European Journal of Special Needs Education

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Inclusive education for students with challenging

behaviour: development of teachers’ beliefs and
ideas for adaptations through Lesson Study

Hanne Kristin Aas, M. Uthus & A. Løhre

To cite this article: Hanne Kristin Aas, M. Uthus & A. Løhre (17 Mar 2023): Inclusive education
for students with challenging behaviour: development of teachers’ beliefs and ideas for
adaptations through Lesson Study, European Journal of Special Needs Education, DOI:
10.1080/08856257.2023.2191107

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EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION
https://doi.org/10.1080/08856257.2023.2191107

Inclusive education for students with challenging behaviour:

development of teachers’ beliefs and ideas for adaptations
through Lesson Study
Hanne Kristin Aas , M. Uthus and A. Løhre
Department for Teacher Education, Norwegian University for Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
This paper explores development in teacher beliefs and ideas for Inclusion; challenging
adaptations with respect to students who display challenging beha­ behaviour; teacher beliefs;
viour. These students have the same right to inclusive education as adaptation; Lesson Study
other students, but evidence suggest that this still is a partially
unsolved issue. The study’s context is an elementary school using
Lesson Study as method for professional development over a four-
year period. We have used content analysis and compared teacher
talk during planning meetings at the beginning and end of the four
years. The main findings are increased attention towards student
behaviour, increased use of contextual explanations for student
behaviour, a marked increase in ideas for adaptations, and ideas
changing from exerting external control to engaging students in
learning activities. The findings are discussed as to whether they
support inclusion and how Lesson Study might have contributed.

Introduction
As inclusion has become an ideal for schools, most teachers must handle a diverse group
of students within their classrooms. The difficulties in handling diverse needs in main­
stream classrooms are reported by several researchers (see e.g. OECD 2014). Woodcock
and Hardy (2017) noted that teachers found it excessively demanding to plan for the
needs of all students. Students with challenging behaviour are also seen as difficult to
include and teachers are found to hold more negative attitudes towards inclusion of
students with behavioural challenges than other types of needs (Willmann and Seeliger
2017). Student (mis)behaviour is regarded as troublesome to classmates (Infantino and
Little 2005), recognised as a major contribution to teacher stress (Skaalvik and Skaalvik
2017), and can make teachers feel frustrated, discouraged, and insufficient (Gidlund 2018).
The concept of challenging behaviour covers a wide range of behaviours and is repeat­
edly referred to as problematic in research because there are so many different definitions
and terms in use. Some terms, often based on diagnostic systems, describe challenging
behaviour as deficiencies or disorders, such as Disruptive Behaviour Disorders (Babinski and
Waschbusch 2022). Other terms refer to contextual factors and define challenging

CONTACT Hanne Kristin Aas [email protected]

© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/
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cited. The terms on which this article has been published allow the posting of the Accepted Manuscript in a repository by the author(s) or
with their consent.
2 H. K. AAS ET AL.

behaviour as failure to follow behavioural norms in the classroom or in terms of negative

consequences for learning. The different terms used to describe unwanted student beha­
viour does, to some degree, reflect different perspectives. In this paper, challenging beha­
viour is understood broadly as any kind of behaviour teachers experience as disturbing or
impeding teaching and learning in the classroom. We consider the concept of challenging
behaviour a cultural and social construct, reflecting prevailing norms and ideals; what
constitutes a ‘good student‘ will therefore vary across different contexts.
The focus of this paper is the beliefs teachers’ have and their ideas for adaptations for
students who display challenging behaviour in the classroom and how these enhance or
hinder inclusion. Critically, the beliefs teachers have about why students behave in certain
ways influences how teachers experience and therefore how they react to that behaviour.
We explore development in teachers’ beliefs and ideas for adaptations through a four-
year project where a Norwegian elementary school used Lesson Study as a method for
professional development. Lesson Study, originating in Japan, has increasingly gained
interest globally. While a majority of research originates in Asia and the US, a growing
number of European countries are represented in research (Fang and Wang 2021).
Research on Lesson Study has mainly focused on developing academic teaching and
learning, with maths and science most often represented (Xu and Pedder 2014). There is
however, some research showing promising results regarding Lesson Study’s relevance
for developing inclusion (Norwich, Benham-Clarke, and Goei 2021), and with its emphasis
on collaborative reflective practices, Lesson Study has the potential to promote inclusive
education for students displaying challenging behaviour.

