Introduction

Course Content
The course is broken down into weeks. Each Week Comprises:
Introduction
Week Outcome
Glossary
Content
Summary
Activity/assessment
References Content
1. Religion and Worldview
2. Worldviews
3. Culture and Worldview
4. African Worldview
5. The Supreme Being in African worldview
6. Dimensions of African Worldview
7. Spirits in African worldview
8. Anthropocentric nature of African Worldview
9. Cosmology in African worldview
10. Ethics and Morality in African Worldview
11. Evil and Justice in African Worldview
12. Challenges and the future of African worldview.
Time Frame
The course will take 12 weeks which forms a semester in a university calendar. At least it is expected that
you spend three hours a week for personal study.
Study Skills
As an adult learner your approach to learning will be different from that of your school days:
• you will choose what you want to study,
• you will have professional and/or personal motivation for doing so and,
• You will most likely be fitting your study activities around other professional or domestic
responsibilities.
Essentially you will be taking control of your learning environment. As a consequence, you will need to
consider performance issues related to time management, goal setting, stress management, etc. Perhaps you
will also need to reacquaint yourself in areas such as essay planning, coping with exams and using the web
as a learning resource.
Your most significant considerations will be time and space i.e. the time you dedicate to your learning and
the environment in which you engage in that learning. We recommend that you take time now—before
starting your self-study—to familiarize yourself with these issues. There are a number of excellent resources
on the web. Some suggested links are:
a. http://www.how-to-study.com/
The “How to study” web site is dedicated to study skills resources. You will find links to study preparation
(a list of nine essentials for a good study place), taking notes, strategies for reading text books, using
reference sources, test anxiety.
b. http://www.howtostudy.org/resources.php
Another “How to study” web site with useful links to time management, efficient reading,
questioning/listening/observing skills, getting the most out of doing (“hands-on” learning), memory
building, tips for staying motivated, developing a learning plan.
The two links indicated above are our suggestions to help you get started, however you may want to look
for more at www.google.com where you type “self-study basics”, “self-study tips”, or “self-study skills”
and choose what you find appropriate and suitable for you.
Need Help?
c. The course website is www.mu.ac.ke hosted at msomi platform.
d. The course Instructor’s name is Elias Ng’etich. Office hours are on Tuesdays 11:00 AM to 12:00
PM at NCT 9. Email: [email protected]
e. for technical issues (computer problems, website access, etc.) contact:
Assignments
The course shall have a total of 36 assignments; three for each week at the end of every week. The
assignments should be submitted online through varied platforms like discussion forums, chats, and
email. The assignments are to be submitted only to the instructor on weekly basis as per the ordered
scheduled.
References
1. Arap Chepkwony, Adam K. (2011). Re-discovering African Wholistic Approach to Life: Ways of
Acquiring and Appropriating Knowledge, Eldoret: Moi University Press.
Your Comments…. Evaluation
After completing REL 110: African Traditional Worldview, we would appreciate if you could take a few
moments to give us feedback on all aspects of this course. The feedback could include comments on:
• Course content and structure
• Course reading materials and other resources
• Course assignments
• Course activities
• Course duration
• Course support (assigned tutors, technical help etc)
Review
This course will be reviewed every four years but minor reviews may be undertaken whenever a need arises
to accommodate emerging issues and to keep updated with the market trends.
MARGIN ICONS/SYMBOLS
While studying African Traditional Worldview you will notice the frequent use of margin icons. These
icons serve to “signpost” a particular piece of text, a new task or change in activity. The icons have been
included to assist you find your way easily around the course. A complete list of icons is provided below.
We suggest that you familiarize yourself with the icons and their meaning before starting your study.

WEEK 1: INTRODUCTION TO QUANTITATIVE TECHNIQUES IN

EDUCATION.
Introduction
o Justification for the course
o
o Characteristics of measurement o
o Scales of measurement
Objectives
By the end of this WEEK you should be able to:
a. Explain the importance of quantitative techniques in Education.
b. Define the term measurement and describe the characteristics of measurement.
c. Identify the differences between the four scales of measurement

LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end the end of this week you will be able to:
1.State five importance of quantitative techniques in Education.
2. Explain at least ten characteristics of measurement.
3.Identify the uses of the four scales of measurement.
Objectives
By the end of this lesson you should be able to:
1.Discuss the importance of quantitative techniques in education.

LESSON ONE : JUSTIFICATION OF THE COURSE

INTRODUCTION
About this Module/ SLIM
Quantitative Techniques denotes the mathematical or statistical methods which are used by Educational
establishments to make Educational decisions or formulation of Educational plans.
Quantitative methods in education will serve as a context for the development of Quantitative skills by
facilitating the development of your abilities to solve real world problems, make intelligent (more
informed) decisions, evaluate quantitative information, and reason more effectively.
Course Overview
After completing this course in quantitative methods in education you should be able to:
1. Perform basic operations (e.g., addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division) in the context of both
arithmetic and algebra;
2. Solve a variety of equations (e.g., linear, quadratic, radical, exponential, logarithmic, or trigonometric
equations);
3. Estimate and approximate answers to a variety of problems (i.e., recognize both the range of possible
answers and when an "answer" is outside the range of possible answers);
4. Demonstrate a conceptual understanding of quantitative methods (e.g., represent mathematical
information using symbols, graphs, tables and verbal explanations);
5. Demonstrate a procedural understanding of quantitative methods (i.e., carry out the steps required to
arrive at a final answer or conclusion);
6. Explain and demonstrate the relevance of quantitative methods to the real world (e.g., give examples of
how quantitative methods are used in the real world);
7. Represent real-world problems using quantitative methods (i.e., model real-world problems);
8. Solve both real-world problems and problems that exist within the context of quantitative methods itself;
9. Select an appropriate formula for a given real-world problem, and use it to solve the problem;

LESSON TWO : MEASUREMENT(60minutes)

Objectives:
By the end of this lesson you should be able to:
1.Expain the characteristics of measurement.
2.Describe the types of characteristics of measurement.
We frequently make decisions at all levels; be it at home or school and generally every day in life. The more
we know about the factors involved in the decisions, the better the decisions are likely to be.
These decisions should be based on a test or measurement-empirical evidence. Measurement is therefore
the process of assigning numbers to objects or units of population according to a specific set of rules or
rating scales.The scales should help you answer a specific question i.e., about whether the (numbers)
information conveys exactly –or actually conveys the quantitative information i.e., whether the information
is the same e.g., he got 10 marks in English and Mathematics-is it the same. What scale is it based on.
Grading is different in different subjects and different schools.
E.g., 80-100 A, 75-79 A-, 70-74 B+,
Some characteristics are difficult to measure e.g., affection-love, sadness, joy, fun.The set of rules used in
measurement is what is called a scale.If we are interested in our measurement scales, it is imperative for us
to have knowledge about the scale used in measurement as is critical for proper interpretation of the
measurement.Pass marks for different schools and organizations is different.Teachers’ measure students’
knowledge and skills by asking questions-oral or written or by allowing them to demonstrate learned
skillsthrough exams-and scores are assigned.
 Characteristics of measurement
13. It is a systematic process of assigning numerals to objects or individuals as a means of presenting
their characteristics or behavior.
14. It uses methods of observation, rating scales and any other means to assign numerals
15. The rating scales used include; nominal, ordinal interval and ratio scales.
16. Measurement can be relative or absolute
17. Measurement involves the development of instruments to measure the characteristics or behavior
of objects or individuals.
18. Measurement requires that the instruments developed should be reliable and valid
19. The marking process in schools constitutes a measurement process
20. The purpose of measurement is to present information conveniently in numerical form or
qualitative form.
Type of characteristics in measurement Constant
When measurements on the same characteristics remain the same from one unit to another of the population
they are said to be constant. Number of ears, nose, eyes, legs, hands e.t.c.
NB: constants are not popular with research investigators.
Variables
These are measurable characteristics that assume different values among the subjects.
They refer to any characteristic of a person or object that can change over time.
Social and behavioural scientists are primarily concerned with the characteristics of people, environment
and situations.
Variables are used for the purpose of research through the use of dependent variables.
Variables can be: -
1 Qualitative
2 Quantitative
Qualitative variables
These are variables whose measurement vary in kind from unit to unit of a population e.g., gender, tribe,
race, eye colour, occupation, and so on.
Quantitative variables
These are variables whose measurement vary in magnitude from unit to unit in a population e.g., no. of
bothers/sisters, water consumption, enrollment, age, weight e.t.c.
Types of quantitative variables
1. Discrete quantitative variables-these are those variables that increase or decrease by
whole numbers and not by fractional amounts. These can take on the number line.
When measurement on a quantitative variable can only assume countable number of values, the variable is
called, discrete whole numbers/integers, e.g., enrollment, no. of brothers/sisters, no. of teachers, students,
voters.
2. Continuous quantitative variables – these are those variables that can theoretically
assume an infinite number of values between any two units-infinite.
Therefore, continuous variables can assume numbers that represent any fraction of a whole number.
When measurement on a quantitative variable can assume any one of the countless number of values in the
line interval the variable is said to be continuous e.g., ½, 1 ½, 3.667, age, weight, distance, power
consumption.

LESSON THREE:SCALES OF MEASUREMENT:(60 minutes)

Objectives By the end of this lesson you will be able to differentiate the four scales of measurement
Measurement refers to the assignment of numbers to objects or events according to a specific set of rules or
rating scales.These set of rules is called a scale.Different variables require different rules for assigning
numbers to individual population units in order to express the differences between them. Therefore, the
knowledge of data that you have is very important since specific variables can be measured using one scale
or the other. This is also critical for the proper interpretation of the measurement.
The scale should help you answer a specific question i.e., about whether the information conveys exactly –
or actually the quantitative information or whether the information is the same. E.g., he got 20% in
mathematics and English-is it the same-it is based on what scale. Grading in most cases is different-is grade
A in mathematics equivalent to the same in B e.g., 65-69 B, 70-74 B+, 75-79 A-, this is your rating scale.
Pass marks in different schools differs and you need to know the scale for different schools-issues of schools
being equipped and well facilitated. Are they performing at the same rating?
Types of scales
Data for analysis results from the measurement of one or more variables.
Depending upon the variables and the way in which they are measured, different kinds of data results
representing different scales of measurement.
There are four types of measurement scales: -
21. Nominal
22. Ordinal
23. Interval
24. Ratio
Nominal scale
This is the lowest scale or level of measurement.
This is a scale in which numbers are used to label, classify or identify people or objects of interest.
The nominal scale can take a verbal label, place of names, does not show amounts and is used to represent
something.
This scale classifies persons or objects into two or more categories. Whatever, the basis of classification, a
person can only be in one category-and members of a given category have a common set of characteristics
e.g., tall vs short, male vs female, introverted vs extroverted.
It is also used for identification e.g., TSC Nos, Reg. No., Id Nos., Football jersey nos. reg. no. Adm. Nos.
All mathematical operations with nominal data are meaningless.
Conditions that nominal data should satisfy
25. Exclusiveness-no one member of population should belong to more than one category.
26. Exhaustiveness- every member must be categorized, he must be exhausted.
27. Homogeneous- members should have uniform characteristics.
Ordinal scale
The ordinal scale of measurement is a rank order scale. Sometimes numbers. represent some order on a
given trait i.e., ranking.
An ordinal scale not only classifies subjects but also ranks them in terms of the degree to which they possess
a characteristic of interest.
In other words, an ordinal scale puts the subjects in order from the highest to the lowest, from the most to
the least. However, they do not contain information about how much more or less.
A scale that tells us the order in which people stand, who has more trait, but not by how much is called the
ordinal scale. It does not contain information about the amount.
Ordinal scale of measurement allows you to make ordinal judgment i.e., it allows you to determine which
is better or worse than any other.
While the ordinal scale is more precise measurement than a nominal scale, it still does not allow the level
of precision usually desired in a research study.
It classifies, labels, and ranks.
Interval scale of measurement
This scale has equal distances between adjacent numbers. as well as ordinarily i.e., it has all the
characteristics of the nominal and ordinal scale, but in addition it is based upon predetermined equal
intervals.
Most of the tests used in educational research, such as achievement tests, aptitude tests, and intelligence
tests represent interval scales (IQs and melting points are also interval). Therefore, you will most often be
working with statistics appropriate for interval data.
When we talk about scores we are referring to interval data.
These are measurements that enable the determination of how much more or less of characteristics being
measured is possessed by one unit of population of a sample than the other.
This scale does not have a true zero point. Such scales have an arbitrary maximum score and an arbitrary
minimum score or zero point.
E.g., if an IQ test produces scores ranging from 0 - 200, a score of 0 does not indicate the absence of
intelligence nor does a score of 200 indicate possession of the ultimate intelligence.
A score of zero only indicates the lowest level of performance possible on that particular test and a score of
200 represents the highest level.
Addition and subtraction on interval scale are meaningful but multiplication and division is meaningless
because zero is arbitrary.
Ratio scale
This represents the highest most precise and sophisticated level of measurement.
It has an advantage over all the other scales of measurement and in addition a meaningful zero.
Zero is absolute or true e.g., enrollment, annual profit and no. of male/female students, height, weight,
time...
Because of the true zero point, not only can we say that the difference between a height of 3’2” and a height
of 4’2” is the same as the difference between 5’4” and 6’4”, but also that a man 6’ 4”, is twice as tall as a
child 3’2”.
Similarly, 60 minutes is three times as long as 20 minutes, and 40 pound is 4 times as heavy as 10 pounds.
Thus, with a ratio scale we can say that Egor is tall and Ziggie is short (nominal scale), Egor is taller than
Ziggie (ordinal scale), Egor is seven feet tall and Zaggie is five feet tall (interval scale), and Egor is
sevenfifths as tall as Zaggie. Since most physical scales of measurement represent ratio scale, but
psychological measures do not, ratio scales are not used very often in educational research.
SELF TEST QUESTIONS
i. Define measurement.
ii. Distinguish between discrete variables and continuous variables.
iii. Outline the advantages and disadvantages of each of the four levels of measurement.
iv. Explain four different methods of data collection v. Discuss the characteristics of measurement
ACTIVITY
Read through the notes given above and:
1 Summarize the importance of quantitative techniques in education.
2 Describe the characteristics of measurement.
3. Identify the different uses of the four scales of measurement.
Summary:
This week you were introduced to the importance of quantitative techniques in education, scales of
measurement, and characteristics of measurement.
GLOSSARY
Discrete variables- this are variables that come in whole numbers Continuous variables- this are
variables that come in fractions
ASSIGNMENT:
Discuss the uses of each of the four levels of measurement

WEEK TWO
NUMBER SYSTEMS (3hours)
o Natural numbers
o
o Real numbers o o properties of real numbers.
Objectives
By the end of this WEEK you should be able to:
a. Identify Natural numbers
b. Distinguish Real numbers from Natural numbers
c. Explain the properties of real numbers
28. LEARNING OUTCOMES:
29. 1.Explain four properties of real numbers
30. 2.Identify atleast five differences between natural numbers and real numbers.
31. 3.Discuss atleast five additive and five multiplative properties of real numbers

LESSON ONE:(60 minutes)

NUMBERS
A number is a mathematical symbol used to count, label and measure. In mathematics numbers include a,
negative numbers, positive numbers, rational numbers, natural numbers, irrational numbers, real numbers
and complex numbers.
Mathematical operations are certain procedures that take one or more numbers as an input and produce a
number as an output.
Unary operations: Take a single input number and produce a single output number. e.g. successor operation
adds 1 to an integer e.g. successor of 4 is 5.
Binary operations take two input numbers and produce a single output number. Examples: Addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division and exponentiation.The study of numerical operations is called
arithmetic.
A notational symbol that represents a number is called a numeral. Numerals ae used in counting, measuring,
labeling, ordering and coding.
A number is an abstract object, the symbol or the word for the number.
Number systems: Are sets in which numbers are classified:
Natural numbers:
Counting numbers are 1, 2, 3, 4, ….
Cardinal numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …
The mathematical symbol for the set of all natural numbers is written using ten digits:
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9. In the base 10 system, the rightmost digit of a natural number has a place
value of 1 and every other digit has a place value ten times that of the place value of the digit to its right.
Integers
Z = …-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …
The negative of a positive integer is a number that produces 0 when added to the corresponding positive
integer.
When the set of negative numbers is combined with the set of natural numbers (0 included) the result is
defined as the set of integer numbers.
Rational numbers
A rational number is a number that can be expressed as a fraction with an integer numerator and non-zero
integer denominator.
Two different fractions may correspond to the same rational number E.g.

