret sacred and secular texts, and developed
theories of allegory, rhetoric, grammar, and poetics.

In the Renaissance, literary criticism and critical theory were inspired by the revival of classical
learning and humanism. Renaissance critics explored the sources, genres, styles, and languages of
literature, and developed theories of imitation, decorum, invention, wit, and imagination.

In the Enlightenment, literary criticism and critical theory were shaped by the rise of rationalism,
empiricism, and nationalism. Enlightenment critics examined the origins, history, and development
of literature, and developed theories of taste, genius, sentiment, originality, and progress.

In the Romantic period, literary criticism and critical theory were influenced by the reaction against
the Enlightenment and the emergence of individualism, idealism, and nationalism. Romantic critics
emphasized the creative expression, imagination, emotion, and inspiration of literature, and
developed theories of organic form, symbolism, irony, myth, and history.

In the modern period, literary criticism and critical theory were affected by the challenges of
industrialization, urbanization, globalization, and war. Modern critics experimented with new forms,
techniques, and perspectives of literature, and developed various schools or movements of criticism
and theory, such as formalism , structuralism , psychoanalysis , Marxism , feminism ,
postcolonialism , deconstruction , ecocriticism , etc..
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Application of Literary Criticism and Critical Theory

The application of literary criticism and critical theory is the practice of using various methods and
frameworks to analyze, interpret, and evaluate works of literature. Literary criticism and critical
theory can have different purposes and functions, such as:

1. To summarize the main ideas, themes, symbols, and motifs of a literary work.

2. To analyze the author's style, techniques, influences, and intentions.

3. To write a critical essay or analysis of a book that expresses an original argument or perspective.

4. To engage in a comprehensive literary discussion that compares and contrasts different works,
genres, periods, or traditions.

5. To teach students to ask analytical questions of a text and to develop their critical thinking and
writing skills.

There are many different approaches to literary criticism and critical theory that can be applied to a
specific literary work. Some of the traditional critical approaches are:

1. Historical-biographical criticism: This approach examines literature through the perspective of the
author's historical context and biography. It assumes that the significance of a literary work is linked
to its historical and cultural background.

2. Moral-philosophical criticism: This approach evaluates literature based on its ethical merits. It
judges literary works based on the moral statements and judgments the characters and author
express throughout the text.

3. Sociological criticism: This approach evaluates literature based on its relationship to society. It
examines the author's status in their society and the effect that the literary work had on its audience
within the society. It also explores how literature reflects and shapes social identities, relations, and
power dynamics.

4. Formalism: This approach focuses on the form and structure of a literary work, such as its
language, style, genre, and narrative techniques. It ignores the author's biography, historical context,
and social influences. It analyzes how literature creates meaning through its formal elements.

5. New Criticism: This approach emerged in the early 20th century and emphasized the close reading
and analysis of a literary text as an independent and self-contained entity. It rejected any external
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sources of meaning, such as authorial intention, reader response, or historical background. It

6. Marxism: This approach applies the ideas of Karl Marx and his followers to literature and culture.
It examines how literature reflects and shapes the material conditions, class relations, and
ideological conflicts of a given society. It also explores how literature can challenge or resist the
dominant ideologies and power structures.

7. Psychoanalysis: This approach draws on the theories of Sigmund Freud and his successors to
explore the unconscious motives, desires, and conflicts that influence the creation and reception of
literature. It analyzes how literature reveals the psychological processes of the author, the
characters, and the readers.

8. Feminism: This approach examines how literature represents and constructs gender roles,
relations, and identities. It also critiques how literature reinforces or challenges the patriarchal norms
and values of a given culture. It advocates for the recognition and empowerment of women's voices
and experiences in literature and society.

9. Postcolonialism: This approach studies how literature reflects and responds to the historical,
cultural, and political effects of colonialism and imperialism. It also explores how literature can resist
or subvert the colonial discourse and hegemony. It highlights the diversity and hybridity of
postcolonial cultures and literatures.

The application of literary criticism and critical theory can have many benefits for readers, writers,
teachers, and students. Some of these benefits are:

1. Literary criticism and critical theory can help readers appreciate the beauty and complexity of
literature. They can help readers discover new meanings, insights, and perspectives in literary works.
They can also help readers enjoy and relate to literature more deeply and personally.

2. Literary criticism and critical theory can help writers improve their craft and creativity. They can
help writers understand the techniques, conventions, and traditions of different genres and forms of
literature. They can also help writers experiment with new styles, methods, and ideas for their own
literary works.

3. Literary criticism and critical theory can help teachers enhance their pedagogy and curriculum.
They can help teachers design effective and engaging lessons and activities for teaching literature.
They can also help teachers foster critical thinking and writing skills among their students.

4. Literary criticism and critical theory can help students develop their academic and professional
competencies. They can help students learn how to read, analyze, interpret, and evaluate literary
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texts. They can also help students learn how to write clear, coherent, and persuasive essays and
papers on literature.

Literary criticism and critical theory are not only useful tools for studying literature, but also powerful
ways of understanding ourselves and the world around us. They are ways of thinking critically about
society and culture, as well as about literature and art. They are ways of seeking knowledge, truth,
and justice in a complex and diverse world.

