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49 views15 pagesPsy Quick Revision Chap 1 7
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/ 15
Fast Track
REVISIO
Brush Up your Concept in Fast Track Mode before
attempting the Sample Question Papers
5 Variations in Psychological Attributes
people differ from each other in their ability to understand
complex ideas, adapt to environment, learn from
expetionce and engage in various forms of reasoning and
to overcome obstacles.
individual Differences in Human Functioning
‘according to psychologists, our behaviours are influenced
ty our personal traits. Individual vary in terms of physical
characteristics (such as height, weight, strength, hair,
colour ete) and psychological dimensions (such as
inteligent or dul, dominant or submissive, creative or not
s0 creative, Outgoing or withdrawn)
Nany psychologist believe that our behaviours are
infuenced by our personal traits and some thoughts that
au behaviours are influenced more by situational factors.
Assessment of Psychological Attributes
Assessment refers to the measurement of psychological
attibutes of individuals and their evaluation by using
mmutple methods in terms of certain standards of
comparison. Assessment may be formal and informal
Some Domains of Psychological Attributes
Psychological attrioutes are complex and multi
{dmensional. For complete assessment of @ person, we
Need to assess how she/he functions in various domains
ot areas. Some of the attributes which are categorised on.
ne basis of varieties of tests used in psychological
erature
* Intelligence it is the global capacity to understand
the world, think rationally and use available resources
efficiently,
Aptitude It is an individual's underlying potential for
acquiring skills. These tests are used to predict the
abilty of an individual by giving proper environment
and training.
Interest It is an individual's preference for engaging
'n one or more specific activities relative to others,
Personality it refers to relatively unique
characteristics of a person that make her or him
Giferent from others.
+ Values These are the constant beliefs about an ideal
mode of behaviour. Value sets a standard for guiding
actions in life and also for judging others.
Methods Used for Psychological Assessment
+ Psychological Test It is an objective and
‘standardised measure of an individual's mental and
behavioural characteristics,
+ Interview It involves seeking information from a
person on one to one basis.
+ Case Study It is an in-depth study of the individual
in terms of her/his psychological attributes and
psychological history in the context of her/his
psychological and physical environment,
+ Observation It involves employing systematic,
organised and objective procedures to record
behavioural phenomena occurring naturally in real
time. ne
Self-Repor It is @ method in which a person
Provides factual information about herselffhimselt
and/or opinions, beliefs, etc that shejhe holds.
“OTDM
Intelligence
Intelligence is a key construct employed to know t
individuals differ from one another. Psychologists
about Intelligence are given below
+ Alfred Binet defined intelligence as the abi
judge well, understand well and reason
‘+ Wechsler defined intelligence as the glob:
‘aggregate capacity of an individual to t
act purposeful and to deal effect
anG) te 2eanemawa\
hes of I
proach
environmer * Uni or One Factor Theory Alfred Binet was the first
psychologist who tried to formalise the concept of
intelligence in terms of mental operations.
+ Two-actor Theory In 1927, Charles Spearman
showed that intelligence consisted of a general factor
(g-factor) and some specific factors (s-factors).
— G-factor includes mental operations which are
primary and common to all performances,
— S-actor includes some specific abilities which are
present in some people in addition to g-factor.
+ Theory of Primary Mental Abilities Louis Thurnstone
states that intelligence consists of seven primary
abilies such as
() Verbal Comprehension (grasping meaning of words,
concepts and ideas)
(ij) Numerical Abilities (speed and accuracy in
numerical and computational skils)
(ii) Spatial Relations (visualising patterns and forms).
(iv) Perceptual Speed (speed in perceiving details).
() Word Fluency (using words fluently and flexibiy)
(i) Memory (accuracy in recalling information).
(vil) Inductive Reasoning (deriving general rules from
presented facts)
Under the theory of primary mental abilities, two models
were proposed i.e.
() Hierarchical Model of Intelligence This model was
proposed by Arthur Jensen. It consists of abilities
‘operating at two levels ie. Level | and Level I
(i) Structure of Intellectual Model JP Guilford proposed,
this model which classifies intellectual traits among three.
dimensions i.e. Operations, Contents and Products
Theory of Multiple Intelligence
According to Gardner, different types of intelligences
interact and work together to find a solution to a problem.