LESSON TWO:REAL NUMBERS (R) (60minutes) Objectives

By the end of this lesson you should be able to explain the properties of real numbers.
Real numbers include measuring numbers, and are usually written as decimal numbers. Zero is written as
0.0 for it to be a real number and not an integer.
Numbers between -1 and 1 are written with a 0 before the decimal point. Every rational number is a real
number.
Every real number is not rational irrational number is one that cannot be written as a fraction of two integers.
A decimal that can be written as a fraction ends (or terminates) or forever repeats, because it is the answer
to a problem in division.
e.g. the real number 0.5 = and the real number 0.333 1/3

The real number π (P), the ratio of the circumference of any circle to its diameter is
π = 3.141592653588979….. = 1.41421356237…..
Every real number is either rational or irrational. Every real number corresponds to a point on the number
line.
When a real number represents a measurement, there is always a margin of error. This is indicated by
rounding or truncating a decimal, so that digits that suggest a greater accuracy than the measurement itself
are removed.
The remaining digits are called significant digits.
Complex Numbers
The complex numbers consists of all numbers of the form.
c = a + bi
Where i is the imaginary unit.
the square root of -1. a and b
are real numbers a is the real
part b is the imaginary part.
If the real part of a complex number is zero (0) them the number is called an imaginary number or purely
imaginary.
If the imaginary part if 0, the number is a real number. Thus the real numbers are a subset of complex
numbers.
If the real and imaginary parts of a complex number are both integers, then the number is called a Gaussian
integer.
The complex number system is not ordered, i > 1 or i < 1 are meaningless. complex numbers correspond
to points on the complex plane.
Each of the number systems is a proper subset of the next number system.
That is
N C Z C Q C R C C Algebra:

The generalization of arithmetic. The systematic use of variables (where numbers are represented by letters)
for purposes of communication and solving real-world problems.
Mathematics focuses on special sets of numbers:

N = {1, 2, 3, …} Natural numbers

W = {0, 1, 2, 3, ….} Whole numbers

Z = {…, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3…} Integers

The three periods (…) called on ellipsis indicate that the numbers continue without bound.
Q = { a/b | a, b, E, Z, b 0} Ratio numbers
The vertical line | inside the bracket reads such that
Decimals that dominate or repeat are rational

0.05 = and 0. = 666… = 2/3 Irrational

Numbers:
Any number that cannot be written as a ratio of two integers. Non-terminating decimals that do not repeat
are irrational.

e.g. π = 3.14159… and = 1.41421…

Real Numbers = R
Is the set of all rational numbers combined with the set of irrational number.
Even Integers:
The set of all integers that are evenly divisible by 2. Any integer multiplied by 2, the product is an even
integer.

{…, -6, -4, -2, 0, 2, 4, 6, …} Even integers

Prime numbers
A set of integers greater than 1 that are divisible by only 1 and itself. The smallest prime number is 2.
Prime numbers { 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, …}
Odd integers
Is the set of all non-zero integers that are non-evenly divisible by 2.

{…, -5, -3, -1, 1, 3, 5,…} Composite

numbers:
A set of integers greater that 1 that is not prime and can be uniquely written as a product of primes.
E.g. 42 = 2. 21
2. 21 is a factorization of 42
and 2 and 21 are factors of 42.
If c is a composite number then C = C1. C2 . C3, where C1, C2 and C3 are prime numbers.
Then, the prime factorization of C is C1.C2 .C3.
Factors divide the number evenly.
A fraction:
Is a rational number written as a quotient or ratio of two integers a and b where b 0 Numerator:
is the integer above the fraction bar.
Denominator: Is the integer below the fraction bar.
Equivalent fractions: Are two ratios exposed using different numerators and denominators E.g.
Common factor: Is a factor shared by some specific numbers
E.g. The numbers 50 and 100 share the factor 25
Reducing: Basic steps for finding equivalent fractions
Reducing to lower terms:
Is finding fractions where the numerator and denominator common factor other that 1. This can be done by
dividing the numerator and denominator by the greatest common factor (GCF).
The GCF is the largest number that divides a set of a number evenly.
{1, 2, 5, 10, 25, 50} Factors of 50
{1, 2, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100} Factors of 100 Each
number is a factor of itself.
Relationship between multiplication and division

The dividend is evenly divided by the Divisor to obtain the Quotient. If a divisor is multiplied by a quotient
the product is a dividend. When the dividend is zero and divisor is on-zero

A real number line or number line:

Visual display of real numbers by associating them with unique point on a line. The real number associated
with a point is called a coordinate.
Graph: a point on the real number line that is associated with a coordinate.
To construct a number line, draw a horizontal line with arrows on both ends to indicate that it continues
without bound. Choose one point to represent the number zero. This point is called the origin.
The opposite of any real number a is –a. Opposite real numbers are the same distance from the origin on a
number line. But their graphs lie on opposite sides of the origin and the numbers have opposite signs.
Double negative property: For any real number a, -(-a) - a Absolute Value:
The absolute value of a real number a, denoted | a |, is the distance between zero (the origin) and the graph
of that real number on the number line. e.g. | 0 | = 0
The algebraic definition of the absolute value of a real number a is:
| a | = a if a > 0
-a if a < 0
The piecewise definition:
If a is non-negative, a > 0, then the absolute value will be that number a. If a is negative, a < 0, then the
absolute value will be the opposite of that number, -a.

LESSON THREE :OPERATIONS WITH REAL NUMBERS(60minutes)

Objectives
By the end of this lesson you will be able to do mathematical operations with real numbers Sum:
Is the result of adding real numbers.
Difference: Is the result of subtracting real numbers.
Given any real numbers a, b, and c, then there are the following properties of addition:
Additive identity property: a+ 0 = 0 + a = a
Additive inverse property: a + (-a) = (-a) + a = 0
Associative property: (a +b) + c = a + (b + c)
Cumulative property: a + b = b + a
Least common multiple (LCM): of all denominators is called the least common denominator (LCD) e.g.
simplify: 2/9 - 1/15 + 8/45

Multiples of 9 {9, 18, 27, 36, 45, 54, 63, 72, 81, 90…}
Multiple of 15 {15, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, 105, 120…}
Multiples of 45 {45, 90, 135, 180, 225,…}
The LCM (9, 15, 45) = 45
The result of multiplying numbers is called the product. Given any real numbers a, b and c, there exists
the following properties of multiplication: Zero factor property: a.0 = 0.a = 0
Multiplicative identity property: a.1 = 1.a = a
Association property: (a.b).c = a.(b.c)
Commutative property: a.b = b.c
Multiplication is commutative and division is not.
Reciprocals: Are two real numbers whose product is one (1)

Grouping symbols:
Those commonly used in algebra are
ACTIVITY
Together with members of your group:
• Identify five different types of numbers

• Describe the properties of real numbers.

During week two you were able to identify Natural numbers and also examine the other types of numbers
together with their properties.
GLOSSARY
Integers-this is the set of all the positive and negative numbers.
Algebra –the systematic use of variables where numbers are represented by letters
ASSIGNMENT:
Discuss 5 aditive and 5 multipicative properties of real numbers
REFERENCES
Thorndike R. M. (2005); Measurement and Evaluation in Psychology and Education (6th ed). New Jersey:
Pearson Education, Inc.
https;www.mathgoogies.com/articles/numbers

WEEK 3 :BASIC SET THEORY (3HOURS)

• BASIC SET THEORY
• Definition ,Types and symbols used in sets

• Operations in sets
 • Application of sets theory in problem solving

LEARNING OUTCOMES:

1.Identify suppersets, sub sets,complements,and empty sets.

2.Perform the following operations between sets: intersection

,union.disjoint,defference. LESSON ONE:Definations and types of
sets. Objectives

By the end of this lesson you should be able to ldentify different types of sets.

Sets

A set is any group of definite, distinguishable objects. The objects are called elements
of the set.

Notations:

1. Sets are denoted by capital letters (A, B, C, …)

2. If X is a set and x is an element of X.

This is written as x X

x belongs to X.

If X is a set and y is not a member of X is written as y X.

y does to belong to X.

3. A set is given using braces.

S = {a, b, c, …}

Three dots imply that the law of formation of other elements if known.

S={x X. P(x) is true}

where x stand for a generic element of the set S and P is a property defined on
the set X.
Examples:

1. N = {0, 1, 2, 3,…} the set of all natural numbers. N+ = {n N: n > 0}

2. Z = {0, -1, +1, -2, +2} The set of all integers

3. Q = { p/q : P Z, q N+} The set of rational numbers.

Q+ = {r Q : r > 0}

4. R = set of all real numbers

R+ = (x R : x > 0}

5. C = the set of all complex numbers

TYPES OF SETS:

1. Equal sets:

A = B if A and B have the same elements.

2. Subset

A is subset of B, written as

A B or B A

If every element of A is included in B or B includes A or B is a superset of A.

3. Proper subset

A is a proper subset of B, written as A B strictly if A B and A

B

There exists at least one element b B such that b A.

4. The empty set

The set which has no element, is denoted by Ø

That is Ø = { x A:x a} where A is any set.

 5. Power set of a set

Let X be any set. The set of all subsets of X is called the power set of X and is
denoted by P(X).

P (X) = {A : A X}

LESSON TWO:OPERATIONS BETWEEN SETS Objectives

By the end of this lesson you should be able to perform operations between sets.

Let H be a set including all sets A, B, C… Let

H be the basic set.

Unions of sets.

Denoted by U called union or cup. The unions of sets A and B is defined by A B=

{x A or x B}

Intersection of sets:

Denoted by called intersection or cap.

The intersection of sects A and B is defined by A B = {x A and x B}

Disjoint sets:

A and B are disjoint sets if A B = Ø. They have no elements in common.

Difference of sets.

Denoted by \

The different of sets A and B is defined by A \ B = {x H:x a and x B}

A \ B is the complement of B with respect to A.\ H /B

is called the complement of B and denoted by Bc

Bc = {x H:x B}Therein:
The union and the intersection are cumulative and associative

A B=B A (A B) C=A (B C)

A B=B A (A B) C=A (B C)

The union is distributive with respect to the intersection and the intersection is
distributive with respect to the union.

A (B C) = (A B) (A C)

A (B C) = (A B) U (A C)

LESSON THREE:SETS THEORY(60minutes)

By the end of this lesson you should be able to demonstrate the use of the sets theory
to solve specific life problems.

Theories (De Morgan’s laws)

1. C \ (A B) = (C \ A) (C \ B)

C \ (A B) = (C \ A) (C \ B)

C\( A) = {C \ A : A A}

C \ ( A) = {C \ A : A A}

Ordered pairs, Cartesian product of sets

Ordered pairs

Let x and y be any objects (e.g. any element of the basic set H.

The ordered pair (x,y) is defined by (x,y) = ({x}, {x,y})

The x and y are the first and the second components of the ordered pair (x,y),
respectively.

In case x and y, then (x, x) = ({x})

Cartesian product of sets:

Let A and B be sets. The Cartesian product of a and B is defined by A x B = {(a,b) : a
a and b B}

The Cartesian product A x B is the set of all, ordered pairs (a,b) with a A, b B.

The universal set

This is the set of all elements currently under consideration, and is often symbolized

by Ω.

A A is a subset.

"A is a subset of B” if x A x B

All the members of A are also members of B.

ACTIVITY
Read the content given under the sets theory above and:
• Differentiate between the union of sets and intersection of sets

• Illustrate the Cartesian product of sets.

• Summary:
Under the sets theory you were introduced to the general principles of notation in
sets, operations between sets and the application of the sets theory in problem
solving.
GLOSSARY
Disjoint sets-these are sets that have no element in common.

Proper subset-A is a proper subset of B if A is found within B but A is not equal to

B.

ASSIGNMENT:
Using ven diagrams illustrate the differences between intersection of sets and union
of sets.
REFERENCES
Geleto, A. K. (2005). Introduction to Statistics and Its Applications. Dire Dawa
[Ethiopia]: Khalif Printing Press.
Saleemi,N.A.(1997).Quantitative Techniques Simplified.Nairobi . N.A.Saleemi
Publishers.

www.solving-math-problems.com/math-symbols-sets-union.htmm
EXTENDED EXPERIENCE:
Using your experience from your emmediet environment illustrate your understanding
of

Operations between sets.

WEEK 4 LOGARITHMS
This week you will be introduced to logarithms.You will be able to identify the components
of logarithms and be able to describe the properties of logs.It will alsobe possible for you to
work out common logs.
Objectives
By the end of this WEEK you should be able to:
o Identify the exponents ,base and mantissa
o o Explain the properties of exponents and
logs. o
o Work out common logs

LEARNING OUTCOMES: o
ldentify the base mantisa and exponents.
o
o Point out 5 properties of logs and exponents o
o Work out logarithms in base ten

LESSON ONE:EXPONENTS AND LOGARITHMS

Objectives
By the end of this lesson you should be able to:
Work out logarithms
EXPONENTS
In its simplest form, a logarithm answers the question:
How many of one number do we multiply to get another number?
Example: How many 2s do we multiply to get 8?
 Answer: 2 × 2 × 2 = 8, so we had to multiply 3 of the 2s to get 8
So the logarithm is 3
How to Write it
We write "the number of 2s we need to multiply to get 8 is 3" as:
log2(8) = 3 So
these two things are the same:
The number we multiply is called the "base", so we can say:
• "the logarithm of 8 with base 2 is 3"
• or "log base 2 of 8 is 3"
• or "the base-2 log of 8 is 3"
Notice we are dealing with three numbers:
• the base: the number we are multiplying (a "2" in the example above)
• how often to use it in a multiplication (3 times, which is the logarithm)
• The number we want to get (an "8")
More Examples
Example: What is log5(625) ... ?
We are asking "how many 5s need to be multiplied together to get 625?"
5 × 5 × 5 × 5 = 625, so we need 4 of the 5s
Answer: log5(625) = 4
Example: What is log2(64) ... ?
We are asking "how many 2s need to be multiplied together to get 64?"
2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 64, so we need 6 of the 2s
Answer: log2(64) = 6
Exponents
Exponents and Logarithms are related, let's find out how ...
The exponent says how many times to use the number in a multiplication.
In this example: 23 = 2 × 2 × 2 = 8
(2 is used 3 times in a multiplication to get 8) So
a logarithm answers a question like this:

In this way:
 The logarithm tells us what the exponent is !
In that example the "base" is 2 and the "exponent" is 3:
So the logarithm answers the question:
What exponent do we need (for one number to
become another number) ?
The general case is:

Example: What is log10(100) ... ?

102 = 100 So
an exponent of 2 is needed to make 10 into 100, and:
log10(100) = 2 Example:
What is log3(81) ... ?
34 = 81 So
an exponent of 4 is needed to make 3 into 81, and:
log3(81) = 4

If n is a whole number, bn, then bn is written in exponential form, b is the base and n is the exponent, power
or index.
Exponents with the same base
If b is any real number and n is a positive integer then bn means b multiplied by itself n times.
An exponent (power or degree) indicates how many times the base will be multiplied by itself.
If x and b are positive numbers and b 0 then the logarithm of x to the base b is the power to which b must
be raised to equal x. it is written as log x.
In algebraic terms it means.
If y = logb x then x = by
The formula y = log bx is in logarithmic form
x = ny in exponential form.
If log4x = 2 then x = 42 = 16
25 = 52. Then log525 = 2

Log 9 x = ½ Then
x=9½

x=
x=3
Log2 y/3 = 4 y/3
= 24

= 16 y
= 48

LESSON TWO:Properties of logs OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lesson you should be able to:
Describe the properties of logs

The natural logarithm

and exponential natural logarithm is written as log lnx = log e x
e is a mathematical constant log x (with
no base) implies natural log.
LESSON THREE:Common Logarithms( Base 10)
Objectives:
By the end of this lesson you should be able to work out logs in base 10.(common logs) Sometimes
a logarithm is written without a base, like this:
log(100) This
usually means that the base is really 10.

It is called a "common logarithm". Engineers love to use it.

On a calculator it is the "log" button.
It is how many times we need to use 10 in a multiplication, to get our desired number.
Example: log(1000) = log10(1000) = 3
Natural Logarithms: Base "e"
Another base that is often used is e (Euler's Number) which is about 2.71828.
 This is called a "natural logarithm". Mathematicians use this one a lot.
On a calculator it is the "ln" button.
It is how many times we need to use "e" in a multiplication, to get our desired number.
Example: ln(7.389) = loge(7.389) ≈ 2
Because 2.718282 ≈ 7.389

But Sometimes There Is Confusion ... !