Theoretical frame
Teacher beliefs
Analyses of teachers’ utterances regarding students’ behaviour and teachers’ ideas for
adapting lessons are central to this paper, as is how these can be interpreted and under­
stood as expressing underlying beliefs and affecting teacher actions in the classroom.
Teacher beliefs describe assumptions and views teachers have about themselves, their
students, and about learning and teaching (Pajares 1992). Beliefs can be described as
a filter for interpreting experiences, framing problems, and guiding practice (Levin 2015).
At an individual level, teacher beliefs are composed of all the various formal and informal
influences teachers have encountered through their own schooling, teacher education
and professional life (Buehl and Fives 2009). At a group level, beliefs form the basis for
how a group understands different phenomena; a teacher collective, for example, will
have its shared culture and norms that define ‘correct’ ways of understanding and acting.
These shared beliefs constitute a powerful factor that influences various aspects of
a school’s routines and influence affective, motivational, and attitudinal aspects in tea­
chers’ professional practice (Tschannen-Moran, Salloum, and Goddard 2015). There are
strong connections between teachers’ beliefs and their classroom practice (Pajares 1992).
Teachers’ beliefs are considered relatively stable and difficult to change. Part of the
explanation is, according to Pajares (1992), that beliefs shape how we understand and
interpret new experiences and therefore tend to be self-reinforcing. People notice,
 EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION 3

remember, and interpret in ways that fit into their existing understanding of themselves
and the world.
Studies indicate that the beliefs teachers have about the reasons for challenging
student behaviour impact their willingness to change classroom practice (Nemer et al.
2019). Beliefs regarding the reasons for student behaviour can be classified as either
individual or contextual. In an individual understanding, behaviour is understood to be
caused by innate traits and abilities, while in a contextual understanding, it is understood
to be caused by the situation (Messiou and Ainscow 2015; Skidmore 1999). If the cause is
contextual, the behaviour can be related to inadequacies of the curriculum or inappropri­
ate pedagogy, for example (Maguire, Ball, and Braun 2010). Researchers more often find
that teachers ascribe the locus of challenging behaviours to the individual and go on to
attribute it to deficit backgrounds and lack of internal control of the child (Orsati and
Causton-Theoharis 2013). By attributing the cause to inherent traits, the most significant
factor for the students learning and behaviour is seen as beyond the teacher’s control.
This narrows what possibilities teachers see for the students and decreases their own
feeling of responsibility, both of which negatively affect how they respond to student
needs. If teachers, on the other hand, attribute challenging behaviours to contextual
factors within their control, they tend to be more likely to seek out effective solutions to
the behaviour (Nemer et al. 2019).
A contextual understanding implies trust on the part of the teacher, both in their own
ability to meet student needs, as well as trust in the student’s competence and willingness
to participate in meaningful ways (Goddard, Tschannen-Moran, and Hoy 2001). There is,
however, an implied risk for the teacher; taking more responsibility means accepting
responsibility for failure, if one does not succeed. Kelchtermans (2009) writes about
teacher vulnerability and describes the challenge implicit in the teaching profession in
balancing placement of control ‘between exhausting personal commitment and cynical
disengagement’ (p. 266). Emotional support is considered an important component in
developing new thinking about student behaviour (Naraian, Ferguson, and Thomas 2012).
Inclusion is more likely to occur if students’ challenges are believed to be a result of
conditions in their context (Dyson and Millward 2000). This means that some beliefs can
be considered more productive than others; a contextual understanding of challenging
beliefs is more likely to create opportunities for teachers to rethink their practices, and to
position them as having the power, authority, and responsibility to cope with the
problem.