He described eight types of intelligence as follows
(0 Linguistic (Skills involved in the Production and Use of
Language) gikeint
(i) Logical-Matheratical (Skil in Scientific Thinking and
Problem Solving)
(iv) Musical (Sensitivity to Musical Rt
(¥) Bodily-Kinaesthetic (Using whole
flexibly and creatively)
(Wi) Interpersonal (Sensitivity to Sub
Behaviours)
(vil) Intrapersonal (Awareness of Or
Motives and Desires)
(vii) Naturalistic (Sensitivity to t
World)
Triarchic Theory of Intell
This theory was proposed b
He views intelligence as
select environment to acct
one's society and culture’
__ activity involves the interdependent function
‘According to this theory
intelligence
() Componental ntsligence/Analyical gia,
(i) Experiential/Creative inteligence
(ii) Contextual Practical inteligence
there are three bag,
ay
"
Planning, Attention-Arousal and
a Simuf,
Successive (PASS) Model of intelligence
PASS model was given by JP Das, Jack Nagy
Kirby in 1994. According to this model, intel
neurological systems, called functional units at
These are given below
+ Arousal/Attention State of arousal is basis y
behaviour as it helps us in attending to stimu
enables a person to process informaton,
+ Simultaneous and Successive Processing
Simultaneous processing takes place when i,
perceive the relations among vatious cong
integrate them into a meaningful pattem for
comprehension. AE aR ea OAL]
intelloctual Giftedness The study of intellectually grow and change and in the process specify what will be
* Mite individuals was started in 1925 by Lewis the end product of successful intellectual development.
Ferman to examine the relationship of intelligence to Technologically advanced societies adopt child rearing
‘coupational success and life adjustment. Gittedness practices that faster skills of generalisation and
ig exceptional general ability shown in superior abstraction, speed, minimal moves and mental
iefomance in a wide varlly of areas, manipulation among children,
se of Inteligence Tests In technological inteligence societies, persons are
well-versed in skills of attraction, observation, analysis,
re are three types of intelligence tests: performance, speed and achievement orientation.
she
1. individual or Group Test Intelligence in the Indian Tradition
« Individual Test It can be administered to one Intelligence in the Indian tradition is termed as integral
person at a time. : intelligence. Aspects of intelligence in the Indian tradition
+ Group Test It can be administered to several are as follows
persons simultaneously. Group tests generally Se2k Cognitive Competence includes sensitivy to context,
written answers usually in’a multiple-choice format. understanding, discrimination, problem solving and
9. Verbal, Non-Verbal or Performance Test effective communication. :
« Verbal It requires verbal responses in either oral or + Social Competence includes respect for social order,
vwitten form. commitment to elders, the young and the needy,
. + Non-Verbal It uses pictures or illustrations as test Cone ae
ie + Emotional Competence includes self-regulation and
« Performance It requires subjects to manipulate self; monttorm 9: Of SAG Lea eRe Daan
‘objects to perform a task. In this test, written good conduct and self-evaluation...)
language is not necessary for answering the items. * Entrepreneurial Competence includes commitment,
persistence, patience, hard work, vigilance and _
3. Culture-Fair or Culture-Biased Test goal-directed behaviours. =
+ Culture-Fair In such tests, items are constructed in . ol
a manner that they assess experiences common to Emotional Intelligence _
all cultures or have questions in which language
usage is not required
+ Culture-Biased It is nearly impossible to design a
ag
Itis the feeling side of intelli
test that can be applied equally meaningfully in all K ig
pies pica a (EQ) is used to express
same way as IQ is us
Characteristics of Emotional
* Perceive and be sens
‘emotions,
+ Perceive and be
e
‘emotions.
Inteligence Testing in India
+ SM Mohan made a pioneering attempt in
constructing an intelligence test in Hindi in the 1930s.
CH Rice attempted to standardise Binet’s test in
Urdu and Punjabi. At about the same time, PC.