Mathematicians use "log" (instead of "ln") to mean the natural logarithm. This can lead to confusion: ion:
Example Engineer Mathematician
Thinks Thinks
log(50) log10(50) loge(50) confusion
ln(50) loge(50) loge(50) no confusion
log10(50) log10(50) log10(50) no confusion
So, be careful when you read "log" that you know what base they mean!
Logarithms Can Have Decimals
All of our examples have used whole number logarithms (like 2 or 3), but logarithms can have decimal
values like 2.5, or 6.081, etc.
Example: what is log10(26) ... ?

Get your calculator, type in 26 and press log Answer

is: 1.41497...
The logarithm is saying that 101.41497... = 26 (10
with an exponent of 1.41497... equals 26)
This is what it looks like on a graph:
See how nice and smooth the line is.
Read Logarithms Can Have Decimals to find out more.
Negative Logarithms
Negative Logarithms
− Negative? But logarithms deal with multiplying.
What is the opposite of multiplying? Dividing!
A negative logarithm means how many times to divide by the number.
We can have just one divide:
Example: What is log8(0.125) ... ?
Well, 1 ÷ 8 = 0.125,

So log8(0.125) = −1 Or
many divides:
Example: What is log5(0.008) ... ?
1 ÷ 5 ÷ 5 ÷ 5 = 5−3,

So log5(0.008) = −3
It All Makes Sense
Multiplying and Dividing are all part of the same simple pattern.
Let us look at some Base-10 logarithms as an example:
Number How Many 10s Base-10
Logarithm
.. etc..
1000 1 × 10 × 10 × 10 log10(1000) =3
100 1 × 10 × 10 log10(100) =2
10 1 × 10 log10(10) =1
1 1 log10(1) =0
0.1 1 ÷ 10 log10(0.1) = −1
0.01 1 ÷ 10 ÷ 10 log10(0.01) = −2
0.001 1 ÷ 10 ÷ 10 ÷ 10 log10(0.001) = −3
.. etc..
Looking at that table, see how positive, zero or negative logarithms are really part of the same (fairly
simple) pattern.

ACTIVITY
Read the notes given above and:
4.2. 1 Point out the differences between exponents, base, index and mantissa
4.2.2 Explain the laws of exponents and logs.

Summary:
This week you were able to define the terms exponents, base, and mantissa. You also
covered the laws of exponents and logs and were able to use logarithms in computation.

ASSIGNMENT
1.Working with common logs illustrate your understanding of the components of logs that you
coverd in lesson one this week.

REFERENCES
https://www.mathsisfun.com/algebra/logarithms.html
Geleto, A. K. (2005). Introduction to Statistics and Its Applications. Dire Dawa [Ethiopia]: Khalif Printing
Press.

WEEK 5
EQUATIONS
o The concept of equations –definitions of terms. o Linear and
quadratic equations o Simuliteneous equations
Objectives
By the end of this WEEK you should be able to:
o Ilustrate the concept of equations.
o o Distinguish linear equations from quadratic equations. o o
Solve simultaneous equations and adapt them to real life
situations.

• LEARNING OUTCOMES:
• 1.Explain the following terms in relation to equations:
o Unknown,constants and parameters,coefficient,index and o
Algebraic expressions.
• 2.Solve quadratic equations using both factorization and formula
• 3. Solve simultaneous equations using elimination and substitution methods
LESSON ONE: EQUATIONS
Objectives
By the end of this lesson you will be able to identify the components of an equation.
An equation is an algebraic expression where the presentation on both sides of the equal sign is the same.
The following symbols are used in equations:
1.Unknown
This are variables whose values are not given.This are found By
solving the equation.For example:- 6x+10y=54. In this equation X
and y are unknown.
2.Constants or parameters
Constants or parameters are fixed figures that are found on the left
Hand side of the unknown or separately. In the equation in 1 above
6,10 and 54 are constants.
3.Coefficient
This are figures that appear on the left hand side of the unknown.
In the example given above 6 and 10 are coefficients.
The coefficient denotes how many times the specific unknown has Been
featured.
4.Index
It is the power of the unknown and it is usually shown on the right hand side on top of any unkown.eg. x2 ;
in this example the 2 shows
How many times x is multiplied by itself.
Algebraic Expressions
In algebra, letters called variable are used to represent numbers. Combinations of variables and numbers
along with mathematical operations form algebraic expressions.
Terms are separated by addition operations and factors are separated by multiplication operations.
The numerical factor of a form is called the coefficient.
All of the variable factors with their exponents form the variable part of a term. If a term is written without
a variable factor, then it is called a constant term.
10a2 – 5ab – b2 has 3 terms
10a2, -5ab and –b2 and three variables parts: a2, ab and b2
An equation represents the equivalence between two quantities. Two sides of the equation are in balance
and solving equations involves maintaining the balance whilst rearranging different parts of the equations.
Equations are used to demonstrate relationships
E.g. 7 + 6 = 13
So long as the same thing is done on both sides, the equation remains in balance.
One of the numbers can be replaced by an unknown value.

LESSON TWO:LINEAR EQUATIONS (60 minutes)

Objectives
By the end of this lesson you will be able to workout linear equations.
A linear equation is an equation with one unknown and the index or power of this unknown is one(1) eg.
3x-9=0
The standard form of the linear equation is ax+b=0 x=-b/a
Example:
Solve the equation:-
2(4x-2)=3(x+2)
8x-4=3x+6
8x-3x=6+4
5x=10 X=10/5
X=2 Ans.
Linear Equations in one variable - solving simple linear equations: a.)By
collecting terms
b.)By removing brackets and collecting terms
c.)Linear equations with fractional coefficients Solving
by colleting terms:
3x + 15 = x + 25
3x - x + 15 = x + 25 – x
2x + 15 – 15 = 25 – 15
2x = 10 x
=5
Removing brackets and collecting terms
8(x – 3) – (6 – 2x) = 2(x + 2) – 5(5 – x)
8x – 24 – 6 + 2x = 2x + 4 – 25 + 5x
10x – 30 = 7x – 21 10x
– 7x = 30 – 21
3x = 9 x
=3
Linear equation with fractional co-efficients

A linear equation in variables

x, x2…..xn is an equation of the form:

a1x1 + a2x2 + … + anxn = b

Where a1, a2, …..., an and b are constant real or complex numbers.
The constant ai is called the coefficient of xi and b is called the constant terms of the equation.
Any system of linear equations has one of the following exclusive conclusions:
i.)No solution ii)Unique
solution iii.)Infinitely many
solutions
A linear equation is said to be consistent if it has at least one solution, and is said to be inconsistent if it has
no solution.
y = 4x + 3 y
= -x – 2
Solutions to systems of Linear Equations in three variables: A
linear equation in three variables can be written in the form Ax
+ By + Cz = D Where A, B, and C are not all zero.
E.g. 2x + 3y + 2 = 6 2x
+ y – 3x = -7
3x – 2y + z = 11 -2x
– 3y – 2z = 3
b.)Quadratic equations
When the highest index of the unkown of an equation is 2 the equation is called quadratic.eg. x 2+3x+4=0

There are two ways of solving quadratic equations:- vi.

Using factorization
ii) Using formula
The typical form of quadratic equation is ax2+bx+4=0
To be able to solve the equation bx is divided into two parts.
Eg. 8x2-x-6=0
8x2-8x+6x-6=0
8x(x-1)+6(x-1)=0
(8x+6)(x-1)=0
Either 8x+6=0 or x-1=0
8x=-6 or x=1
X=6/8
X=3/4
So x=-3/4 or x=1
 Simultaneous Equations
and
Inequal
A parameter is some fixed value; also known as a constant or co-efficient.
A variable is an unknown value that changes or varies depending on the parameter values.
Solving en equation: is using mathematical operations to rearrange the equation such that the variable is on
one side of the equation and the parameters are all on the other side.

Linear function, is an equation with two variances of the form: y =

ax + b
Independent and dependent variables
The variable on the right hand side of the equation, x, side called the independent variable and the variable
on the left hand side of the equation, y, is called the dependent variable.

32. The dependent variable may also be written as:

y = f (x) or y
= g(x)
33. This notation emphasizes the y is a function of x, in other words y depends on x.

Simultaneous equations: Are the equations that are both ‘true’ at the same time.
E.g. A system of two simultaneous equations y = 4x
2x + y = 6

LESSON THREE:SOLVING A SYSTEM OF SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS:

Objectives
By the end of this lesson you should be able to solve simuliteneous equations.
Is finding values of the variables that satisfy all equations in the system.
When solving systems of equations:
1.Manipulate the equations to find an expression in terms of one Variable
only.
2.Solve the equation for that one variable
3.Use that solution in one of the original equation to find the other solution.
There are two main ways to manipulate the equations:
f. Substitution method: Substitute
one equation into another b.)
Elimination method:
Add or subtract a multiple of one equation from the other.
Substitution method
Solve the following systems of equations:
y = 4x ….(1)
2x + y = 6 …. (2)

Use this solution, x = 1,

in equation (1) to find y y = 4x 4 x 1 = 4
Elimination Method
Eliminate y in equation (2) by subtracting (1) from (2)
2x + y – y = 6 – 4x
2x = 6 – 4x
6x = 6 x =
1
Simultaneous Equations:
Are two equations each with two unknown? The two unknown should be the same for both equations in
order to find the solutions for the unknown.
E.g. 4x + 12y = 44 7x
+ 4y = 26
Change one or both of them so that the multiplier for one of the unknowns is the same in both equations.
3 x (7x + 4y) = 3 X 26
21x + 12y = 78
21x + 12y = 78
4x + 12y = 44
17x = 34 x =
2
Solving equations by removing brackets and collecting terms
8(x – 3) – (6 – 2x) = 2(x + 2) – 5(5 – x)
Removing brackets and collecting terms
8(x – 3) – (6 – 2x) = 2(x + 2) – 5(5 – x)
8x – 24 – 6 + 2x = 2x + 4 – 25 + 5x
10x – 30 = 7x – 21
10x – 7x = 30 – 21
3x = 9 x
=3
ACTIVITY
Use the equation 4(8x4)=6(x+4) to identify the symbols used in equations.
ASSIGNMENT
34. solve the equation :4 (8x-4)=6(x+4)
35. Solve the following:
4x+3y=7
3x-2y=9
3.solve the equation : 4x+3=2x+5 REFERENCES.
Saleemi,N.A.(1997).Quantitative Techniques Simplified.Nairobi . N.A.Saleemi Publisher
Last modified: Thursday, 7 November 2019, 9:26 AM

MOI UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
PSY 110-QUANTITATIVE METHODS IN EDUCATION
2020/2021 ACADEMIC YEAR
C.A.T I Attempt
all the questions.
1. Four places are situated in order of the letters A, B, C, and D. The distance from
A to D is 34 km. The distance from A to B is to the distance from C to D as 2 to 3.
And ¼ of the distance from A to B, added to half the distance from C to D, is three
times the distance from B to C. What are the respective distances?
2.(a) Simplify the following expressions.
(i) (x-1+x-3)-1 (ii) (x2+y2)1/2 –x2(x2+y2)-1/2

(b)Solve the following equations

(i)32x-1 =7x+1 (ii)8e2x =20 (iii) ln(x-3)=ln(7x-23)-ln(x+1)

c). You have deposited $500 in an account that pays 6.75% interest compounded
continuously. How long does it take your money to double? The formula for
continuous compounding is as follows,
A=Pert , where r is the interest rate, P is the principal amount and t is the required
time for the money to double, A.
3. (a) Solve the following equations graphically
X+2Y=2
3X+6Y=6

(b) Use substitution method to solve the following system of equations.

4X+2Y=7
5X+Y=1

(c) Solve the following systems of equations using elimination method

3X-2Y+Z=7
5X+Y+4Z=18
2X-5Y-3Z=1

WEEK 6
DATA PRESENTATION
o Methods of data presentation
o o The data matrix and the frequency distribution table.
o
o The grouped frequency distribution table
Objectives
By the end of this WEEK you should be able to:
o Describe the different methods of data presentation.
o o Draw an ungrouped frequency distribution table.
o o Draw a grouped frequeny distribution table.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
o Identify 3 different methods of data presentation.
o o Draw an ungrouped frequency distribution table with 3 columns. o o
Draw a grouped frequency distribution table with 8 columns.

LESSON ONE: METHODS OF DATA PRESENTATION (60minute)

Lesson objectives: By the end of the lesson you should be able to:
1.Identify methods of data presentaion
2.Draw a data matrix.
3.Draw an ungrouped frequency distribution table.
METHODS OF DATA PRESENTATION:
There are three different ways in quantitative data may be presented,this include:
1.The tabular method-where the data may be presented in simple tables like The
data matrix and complex tables like frequency distribution tables.
2.Graphical methods, where different types of graphs are used.
3.Textual/Numerical methods where measures of central tendancies and measures of
dispersion are used.

LESSON ONE: METHODS OF DATA PRESENTATION (60minute)

Lesson objectives: By the end of the lesson you should be able to:

1.Identify methods of data presentaion

2.Draw a data matrix.

3.Draw an ungrouped frequency distribution table.

METHODS OF DATA PRESENTATION:

There are three different ways in quantitative data may be presented,this include:

1.The tabular method-where the data may be presented in simple tables like

The data matrix and complex tables like frequency distribution tables.

2.Graphical methods,where different types of graphs are used.

3.Textual/Numerical methods where measures of central tendencies and measures

of dispersion are used.

Activity 1 : Read through the information provided in the slides below and summarize
the different data presentation methods.

THE DATA MATRIX

This is a table of scores in which persons or cases are listed on the rows of the table
and the information collected on the persons or cases is listed along the columns.

Index no. Name Bio Math Chem Phy

2728 Pendo 85 75 77 65

THE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE

This is a tabular arrangement of score values showing the frequency with which each
score occurs. Frequency distribution refers to a distribution that shows the number of times
a given score occurs when all values are placed in order of magnitude.
How to construct an ungrouped frequency distribution

a.)List all the possible scores from the highest to the lowest or vice-versa

g. Then count/tally the frequency of occurrence of each score ie.count/tally the

number of times each score value occurs in the set of data.
h. Convert the number of tallies to Arabic numerals in the column labelled
frequency.
i. Check the accuracy by counting or by adding the numbers on the frequency
column.

Example 1

The following is the score list of the IQs of Regular students of Moi University Nairobi
campus. Construct ungrouped frequency distribution table. The raw scores are as
follows:
-

98 124 99 111 105

112 120 108 103 105

97 101 127 99 119

122 105 124 96 115

102 101 109 103 96

97 104 100 115 126

110 119 113 106 100

107 108 113 112 125

The ungrouped frequency distribution table

Last modified: Sunday, 8 November 2020, 5:58 PM

◄ LESSON THREE:SOLVING A SYSTEM OF SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS:

Jump to...

Last modified: Tuesday, 10 November 2020, 7:01 AM

◄ LESSON THREE:SOLVING A SYSTEM OF SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS:

THE DATA MATRIX
This is a table of scores in which persons or cases are listed on the rows of the table and the information
collected on the persons or cases is listed along the columns.