Inclusive practices and strategies for adaptation

Inclusion is defined by UNESCO (2003) as an ongoing process of addressing and
responding to the diversity of needs of all students with a conviction that it is the
responsibility of the regular school system to educate all children. There is interna­
tional agreement on the ideal of an inclusive school, but differences in how inclusion
as a practice is understood; many countries report a gap between intention and
reality, making the translation of inclusive ideas into actual practices a frequent
challenge (Haug 2017). There is also limited research on how teachers in mainstream
classrooms can develop more inclusive practices (Amor et al. 2019). In this paper, we
assume that some students are more vulnerable than others, and that their needs
4 H. K. AAS ET AL.

must be acknowledged and met with support. This framing presents a challenge for
attending to individual differences while actively avoiding the marginalisation of
learners or exclusion of groups (Pantić and Florian 2015).
One way of handling diversity in the classroom is through adaptive teaching: adjusting
lesson planning and teaching practice to the diverse needs of students (Vogt and Rogalla
2009). Ideally, the adaptations should contribute to inclusion, with all students being able
to participate in the classroom learning community (Qvortrup and Qvortrup 2018). If some
students are given activities or treated in ways that differ too much from the rest of the
class, they can end up being excluded despite being physically present; this is what Allan
(2006) has called ‘‘the repetition of exclusion’. To avoid this, adaptative teaching should
be conceptualised not as individualisation of instruction, but rather as creating and
expanding what Corno (2008) calls ‘‘a middle ground’, by targeting ways to bring
disparate groups of students together so they can benefit from the same instruction.
Research on the strategies teachers choose in working with challenging behaviour
often paint a discouraging picture where external control, sanctions, and exclusion
dominate (Hepburn, Beamish, and Alston-Knox 2021; Orsati and Causton-Theoharis
2012) and control and discipline overrule learning and participation (Egeberg,
McConney and Price 2021; Maguire, Ball, and Braun 2010). Strategic interventions have
primarily focused on reducing unwanted behaviour rather than developing academic
achievement. The connection between behaviour and learning is complex; it is possible
that academic problems can cause or exacerbate behavioural problems, which then serve
as an escape from the threat of academic failure (van der Worp-van der Kamp et al. 2014).
In line with this, Gregory et al. (2021) claim that matters of discipline too often are
divorced from instructional matters, referring to research showing that students who
have good conditions for learning are less likely to be involved in disruptive behaviours.
Good conditions for learning, academic engagement (Sullivan et al. 2014), and
a positive relationship between teacher and student (Orsati and Causton-Theoharis
2012) are among factors shown to reduce challenging behaviour.

Lesson Study
Lesson Study is a systematic approach to professional development that embodies many
key aspects of effective professional development (Willems and Van den Bossche 2019). In
Lesson Study, teams of teachers work together in communities to develop their practice.
At the core of the method is the research lesson, where the teacher teams collaborate to
formulate goals for student learning and long-term development and plan this lesson in
detail. The teacher teams then conduct the lesson with one team member teaching and
the others observing to gather evidence on student learning and development.
Afterwards, the team meets to reflect on and discuss the evidence gathered during the
lesson. In the last stage of the Lesson Study cycle, all teams meet to share and discuss their
learning, providing opportunities for collective learning and development of the school
culture (Lewis 2002). By observing different students, the teachers get access to the ways
students respond and learn from the lesson. This strong focus on student thinking and
learning is central to Lesson Study. The goal of Lesson Study is not primarily to produce
good lessons but is more accurately described as a research process intended to produce
teacher learning to improve future instruction (Stigler and Hiebert 2009).
 EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION 5