Mahalanobis attempted to standardise Binet's test in
Bengali 4
Long and Mehta prepared a Mental Measurement
Handbook listing out 103 tests of intelligence: in India
that were available in various languages.
The National Library of Educational and
Psychological Tests (NLEPT) at the National Council
of Educational Research and Training (NCERT
documented Indian tests.
Culture and Intelligence an
Cuture is a collective system of customs, bell
atitudes and achievements in art and lite
Person's intelligence is likely to be tuned by th
Parameters, si
Stenberg’ notion of contextual or practi
a Plies that intelligence is a product of ¢
So belisved that cultures ha\
y Creativity and Intelligence
In 1920s, Terman found that persons with high 1
were not necessarily creative. The relationship
between creativity and intelligence is positive. All
creative acts require some minimum ability to acquire
knowledge and capacity to comprehend, retain and
retrieve.
@ Self and Personality
Self and personality refers to the ways in which our
experiences are organised and reflect in our
behaviour.
Concept of Self
Our personal interaction, experiences and their
interpretation serve as the basis of our self. Attrioutes
that tell us about the personal as well as social or
cultural identifies of individual are
+ Personal Identity It refers to those attributes of a
person that make her/him different from others.
+ Social Identity It refers to those aspects of a
person that link her/him to a social or cultural
group or are derived from it.
Self as Subject and Self as Object
‘As a subject (actor) the self actively engages in the
process of knowing itself. As an object (consequence)
the self gets observed and comes to be known,
Kinds of Self
+ Personal Self The personal self leads to an
orientation in which one feels primarily concerned
with oneself
* Social Self The social self emerges in relation
with others and emphasises aspects of life such
‘as cooperation, unity, affiliation, sacrifice, support
or sharing
Cognitive and Behavioural Aspects of Self
* Self-concept The way we perceive ourselves and
the ideas we hold about our competencies and
attributes is called self-concept.
+ Self-esteem The value judgment of a person
about herselffhimselt is called self-esteem.
* Self-efficacy tis the extent to which a person
believes that she/he herselthimself controls ||
her/his life outcomes or the outcomes are
controlled by luck other than situational factors.
and monitor one’s own behaviour.
Self-control It is the ability of an individual to
Control him from satisfying his needs. Self-controt
plays a key role in the fulfilment of long-term:
goals, Techniques of self-control include
Observation of own behaviour, self-instruction an
self-reinforcement.
+ Self-regulation It refers to the ability to organise
: [ ESucceed+ rsvcHOLOGY + clase
——e—eereecla
*+ Creativity Test These tests are open ended and gay,
freedom to a person to use its imagination and expe
it in original ways. It involves divergent thinking ang
assesses ability to produce a variety of ideas,
* Intelligence Test These tests are close ended. in ths
test, the person has to think for right solution to the
problem and focus on assessing abilties like memory
logical reasoning, etc.
Culture and Self
The characteristic features of the culture are linked with
several aspects of self. Analysis of self in the Indian cultura),
context reveals that its important features are distinct from
the Western cultural context.
Concept of Personality
+ In psychological terms, personality refers to our
characteristic ways of responding to individuals and
situations. Certain terms e.g. shy, sensitive, quiet,
concerned, warm, etc are often used to describe
personalities 6 $ ‘
+ Some other terms related to personality include
temperament, trait, disposition, character, habit and.
values.
tt
Major Approaches to the Stu
A number of approaches and the
to understand and explain
individuals and behavioural co
individual.
Type of Approach
+ Greek physician Hippoet
types i.e. sanguine, phlegma
choleric, each characterised
features. ™ 0 ale
+ As Per Charak Samhita a famo
India classifies people into tt
and kapha on the basis of th
called tidosha, ‘Guccoed « FAST TRACK REVISION
number of psychologists have used traits to formulate
Nar theotes of personaly. Some of these are
lor’ Trait Theory
Gordon Allpor is the pioneer of trait approach. Allport
fategorised traits into
"Cardinal Traits They indicate the goal around which
a person's entire life seems to revolve.
«Central Traits These traits (e.g. warm, sincere,
diligent, etc) are often used in writing a testimonial or
job recommendation for a person.