Index no. Name Bio Math Chem Phy

2728 Pendo 85 75 77 65

THE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE

This is a tabular arrangement of score values showing the frequency with which each score occurs.
Frequency distribution refers to a distribution that shows the number of times a given score occurs when all
values are placed in order of magnitude.
How to construct an ungrouped frequency distribution
a.)List all the possible scores from the highest to the lowest or vice-versa
j. Then count/tally the frequency of occurrence of each score ie.count/tally the number of times each
score value occurs in the set of data.
k. Convert the number of tallies to Arabic numerals in the column labelled frequency.
l. Check the accuracy by counting or by adding the numbers on the frequency column.
Example 1
The following is the score list of the IQs of Regular students of Moi University Nairobi campus. Construct
ungrouped frequency distribution table. The raw scores are as follows: -
98 124 99 111 105
112 120 108 103 105
97 101 127 99 119
122 105 124 96 115
102 101 109 103 96
97 104 100 115 126
110 119 113 106 100
107 108 113 112 125
The ungrouped frequency distribution table

LESSON TWO: Grouped frequency distribution table(60minutes) Lessson

objective: By the end of the lesson you should be able to:
1.Draw a grouped frequency distribution table.
Although a frequency distribution represents a group of scores much more efficiently than does a
randomly ordered list of scores (as shown above), a large number of scores can be more efficiently
represented if they are displayed in a grouped frequency distribution.
A grouped frequency distribution is a distribution in which the scores have been placed into classes. To
construct a grouped frequency distribution, you must first identify the size of the class interval. A class
interval refers to the range of scores within the overall range of scores under consideration. It is always
smaller than the overall range of values under consideration. This is applied when the difference in scores
and values is big. To determine the class intervals, you say;

No. of class intervals= range/class size

Or
Class size = range of score/ total no. of class intervals
The ideal number of class intervals is one that economically presents the scores and at the same time
allows you to obtain a clear picture of the data. Most of the data that social and behavioural scientists collect
can be accommodated by 10 to 20 class intervals. However, this is just but a guideline. In general, you
should select fewer class intervals as the number of scores decreases and more class intervals as the number
of scores increases.
Steps in selecting a class interval vii. Choose the no. of interval to be used viii. Find the average of scores
by subtracting the lowest score from the highest score. ix. Divide the range by the number of class
intervals to determine the class size (i). Round off if a whole nomber is not obtained.
x. Begin the lowest class interval with a score value that is exactly divisible by the class size (i). Class
size (i) = (Xh – Xl)/no. of class intervals (from example 1)

= (127 – 96)/6 = 5.0

Example 2 (follow example one above)

Class Tally Freq L.S.L U.S.L LRL URL Mid-point
interval(i) (x)
125 – 129 /// 3 125 129 124.5 129.5 127
120 – 124 1111 4 120 124 119.5 124.5 122
115 – 119 1111 4 115 119 114.5 119.5 117
110 – 114 111111 6 110 114 109.5 114.5 112
105 – 109 11111111 8 105 109 104.5 109.5 107
100 – 104 11111111 8 100 104 99.5 104.5 102
95 – 99 1111111 7 95 99 94.5 99.5 97

Example 3
The following is some raw data of an achievement test
77 64 82 74 38 66 82 76 61 69
73 57 65 70 75 54 67 71 66 70
88 71 68 84 67 57 58 64 68 64
63 77 78 73 86 77 63 58 65 53
49 61 67 79 73 36 53 62 63 68
I. Using a class size of 5, make a grouped frequency distribution table.
Class interval Tally Frequency
85-89 11 2
80-84 111 3
75-79 1111 11 7
70-74 1111 111 8
65-69 1111 1111 1 11
60-64 1111 1111 9
55-59 1111 4
50-54 111 3
45-49 1 1
40-44 0 0
35-39 11 2
Total 50
LESSON THREE:Class intervals ( Real limits)(60minutes) Objectives
By the end of this lesson you should be able to:
1.Draw a grouped frequency distribution table using real class limits up to 7 columns.
After you have identified the size of the class intervals and the number of class intervals. You must specify
the real limits of the class interval. Class intervals are defined by the score limits, the lower score value of
the class intervals is called the lower score limit (LSL) and the higher score value is called the upper score
limit (USL). Score limits are known as apparent limits because they appear to divide actual boundaries of
the class interval. The real limits of a score represent those points falling half a unit above and half a unit
below a score.The use of real limits is a way of dealing with the inexact measurement of continuous
variables.Real limits of a class interval define the actual boundary of a class interval, the lowest possible
score of a class interval is called the lower real limit and the highest possible score of the class interval is
called the upper real limit.
LRL=LSL – 0.5 units
URL = USL+ 0.5 units
NB: whenever numbers are written to the nearest whole numbers the unit is 1.

Mid-point
The mid-point of a class interval in defined as the score value falling exactly half-way between the possible
numbers in the interval.
This can be arrived at by saying: -
Mid-point = (LSL + USL)/2 …………………………..(1)

Mid-point = (LRL +URL)/2……………………………(2)

Mid-point = LRL + i/2 = URL – i/2…………………..(3) ACTIVITY:

Using examples from your own life experiences construct a simple data matrix.
ASSIGNMENT:
Discuss the merits and demerits of using the tabular method as a means of presenting data.
REFERENCES
Thorndike R. M. (2005); Measurement and Evaluation in Psychology and Education (6th ed). New Jersey:
Pearson Education, Inc.
Keith Coaley (2010);An Introduction to psychological assessment and psychometrics,London:Sage
Publications

WEEK SEVEN
GRAPHS
o Principles of graph construction.
o o Construction of a histogram.
o o The histogram and the frequency polygon.
Objectives
By the end of this WEEK you should be able to:
o Explain the general principles of graph construction.
o Draw a histogram o Construct a histogram and mount a
frequency polygon on it. LEARNING
OUTCOMES

By the end of the week you will be able to:

o Describe 7 general principles of graph construction. o o

Construct a histogram.
o o Draw a histogram from given data and mount a frequency
polygon on it.

LESSON ONE: Graphical representation of frequency distributions(60minutes)

Objectives
By the end of the lesson you should be able to:
1.Explain the general principles of graph construction.
2.Construct a bar graph
You have just seen that a group of scores arranged in the form of frequency distributions communicates
information in a rapid and efficient form i.e., table. It is often more effective to present information
pictorially in form of a graph. The type of graph to be constructed depends on the type of data you have
collected.We draw graphs of frequency distributions to determine their shape.

General characteristics of graphs

A graph is a pictorial representation of data displayed in a two-dimensional space (X-axis and Y-axis). The
X-axis is labelled the abscissa and the Y-axis is labelled the ordinate. The abscissa-X-axis or horizontal axis
or dimension contains the independent variables e.g., class intervals, years.The ordinate –Y-axis or vertical
axis or dimension contains the dependent variables e.g., the range of response,frequencies,cumulative
frequencies, rates of responding and reaction time.

Types of graphs
1. The histogram
2. Frequency polygons
Steps in graph construction
36. The two axes of the graph are constructed at right angles to each other, vertical axis-ordinate and
horizontal axis-abscissa.
37. The value of the independent score is listed along the abscissa and the dependent variable
(frequencies) are listed along the ordinate.
38. The graph is constructed so that it can begin and end with a zero-we may be interested in calculating
the area.
39. The ordinate is drawn about two/thirds as long as the abscissa
40. A break in the abscissa shows that score values begin above zero.
Bar graph.
A bar graph uses a vertical bar to represent the number of observations within a given category.
Such a graph must be frequently used to illustrate the frequency of occurrence of observations in a given
category.For example, assume you were asked to illustrate the number of people in your university majoring
in history, English, mathematics, physics and biology. One way to illustrate is by a bar graph such as the
one below.

subject Physics Chemistry Biology mathematics English geography

no. of 50 60 90 45 110 65
students
Main features or characteristics of a bar graph:
41. In a bar graph information is represented in a series of bars
42. The height/length of each bar is proportional to the quantity represented
43. All the bars are similar.
44. These bars may be drawn vertically or horizontally
45. The ratio of the horizontal scale to the vertical scale should be such that the information is clearly
presented for easy understanding.
46. Bar graphs are normally appropriate only for nominally or ordinally scaled variables.
Last modified: Thursday, 7 November 2019, 9:41 AM

LESSON TWO: HISTOGRAM (60 minutes)

Objectives
By the end of this lesson you should be able to:
1.Draw a histogram
A histogram is a bar graph that is used with interval or ratio-scaled observations-which is the primary
difference with a bar graph. The bars in the histogram touch, whereas they did not touch with the bar graph.
Touching suggests continuity between the various categories on the x-axis.
A histogram therefore is a graph in which each real class interval boundaries are represented on the abscissa
and the frequencies of each class interval is represented on the height of the bar (ordinate). Characteristics
of the histogram
47. It is used with interval/ratio scaled observation.
48. The area of the bars represents the frequencies of each score or class
 49. A bar is raised above each score or interval on the horizontal axis – the width of the bar should
extend from the lower real limit to the upper real limit of each class interval.
50. The horizontal axis represents all the possible scores-which are either single or class intervals.
51. Here the categories must be placed in a predetermined order.

LESSON THREE:THE FREQUENCY POLYGON (60minutes)

Objectives
By the end of this lesson you should be able to:
1.Draw a histogram and mount afrequency polygon on it.
Frequency polygon
Afrequency polygon is an area diagram of the frequency distribution.It is merely an extension of the
histogram. It represents the frequency of scores in the various categories in the form of a curve rather than
in a series of adjacent bars A frequency polygon is a graph in which each mid-point of each class interval
is represented on the abscissa and the frequency of each midpoint is represented ordinate. It is obtained by
plotting frequencies against the mid-point and the points are joined by straight lines.

Cumulative frequency distribution

This is a distribution that presents the proportion of cases at each score value or class interval as will be
illustrated below. The purpose is to be able to find the performance of an individual.
This is defined as the number of scores falling below the upper real limit of that class interval. Cumulative
frequency is calculated by a process of successive addition
The cumulative frequency polygon (Ogive)
To draw an ogive, curve the cumulative frequencies are plotted against the upper boundaries of each class.

Cumulative proportions and cumulative percentages

A cumulative proportion indicates the proportion of cases below a particular score/value (class interval or
upper real limit). Cumulative proportions is defined as cumulative frequency divide by the total number of
cases in a group.Cumulative proportions = cumulative freq./total no. of cases
Cumulative percentages = C.f/n ×100.A cumulative percentage or percentile score indicates the percentage
(%) of cases falling below a particular class interval or U.R.L.

Self test activity

Women Aged 15 to 49 Years, 1978 and 2008.
 What type of graph
would you use to present the data above ?

ACTIVITY
Study the table bellow
Class interval Frequency (f) U. R . L C. F.
40– 49 8 49.5 60
30 – 39 12 39.5 52
20 – 29 24 29.5 40
10 – 19 14 19.5 16
0–9 2 9.5 2
∑f
=
6
0

1.The cumulative
frequency of 39.5?
is 52. what is the
explanation?
2.What is the
cumulative
frequency of the
raw score of X =
28 ?

ASSIGNMENT
Draw a histogram and a frequency polygon for the marks gained by 40 pupils in a mathematics
examination as shown below.
Marks 20 – 29 30 – 39 40 – 49 50 – 59 60 - 69 70 – 79
No. of 2 4 8 15 9 2
students
 mid-point 24.5 34.5 44.5 54.5 64.5 74.5
REFERENCES
Thorndike R. M. (2005); Measurement and Evaluation in Psychology and Education (6th ed). New Jersey:
Pearson Education, Inc.
Keith Coaley (2010);An Introduction to psychological assessment and psychometrics,London:Sage
Publication

WEEK EIGHT (STATISTICS)(3HOURS)

STATISTICS
o Meaning and significance of statistics o o Elements of statistics. o
o Methods of data collection
Objectives
By the end of this WEEK you should be able to:
o Explain the meaning and significance of statistics.
o o Identify the different methods of data collection.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
o Explain 5 reasons why statistics is important in education o
o Identify 6 different methods of data collection

LESSON ONE:STATISTICS (60minutes) Objectives

By the end of this lesson you should be able to:
1.Explain the meaning and importance of statistics.
Statistics is a set of procedures for describing, synthesizing, analysing and interpreting quantitative data.It
refers to numbers obtained through exams, tests, interviews, research, experiments, e.t.c.,

Statistics is a term used to summarize a process that an analyst uses to characterize a

data set. If the data set depends on a sample of a larger population, then the analyst
can develop interpretations about the population primarily based on the statistical
outcomes from the sample. Statistical analysis involves the process of gathering and
evaluating data and then summarizing the data into a mathematical form.

Statistics is used in various disciplines such as psychology, business, physical and social
sciences, humanities, government, and manufacturing. Statistical data is gathered
using a sample procedure or other method. Two types of statistical methods are used in
analyzing data: descriptive statistics and inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics are
used to synopsize data from a sample exercising the mean or standard deviation.
Inferential statistics are used when data is viewed as a subclass of a specific
population.
Statistics as a science is the study of principles and methods applied in collecting ,organizing ,presenting,
analyzing and interpreting numerical data in any field of study.
Characteristics of statistical data:
1.They are an aggregate of facts.
2.They are numerically expressed.
3.They are estimated according to reasonable standards of accuracy.
4.They are collected in a systematic manner.
5.They are collected for a predetermined purpose.
6.They should be placed in relation to each other.
Statistical Methods : These are devices by which complex and numerical data
are systematically treated in order to present a compehensive view.They include:-
i. Collection of data ii.Organization of data iii.Presentation of data iv.Analysis
and vi.Interpretation of data.
Significance of Statistics
1.It’s an aid to supervision that aids in controlling the affairs of an organization.
2.It provides the base for future planning.
3.Serve as the eyes of the administration. They are required to study the causes and findremedies of
problems.
4.They are used to understand the problems of human beings.
5.They disclose the connection between related factors.
6.They aid in decision making
7.They are helpful in data processing.
Functions of Statistics
1.Statistics simplifies complicated data and presents them in a manner that they can at once become
comprehensible.

2.It increases individual’s experience by giving clear and adequate information.

3.It provides for comparison where facts are compared with facts from other places or other periods.
4.Statistics are used to test the laws of other sciences.
5.They are also used to interpret conditions of a phenomena under study.
6.Statistics help a lot in policy making.
Branches of statistics
1. Descriptive statistics
2. Inferential statistics
3. Correlational statistics
Statistics consists of tabular, graphical and numerical methods for describing a set of data.
Tabular methods include: - data matrix and frequency distributions, c.f. distributions and r.f. distributions
The graphical methods include: - bar graphs, histograms, pie charts, frequency polygons and ogives
Numerical methods includes: -measures of central tendency, measures of variability, measures of
association and relationship.

Descriptive and Inferential Statistics

When analyzing data, such as the marks achieved by 100 students for a piece of
coursework, it is possible to use both descriptive and inferential statistics in your analysis
of their marks. Typically, in most research conducted on groups of people, you will use
both descriptive and inferential statistics to analyze your results and draw conclusions.
So what are descriptive and inferential statistics? And what are their differences?

Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive statistics is the term given to the analysis of data that helps describe, show
or summarize data in a meaningful way such that, for example, patterns might emerge
from the data. Descriptive statistics do not, however, allow us to make conclusions
beyond the data we have analyzed or reach conclusions regarding any hypotheses
we might have made. They are simply a way to describe our data.

Descriptive statistics are very important because if we simply presented our raw data it
would be hard to visualize what the data was showing, especially if there was a lot of it.
Descriptive statistics therefore enables us to present the data in a more meaningful
way, which allows simpler interpretation of the data. For example, if we had the results
of 100 pieces of students' coursework, we may be interested in the overall performance
of those students. We would also be interested in the distribution or spread of the marks.
Descriptive statistics allow us to do this. How to properly describe data through statistics
and graphs is an important topic and discussed in other Laerd Statistics guides.
Typically, there are two general types of statistic that are used to describe data:

• Measures of central tendency: these are ways of describing the central position
of a frequency distribution for a group of data. In this case, the frequency
distribution is simply the distribution and pattern of marks scored by the 100
students from the lowest to the highest. We can describe this central position
using a number of statistics, including the mode, median, and mean. You can
learn more in our guide: Measures of Central Tendency.
• Measures of spread: these are ways of summarizing a group of data by
describing how spread out the scores are. For example, the mean score of our
100 students may be 65 out of 100. However, not all students will have scored 65
marks. Rather, their scores will be spread out. Some will be lower and others
higher. Measures of spread help us to summarize how spread out these scores
 are. To describe this spread, a number of statistics are available to us, including
the range, quartiles, absolute deviation, variance and standard deviation.

When we use descriptive statistics it is useful to summarize our group of data using a
combination of tabulated description (i.e., tables), graphical description (i.e., graphs
and charts) and statistical commentary (i.e., a discussion of the results).

Inferential Statistics

We have seen that descriptive statistics provide information about our immediate
group of data. For example, we could calculate the mean and standard deviation of
the exam marks for the 100 students and this could provide valuable information about
this group of 100 students. Any group of data like this, which includes all the data you
are interested in, is called a population. A population can be small or large, as long as it
includes all the data you are interested in. For example, if you were only interested in
the exam marks of 100 students, the 100 students would represent your population.
Descriptive statistics are applied to populations, and the properties of populations, like
the mean or standard deviation, are called parameters as they represent the whole
population (i.e., everybody you are interested in).