Timperley and Alton-Lee (2008) found that reflections on how teaching affects stu­
dents is a central professional development activity that promotes teacher learning. In
addition to observing student learning in the research lesson, teachers are supposed to
anticipate student response as a part of planning the lesson. Trying to imagine how the
students will experience the lesson is seen as an important part of the process (Fuji 2014).
This is termed cognitive empathy: trying to understand the students’ situation, take on
their perspectives, and understand their thoughts, motivations, and motives (Cerbin and
Kopp 2006). These perspectives can then be used in adapting the lesson, in order to better
support the students (Aas 2021). Lesson Study systematically provides opportunities for
teachers to practice this kind of cognitive empathy.
There are a few research projects in the European context addressing the use of Lesson
Study and its relevance for inclusive education, but to our knowledge none that has
explored the issue of challenging behaviour.
We have compared teachers’ talk about challenging behaviour and ideas for adapta­
tions at the beginning and end of the four-year Lesson Study-period. The aim of this
comparison is to explore development best represented by the following questions:

● What behaviour do the teachers talk about and what beliefs are represented in their
talk?
● What ideas for adaptations do the teachers suggest in meeting behaviour they find
challenging?

The findings are discussed as to whether they support inclusion and we also reflect on
what features in Lesson Study might have contributed to the changes we found.

The study
Context
The current study is part of a larger project that took place in one elementary school in
mid-Norway, which implemented Lesson Study for professional development. The school
had approximately 370 students from grades 1 to 7, with 3–5 teachers in each grade,
forming the Lesson Study-teams. Norwegian legislation gives all students the right to
attend their local school, with curriculum adapted to their needs, and, if necessary, with
additional support. Norway has a relatively long tradition of inclusion, also for students
presenting challenging behaviour. From the late 1960s, special education has gradually
been reorganised with emphasis on equality, normalisation, and decentralisation, and
from 1997, inclusion became a leading principle. Almost all children attend public schools,
with only 0.7% receiving their education in special schools or units (Udir 2020).
The participating school had a diverse group of students. Students’ educational needs
were mainly handled through support in the regular classroom, with some use of smaller
groups. In a baseline study conducted before starting the Lesson Study work, the teachers
were united in having a positive attitude towards inclusion. Their understanding of
inclusion emphasised social belonging, participation and learning. Some teachers found
inclusion difficult to fully achieve, and many wanted more support in better adapting their
lessons for diverse groups of students.
6 H. K. AAS ET AL.

Inclusion of students with challenging behaviour was not an expressed goal for the
project but emerged as a field of interest during analyses of other aspects in the project.
The school leaders wanted to use Lesson Study to develop different qualities in the
school, but all students, including those with behavioural challenges, participated in all
the research lessons. The project period was four years, from 2015 to 2018, with all
teachers and school leaders involved and the teachers completing nine Lesson Study
cycles during this period. The teams had two planning meetings and one evaluation
meeting in each cycle.

Method
The study is qualitative and longitudinal, following one elementary school in their Lesson
Study-work through four years. Data consist of audio recordings from meetings where
teacher teams planned research lessons: four teams from the first two Lesson Study-cycles
in 2015 (10 h 34 m), and four from the last two in 2018 (13 h 9 m). These have been
analysed with a combination of inductive and deductive approaches, using different types
of content analysis (Hsieh and Shannon 2005). From the raw data, procedures for
a selective protocol were followed, and sequences where teachers talked about student
behaviour and possible adaptations to cope with the behaviours were sorted out as units
of analysis and transcribed verbatim. The transcripts were manually coded to retain
closeness and overview of the context of the utterances. The first step in the analysis
was to mark all utterances concerning student behaviour. These were coded in
a combination of theory- and data-driven processes and resulted in a coding frame
where the utterances were sorted as to the behaviour they concerned and the beliefs
they represented. Content analysis gives opportunity for quantification to explore the
usage of certain words or content (Hsieh and Shannon 2005) and frequencies in the
different categories were counted in a summative analysis. Two researchers carried out
the coding independently, and intercoder reliability (O’connor and Joffe 2020) after the
initial coding was scored at 93.3%. Decisions on the remaining utterances were taken by
the first author after re-reading them in the transcribed context.
The next step in the analysis was to conduct a similar process with the different ideas
for adaptations: marking, coding, and quantification. The transcriptions from 2015 and
2018 were first coded separately, following the same procedure, and then compared. The
coding schemes then, as a third step, served as a starting point for further data explora­
tion. Inspired by concept coding (Saldaña 2015), the transcribed sections were coded
again, looking for patterns with the intention of conceptualising more abstract and
general codes that could describe traits and development in the teacher’s beliefs about
student behaviour, as well as their ideas for adaptations.