+ Secondary Traits Traits such as ‘likes mangoes’ or
‘prefers ethnic clothes are examples of secondary
traits.
cattell's Trait Theory
Raymond Cattell applied a statistical technique, called
tector analysis to discover the common structures. He
developed a test, called Sixteen Personality Factor
‘Questionnaire (16PF), for the assessment of personality
Eysenck’s Theory
HW Eysenck proposed that personality could be
biologically and genetically based
Dimension which classified a number of specific traits are
Neuroticism vs Emotional Stability, Ertroversion vs
Introversion and Psychoticism vs Sociabilty
Five Factor Model of Personality
Big five factors of personality include openness to
experience, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism and.
conscientiousness
Psychodynamic Approach
Sigmund Freud used free association, dream analysis
and analysis of errors to understand the internal
‘uncticning of the mind. He visualises the human min
terms of three levels of consciousness, that are
conscious, pre-conscious and unconscious.
Structure of Personality
+ According to Freud's theory, the primary structural
elements of personality are
— Id Itis energised by two instinctual forces called
lfe instinct and death instinct.
~ Ego It works by the reality principle and often
directs the id towards more appropriate ways of
behaving.
~ Superego The superego tells the id and the ego
whether gratification in a particular instance is
ethical.
* Freud has described many different kinds of defence:
mechanisms such as Repression, Projection, Denial,
Reaction, Formation and Rationalisations.
Stages of Personality Development
Freud proposed a five-stage theory of personality (also
“alled psychosexual) development. These are
() Oral Stage The infant achieves oral gratification —
through feeding, thumb sucking, biting and babbling. eg
(i) Anal Stage The child learns to respond to some of the
demands of the society around ages two and three.
(ii) Phallic Stage This stage focuses on the genitals.
‘Around ages four and five, children began to realise
the difference between males and females. At this
stage, male child experiences the Oedipus complex
(Electra complex in girls)
(v) Latency Stage During this period, the child continues
to grow physically, but sexual urges are relatively
inactive
(¥) Genital Stage In this stage, the person attains
maturity in psychosexual development.
Post-Freudian Approaches
These theories are characterised by less prominent roles
to sexual and aggressive tendencies of the id and
expansion of the concept of ego. -
* Carl Jung He developed his own theory of personality
called analytical psychology. Jung claimed that there
was a collective unconscious consisting of archetypes
(original) or primordial images.
Karen Horney According to her, each sex has
attributes to be admired by the other, and neither sex
can be viewed as superior ferior.
Alfred Adler In Adler's view, every individual suffers
from the feelings of inadequacy and guilt ie.
inferiority complex, which arise ffom childhood,
Erich fromm He recognises the value of positive
qualities, such as tenderness and love in personality
development. FE at mt
Erik Erikson He viewed development as a lifelong
process and ego identity is granted a central place in
this process. a
oneal.
Behavioural Approach a
They see the development simply as a change in
response characteristics i.e. a person leams
behaviours in response to new environments
Cultural Approach a
It proposes that a group's economic mainter
plays a vital role in the origin of cultural and b
seria) ox x00
Humanistic Approach
Carl Rogers end Abraham Maslow have
contributed to the development of humanis
on personality. loaf giatuannr |
|
The most commonly used techniques are
+ Self-report Measures Some of the well-known
self-report measures are:
~ The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory (MMPI) Hathaway and McKinley
developed this test. The test is divided into 10
subscales, which seek to diagnose
hypochondriasis, depression, hysteria, mania and
social introversion.
~ Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ)
This test developed by Eysenck, initially to assess
two dimensions of personality called introverted-
extroverted and emotionally stable-emotionally
unstable
~ Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire
(16 PF) This test was developed by Cattell, The
test provides declarative statements, and the
subject responds to a specific situation by
choosing from a set of given alternatives
+ Projective Techniques These techniques are based
cn the assumption that a less structured or
Unstructured stimulus or situation will allow the
individual to project her/his feelings, desires and
Needs on to that situation.
+ The Rorschach Inkblot Test This test was
developed by Hermann Rorschach. The test consists
Of 10 inkblots. Five of them are in black and white,
two with some red ink and the remaining three in
some pastel colours,
+ The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) This test
was developed by Morgan and Murray.
