Table of Contents

 Acknowledgement 2

 Abstract 3

 Chapter 1 5-20

 Chapter 2 21-31

 Chapter 3 31-43

1
 ACKNOWLEDGEM
ENT
We would like to express our profound
gratitude to Er. B.S. Kushwah (Director RBSETC),
and Dr. Amit Agrawal (HOD) of Mechanical
Engineering for their contributions to the
completion of my project titled - Design and
Fabrication of Flat Plate solar Collector.

We would like to express our special thanks to our mentor

Er. Arun Singh (Assistant Professor Dept. of Mechanical
Engineering) for his time and efforts he provided
throughout the year. Thanks for continuously guiding us
and answering all our doubts with patience. Your useful
advice and suggestions were helpful to us during the
project’s completion. In this aspect, we are eternally
grateful to you.

Thank You.

Nikhil chahar (2000040400017)

Shorya Pratap Singh (2000040400024)

2
Satyendra Kumar (2000040400021)

Nitin Kumar (2100040409004)

ABSTRACT
This study presents the design and
implementation of a high-efficiency flat plate
solar collector incorporating a copper
honeycomb structure. The absorber plate,
composed of copper for enhanced thermal
conductivity, is integrated with a meticulously
engineered honeycomb matrix. This
honeycomb structure optimizes fluid flow,
promoting efficient heat exchange within the
collector. The assembly process involves
careful integration of components, including
the placement of the copper honeycomb
above the absorber plate. Sealing and
insulation measures are implemented to
minimize heat losses. The transparent glass
cover ensures sunlight penetration while
safeguarding against thermal dissipation.
Experimental testing validates the collector's
performance, demonstrating its effectiveness
in harnessing solar energy for diverse
applications. The integration of copper

3
honeycomb technology enhances heat
transfer efficiency, making this solar collector
an environmentally friendly and economically
viable solution for sustainable energy
generation. These reviews recent
developments in flat plate solar collectors,
focusing on the integration of copper
honeycomb structures to elevate their
efficiency and thermal performance. Copper,
known for its excellent thermal conductivity, is
strategically incorporated into honeycomb
patterns to optimize heat transfer and
absorption. The review encompasses a
comprehensive analysis of studies published
up to the present, exploring the impact of
copper honeycomb structures on collector
efficiency, durability, and overall functionality.
The synthesis of existing research aims to shed
light on the feasibility and benefits of this
innovative approach in harnessing solar
energy. This review contributes valuable
insights to the evolving field of solar collector
design, particularly emphasizing the potential
of copper honeycomb structures for advancing
sustainable energy technology.

4
CHAPTER 1
Introduction

5
➢ Solar Energy

Solar energy, radiation from the Sun capable of producing heat, causing
chemical reactions, or generating electricity. The total amount of solar energy
incident on Earth is vastly more than the world’s current and anticipated
energy requirements. If suitably harnessed, this highly diffused source has the
potential to satisfy all future energy needs. In the 21st century solar energy is
expected to become increasingly attractive as a renewable energy source
because of its inexhaustible supply and its non-polluting character, in stark
contrast to the finite fossil fuels coal, petroleum, and natural gas.

The Sun is an extremely powerful energy source, and sunlight is by far the
largest source of energy received by Earth, but its intensity at Earth’s surface is
quite low. This is essentially because of the enormous radial spreading of
radiation from the distant Sun. A relatively minor additional loss is due to
Earth’s atmosphere and clouds, which absorb or scatter as much as 54 percent
of the incoming sunlight. The sunlight that reaches the ground consists of
nearly 50 percent visible light, 45 percent infrared radiation, and smaller
amounts of ultraviolet and other forms of electromagnetic radiation.

The potential for solar energy is enormous, since about 200,000 times the
world’s total daily electric-generating capacity is received by Earth every day
in the form of solar energy. Unfortunately, though solar energy itself is free,
the high cost of its collection, conversion, and storage still limits its exploitation
in many places. Solar radiation can be converted either into thermal energy (heat) or
into electrical energy, though the former is easier to accomplish.

Among the most common devices used to capture solar energy and convert it
to thermal energy are flat-plate collectors, which are used for solar heating
applications.

 Solar Energy and Its Conversion: A Brief Overview

6
 Solar energy, harnessed from the sun's radiation, presents a sustainable and
abundant source of power. The process of converting solar energy into usable
forms involves various technologies. Here's a concise overview:

Ⅰ. Solar Radiation: The sun emits electromagnetic radiation, primarily in

the form of sunlight. This energy travels to Earth and can be harnessed for
various applications.

1. Photovoltaic (PV) Cells: Photovoltaic cells, commonly known as solar cells,

convert sunlight directly into electricity. These cells are typically made of
semiconductor materials like silicon. As photons from sunlight strike the cells,
they generate an electric current.