Examples of Literary Criticism

Examples of literary criticism are the various ways of studying, evaluating, and interpreting works of
literature using different methods and frameworks. Literary criticism can be applied to any literary
work, such as novels, poems, plays, essays, etc. Literary criticism can also be written in different
forms, such as essays, articles, reviews, books, etc. Some examples of literary criticism are:

1. A historical-biographical criticism of Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice that examines how the
novel reflects and challenges the social norms and expectations of women in the early
nineteenth-century England.

2. A moral-philosophical criticism of Mark Twain's Adventures of Huckleberry Finn that evaluates

3. A sociological criticism of George Orwell's Animal Farm that analyzes how the novel allegorizes
and criticizes the political and social conditions of the Soviet Union under Stalinism.

4. A formalist criticism of Emily Dickinson's poems that focuses on how the poet uses language,
form, structure, and imagery to create meaning and effect in her poetry.

5. A new critical criticism of William Shakespeare's Hamlet that emphasizes the close reading and
analysis of the text as an independent and self-contained entity. It explores how the text creates
meaning through its internal coherence and complexity.

6. A Marxist criticism of F. Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby that examines how the novel reflects
and shapes the material conditions, class relations, and ideological conflicts of the American society
in the 1920s. It also explores how the novel challenges or resists the dominant ideologies and power
structures.

7. A psychoanalytic criticism of Charlotte Brontë's Jane Eyre that explores the unconscious motives,
desires, and conflicts that influence the creation and reception of the novel. It analyzes how the
novel reveals the psychological processes of the author, the characters, and the readers.
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8. A feminist criticism of Margaret Atwood's The Handmaid's Tale that examines how the novel
represents and constructs gender roles, relations, and identities. It also critiques how the novel
reinforces or challenges the patriarchal norms and values of a dystopian society. It advocates for the
recognition and empowerment of women's voices and experiences in literature and society.

9. A postcolonial criticism of Chinua Achebe's Things Fall Apart that studies how the novel reflects
and responds to the historical, cultural, and political effects of colonialism and imperialism in
Nigeria. It also explores how the novel resists or subverts the colonial discourse and hegemony. It
highlights the diversity and hybridity of postcolonial cultures and literatures.

10. A structuralist criticism of J.R.R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings that applies the methods of
linguistics and anthropology to literature and culture. It analyzes how the novel is organized by
underlying structures or systems of meaning, such as myths, symbols, codes, or binary oppositions.

11. A deconstructive criticism of Lewis Carroll's Alice's Adventures in Wonderland that challenges
the assumptions and methods of structuralism. It argues that there is no fixed or stable meaning or
structure in literature or language. It emphasizes the plurality, ambiguity, indeterminacy, and
instability of meaning in texts. It shows how any text can be read against itself or against other texts
to reveal its aporias or gaps in logic.

These are only some of the many examples of literary criticism that can be applied to different
literary works using different methods and frameworks. Literary criticism can help readers
appreciate, understand, analyze, evaluate, compare, contrast, interpret, write about, teach about,
learn about literature in various ways.
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Implications of Literary Criticism and Critical Theory

Literary criticism and critical theory have various implications for literature, society, and culture.
Some of the common implications are:

1. They can reveal the underlying meanings, values, and ideologies of literary works and their
authors. Literary criticism and critical theory can uncover the hidden or implicit messages,
assumptions, and perspectives that shape literature and its interpretation. They can also expose the
biases, prejudices, and contradictions that may exist in literature and its reception.

2. They can challenge the dominant or established norms, standards, and authorities of literature
and society. Literary criticism and critical theory can question and critique the conventional or
traditional definitions, classifications, and evaluations of literature and its genres, forms, styles, etc.
They can also resist and oppose the oppressive or unjust systems, structures, and practices of
society and culture that may affect literature and its production, distribution, and consumption.

3. They can expand the diversity, inclusivity, and accessibility of literature and its readership. Literary
criticism and critical theory can recognize and celebrate the variety and richness of literature from
different times, places, languages, cultures, etc. They can also promote and support the
representation and participation of marginalized or underrepresented groups in literature and its
creation, dissemination, and appreciation.

4. They can enhance the appreciation, enjoyment, and creativity of literature and its readers. Literary
criticism and critical theory can increase the awareness, understanding, and interest of literature and
its elements, such as themes, symbols, motifs, characters, style, etc. They can also encourage the
expression, communication, and collaboration of literature and its opinions, judgments, emotions,
experiences, etc..

5. They can develop the skills , knowledge , and attitudes of literature and its readers. Literary
criticism and critical theory can improve the abilities of reading critically and creatively , writing
effectively and persuasively , and teaching engagingly and meaningfully . They can also enrich the
learning of literature and its history , theory , criticism , etc. They can also foster the values of
literature , such as curiosity , respect , empathy , etc.

6. They can connect literature to one's own life and experiences , as well as to broader social and
global issues. Literary criticism and critical theory can relate literature to one's personal identity ,
background , goals , etc. They can also link literature to one's social context , such as family ,
community , nation , etc. They can also associate literature to one's global context , such as
environment , politics , economy , etc.

7. They can contribute to the advancement of literature , society , and culture. Literary criticism and
critical theory can inspire new ideas , perspectives , insights , etc., that can enrich literature and its
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interpretation . They can also influence social change , such as awareness , action , reform , etc., that
can improve society and culture .