= Meeting Life Challenges
Meaning of Stress
* Stress is a physical, mental or emotional factor that
‘causes bodily or mental tension. Stress is a form of
Tesponse towards an event or stimuli, It may disturbs
the psychological stability of a person and diminish
his/her ability. as
Eustress is the term used to describe the level of
stress that is good for you, Chea
Stressors are events that cause our body to give the
sites response, Such events include noise,
crowding, conflict, frustration, a bad relationship or
the daily commuting to school or office,
Nature, Types and Sources of Stress ae
Hans Selye, the father of modem stress rest
stress as the non-specific response of the body to an
demand a
Cognitive Theory of Stress
This theory was propounded by Lazarus.
this, the perception of stress is depen
individual's cognitive appraisal of ever
esources available to deal with them.
Succeed * PSYCHOLOGY « cus
‘The test consists of 80 black and white piety
and 1 blank card.
* Rosenzweig's Picture-Frustration Study
(P-F Study) This test was developed by fog
to assess how people express aggression ng
of a frustrating situation, There are two test
this:
) Sentence Completion Test
(li) Draw-a-Person Test —
Behavioural Analysis
Observation of behaviour serves as the Basis of | g
behavioural analysis. An observer's report May contan | O1
data obtained from interview, observation, ratings,
nomination and situational tests, 67 ae
* Interview This involves talking to the person
assessed and asking specific questions, *
+ Observation it requires careful training of
observer and a fairly detailed guideline abou
analysis of behaviours in order to assess the
Personality of a given person. 7 ii
+ Behaviourial Ratings These are generally
People who know the assessee intimately
interacted with her/him over a period of
* Nomination In using
‘asked to choose one or
* Situational Tests The |
Perform a given task
instructed to be non:
(i) Primary Appraisal it
‘or changing environ
Negative in its:
appraised for their Pa
cognitive Reactions Cognitive reactions include
* palefs about the harm or threat an event poses and
pales about its causes or controllability
changes in Stress
‘he stresses which people experience vary in terms
* gjintensity, duration, complexity and predictability
«psychological characteristics like mental health,
temperament and sell-concept ate relevant to the
experience of stress,
gians and Symptoms of Stress
gut response t0 stress varies depending upon our
sonality, eetly upbringing and life experiences, The
Emoto of stress can be physical, emotional and
behavioural
rypes of Stress
rere are three major types of stresses
() Physical and Environmental Stress Physical
stresses are demands that change the state of our
body. Envifonmental stresses are aspects of our
surtoundings that are often unavoidable such as air
palltion, crowding, noise, heat of the summer, winter
ald, ete
{@ Psychological Stress These are intemal sources of
stress that we generate ourselves in our minds.
The important sources of psychological stress are
frustration, contficts, internal pressures and social
pressures.
(i) Social Stress These are produced externally and
result from our interaction with other people.
Sources of Stress
+ Life Events Major life events can be stressful,
because they disturb our routine and cause
upheaval.
+ Hassles These are the personal stresses we
experience as individuals, due to the happenings in
cur daily lfe, such as noisy surroundings,
commuting, quarrelsome neighbours, etc.
+ Traumatic Events These events include extreme
events such as a fire, train or road accident, robbery,
earthquake, tsunami, etc.
Effects of Stress on Psychological Functioning
and Health
Many of the effects of stress are physiological in nature.
Thee are four major effects of stress associated with the
stessed slate, These are as follows
() Emotional Effects Those who suffer from stress are
likely to experience mood swings and show erratic
behavior that may alienate them from family and
friends smmaguel
(}) Physiological Effects When the human body is
placed under physical or psychological stress, it
increases the production of certain hormones, such
8 adrenaline and cortisol.
iil Cognitive Ettects Cognitive effects of stess are poor
‘concentration and reduced short-term memory
capacity
(iv) Behavioural Effects Stress affects our behaviour in
the form of eating less nutritional food, increasing
intake of stimulants such as ‘excessive consumption of
Cigarettes, alcohol and other drugs.