Findings
Challenging behaviour – types and beliefs
In this study, we have defined challenging behaviour as all kinds of behaviour teachers
talked about as disturbing or impeding teaching and learning in the classroom. Regarding
the types of behaviour that teacher teams talked about, utterances have been sorted in
two inductively developed categories: unwanted activity and unwanted passivity. As to
 EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION 7

what beliefs about behaviour the utterances represent, they have been sorted according
to whether they represent the theoretical construct of individual trait or contextual
condition as the cause of the behaviour. In addition, all utterances were sorted based
on whether they were in regard to individuals or groups of students.
As shown in Figure 1, (place Figure 1 near here) the number of utterances about challen­
ging behaviour doubled between 2015 and 2018. There was also a marked turn from talk
about individual students towards groups of students or, in some cases, the whole class.
Unwanted activity was the most frequent theme at both times, although the percen­
tage of utterances concerning unwanted passivity increased from 22 to 36%. When it
comes to what beliefs the utterances represented, contextual conditions increased from
11% in 2015 to 31.5% in 2018.
Further exploration of changes in the utterances showed that in 2015, unwanted
activity was often associated with students lacking concentration or motivation, resulting
in them disturbing the lesson: ‘What will happen then, will he just do other things? Yes, that
has happened many times, and then it’s very difficult to get him back on track’. Terms such as
‘falling out’, ‘losing concentration’, and ‘disruption’ were frequent. Unwanted passivity
was most often associated with shyness or anxiousness. In 2018, many of the same
themes regarding unwanted activity were present, but there were additional utterances
concerning a lack of consideration and listening to other opinions: ‘Many of them are most
concerned with expressing their own opinion. They should also be able to listen in to what
their (learning) partner wants to contribute’. Utterances regarding unwanted passivity were
more nuanced, still mentioning shyness and anxiousness, but also a lack of initiative, self-
confidence and self-assertion: ‘Nick was struggling. Yes, we have some students that give in
immediately . . . almost erasing themselves’.
In 2015, beliefs regarding reasons for students’ behaviour was predominantly ascribed to
individual student traits: ‘We must consider Ben and Paul; they will drop out quickly, so we need
to keep them going’. Teachers saw these traits as facts they just had to deal with. Individual
traits are also represented by the majority of utterances in 2018, though contextual
explanations represented a larger proportion: ‘Yes, I thought that it could actually scare

Figure 1. Coding, utterances student behaviour.

8 H. K. AAS ET AL.

Table 1. Coding scheme, ideas for adaptations.

Unwanted activity Unwanted passivity Total
2015 6 3 9
2018 16 13 29

some of them if we demand everyone to say something in front of the whole class. Some will
probably withdraw if we do so’.

Adaptations
All ideas for adaptations considering challenging behaviour suggested in the teacher
planning meetings are part of the data, to get an impression of what possibilities they see
for adapting the lessons. As shown in Table 1 (place Table 1 near here), there was
a considerable increase in the number of ideas for adaptations, from 9 to 29. In both
2015 and 2018, there were more ideas for adaptations regarding unwanted activity.
The 2015 adaptations fall into two categories: external control related to
unwanted activity and the physical location of students in the classroom. With
external control, utterances were similar to, ‘We have to stay close to John to keep
him on track’. The adaptations suggested for this category were variations of the
same theme: that the teachers had to control some students’ behaviour by being
physically close. For the location of students in the classroom, teachers said things
such as, ‘We must move him to a place where he won’t be disturbed as much as he is
now’. Placing the student elsewhere in the classroom was suggested both to
reduce unwanted activity and passivity.
The ideas for adaptations in 2018 were both more numerous and more diverse. Regarding
unwanted activity, the teachers suggested adaptations in the following categories:

● Content mastery: ‘We can have different complexity in the concepts they work with’.
The teachers discussed how some students could have difficulties with the content
and suggested an array of strategies to make the tasks manageable for all students:
open-ended tasks, differentiation, cooperation, designing the first part of a task to be
easier, and preparing some students.
● Motivating learning activities: ‘If we design some practical tasks, we will get them to
participate’. The teachers discussed learning activities in terms of whether they
motivated and engaged the students and suggested student-active, practical, coop­
erative, and game-like activities.
● Adding meaning: ‘Afterwards, they can present their understanding of one of the
concepts to the others’. The teachers discussed motivation and suggested different
ways the students work could be used: by presenting to others, used in a parent
meeting, or shared in the class.
● Rehearsal: ‘They have to practice how to move between the different learning stations
to understand the system’. The teachers discussed what skills different learning
activities demanded from the students and acknowledged the students’ need to
practice these skills.

In 2018, none of the ideas for adaptations concerned external control.

 EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION 9

Regarding unwanted passivity, in 2018, the ideas for adaptations concerned two areas:
student’s anxiety and their lack of initiative and self-confidence. The adaptations aimed at
reducing anxiety revolved around increased safety: soothing students’ fear of making
mistakes by demonstrating multiple approaches or solutions to a given task and having
students talk within smaller groups instead of to the whole class. Some adaptations aimed
at bolstering student initiative and self-confidence can be placed in the category of
rehearsal, but teachers also discussed how to support students in developing strategies
for what to do when they experienced uncertainty, other than asking the teacher or
sitting passively. There were also discussions about teachers having to let go of some of
the control in the classroom: ‘We must let them find out for themselves more, not talk and
talk about what they should do’. These kinds of discussions were often in connection with
unwanted passivity on the part of students and expressed a desire for more active
participation and contribution from students in the lessons.

Discussion
The purpose of this paper is to explore changes in teachers’ beliefs and ideas for
adaptations regarding challenging behaviour in support of inclusion during the four
years of professional development with Lesson Study. Our main findings show changes
in several areas relevant to inclusion: more attention given to challenging behaviour
(including unwanted passivity), more contextual beliefs about behaviour, a marked
increase in ideas for adaptations, and adaptations shifting from the aim of quieting unruly
students to the support of academic mastery, motivation, and meaning. In this section, we
will discuss the findings’ relevance for inclusion and reflect on what features in Lesson
Study might have contributed to the changes we found.

Developing beliefs
Challenging behaviour was a theme that occupied the teacher teams in this study. The
behaviour they talked about was generally relatively trivial, with minor disturbances
dominating. Findings show a marked increase in attention to student behaviour and
likewise attention to groups of students rather than individuals. There was also increased
attention to student passivity as exemplified by a dearth of initiative, independence, and
self-confidence. The beliefs shown in 2015 are in line with other research, where indivi­
dual explanations for behaviour are predominant (Orsati and Causton-Theoharis 2012).
Findings from 2018 show a marked difference, with descriptions of student behaviours
being more often described as related to circumstances in the context of the classroom.
Instead of explanations emphasising students’ individual traits, the teachers discussed
how different aspects of their teaching could make students feel uncertain, demotivated
or discouraged, resulting in unwanted behaviour. This turn towards a contextual under­
standing of student needs was combined with a change in what the teachers expected
from the students. In the 2015 discussions about behaviour, the main aim seemed to be
compliance and order, while the 2018 discussions articulated a different set of expecta­
tions for student behaviour. Teachers’ appreciation of what constitutes ‘a good student’
seems to have changed from that of a compliant recipient to one of an active and self-
controlling participant. Teachers typically experience challenging behaviour as stressful
10 H. K. AAS ET AL.