2. Solar Thermal Systems: Solar thermal technologies convert sunlight into heat
energy. This can be achieved through different methods:
3. Flat Plate Collectors: These absorb sunlight and convert it into heat, often
used for water heating.
4. Concentrated Solar Power (CSP): Uses mirrors or lenses to concentrate
sunlight onto a small area, generating high temperatures. This heat is then used
to produce steam, driving turbines for electricity generation.

a. 4. Solar Water Heating: Flat plate or evacuated tube collectors are employed
to absorb sunlight and transfer the thermal energy to a fluid, usually water or a
heat-transfer fluid. This heated fluid is then used for domestic or industrial
water heating.

5. Solar Chimneys: Solar chimneys utilize the greenhouse effect to generate an

updraft of air. As sunlight warms the air beneath a transparent roof, it rises,
creating a flow that can be harnessed for power generation.

7
 6. Solar-Powered Vehicles: Solar energy can be used to charge batteries
in electric vehicles. Solar panels integrated into the vehicle's structure or as
detachable units contribute to extending the driving range.

7. Energy Storage: Advances in energy storage technologies, such as

batteries, enable the storage of excess solar energy for use during periods of
low sunlight, contributing to the reliability of solar power systems.

The ongoing advancements in solar energy technologies aim to improve

efficiency, reduce costs, and broaden the scope of applications. Solar energy
conversion plays a crucial role in the transition to cleaner and more sustainable
energy sources, addressing the global need for environmentally friendly power
generation.

 About Flat Plate Collectors:

Principle of Flat Plate Collector

The principal behind a flat collector is simple. If a metal sheet is exposed to

solar radiation, the temperature will rise until the rate at which energy is
received is equal to the rate at which heat is lost from the plate; this
temperature is termed as the ‘equilibrium’ temperature. If the back of the plate
is protected by a heat insulting material, and the exposed surface of the plate is
painted black and is coved by one or two glass sheets, then the equilibrium
temperature will be much higher than that for the simple exposed sheet. This
plate may be covered into a heat collector by adding a water circulating
system, either by making it hollow or by soldering metal pipes to the surface
and transferring the heated liquid to a tank for storage. For heat with
withdrawal from the system the equilibrium temperature must decrease, since

8
no useful heat can be extracted at the maximum equilibrium temperature at
which the collection efficiency is zero. The other extreme condition is when
the flow of liquid is so flat that the temperature rise is very small; in such a
case although the losses are small and the efficiency of the heat collection
approaches 100 percent, yet no useful heat can be extracted. The optimum is
approximately midway between the equilibrium temperature, whereby an
output of hot liquid at a useful temperature is obtained.
A flat plate solar collector is a device designed to harness solar energy for
various applications, primarily heating. It consists of a flat, rectangular or
square-shaped panel with a transparent cover (usually glass) and an absorber
plate underneath. The key components and working principles of a flat plate
solar collector include:
1. Absorber Plate: Typically made of a dark-coloured, high-thermal-
conductivity material such as metal (commonly copper or aluminium), the
absorber plate absorbs sunlight and converts it into heat. This heat is then
transferred to a fluid or air circulating through the collector.

2. Transparent Cover: Positioned above the absorber plate, the transparent

cover (usually made of glass or plastic) allows sunlight to pass through while
minimizing heat loss through radiation.

3. Insulation: Surrounding the sides and back of the collector, insulation

materials help reduce heat loss from the sides and bottom of the collector. This
enhances the overall efficiency of the system.

4. Fluid Circulation System: A fluid (commonly water or an antifreeze

solution) is circulated through tubes or channels in contact with the absorber
plate. As the fluid absorbs heat, it is then transferred to a storage tank or
directly used for space or water heating.

9
5. Ventilation: Some flat plate collectors may have ventilation channels to
control the temperature of the absorber plate. This feature prevents overheating
and ensures optimal performance.

The operation of a flat plate solar collector involves the absorption of sunlight
by the dark-coloured absorber plate. This absorbed solar energy heats the fluid
circulating through the collector. The transparent cover helps trap the
generated heat, creating a greenhouse effect. The heated fluid is then utilized
for various applications, such as domestic water heating, space heating, or
industrial processes.

Flat plate solar collectors are widely used for their simplicity, reliability, and
versatility. They are suitable for both residential and commercial applications,
contributing to the utilization of clean and renewable solar energy.

The flat plate collectors form the heat of any solar energy collection system
designed for operation in the low temperature range, from ambient to 60 or the
medium temperature, form ambient to 100. A well-engineered flat plate
collector is delivers heat at a relatively low cost for a long duration. The flat
plat collectors is basically a heat exchanger which transfer the radiant energy
of the incident sunlight to the sensible heat of a working fluid-liquid or air. The
term ‘flat plate’ is slightly misleading in the sense that the surface may not be
truly flat-it may be combination of flat, grooved or of other shapes as the
absorbing surface, with some kind of heat removal device like tubes or
channels. Flat plate collectors is used to convert at much solar radiation as
possible into heat at the highest attainable temperature with the lowest possible
investment in material and labour.