Stress and Health
* People experience exhaustion and attitudinal
problems when the stress are too high and litle
‘Suppor is available from family and friends.
* Stress has been implicated in the development of
Cardiovascular disorders, high blood pressure, as
Well as psychosomatic disorders including asthma,
allergies and headaches.
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
* Selye studies the issue of stress by subjecting
animals to a variety of stressors such as high
temperature, X-rays, etc.
* GAS involves three stages that are Alarm Reaction
Stage, Resistant Stage and Exhaustion Stage.
Stress and the Immune System
* Stress can cause illness by impairing the workings of
the immune system. axd Bi)
Stress can affect natural killer cell eytotoxicity which
's of major importance in the defence against various
infections and cancer. én
* The white blood cells (leucocytes) within the immune
system identiy and destroy foreign bodies (antigens)
Such as viruses. It also leads to the production of
antibodies,
Liestvig to tenet peta
* Lifestyle he overall pattern of decisions and behavo
urs that determine a person's health and quailty
lite,
+ Research reveals that health promoting t
balanced ciet, regular exercise, family supy
play an important role in good health Stress Management Techniques
Relaxation Techniques It is an active skill that reduces
symptoms of stress and decreases the incidence of
illnesses such as high blood pressure and heart disease.
Meditation Procedures The yogic method of meditation
consists of a sequence of learned techniques for
refocusing of attention that brings about an altered state
of consciousness.
Biofeedback It is a procedure to Monitor and reduce the
Physiological aspects of stress by providing feedback
about current physiological activity and is often
accompanied by relaxation training
Creative Visualisation It is a subjective experience that
uses imagery and imagination,
Cognitive Behavioural Techniques
Stress inoculation training is an effective method, itis
developed by Meichenbaum. There are three main
phases in this technique
(0 Assessment It involves discussing the nature of the
problem and seeing it from the viewpoint of the
personiclient
(i) Stress Reduction it involves leaming the techniques
Of reducing siress such as relaxation and
selt-instruction,
(i) Exercise Regular exercise improves the efficiency of
the heart, enhances the function of the lungs,
‘maintains good circulation, lowers blood pressure,
reduces fat in the blood and improves the body's
immune system,
Promoting Positive Health and Well-Being
Stress Resistant Personality
‘According to Kabasa, people with high levels of stress
but low level of illness share three characteristics. These
are referred to as the personality traits of hardiness,
Life Skills
These are abilities for adaptive and positive behaviour
that enable individuals to deal effectively with the
® Psychological Disorders
Psychological disorders are those mental disorders which
Fesult in certain behavioural pattern such as unhappiness,
discomfort, anxiety, etc. iia
Concept of Abnormality and Psychological
Disorders ,
The four Ds’ of Abnormality and Psychological Di
are as follows:
different people.
(i) Distressing/distress means abnormality is
and upsetting to the person and to ott
iSucceed» PSYCHOLoGy
demands and challenges of everyday jig
that wil help to meet the challenges of jp Shy
+ Assertiveness It is @ behaviout or 8
communicate clearly and confidenyy ta
needs, wants and thoughts, Ou
+ Time Management Tho cental ping
management is to spend one's time
the things that one value oF that hy
‘one's goals. Oe
+ Rational Thinking Many strese-ra
occur as a result of cistorted thinking nm
feeling are closely connected, f
+ Self-care The better Way to prepare py
emotionally and to tackle the stresseg
is by keeping ourselves healthy, ft ang’
+ Overcoming Unhelpful Habits Habj
perfectionism, avoidance, procastinatg
strategies that help to cope in the shor,
Development of Positive Health
Health is a state of complete physical,
spiritual well-being and not merely the aby
isease or infirmity. Factors that act as
facilitate positive health are
+ Diet A balanced dlet can ltt one's me
energy, feed muscles, improve ciculai
liness, strengthen the immune
fool better to cope with stresses
+ Exercise Regular exercise plays an
managing weight and stress and it
effect on reducing tension, a
+ Positive Attitude Positive
be realised by having a positive
+ Positive Thinking The power
been increasingly recognise
with stress. Optimism has
psychological and physica
Social Support Social
existence and availabilty
rely upon and people ee
-