Often, however, you do not have access to the whole population you are interested in
investigating, but only a limited number of data instead. For example, you might be
interested in the exam marks of all students in the UK. It is not feasible to measure all
exam marks of all students in the whole of the UK so you have to measure a smaller
sample of students (e.g., 100 students), which are used to represent the larger
population of all UK students. Properties of samples, such as the mean or standard
deviation, are not called parameters, but statistics. Inferential statistics are techniques
that allow us to use these samples to make generalizations about the populations from
which the samples were drawn. It is, therefore, important that the sample accurately
represents the population.
Inferential statistics
Refers to the process of making inferences about a population based on a limited sample data. Inferences
are made when: - 1. Making conclusions
2. Making predictions
3. Making generalization
4. Making statements
Our purpose is to describe and study population. Population is a group of individuals, objects or items from
which samples are taken for measurement. It is a set of all units e.g., people, objects and animals. A
population refers to the entire group of persons or elements that have at least one thing in common for
instance students of Moi University.A sample is a sub-set of the unit of a population. It is the representative
of the population.
LESSON TWO:Data Collection Techniques (60minutes)
Objectives
By the end of this lesson you should be able to:
1.Describe the different methods of data collection.
METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
Technique Key Facts Example
Interviews Interviews can be One-on-one conversation with
conducted in person or one who can help you get the
over the telephone information
Interviews can be done
formally (structured),
semi-structured, or
informally
Questions should be
focused, clear, and
encourage open-ended
responses
Interviews are mainly
qualitative in nature
Questionnaires and Surveys Responses can be survey or opinion survey
analyzed with
quantitative methods by
assigning numerical
values to Likert-type
scales

Results are generally

easier (than qualitative
techniques) to analyze
Pretest/Posttest can be
compared and analyzed
 Observations Allows for the study of Site visits to an after-school
the dynamics of a program to document the
situation, frequency interaction between youth and
counts of target staff
behaviors, or other
behaviors as indicated
by needs of the
evaluation Good source
for providing additional
information about a
particular group, can use
video to provide
documentation
Can produce qualitative
(e.g., narrative data) and
quantitative data (e.g.,
frequency counts, mean
length of interactions,
and instructional time)

Focus Groups A facilitated group A group of parents of teenagers

interview with in an after-school program are
individuals that have invited to informally discuss
something in common programs that might benefit and
Gathers information help their children succeed
about combined
perspectives and
opinions
Responses are often
coded into categories
and analyzed
thematically
Ethnographies, Oral History, Involves studying a Shadowing a family while
and Case Studies single phenomenon recording extensive field notes
Examines people in to study the experience and
their natural settings issues associated with youth
Uses a combination of who have a parent or guardian
techniques such as that has been deployed
observation, interviews,
and surveys
Ethnography is a more
holistic approach to
evaluation
Researcher can become
a confounding variable
 Documents and Records Consists of examining To understand the primary
existing data in the form reasons students miss school,
of databases, meeting records on student absences are
minutes, reports, collected and analyzed
attendance logs,
financial records,
newsletters, etc. This can
be an inexpensive way to
gather information but
may be an incomplete
data source

Methods of sampling
1. Random sampling plans- 2.
Non-random sampling plans

Methods of sampling from a population

It would normally be impractical to study a whole population, for example when doing
a questionnaire survey. Sampling is a method that allows researchers to infer
information about a population based on results from a subset of the population,
without having to investigate every individual. Reducing the number of individuals in a
study reduces the cost and workload, and may make it easier to obtain high quality
information, but this has to be balanced against having a large enough sample size
with enough power to detect a true association.

If a sample is to be used, by whatever method it is chosen, it is important that the

individuals selected are representative of the whole population. This may involve
specifically targeting hard to reach groups. For example, if the electoral roll for a town
was used to identify participants, some people, such as the homeless, would not be
registered and therefore excluded from the study by default.

There are several different sampling techniques available, and they can be subdivided
into two groups: probability sampling and non-probability sampling. In probability
(random) sampling, you start with a complete sampling frame of all eligible individuals
from which you select your sample. In this way, all eligible individuals have a chance of
being chosen for the sample, and you will be more able to generalize the results from
your study. Probability sampling methods tend to be more time-consuming and
expensive than non-probability sampling. In non-probability (non-random) sampling,
you do not start with a complete sampling frame, so some individuals have no chance
of being selected. Consequently, you cannot estimate the effect of sampling error and
there is a significant risk of ending up with a non-representative sample which produces
non-generalizable results. However, non-probability sampling methods tend to be
cheaper and more convenient, and they are useful for exploratory research and
hypothesis generation.

Probability Sampling Methods

1. Simple random sampling

In this case each individual is chosen entirely by chance and each member of the
population has an equal chance, or probability, of being selected. One way of
obtaining a random sample is to give each individual in a population a number, and
then use a table of random numbers to decide which individuals to include. 1 For
example, if you have a sampling frame of 1000 individuals, labelled 0 to 999, use groups
of three digits from the random number table to pick your sample. So, if the first three
numbers from the random number table were 094, select the individual labelled “94”,
and so on.

As with all probability sampling methods, simple random sampling allows the sampling
error to be calculated and reduces selection bias. A specific advantage is that it is the
most straightforward method of probability sampling. A disadvantage of simple random
sampling is that you may not select enough individuals with your characteristic of
interest, especially if that characteristic is uncommon. It may also be difficult to define a
complete sampling frame and inconvenient to contact them, especially if different
forms of contact are required (email, phone, post) and your sample units are scattered
over a wide geographical area.

2. Systematic sampling

Individuals are selected at regular intervals from the sampling frame. The intervals are
chosen to ensure an adequate sample size. If you need a sample size n from a
population of size x, you should select every x/nth individual for the sample. For example,
if you wanted a sample size of 100 from a population of 1000, select every 1000/100 =
10th member of the sampling frame.

Systematic sampling is often more convenient than simple random sampling, and it is
easy to administer. However, it may also lead to bias, for example if there are
underlying patterns in the order of the individuals in the sampling frame, such that the
sampling technique coincides with the periodicity of the underlying pattern. As a
hypothetical example, if a group of students were being sampled to gain their opinions
on college facilities, but the Student Record Department’s central list of all students was
arranged such that the sex of students alternated between male and female, choosing
an even interval (e.g. every 20 th student) would result in a sample of all males or all
females. Whilst in this example the bias is obvious and should be easily corrected, this
may not always be the case.
 3. Stratified sampling

In this method, the population is first divided into subgroups (or strata) who all share a
similar characteristic. It is used when we might reasonably expect the measurement of
interest to vary between the different subgroups, and we want to ensure representation
from all the subgroups. For example, in a study of stroke outcomes, we may stratify the
population by sex, to ensure equal representation of men and women. The study
sample is then obtained by taking equal sample sizes from each stratum. In stratified
sampling, it may also be appropriate to choose non-equal sample sizes from each
stratum. For example, in a study of the health outcomes of nursing staff in a county, if
there are three hospitals each with different numbers of nursing staff (hospital A has 500
nurses, hospital B has 1000 and hospital C has 2000), then it would be appropriate to
choose the sample numbers from each hospital proportionally (e.g. 10 from hospital A,
20 from hospital B and 40 from hospital C). This ensures a more realistic and accurate
estimation of the health outcomes of nurses across the county, whereas simple random
sampling would over-represent nurses from hospitals A and B. The fact that the sample
was stratified should be taken into account at the analysis stage.

Stratified sampling improves the accuracy and representativeness of the results by

reducing sampling bias. However, it requires knowledge of the appropriate
characteristics of the sampling frame (the details of which are not always available),
and it can be difficult to decide which characteristic(s) to stratify by.

4. Clustered sampling

In a clustered sample, subgroups of the population are used as the sampling unit, rather
than individuals. The population is divided into subgroups, known as clusters, which are
randomly selected to be included in the study. Clusters are usually already defined, for
example individual GP practices or towns could be identified as clusters. In single-stage
cluster sampling, all members of the chosen clusters are then included in the study. In
two-stage cluster sampling, a selection of individuals from each cluster is then randomly
selected for inclusion. Clustering should be taken into account in the analysis. The
General Household survey, which is undertaken annually in England, is a good example
of a (one-stage) cluster sample. All members of the selected households (clusters) are
included in the survey.1

Cluster sampling can be more efficient that simple random sampling, especially where
a study takes place over a wide geographical region. For instance, it is easier to
contact lots of individuals in a few GP practices than a few individuals in many different
GP practices. Disadvantages include an increased risk of bias, if the chosen clusters are
not representative of the population, resulting in an increased sampling error.
 Non-Probability Sampling Methods

1. Convenience sampling

Convenience sampling is perhaps the easiest method of sampling, because

participants are selected based on availability and willingness to take part. Useful results
can be obtained, but the results are prone to significant bias, because those who
volunteer to take part may be different from those who choose not to (volunteer bias),
and the sample may not be representative of other characteristics, such as age or sex.
Note: volunteer bias is a risk of all non-probability sampling methods.

2. Quota sampling

This method of sampling is often used by market researchers. Interviewers are given a
quota of subjects of a specified type to attempt to recruit. For example, an interviewer
might be told to go out and select 20 adult men, 20 adult women, 10 teenage girls and
10 teenage boys so that they could interview them about their television viewing.
Ideally the quotas chosen would proportionally represent the characteristics of the
underlying population.

Whilst this has the advantage of being relatively straightforward and potentially
representative, the chosen sample may not be representative of other characteristics
that weren’t considered (a consequence of the non-random nature of sampling). 2

3. Judgement (or Purposive) Sampling

Also known as selective, or subjective, sampling, this technique relies on the judgement
of the researcher when choosing who to ask to participate. Researchers may implicitly
thus choose a “representative” sample to suit their needs, or specifically approach
individuals with certain characteristics. This approach is often used by the media when
canvassing the public for opinions and in qualitative research.

Judgement sampling has the advantage of being time-and cost-effective to perform

whilst resulting in a range of responses (particularly useful in qualitative research).
However, in addition to volunteer bias, it is also prone to errors of judgement by the
researcher and the findings, whilst being potentially broad, will not necessarily be
representative.

4. Snowball sampling

This method is commonly used in social sciences when investigating hard-to-reach

groups. Existing subjects are asked to nominate further subjects known to them, so the
sample increases in size like a rolling snowball. For example, when carrying out a survey
of risk behaviors amongst intravenous drug users, participants may be asked to
nominate other users to be interviewed.
 Snowball sampling can be effective when a sampling frame is difficult to identify.
However, by selecting friends and acquaintances of subjects already investigated,
there is a significant risk of selection bias (choosing a large number of people with
similar characteristics or views to the initial individual identified).

Bias in sampling

There are five important potential sources of bias that should be considered when
selecting a sample, irrespective of the method used. Sampling bias may be introduced
when:1

1. Any pre-agreed sampling rules are deviated from

2. People in hard-to-reach groups are omitted

3. Selected individuals are replaced with others, for example if they are difficult to
contact

4. There are low response rates

5. An out-of-date list is used as the sample frame (for example, if it excludes people
who have recently moved to an area)

).

References

1. Ben-Shlomo Y, Brookes S, Hickman M. 2013. Lecture Notes: Epidemiology,

Evidence-based Medicine and Public Health (6th ed.), Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford.

2. http://www.stats.gla.ac.uk/steps/glossary/sampling.html - Accessed 8/04/17

LESSON THREE:ELEMENTS OF STATISTICS (60minutes) Objectives

By the end of this lesson you should be able to:
1.ldentify the elements of statistics
2.Differentiate sample measures from population parameters.
3.Explain the different types of characteristics of measurement.
Elements of statistics
52. Statistics are measures that are used to describe a sample
53. Parameters are measures that are used to describe a population
Population measures are called parameters and are denoted by Greek letters µ,
σ, σ2, ℓxy ℓ2xy,
Sample measures are called statistics and are denoted by the Roman letters
ẍ, s, s2, rxy, r2xy
Measure Sample/statistic Population/parameter
Mean ẍ µ (miu)
Standard deviation S σ (sigma)
Variance s2 σ2
Correlation coefficient rxy ℓxy (rho)
Coefficient of determination r2xy ℓ2xy (rho)
Characteristics of population measures
a. Sample measures tend to vary from sample to sample, whereas population parameters are
relatively constant and known.
b. Population measures are estimated from sample measures and therefore sample statistics
are occasionally referred to as estimators.
c. A population measure is estimated from an average of an infinitely large number of sample
measures.
d. When the average of an infinitely large number of sample measure equals to the number
being estimated, the estimator is said to be biased.
e. µ= (ẍ1 + ẍ2 + ẍ3 + … + ẍn)/n.
f. When the average of an infinitely large number of sample measure is less than the
parameter being estimated, the estimator is said to be biased.
g. The mode and the medians are biased estimators of mu and the s and s2 are unbiased
estimators of µ while the range, SIQR, mean deviation are unbiased measures of µ.
54. Difference between sample measures and population parameters
a. When an index such as the mean is used to describe a characteristic of the sample, it is
called a statistic and when it is used to describe the characteristics of the population, it is
called a parameter.
b. Sample measures are denoted by roman letters ẍ, s, s 2, rxy, r2xy. Whereas population
parameters are denoted by the Greek letters µ σ, σ2, ℓxy ℓ2xy.
c. Sample measures vary from sample to sample whereas population measures are relatively
constant and known.
d. Sample measures are also called estimators because they are used to estimate the
population measures or parameters
e. A population measure is estimated from the average of an infinitely large sample measures.

55. Variables

56. A variable is anything which varies. Variable are identified events which change in value Let’s list
some things which vary: -height, weight, time, political party, feelings, attitudes, personality,
extroversion, attitude towards vandals, anxiety, achievement e.t.c.,
57. Variables can take two major forms- independent variables (causes) and dependent variable
(outcomes).
 58. Teachers’ measure students’ knowledge and skills by asking questions-oral or written or by
allowing them to demonstrate learned skills-through exams-and scores are assigned.

59. Type of characteristics in measurement

60. Constant
61. When measurements on the same characteristics remain the same from one unit to another of the
population they are said to be constant. Number of ears, nose, eyes, legs, hands e.t.c.
62. NB: constants are not popular with research investigators.

63. Variables
64. These are measureable characteristics that assume different values among the subjects. They refer
to any characteristic of a person or object that can change over time.Social and behavioural
scientists are primarily concerned with the characteristics of people, environment and situations.
Variables are used for the purpose of research through the use of dependent variables. Variables
can be: - 65. 1. Qualitative
66. 2. Quantitative
67. Qualitative variables
68. These are variables whose measurement vary in kind from unit to unit of a population e.g.,
gender, tribe, race, eye colour, occupation, and so on.

69. Quantitative variables

70. These are variables whose measurement vary in magnitude from unit to unit in a population
e.g., no. of bothers/sisters, water consumption, enrolment, age, weight e.t.c.

71. Types of quantitative variables

72. 1. Discrete quantitative variables-these are those variables that increase or decrease by whole
numbers and not by fractional amounts. These can take on the number line.
73. When measurement on a quantitative variable can only assume countable number of values, the
variable is called, discrete whole numbers/integers, e.g., enrolment, no. of brothers/sisters, no. of
teachers, students, voters.
74. 2. Continuous quantitative variables – these are those variables that can theoretically assume an
infinite number of values between any two units-infinite.
75. Therefore, continuous variables can assume numbers that represent any fraction of a whole number.
76. When measurement on a quantitative variable can assume any one of the countless number of
values in the line interval the variable is called continuous e.g., ½, 1 ½, 3.667, age, weight, distance,
power consumption.
ACTIVITY
Using the properties discussed in the notes above identify the essential differences between the median
and the mean.
ASSIGNMENT:
1.Differentiate between sample measures and population parameters
2.Discuss 7functions of statistics.
REFERENCES
Thorndike R. M. (2005); Measurement and Evaluation in Psychology and Education (6th ed). New Jersey:
Pearson Education, Inc.
Keith Coaley (2010);An Introduction to psychological assessment and psychometrics,London:Sage
Publications
Saleemi,N.A.(1997).Quantitative Techniques Simplified.Nairobi . N.A.Saleemi Publisher
Last modified: Thursday, 7 November 2019, 10:02 AM

◄ LESSON TWO:Data Collection Techniques (60minutes)

WEEK NINE: MEASURES OF DISPERSION (3HOURS)

MEASURES OF DISPERSION
Measures of dispersion- range, quartile deviation, mean deviation, varianceand standard deviation.
Objectives
By the end of this WEEK you should be able to:
o Differentiate between the range, quartile deviation,mean deviation,variance and
standard deviation.
o o Calculate quartile deviation, mean deviation, variance and standard deviation.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this week you will be able to:

o Culculate Measures of central tendancies
o
o Determine the essential difference between the range, quartile deviation and Mean
deviation.
o o Culculate the variance and standard deviation of given data.