and frustrating, and this can give rise to a feeling of failing as a teacher (Gidlund 2018). It
can therefore be particularly tempting to distance oneself and place the problem within
the student because doing so eases responsibility and discomfort. This does not con­
tribute to a solution; on the contrary, it can intensify the problem and push the students
away from the learning community in their classes. By seeing themselves as part of the
problem, the teachers also became part of the solution.

Developing ideas for adaptations

The ideas teachers had for adaptations reflect their beliefs about the causes of student
behaviour. In 2015, the suggested adaptations were aimed at controlling student beha­
viour, often through the teachers’ physical presence: ‘being close to’ and ‘looking after’.
This strategy has the potential to lead to repeated negative interactions between student
and teacher, with the student breaking the rules and the teacher correcting them. Such
interactions can easily increase frustration for both student and teacher and damage the
relationship between them. Because a positive relationship between teacher and student
is among the factors that reduce challenging behaviour, (Orsati and Causton-Theoharis
2012) these types of interactions can exacerbate the problem instead of reducing it. In
addition, research has shown that students with challenging behaviour are regarded as
troublesome to classmates (Infantino and Little 2005). Hence, having the rest of the class
as an audience, witnessing negative interactions between student and teacher has the
potential to affect their view of the student, with possible and possibly negative impact to
the student’s social status.
The ideas for adaptations in 2018 reflect the changed beliefs and show that teachers’
belief in challenging behaviour being triggered by contextual factors gave rise to
a multitude of ideas for adapting the context. The aim of the adaptations was not control
of student behaviour, but instead improvement of their learning conditions. This change
yields two important insights: first, that student misbehaviour can be a result of a lack of
mastery, motivation, and meaning; second, that behaviour is closely connected to both
learning and learning conditions. According to 2021), behavioural issues are too often
handled as detached from instructional issues. If learning conditions are good, students
are less likely to display challenging behaviour. The types of adaptations suggested in
2018, directed towards improving learning conditions for all students, are likely to
succeed in reducing challenging behaviour. The reduction occurs not by disciplining
individual students to be quiet, but by engaging all students in learning activities. This
underlines the importance of academic support and academic inclusion – after all,
a school’s most critical feature is academic learning.
The increased attention given to student passivity in students is also interesting. In
2015, when the teachers mentioned passivity as a challenge, it was almost always linked
to shyness and unwillingness to participate in classroom activities on the part of indivi­
dual students. In 2018, shy students were still mentioned, but the teachers also talked
about other kinds of passivity as challenging, namely, lack of initiative and self-
confidence. We have assumed challenging behaviour to be a cultural and social construct
and this change in teachers’ concern can be interpreted from such a perspective. It is
apparent that the concept of ‘passivity’ was redefined in the teacher teams. There was
a pivot towards a desire for more student-active lessons in the course of the four years of
 EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION 11

Lesson Study-work. This changed the students’ role in the lessons, requiring their active
participation and initiative instead of sitting quietly at their desks. This turned out to be
difficult for many students and created new behavioural challenges for the teachers. One
example of a new challenge was students signalling a need for affirmation from the
teachers that they had done something correctly, instead of finding out for themselves.
The previously mentioned discussions teachers had about having to let go of some of the
control in the classroom so that students could develop self-control can be seen as
a change in how the teacher teams conceptualised both ‘good’ and ‘challenging’ beha­
viour in students.