LESSON ONE: Measures of central tendency(60minutes)

Ojectives
By the end of this lesson you should be able to:
1. Culculate the median and the mean from a given distribution.
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDANCIES
Measures of central tendency give the researcher a convenient way of describing a set of data with a
single number. The number, which results from computation of a measure of central tendency,
represents the average or typical score attained by a group of subjects. The central tendency of a
distribution describes the location of a centre of a distribution by indicating one score value which
represents the average score. The three most frequently encountered indices of central tendency are; 1.
Mode
2. Median
3. Mean
Each of these indices is appropriate for a different scale of measurement;the mode is appropriate for nominal
data, the median for ordinal data, And the mean for interval or ratio data. Since most measurements in
educational research represent an interval scale, the mean is the most frequently used measure of central
tendency.
Mode
It is the most frequent, most popular and most repeated score in a distribution of scores. If you want to
identify the modal score, you merely identify the score that occurred most frequently. This is the score that
is attained by more subjects than any other.The mode is not established through calculation; it is determined
by looking at the scores and seeing which score occurs most frequently.
Characteristics of the mode.
77. It is very simple to determine
78. A set of scores may have two or more modes, in which case it is referred to as bimodal.
79. It is an unstable measure of central tendency
80. It is a poor measure of a grouped data e.g., the idea of modal class; mid-point.
81. It’s a poor measure of central tendency when the distribution is rectangular.
82. When nominal data is involved however, the mode is the only appropriate measure of central
tendency.
83. It is also used with multimodal distributions because the mode is the only measure of central
tendency that communicates that two distinct scores exist within the overall
distribution of scores.
Limitations of the mode.
84. A set of scores may have two or more modes.
85. Its unstable measure of central tendency because equal sized samples randomly collected from the
same population are likely to have different modes.
86. It’s only suitable for nominal date.
The median
The median is useful when the exact mid-point of the data is required. It is that point in a distribution above
and below which are 50% of the scores. It is the 50th percentile It divides a distribution of scores exactly
half way so that 50% of the scores fall below the median and 50% of the scores fall above the median.
Consequently, the median corresponds to the second quartile, Q2- that is, it represents the 50th percentile
score.The median is the most preferred measure of central tendency with drastically skewed distributions.
Calculation of the median There are two methods of arriving at the median.
1. Inspection method-direct –finite
2. Formula method
Inspection method-direct –finite
To compute the median by the direct method, we must first determine whether the group of numbers
contains an even or odd number of scores. If n is odd the median is that score value that corresponds to the
middle score when the scores are arranged in an ascending order. e.g., X= 2, 6, 11, 18, 29, 30, 33. N=7; the
median = 18
If n is an even no. the median is the score value falling half-way between the score of the two middle scores.
Median = ((n/2)th + (n/2 + 1)th )2
E.g., compute the median of X=3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 11, 14, 16.
Median = ((8/2)th + (8/2 + 1)th)/2

= (4th + 5th)/2

= (8 + 9)/2
= 17/2
= 8.5
Formulae method
When the median is calculated from a grouped frequency distribution, the following general formula is
used.

Median = XLL + i(c.f.50 – c.f.ul)fc

Example
Calculate the median for the following frequencies.

Class interval Frequency Cummulative Frequency

125-129 3 40
120-124 4 37
115-119 4 33
110-114 6 29
105-109 8 23
100-104 8 15
95-99 7 7
Median= Cf50 = (50 ×n)100 = (50 × 40)/100 = 20.
The median class = n/2 = 40/2 = 20th –c.f.
Therefore, the class interval 105 – 109 has the median class.
Using the median = XLL + i(c.f.50 – c.f.ul)fc
XLL = 104.5, i= 5, c.f.50 = 20, c.f.ul = 15, fc = 8.
= 104.5 + 5(20 – 15)/8
=104.5 + 5(5)/8
=104.5 + 25/8
= 107.6
Characteristics of the median. 1. The median is a desirable measure
of central tendency for two reasons; It’s insensitive to extreme scores (i.e. the higher and lower scores)E.g.
income of employees is argued out by trade unions using the median, as the government base on the
mean It’s not sensitive to missing scores.
2. The most reported in research.
Mean
This is the average of the scores. It’s the sum total of all scores, divided by the number of scores entered.
Mean (X) = ∑X/n Or
X = ∑fX/∑f
Where;
X = arithmetic mean

∑=sum of all scores

F= frequency
N= number of scores.
Characteristics of the mean.
The mean is biased or takes account of each and every score, unlike the median, it is definitely affected by
extreme scores.It acts like a balancing point.It is influenced by extreme scores i.e., scores that are not like
other e.g., skewed distributions.
Example.
Calculate the mean scored by students X and Y.
X= 15, 10, 8, 6, 5, 4.
Y= 60, 10, 8, 6, 5, 4.

X= ∑x/n = 48/6 = 8.
Y= ∑y/n = 93/6 = 15.5
The mean is not a good measure/option of skewed distributions.

Properties of the mean

87. The sum of the deviations from the mean will always be zero.
Deviations (d) = x – x = ∑(x – x ) = 0.
88. The sum of the square deviations of each score from the mean is less than the sum of square
deviations about any other number.

∑(X-X)2 is minimum.

LESSON TWO:Measures of dispersion/variability(60minutes)

Ojectives
By the end this lesson you should be able to:
1.Culculate the range,the semi interquatile range,and the mean deviation.
Although measures of central tendency are useful statistics for describing a set of data, they are not
sufficient.Two sets of data, which are very different, can have identical means or medians.
As an example, consider the following sets of data
Set A- 79, 79, 79, 80, 81, 81, 81. leptokurtic
Set B- 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 110.-mesokurtic
The means of both sets is 80 and the median of both is 80. But set A is very different from set B.
In set A the scores are all very close together and clustered around the mean.
In set B the scores are much more spread out; there is much more variation or variability in set B.
Thus, there is a need for a measure, which indicates how spread out the scores are.The greater the differences
between the scores and by different people the spread out or scattered the scores are in the distribution. This
distribution is referred to as heterogeneous. The smaller the difference between scores and by different
people the more clustered together the scores are in the distribution. This is a homogeneous distribution,
implying uniform ability. Hence a small measure of variability.There are a number of descriptive statistics
that serves this purpose and they are referred to as a measure of variability. These are;
-
1. Range
2. Semi-interquartile range
3. Mean deviation
4. Variance
5. Standard deviation

Range
The range is simply the difference between the highest and the lowest score in a distribution and is
determined by subtraction. It’s the distance between the highest score and the lowest score in the
distribution.It is the crudest measure of variability, or dispersion of a group of scores.
Range = highest score – the lowest score.
R = Xh – Xl
Characteristics of the range
1. It uses only two extreme scores in a distribution.
2.The range is very unstable as it is based on two extreme scores.

89. The range doesn’t provide the correct pattern of variation

90. The range is only useful as a quick and rough estimate of measures of variability.
91. It is extremely unstable and is affected by chance factor
Semi-interquartile range
To overcome the instability inherent in the range as a measure of variability the semi-interquartile range
is sometimes used. The SIQR is half the distance between the first quartile (Q 1) and the third quartile (Q3).
SIQR is defined as half the difference between the 75th and 25th percentile score.

SIQR= (Q3 – Q1)/2

Where;
Q1 - score at 25th percentile
Q3 - score at 75th percentile
Specifically, SQIR provides a measure of the spread of the middle 50% of the scores.
Graphical illustration.
Characteristics of the SIQR
92. Used with skewed distribution
93. It’s a measure of spread of the middle 50% of the scores
94. Uses two scores only
95. Extreme scores do not influence; hence is more stable than the range.
96. It is used along with the median.

Example 1
Calculate the semi-interquartile range for the following raw scores.
2, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 6, 6, 6, 6, 7, 7, 7, 7, 8, 8, 8, 9, 9, 9, 10, 10.
Q1 = ¼ × 28 = 7th score.
Counting the 7th score from the lowest = 5.
Q3 = ¾ × 28 = 21st score
Counting from the lowest- the largest score is 8.
Therefore, SIQR= (Q3 – Q1)/2
= ½(8 – 5)
= 1.5
Example 2
Find the quartile deviation from the following frequency distribution.

N=∑f = 20.
The position of Q1 = ¼(N) = ¼(20) = 5th score. Corresponding to a score of 1.
The position of Q3 = ¾(N) = ¾(20) = 15th score. corresponding to a score of 4.

SIQR= (Q3 – Q1)/2

= (4 – 1)/2
=1.5.
Example 3
Estimate the lower and the upper quartiles for the following frequency distributions by calculation.
Class interval Frequency Cummulative Frequency
 Estimate the position of
the lower quartile (Q1).
Q1 = 1/4 (40) = 10
Q1 is therefore found within the class interval 100 – 104.

Q1 = XLL + i(c.f.25 + c.f.ul)/fc

XLL = 99.5, fc = 8, c.f.ul = 7, i=5, c.f.25= 10
Median = 99.5 + 5/8(10-7) =
101.38.
Estimate the position of the upper quartile (Q3) on the table above.
Q3 = ¾(40) = 30
Q3 is therefore, found within the intervals 115 – 119.

Q3 = XLL + i(c.f.75 + c.f.ul)/fc

XLL = 114.5, fc = 4, c.f.ul = 29, i=5, c.f.75= 30
Q3 =114.5 + 5/4(30 – 29)
= 115.75
SIQR= (Q3 – Q1)/2 = ½(101.38. - 115.75) = 7. 19.
Mean deviation.
We require a measure of dispersion which involves all the measures of the distribution.
One such measure is the mean deviation.Mean deviation-is the distance of a raw score from the mean.
d= X – X

∑d = ∑(X – X) = 0.
NB: read about mean absolute deviations and mean squared deviations.
Mean deviation is defined as the sum of absolute deviations divided by the total number of cases.

Mean deviation = ∑|X - X|/n .

Merits
It is easy to calculate
Demerits
97. Not mathematically tractable
98. Not useful with inferential statistics
Variance
Variance –it is defined as the average of the sum of the squared deviations of the scores about the mean.
The variance gives the measure of dispersion in square units.
The definitional formula for variance
S2 = ∑(X – X)2/n-1

Or

S2 = ∑X2/n – 1.

We often use the unbiased formula because we are not making inferences.
S2 = ∑(X – X)2/n-1
The biased formula is S2 = ∑(X – X)2/n – is used while making inferences.

How to obtain the variance

Steps
99. Compute the mean of the scores -(X).
100. Subtract the mean from each score -(X – X) 101. Get the difference
called deviations – (d or X).
102. Square the deviations – (d2 or X2)
103. Sum the squared deviations -∑ (X – X)2
104. Divide the sum by the number of scores less one – (N – 1).
Merits
105. It can be partitioned into different portions and the different portions attributed to different
sources.
106. It is unbiased
107. It is mathematically tractable
108. It can be used with inferential statistics.
Demerits
109. It is inflated as each score is squared.
110. Not used with skewed distributions
Example
Calculate the variance for the following score distribution.
1, 2, 3, 7, 8, 9. Use the definitional formulae to compute the variance of the number of miles jogged daily
for six consecutive days.

X = 30/6 = 5
S2 = ∑(X – X)2/n-1
= 58/2 =11.6.

LESSON THREE : The variance and standard deviation.(60minutes) Objectives

By the end of this lesson you should be able to:
1.Culculate the variance of a given distribution
2.Work out the standard deviation of given data..
Although the variance has several advantages as a measure of variability it does seem to be an inflated
measure because each deviation score is squared before it is summed. In the example above the variance is
11.6 and the largest score is 9. One way to avoid this inflation of the variance as an index of variability
would be to undo the squaring process that was used to circumvent the deviation scores from summing to
zero. Standard deviation- is merely the square root of the variance.
S = √∑(X – X)2/n – 1 - the unbiased formula.
Or

S = √∑X2/n – 1
It is used to indicate the spread, or scatter or variability that exists in a distribution of scores.
It is affected by the spread of the scores around the mean.The smaller the standard deviation the more
homogeneous the scores are and vice versa. Merits

111. It is unbiased
112. It is mathematically tractable
113. It can be used with inferential statistics.
114. It is consistent and efficient
115. It is the most preferred measure of variability
Demerits
116. Not used with skewed distributions.
117. It is affected by the spread of scores from the mean
Example 1
Calculate the variance and standard deviation of the following distributions.

Example 2 Calculate
the variance and the standard deviation for the following distribution.
Class f m.pnt (x) fx (X – X) (X – X)2 f(X – X)2
interval
 Mean (X) = ∑fx/∑f =
4360/40 = 109.
Variance =∑ f(X – X)2/n – 1
=3390/39
= 86.92

Standard deviation =√∑ f(X – X)2/n – 1

=√86.92 =9.32
CULCULATING THE RAW SCORE FROM A GIVEN STANDARD DEVIATION.
The variance and standard deviations of raw scores can be arrived at using the following formulae.
The variance = S2 = (∑X2 – (∑X)/n)/n-1

The standard deviation= S = √(∑X2 – (∑X)/n)/n-1.

Example
Using the raw score formulae calculate the variance and the standard deviation in the distribution below.
Score (X) X2

= (1330 – 1176)/5
= 154/5
=30.8
Standard deviation = √30.8 = 5.55
ACTIVITY
Using the data in lesson 2, practice working out the raw score from the standard deviation.
ASSIGNMENT
1.Discuss the characteristics of the range and the interquatile range
2.Identify the merits of the standard deviation as a measure of dispersion.
REFERENCES
Thorndike R. M. (2005); Measurement and Evaluation in Psychology and Education (6th ed). New Jersey:
Pearson Education, Inc.
Keith Coaley (2010);An Introduction to psychological assessment and psychometrics,London:Sage
Publications
Saleemi,N.A.(1997).Quantitative Techniques Simplified.Nairobi . N.A.Saleemi Publisher

WEEK TEN: TIME SERIES (3HOURS)

• TIME SERIES

This week you will deal with time series.The areas you will cover include the
following topics: definations, components of time series, moving avarages and
estimation of trend.

Objectives

By the end of this WEEK you should be able to:

• Identify examples of time series.

• Demonstrate moving averages.

• Carry out an estimation of trend.

LEARNING OUTCOMES:

By the end of the week you will be able to:

• Identify components of time series and their importance.

• Explain the conccept of moving avarages.

• Carry out an estimation of trend

LESSON ONE :COMPONENTS OF TIME SERIES (60Minutes)

Objectives
By the end of the lesson you will be able to:

1.Identify the components of time series and their importance.

Time Series is an arrangement of statistical data in accordance with the time of its
occurrence.According to Yule and Kendall,”when we observe numerical features of an
individual or a population at different points of time,the set of observations constitute a time
series.”
The analysis of time series consists of the description and measurement of the various
changes or movements as they appear in the time series during a period of time.The
changes in the statistical data result from various causes.When analyzing time series
an attempt is made to isolate these causes and establish their effect. Importance of
analysis of time series
1.It helps in understanding past behavior.The past trend helps In
predicting future behavior.
2.It enables us to predict or forecast the behavior of a phenomenon.
3.It helps in making comparative studies in the value of phenomenon at
different times or places.
4.It helps in the evaluation of current achievements.
5.It helps in the planning of future operations and formulation of
executive and policy decisions.
6.It helps in understanding, interpreting and evaluating changes in phenomena in the
hope of correctly anticipating future courseof events.
Components of time series a.Secular
trend/Trend
This is the tendency of the time series data to increase,decrease or stagnate during a
long period of time.
b.Seasonal variations
This is a periodic movement where the period is not longer than one year.Factors
which cause this variation include climate changes, customs and habits. c.Cyclic
variations
These are periodic movements with a period of more than one year.The movements
are fairly regular in nature and one complete period is called a cycle. d.Irregular
variations
These are movements that are completely unpredictable and the causal factors are either wholly
unaccountable or caused by unforeseen events.
By the end of the lesson you will be able to:

1.Identify the components of time series and their importance.

LESSON TWO:Measurement of Trend (60minutes) Objectives
By the end of this lesson you should be able to:

Describe the procedure of measuring trend.

There are four methods commonly used for measuring secular trend:

a).Free hand drawing method

Here,Time series is plotted on a graph paper having time on the horizontal axis and
observations on the vertical axis then a free hand smooth curve is drawn through the
plotted points.The curve smoothens out the irregularities and describes the long term
changes.Sometimes instead of drawing a free hand curve ,a straight line is drawn in
such a way that it does not pass through all the plotted points.This line is the trend
line.

Conditions for drawing a trend line

1.The trend line should be smooth-either a straight line or a combination of long

gradual curves.

2.The sum of vertical deviations from the trend of annual observations above the trend
line should be equal to the sum of vertical deviations from the trend of observations
below the trend line.

3.The sum of the squares of vertical deviations from the trend should be as small as
possible.

4.The trend should bisect the cycles such that the area above the trend equals the area
below the trend not only for the entire series but as much as possible for the full cycle.
b).Semi averages

This method involves separating the data into two parts and averaging them for each
part. These averages are shown as points on a graph paper against the mid point of
time interval in each part.The straight line joining these two points gives the trend
line.The distance of the trend line from the horizontal axis gives the trend values. The
trend line can be extended downwards or upwards to get the intermediate values or
predict future values.