Reflections on Lesson Study’s contribution

The design of this study does not provide a basis for concluding anything definitive about
the causes for the changes that occurred. However, we want to end this discussion by
reflecting on some features in Lesson Study that may have contributed to the changes we
found.
In line with other research on Lesson Study, our findings demonstrate a greater teacher
awareness and insight into student needs (Xu and Pedder 2015), though this does not
automatically lead to more inclusive adaptations. The insights could have led the teachers
to creating more individualised differentiation for students, thereby pushing them away
from the learning community, and resulting in ‘repetition of exclusion’ (Allan 2006).
However, the opposite happened: teachers shifted their attention from students as
individuals and towards groups of students, with concomitant discussion on ways to
improve learning conditions by adapting regular lessons. One possible explanation for
this is the strong focus on student learning in Lesson Study. When teachers observe the
research lesson, it is students’ learning processes they are expected to explore. This might
have served to shift attention from the behaviour itself and towards what was discussed
as inadequate learning conditions. It may also have provided them with insight into how
learning conditions, student needs, and student behaviour are all connected.
Through the four years, the teachers not only repeatedly observed student learning in
the research lessons, they also had to anticipate how they thought their students would
respond to the lessons as part of the planning. This exercise in trying to imagine how the
lesson might be experienced from a student’s point of view (cognitive empathy), pushed
teachers to articulate possible motives for students being passive, anxious, or displaying
disruptive behaviour. These parts of the discussions seemed to expand the teachers’
understanding of the students, thereby triggering ideas for how to improve learning
conditions. The opportunity to practice the cognitive empathy inherent to Lesson Study
(Cerbin and Kopp 2006) is a possible key to the changes found in this study.
Finally, of note is the emotional strain that challenging behaviour seems to be for
teachers, making them feel stressed, discouraged, and insufficient (Gidlund 2018; Skaalvik
and Skaalvik 2017). The urge to place responsibility within the student can be understood as
an emotional survival-mechanism for teachers in response to this strain. Because inclusive
practice implies a great deal of responsibility for teachers, there is also a great deal of risk.
Naraian, Ferguson, and Thomas (2012) emphasise emotional support as an important
precondition for teachers developing new thinking about student behaviour. Lesson Study
has some features that serve to provide emotional support for teachers. The primary is that
12 H. K. AAS ET AL.

teams of teachers plan the research lesson together. This equates to shared responsibility
and shared risk. Because it is we who plan, we can be more creative and bold as we share the
burden of potential failure. Another feature is the strong focus on students learning can take
some of the pressure away from individual teacher performances, as it is not about the good
teacher, rather about designing lessons that give students a good learning environment.

Conclusion
When we assume that challenging behaviour is a cultural and social construct, reflecting
prevailing norms and ideals, it becomes clear why inclusion is important for students that
display challenging behaviour: different groups have different norms, and it is critical that
students feel part of the classroom community in order for them to accept and follow the
norms within it.
In this paper, we have emphasised inclusion as responding to the diversity of needs of all
students, and attending to individual differences by adapting teaching in ways that makes the
regular lesson accessible to all. It is against this backdrop that the development shown in our
study can be understood to contribute to a more inclusive practice: the more teachers
ascribed challenging behaviour to context, the more ideas they had for adapting lessons.
Adaptations shifted from external control towards supporting self-control and showed that
the teachers were connecting students’ behaviour with the learning conditions. The teachers’
utterances indicate that they have reconceptualised their understanding of what constitutes
‘a good student’, from one who is obedient and passive, to one who is active, self-driven, and
self-controlling. This led to a change in the kind of behaviour teachers described as
challenging.
In hypothesising about how Lesson Study may have contributed, more insight into
student needs, combined with a strong focus on learning, as well as opportunities for
practicing cognitive empathy and providing emotional support for the teachers seem to
be contributing features.
Data analysed here was teachers’ discussions, so what the teachers actually did in their
classrooms is beyond the purview of this study. One possibility for further research could
therefore be to explore whether and how teachers’ beliefs become visible in their
teaching and how this affects student behaviour and learning. Another theme worth of
further attention is the subjective aspect of inclusion and the question of how the
students themselves experienced the lessons.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

ORCID
Hanne Kristin Aas http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6033-0966
 EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION 13

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