LESSON THREE:Moving averages(60minutes)

Objectives
By the end of this lesson you should be able to:

1.Measure trend using the least squares method.

This method takes into account the moving average of the values of three,four,five or
more years instead of taking actual values relating to the particular years. To compute
three years moving average,the values for the first,second and third years are averaged
and the average value plotted against the second year. The value for the second,third
and fourth years are averaged and the value is plotted against the third year and so on.
d).Method of the least squares

This method of measuring trend involves selecting the appropriet mathematical

equation and the constants appearing therein being determined on the basis of the
given data by the principle of least squares.The principle states that the constants
should be so chosen as to make the sum of the squares of the errors of estimate the
minimum possible.
A scatterplot is a type of graph that is used to represent paired data. The explanatory
variable is plotted along the horizontal axis and the response variable is graphed along
the vertical axis. One reason for using this type of graph is to look for relationships
between the variables.

The most basic pattern to look for in a set of paired data is that of a straight line.
Through any two points, we can draw a straight line.

If there are more than two points in our scatterplot, most of the time we will no longer
be able to draw a line that goes through every point. Instead, we will draw a line that
passes through the midst of the points and displays the overall linear trend of the data.

As we look at the points in our graph and wish to draw a line through these points, a
question arises. Which line should we draw? There is an infinite number of lines that
could be drawn. By using our eyes alone, it is clear that each person looking at the
scatterplot could produce a slightly different line. This ambiguity is a problem. We
want to have a well-defined way for everyone to obtain the same line. The goal is to
have a mathematically precise description of which line should be drawn. The least
squares regression line is one such line through our data points.

Least Squares

The name of the least squares line explains what it does.

We start with a collection of points with coordinates given by (xi, yi). Any straight line
will pass among these points and will either go above or below each of these. We can
calculate the distances from these points to the line by choosing a value of x and then
subtracting the observed y coordinate that corresponds to this x from the y coordinate
of our line.

Different lines through the same set of points would give a different set of distances.
We want these distances to be as small as we can make them. But there is a problem.
Since our distances can be either positive or negative, the sum total of all these
distances will cancel each other out. The sum of distances will always equal zero.

The solution to this problem is to eliminate all of the negative numbers by squaring the
distances between the points and the line. This gives a collection of nonnegative
numbers. The goal we had of finding a line of best fit is the same as making the sum
of these squared distances as small as possible. Calculus comes to the rescue here. The
process of differentiation in calculus makes it possible to minimize the sum of the
squared distances from a given line. This explains the phrase “least squares” in our
name for this line.

Line of Best Fit

Since the least squares line minimizes the squared distances between the line and our
points, we can think of this line as the one that best fits our data. This is why the least
squares line is also known as the line of best fit. Of all of the possible lines that could
be drawn, the least squares line is closest to the set of data as a whole.

This may mean that our line will miss hitting any of the points in our set of data.

Features of the Least Squares Line

There are a few features that every least squares line possesses. The first item of
interest deals with the slope of our line. The slope has a connection to the correlation
coefficient of our data. In fact, the slope of the line is equal to r(sy/sx). Here s x denotes
the standard deviation of the x coordinates and s y the standard deviation of

the y coordinates of our data. The sign of the correlation coefficient is directly related
to the sign of the slope of our least squares line.

Another feature of the least squares line concerns a point that it passes through. While
the y intercept of a least squares line may not be interesting from a statistical
standpoint, there is one point that is.

Every least squares line passes through the middle point of the data. This middle point
has an x coordinate that is the mean of the x values and a y coordinate that is the mean
of the y values.

ACTIVITY

• Describe three different types of time series.

• Demonstrate moving averages

• Describe the process of estimation of trend

ASSIGNMENT:

Describe the procedure of constructing a trend line

REFERENCES

Ary Donald et al(1990),Introduction toResearch in Education,Harcourt Brace College

publishers,Orlando,Florida

Last modified: Thursday, 7 November 2019, 10:50 AM

WEEK ELEVEN:THE CONCEPT OF PROBABILITY

 CONCEPT OF PROBABILITY

This week you will deal with the meaning of probability ,probability
events.conditional probability and the rules of probability.

Objectives
By the end of this WEEK you should be able to:

 Define Probability and carry out probability experiments.


 Differentiate Idependent and mutually esxclusive events

 Demonstrate understanding of conditional probability

 Explain rules of probability.

LEARNING OUTCOMES.

By the end of this week you will be able to:

 Carry out simple probability experiments

 Differentiate independent from mutualy exclusive events.
 Explain the rules of probability

LESSON ONE: THE MEANING OF PROBABILITY(60minutes)

Objectives

By the end of the lesson you should be able to:

1.Carry out simple probability experiments.

2.Identify the different types of events

Probability is the measure of the likelihood that an event will occur.It is quantified as a
number between 0 and 1. 0 indicates impossibility and 1 indicates certainty of the
event. The higher the probability of an event, the more likely it is that the event will
occur. A simple example is the tossing of a coin. The two outcomes ("heads" and
"tails") are both equally probable; the probability of "heads" equals the probability of
"tails"; and since no other outcomes are possible, the probability of either "heads" or
"tails" is 1/2 .

The collection of all possible results is called the sample space of the experiment.
The power set of the sample space is formed by considering all different collections of
possible results. For example, rolling a dice can produce six possible results. One
collection of possible results gives an odd number on the dice. Thus, the subset {1,3,5}
is an element of the power set of the sample space of dice rolls. These collections are
called "events". In this case, {1,3,5} is the event that the dice falls on some odd
number. If the results that actually occur fall in a given event, the event is said to have
occurred.

A probability is a way of assigning every event a value between zero and one, with the
requirement that the event made up of all possible results (in our example, the event
{1,2,3,4,5,6}) is assigned a value of one. To qualify as a probability, the assignment of
values must satisfy the requirement that if you look at a collection of mutually
exclusive events (events with no common results, e.g., the events {1,6}, {3}, and
{2,4} are all mutually exclusive), the probability that at least one of the events will
occur is given by the sum of the probabilities of all the individual events.

The probability of an event A is written as P(A) This mathematical definition of

probability can extend to infinite sample spaces, and even uncountable sample spaces,
using the concept of a measure.

The opposite or complement of an event A is the event [not A] (that is, the event
of A not occurring)

If two events A and B occur on a single performance of an experiment, this is called

the intersection or joint probability of A and B, denoted as P ( A ∩ B )

Independent event

If two events, A and B are independent then the joint probability is

P ( A and B ) = P ( A ∩ B ) = P ( A ) P ( B )

for example, if two coins are flipped the chance of both being heads is ½ × ½ = ¼
Mutually exclusive events

If either event A or event B but never both occurs on a single performance of an

experiment, then they are called mutually exclusive events.

If two events are mutually exclusive then the probability of both occurring is denoted
as

P(A∩B).

P ( A and B ) = P ( A ∩ B ) = 0

If two events are mutually exclusive then the probability of either occurring is denoted
as

P(A∪B).

P ( A or B ) = P ( A ∪ B ) = P ( A ) + P ( B ) − P ( A ∩ B ) = P ( A ) + P ( B ) − 0 = P
(A)+P(B

For example, the chance of rolling a 1 or 2 on a six-sided die is P ( 1 or 2 ) = P ( 1 ) +

P(2)=1

LESSON TWO:Conditional probability

Objectives

By the end of this lesson you should be able to:

1.Differentiate indipendent from mutualy exclusive events.

Conditional probability is the probability of some event A, given the occurrence of

some other event B. Conditional probability is written P ( A ∣ B) and is read as "the
probability of A, given B". It is defined by

P(A∣B)=P(A∩B)P(B)

If P ( B ) = 0 then P ( A ∣ B ) is formally undefined by this expression. However, it is

possible to define a conditional probability for some zero-probability events using a σ-
algebra of such events (such as those arising from a continuous random variable).
For example, in a bag of 2 red balls and 2 blue balls (4 balls in total), the probability of
taking a red ball is ½ however, when taking a second ball, the probability of it being
either a red ball or a blue ball depends on the ball previously taken, such as, if a red
ball was taken, the probability of picking a red ball again would be 1/3 since only 1
red and 2 blue balls would have been remaining.

Inverse probability

In probability theory and applications, Bayes' rule relates the odds of event A to event
A 2 before (prior to) and after (posterior to) conditioning on another event B.The odds
on A 1 to event A 2 } is simply the ratio of the probabilities of the two events. When
arbitrarily many events A are of interest, not just two, the rule can be rephrased
as posterior is proportional to prior times likelihood, P ( A | B ) ∝ P ( A ) P ( B | A
) where the proportionality symbol means that the left hand side is proportional to (i.e.,
equals a constant times) the right hand side as A varies, for fixed or given B (Lee,
2012; Bertsch McGrayne, 2012).

LESSON THREE:Rules of probability

Objectives

By the end of this lesson you should be able to explain the rules and theories of
probability.

1. P (A and B) = P(A) P(B)

where P(A and B) is the probability that events A and B both occur. If A and B
are independent, that is, if A has occurred, it does not change the
probability of B.

2. When A and B are not independent then the conditional probability P(A/B)
which is the probability of A given that B has occurred is:

Then P (A and B) = P(A) P(B/A)

These relationships hold whenever A and B are independent or not. If they are
independent, then P(A/B) = p(A)
 P(A and B) < P(A)

3. If two events are mutually exclusive, that means that only one of them can
happen, so the conditional probability are 0.

P(A/B) = P(B/A) = 0

The probability of either event:

P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)

In general the probability of A or B or both is:

(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A and B)

4. Baye’s theorem

Baye’s theorem is a relationship between the conditional probability of two

events. a conditional probability: P(A/B), is the probability that events
A will occur given that event B has occurred.

P(A and B) : probability that A and B occur:

P(A and B) = P (A) P(B/A)

P(A and B) = P(B) P(A/B)

So

P(B) P(A/B) = P(A) P(B /A) if divided by P(B) yields Baye’s theorem.

Baye’s theorem can be interpreted as a statement about how a body of evidence, E,

affects the probability of a hypothesis, H:
The probability of H given E is the product of P(H) – which is the probability of H
before H – and the ratio of P(E/H) the probability of evidence assuming it to be true,
and P(E). The probability of getting evidence under any circumstances. (H true or not).

This is called the diachronic interpretation of Bay’s theorem, because it describes how
the probability of a hypothesis gets updated overtime in light of new evidence. In this
contest:

P(H) = the prior probability

P(H/E) = the posterior

P(E/H) = likelihood of the evidence

P(E) = the normalizing constant .

Frequentism:

A strict interpretation of probability that only applies to a series of identical trials.

Bayesians:

A general interpretation that uses probability to represent a subjective degree of belief.

Independent:

Two events are independent if the occurrence of one does not have an effect on the
probability of another.

Monte Carlo simulation:

A method of computing probabilities by simulating random processes.

Update: The process of using data to revise probability.

Prior: A probability before a Bayesian update.

Posterior: A probability computed by a Bayesian update.

Likelihood of the evidence:

The probability of the evidence conditioned on a hypothesis.

Central limit theorem:

The supreme law of unreason.

If values drawn from a normal distribution are added the distribution of the sum is
normal.

If the values drawn from other distributions re added, the sum does not generally have
one of the continuous distributions.

If large numbers of values from almost any distribution are added, the distribution of
the sum converges to normal.

Specifically, if the distribution of the values has a mean and standard

deviation

the distribution of the sum is approximately

The values have to be drawn independently.

the values have to come from the same

ACTIVITY

 Carry out probability experiments.

 Work out examples of empirical probability
 Calculate Classical probability.

ASSIGNMENT

In a class 6 music students there is a 20 percent likely

REFERENCES

Saleemi N Ahmed (1997)Quantitative skills simplified,Devonshare Publishers,Nairobi

WEEK TWELVE
 EDUCATIONAL TESTS AND EVALUATION
  Types of tests

 Test Construction.

 Giving meaning to test scores

Objectives
By the end of this WEEK you should be able to:

 Identify the different types of educational tests.


 Demonstrate the steps in test construction.

 Do Calculations that give meaning to scores

 Identify the special problems in tests

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this week you should be able to:

 Identify 5different types of achievement tests


 Demonstrate the main steps in test construction

 Do culculations that give meaning to scores

 Describe the special problems in tests

LESSON ONE:TYPES OF EDUCATIONAL TESTS

Objective

By the end of this lesson you should be able to:

1.Identify the different types of educational

achievement tests

2.Explain Blooms taxonomy

3.Describe the characteristics of a good test.

ducational tests are also called scholastic achievement tests.There are three types of
tests:

1.Classsroom achievement tests

This is a test constructed to judge the achievement of the learners over a period of
time.

Classroom achievement tests can be objective or subjective.Under objective tests we

have;the multiple choice,matching type,true/false (alternative response). Here the
examinee is required to select the best answer from the given options . Subjective tests
include; essay type,short answer and completion.Here the questions are framed in such
a way that the examinee has to construct the answer on his own in his own words.

2.Diagnostic achievement tests

This is a test used to identify the learners who may not have comprehended a
particular concept and the teacher can work separately with those students. It is also
used to gauge the level of students coming from a variety of backgrounds.These tests
are normally quizzes or short tests.

3.Scholarstic Aptitude tests(SAT)

This is an ability test used to predict whether or not a student has the ability to succeed
in the classroom.These are given at the time of admission to screen the students.They
are not intelligence tests.

Ref:Thorndike’s book on educational measurement

Guilford’s book on statistics

Planning the Test:

Several activities need to be carried out by the teacher

when devicing a test. First the teacher needs to draw a test

“blue print” specifying

i.The content
The outline of a test should contain the details of the content being tested in the
specific course.Each content area should be given the weight proportional to its judged
importance.

An analysis of the curriculum determines the subject matter content and the instruction
objectives to be measured by the test.

Advice from subject matter experts serving as consultants should be sought.

ii.The objectives of the test

When writing the objectives,the teacher should be guided by the following:

a.each objective should begin with an action verb to specify the

observable behavior e.g.classify,define,explain.

b.The objectives must be ststed in terms of student performance as an outcome

or learning product.

c.Each objective should be stated clearly without ambiguity.

Bloom’s Taxonomy of Education objectives

It classifies educational objectives into three major domains : cognitive,affective and

psychomotor. Most educational objectives fall in the cognitive domain.

The cognitive domain is the core of curriculum and test development.It is concerned
with describing student’s behavior in terms of knowledge,understanding and abilities
that can be demonstrated. Bloom’s taxonomy classifies behaviors found in the
cognitive domain into the following: knowledge,comprehension,application,synthesis
and evaluation.

The affective domain includes objectives that emphasis interests,attitudes,values and

the development of appreciation.

The psychomotor domain is concerned with physical motor or manipulative skills.

iii.Types of items

This include specifying how many of each of the objective and subjective type of test
items would be included in the test.
iv.Time limit

The time limit should be carefully done to ensure that sufficient time is allocated for
each of the items in the test.

Characteristics of agood test

Test, as an instrument possesses some qualities, which are necessary, before it can be
eligible as a

test and usable. A test should therefore possess the under listed characteristics, which
are

interdependent and are what makes a test what it should be.

They include:

1Validity- when a test fulfils its purpose(s) that is measures what it intended

to measure

1. and to the extent desired then it is valid. The characteristics of testee can blur
the time
2. validity of a test. That is, it can provide false results that do not represent truly
what it
3. intend to measure in a student. If a learner has difficulty in assessing the
Internet for
4. course materials and participation it can send wrong impression on the learner
5. commitment to log in and ability in course work.
6. Reliability- The consistency of test ability to measure accurately what it
supposes to
7. measure is its strength in reliability. It is the ‘extent to which a particular
measurement is
8. consistent and reproducible’.
9. Objectivity- The fairness of a test to the testee, bias test does not portray
objectivity and
10. hence is not reliable. A test that is objective has high validity and reliability
11. Discrimination- A good test must be able to make distinction between poor and
good
12. learner; it should show the slight differences between learner attainment and
achievement
 13. that will make it possible to distinguish between poor and good learner. What
are the
14. likely criteria in order to satisfy this conditions?
15. Comprehensiveness- Test items that covers much of the content of the course,
that is the
16. subject matter is said to be comprehensive and hence capable of fulfilling
purpose.
17. Ease of administration- a good test should not pose difficulties in
administration.
18. Practicality and scoring- Assigning quantitative value to a test result should not
be
19. difficult. Why, what and how.
20. Usability- a good test should be useable, unambiguous and clearly stated with
one

LESSON TWO:TEST CONSTRUCTION(60minutes)

Objectives

By the end of this lesson you will be able to describe the procedure of test
construction.

There are principles and techniques that need to be observed by the test maker to
ensure that quality tests are made and are reproducible, measure what it should
measure and address content objectives in clear terms.

In test construction, the following stages are very important:

A. Test planning stages may include the following consideration:

i. What are objectives of the test- stated in behavioural terms, using active verbs

ii.What is the content specification: This may be based on syllabus, journal, notes etc

iii.Test Blue-print should be prepared- It is a two-dimensional table.

One represents subject matter while the other represents behaviour or mental process.

iv.What type of test items will be required-Essay or objective tests?

B. Test item development stage.

The test planner should take note of the following:

i.The test Blue-print should be strictly used.

ii.The test should be constructed ahead of time for review and reframing

of items.

iii.Colleagues or other experts should review items.

iv.Enough test items more than required should be prepared.

C. Test item analysis

The formats for achievement tests are essay and objective items. Sample format have
to be prepared and analysed. Item analysis provides information like; diagnostic
details which could be helpful in assessing testee or in teaching and learning process
and procedures.

D. Development of marking scheme-These are answer of the test constructed and the
responses the teacher will expect from the learner and possible penalties for wrong
responses.

Marking scheme is prepared to reflect the learning objectives in that all Bloom’s levels
of educational objectives are represented. All probable answers to a question, the
marks obtainable, the penalty for wrong answers and instructions for award of marks,
and specific instructions on the use of illustrations, diagram etc where necessary are
the necessary information marking scheme should contain..

Test Item Development

This is a stage where test planner is face-to-face with the skill of producing test items.

Pertinent questions:

1. What are the necessary steps required?

2. What are the guidelines?

These are important questions in test construction and clearly they are among other

questions, which must be addressed, in the actual wording of test items in order to
haveall the test items made possess relevant characteristics.

The following criteria are important in item development:

1. Test Blue-print should be kept in focus

2. Items should be drafted far ahead of time as anytime it is done in a haste it is fraught
with error.

3. The items should be reconsidered by colleagues and experts to ascertain its qualities

4. Test items should not be in exact number required. Excess items should be available
to take care of need.

Item development should be considered keeping in mind the type of instrument in

mind and the characteristics of test required.

For instance objective test items vary according to the type of objective test the
teacher wants to use e.g. alternate-response or matching item objective test etc).

Further detailed requirements for making items include the following:

The pedagogical objectives must be strictly adhered to and provide the guides for tests
needed and the number for each learning objective.

Items should be clearly worded, no ambiguous presentation and should only

one meaning.

Test should not contain too many words but rather it should be concise, precise and
straight to the point.

Test items should be constructed on what the testee should know or be able to make
meaning of it. It should be within the limit of scheme of work.

Appropriate stimulus should be chosen. For instance primary school child

will understand illustration, diagrams better than verbal materials and choice of

whether item will be objective or essay will be an important consideration.

Test items are better prepared as soon as materials have been taught if the pedagogical
approach is instructivist to forestall missing any point.

Test should not be worded in a manner that the response could easily be deduced from
the item itself. It should rather be intellectually challenging to the testee.

General principles of writing questions for an achievement test.

Different types of questions can be constructed for an achievement test e.g.multiple
choice,filling blanks,true/false,matching type,short answer and essay.Each type of
question is constructed differently but the following general principles apply in the
construction of all the tests:

1.Instructions for each question must be simple and brief.

2.Simple language should be used in writing the questions.

3.Test items must asses specific ability or comprehension of content developed during
the course of study.

4.Write the questions as you teach or even before you teach so that your teaching may
be aimed at significant learning outcomes.

5.Device questions that call for the comprehension and application of knowledge and
skills.

6.Some of the questions must aim at appraisal of examinee’s ability to

analyse,synthesize and evaluate new instances of the concept.

7.Questions should be written in different formats e.g multiple

choice,completion,true/false,short answer e.t.c. to maintain the interest and motivation
of the learner.

8.Prepare alternate forms of the test to discourage cheating and to provide for make up
testing if need be.

9.The items should be phrased so that the content rather than the format of the
statements will determine the answer.Sometimes the items contain specific
determiners which provide an irrelevant cue to the correct answer e.g.statements that
contain terms like always,never,entirely,absolutely and exclusively are much more
likely to be false than true.On the other hand terms such as may ,sometimes,as a rule
and in general are much more likely to be true. However,care should be taken to avoid
double negatives,complicated sentence structures and unusual words.

10.The difficult level of the items should be appropriate for the ability level of the
group.However difficult in itself is not the end .The item content should be determined
by the importance of the subject matter.It is desirable to place a few easy items at the
beginning to motivate students particularly those who are below the average ability.
11.The items should be constructed in such a manner that different taxonomy levels
are evaluated.Besides,achievement tests should be power tests not speed tests.

12.Items pertaining to a specific topic or of a particular type should be placed together

in the test.Such a grouping facilitates scoring and evaluation.It will also be helpful for
the examinees to think and answer items similar in content and format in a better
manner.

13.Directions to the examinees should be as simple,clear and as precise as possible so

that even those students who are below average can clearly understand what they are
expected to do.

14.Scoring procedures must be clearly defined before the test is administered.

15.The test constructor must clearly state optimal testing conditions for test
administration.

16.Item analysis should be carried out to make necessary changes if any ambiguity is
found in the items.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF TESTS

It’s good to regularly review the advantages and disadvantages of the most commonly
used test questions and the test banks that now frequently provide them.

Multiple-choice questions

Advantages

1. Quick and easy to score, by hand or electronically

2. Can be written so that they test a wide range of higher-order thinking skills
3. Can cover lots of content areas on a single exam and still be answered in a class
period

Disadvantages

1. Often test literacy skills: “if the student reads the question carefully, the answer
is easy to recognize even if the student knows little about the subject” (p. 194)
2. Provide unprepared students the opportunity to guess, and with guesses that are
right, they get credit for things they don’t know
3. Expose students to misinformation that can influence subsequent thinking about
the content
 4. Take time and skill to construct (especially good questions)

True-false questions

Advantages

Quick and easy to score

Disadvantages

1. Considered to be “one of the most unreliable forms of assessment” (p. 195)

2. Often written so that most of the statement is true save one small, often trivial
bit of information that then makes the whole statement untrue
3. Encourage guessing, and reward for correct guesses

Short-answer questions

Advantages

1. Quick and easy to grade

2. Quick and easy to write

Disadvantages

Encourage students to memorize terms and details, so that their understanding of the
content remains superficial

Essay questions

Advantages

1. Offer students an opportunity to demonstrate knowledge, skills, and abilities in

a variety of ways
2. Can be used to develop student writing skills, particularly the ability to
formulate arguments supported with reasoning and evidence

Disadvantages

1. Require extensive time to grade

2. Encourage use of subjective criteria when assessing answers
3. If used in class, necessitate quick composition without time for planning or
revision, which can result in poor-quality writing
Questions provided by test banks

Advantages

1. Save instructors the time and energy involved in writing test questions
2. Use the terms and methods that are used in the book

Disadvantages

1. Rarely involve analysis, synthesis, application, or evaluation (cross-discipline

research documents that approximately 85 percent of the questions in test banks
test recall)
2. Limit the scope of the exam to text content; if used extensively, may lead
students to conclude that the material covered in class is unimportant and
irrelevant

We tend to think that these are the only test question options, but there are some
interesting variations. The article that promoted this review proposes one: Start with a
question, and revise it until it can be answered with one word or a short phrase. Do not
list any answer options for that single question, but attach to the exam an alphabetized
list of answers. Students select answers from that list. Some of the answers provided
may be used more than once, some may not be used, and there are more answers listed
than questions. It’s a ratcheted-up version of matching. The approach makes the test
more challenging and decreases the chance of getting an answer correct by guessing.

Students do need to be introduced to any new or altered question format before they
encounter it on an exam.

LESSON THREE: INTERPRETING SCORES AND NORMS (60minutes)

Objectives

By the end of this lesson you should be able to:

1.Interprete test score results.

Measures from achievement, aptitude, attitude, psychological scores do not have a

true-zero point. This means that in both theory and practice when a student misses
every item on achievement, aptitude, attitude, or psychological tests, we do not
interpret this to mean the student has no ability, knowledge, or skill in that area. For
example, if a person answers none of the items correctly on an intelligence test, we do
not say that person has no intelligence. Another example, if a student misses every
question on a math subtest of some achievement test, we do not say that student has no
ability, knowledge, or skill in math. A third example, if a person gives incorrect
answers on all items of a test on anxiety, we do not interpret that to mean that the
person has no anxiety about anything ever.

The scores from achievement, aptitude, attitude, psychological tests can not be
compared directly with each other unless the norming group is taken into
consideration and the scale on which the score is based. We addressed this issue in
earlier modules on aptitude and achievement tests.

Methods of Interpreting Test Scores

1. Criterion-Referenced Interpretation

This is based on mastery of a specific set of skills.It answers the following questions:

Are the achievement domains clearly defined?

Are there enough items for each skill tested?

What is the difficulty level of the items?

What type(s) of items are used?

What is the match of items to objectives

2.Norm-Referenced Interpretation is based on comparison of individuals to clearly

defined group (called norming groups).

Questions answered are :

Are the test norms relevant?

Are the test norms representative?
Are the test norms up to date?
Are the test norms comparable?
Are the test norms adequately described?

Types of Test Scores and Defined Purpose

Raw scores -- the number of items correct or the number of points earned; not of much
use by themselves
Grade Equivalent scores -- grade group in which student's raw score is average; used
to estimate or monitor growth

Standard scores -- terms of standard distance of student's raw score from the mean
(average) in terms of standard deviations; used to monitor growth; better at reflecting
reality than grade equivalent scores

Normal Curve Equivalent -- a normalized standard score; used to avoid problems with
grade equivalent scores and used to describe group performance and to show growth
over time

Percentile Ranks -- student's relative position in a group in terms of the percentage of

students scoring lower than or equal to that student; used to determine relative areas of
strengths and weaknesses; can create profile analyses from these scores.

National Stanines -- normal distribution is divided into nine parts; used to identify
relative areas of strengths and weaknesses

Scale Scores -- scores on an arbitrarily set common scale; used to measure students'
progress across grades in a subject

Figure 1. Cumulative Percentages Rounded

Note that the mean is 50%, the range is 1% to 99%, and the standard deviation varies
at different points along the scale. What is considered average for these scores lies
between -1  and +1 . This symbol  is the symbol for standard deviation. The
cumulative percentages rounded which fall within the average range are between 16%
and 84%.

Interpretation of Cumulative Percentages

If a student scores 52%, then the student has performed as well as or better than 52%
of his/her peers. We can calculate the cumulative percentage if we know the standard
score, the percent of people who earned less than that standard score and the number
of people who earned exactly that standard score.

Figure 2. Percentile Equivalents

Note that the mean is 50%, the range is 1% to 99%, and the standard deviation varies
at different points along the scale. What is considered average for these scores lies
between -1 and +1 . This symbol is the symbol for standard deviation. The percentile
equivalent scores which fall within the average range are between 16% and 84%.

Figure 3. Z-scores

Note that the mean is 0, the range is infinite, and the standard deviation is 1. What is
considered average for these scores lies between -1 and +1 . This symbol is the
symbol for standard deviation. The Z-scores which fall within the average range are
between -1.0 and +1.0.
 Figure 4. T-scores

Note that the mean is 50, the range is infinite, and the standard deviation is 10. What is
considered average for these scores lies between -1 and +1 . This symbol is the
symbol for standard deviation. The Z-scores which fall within the average range are
between 40 and 60.

Figure 5. Normal Curve Equivalent (NCE) scores

Note that the mean is 50, the range is 1 to 99, and the standard deviation is 21.06.
What is considered average for these scores lies between -1  and +1 . This
symbol  is the symbol for standard deviation. The NCE scores which fall within the
average range are between 28.94 (rounded to 29) and 71.06 (rounded to 71).

Figure 6. Stanines
Note that there is no true mean, the range is 1 to 9, and these scores do not parallel the
standard deviations. What is considered average for these scores lies between -1  and
+1 . This symbol  is the symbol for standard deviation. The stanines which fall
within the average range are between 4 and 6.

Figure 7. Deviation IQ scores

Note that the mean is 100, the range is approximately 25 to 175, and the standard
deviation is 15. What is considered average for these scores lies between -1  and
+1 . This symbol  is the symbol for standard deviation. The deviation IQ scores
which fall within the average range are between 85 and 115.

Standard scores are called standard because they have a constant mean and a constant
standard deviation. According to this definition, which of the seven scores above are
standard scores?

Cautions in Interpreting Any Test Score

1. A test score should be interpreted in terms of the specific test from which it was
derived.
2. A test score should be interpreted in light of all of the student's relevant
characteristics.

3. A test score should be interpreted according to the type of decision to be made.

4. A test score should be interpreted as a band of scores rather than as a specific score.

5. A test score should be verified by supplementary evidence.

6. Do NOT interpret a grade equivalent score as an estimate of the grade where a

student should be placed.

7. Do NOT assume that the units are equal at different parts of the scale.

8. Do NOT assume that scores on different tests are comparable.

9. Do NOT interpret extreme scores as dependable estimates of a student's

performance.

Test publishers provide a variety of ways of presenting results. The figures in your text
are just a few of the presentations possible.

Look at the figures 17.3 and 17.4 in your text (pages 461 and 463). Notice that the
score is presented as a band rather than a point. This is much more accurate and
communicates clearly the approximate amount of error the publishers have found in
their test. This is an estimate of the standard error of measurement. The "true" score,
the student’s true ability in this area, will fall somewhere within the band. It may be
near the top of the band, it may be in the middle of the band, or it may be near the end
of the band. We do not know exactly where the true score lies, but we assume that the
true score for that person lies somewhere within the band.

Remember, people create tests, people are not perfect, tests are not perfect. All tests
contain some error. The length of the band reflects this error. The longer the band the
more error. Remember from the module on reliability that error reduces reliability.
Therefore, the longer the band, the more error, and the less reliable the test is.

The band is also helpful in determining true differences between scores. Remember,
that we do not know exactly where the "true" score lies for this student, but we know it
lies somewhere within the band. Using the student profile on page 461 of your text,
determine the range of scores for this student in the areas of numerical reasoning and
perceptual speed & accuracy. Do you see that the scores for both could be exactly the
same depending on where the student’s "true" score is? Scores can not be the same for
numerical reasoning and abstract reasoning. So there are real differences between the
student’s scores on numerical reasoning and on abstract reasoning. In other words,
when the bands overlap common area along the continuum, the scores can not be
interpreted as being really different from each other. It is only when the bands do not
share common area, that the scores can be interpreted as being really different from
each other.

Using the figures you have created and figure 17.3 in your text (page 461), answer the
following:

Is this student's score for verbal reasoning:

1. above average
2. average
3. below average

Is this student's score for abstract reasoning:

1. above average
2. average
3. below average

Interpreting Scale Scores

Scale scores vary from test to test and from grade to grade within the same test. The
range, standard deviations, and means vary by test, subtest, and grade. They are very
often reported and can be converted to cumulative frequency at midpoint which in turn
can be converted to percentile ranks which are much easier to interpret.

Given a scale score and the number of students earning below that and the number of
students earning exactly that scale score the cumulative frequency at midpoint can be
calculated. The definition of cumulative frequency at midpoint is all the students who
earned scale scores below a given score plus one half of the students who earned that
scale score.

An example, if we know that 36 students earned scale scores lower than 400 and 6
students earned scale scores of exactly 400, then we take one half of 6 and add that to
36, and we know that the cumulative frequency at midpoint for a scale score of 400 is
40. If we then divide that by the number of students who took the test, we have the
percentile rank. Given that 50 students took the test, we divide 40 by 50 and obtain a
percentile rank of 80. Now we know that this student has performed as well as or
better than 80% of his/her peers. We would also say that this student is average.

ACTIVITY

 Identify the differences between different educational tests.


 Construct examples of the different types of tests

 Find ways of giving meaning to test scores

 Discuss special problems in tests..

ASSIGNMENT:

1.Construct two items each for each of the types of achievent tests.

2.Consider the merits and the demerits of each of the types of

educational achievement tests.

3.Describe the procedure for writing education achievements tests.

EXTENDED ACTIVITY

Using the knowledge gained from the lessons this week anlyse any of the marked
tests you did.

REFERENCE
Linn R.L. & Gronlund, N.E. (1995). Measurement and assessment in teaching.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Merrill.