Flat plate collector has the following advantage over other types of solar
energy collectors:

10
 (i) Absorb direct, diffuse and reflected components o solar radiation,

(ii) Are fixed in tilt and orientation and thus, there is no needed of tracking
the Sun,

(iii) Are easy to make and are low in cost,

(iv) Have comparatively low maintenance cost and long lie, and

(v) Operate at comparatively high efficiency.

 History of Flat Plate Solar Collectors

The history of flat plate solar collectors traces back to the early efforts to
harness solar energy for practical applications. Here's a brief overview:

• Early Concepts (Pre-19th Century): - The idea of using sunlight for heating
dates back centuries. Ancient civilizations, such as the Greeks and Romans,
designed buildings with strategically positioned windows to maximize solar
heat.

• 19th Century: - In the 19th century, inventors and scientists began

experimenting with solar energy collection devices. Augustin Mouchot, a
French inventor, developed a solar-powered steam engine in the 1860s.

• 20th Century - Early Developments: - In the early 20th century, solar water
heaters gained popularity. Clarence Kemp patented a solar water heater in
1891, and in the 1920s, flat plate collectors with copper absorbers were
introduced.

11
• Post-World War II: - After World War II, there was renewed interest in solar
energy. In the 1950s and 1960s, advancements in materials and manufacturing
led to more efficient flat plate solar collectors.

• 1970s - Solar Energy Boom: - The oil crisis of the 1970s sparked a surge in
interest in renewable energy sources. This period saw widespread adoption of
flat plate solar collectors for residential and commercial water heating.

• 1980s - Technological Refinements: - Technological advancements in selective

coatings and improved designs led to higher efficiencies in flat plate collectors
during the 1980s.

• Late 20th Century - Photovoltaic Integration: - Toward the end of the 20th
century, there was increased research on integrating photovoltaic cells with flat
plate collectors, allowing for the simultaneous generation of electricity and
heat.

• 21st Century - Continued Innovation: - Ongoing research focuses on

improving materials, increasing efficiency, and exploring innovative designs.
Integration with smart technologies and sustainable materials is a current
trend.

Throughout this history, flat plate solar collectors have evolved from simple
designs to sophisticated systems, contributing significantly to the utilization of
solar energy for various applications, including water heating and space
heating. The ongoing emphasis on sustainability continues to drive innovation
in this field.

 Why Flat Plate Collectors

12
Flat plate collectors offer several advantages that contribute to their
widespread use in solar energy systems. Here are some reasons why flat plate
collectors are considered advantageous:

1. Simplicity and Reliability: Flat plate collectors have a simple and robust
design, which makes them reliable and easy to manufacture. Their
straightforward structure contributes to durability and ease of maintenance.

2. Cost-Effectiveness: Compared to some other solar collector technologies,

flat plate collectors are often more cost-effective to produce and install. This
makes them a practical choice, especially for residential and commercial
applications.

3. Versatility: Flat plate collectors can be used for a variety of applications,

including water heating, space heating, and industrial process heating. Their
versatility makes them adaptable to different energy needs.

4. Efficiency in Low and Medium Temperatures: Flat plate collectors are well-
suited for applications that require low to medium-temperature heat. They
perform efficiently in these temperature ranges, making them suitable for
water heating and space heating purposes.

5. Integration with Existing Systems: Flat plate collectors can be easily

integrated into existing heating systems, providing a renewable energy source
without major modifications to infrastructure.

6. Low Operating Costs: Once installed, flat plate collectors generally have
low operating costs. They require minimal maintenance, and the absence of
complex components reduces the likelihood of malfunctions.

7. Aesthetic Considerations: The flat and unobtrusive design of these collectors

can be aesthetically appealing, especially when integrated into buildings or

13
 structures. This is an important factor for residential and commercial
installations.

8. Long Lifespan: Properly designed and maintained flat plate collectors can
have a long operational life. This longevity contributes to the overall cost-
effectiveness of the technology.

While flat plate collectors have these advantages, it's essential to note that their
efficiency can be influenced by factors such as local climate, proper
orientation, and the specific application. The choice of a solar collector type
should be based on the specific requirements and conditions of the intended
use.

 Types of Flat Plate Collectors:

Flat plate solar collectors come in various types, each designed to serve
specific purposes. Here are some common types:

1. Unglazed Flat Plate Collectors:

- Basic flat plate collectors without a glass covering. They are often used for
pool heating or in applications where high temperatures are not required.

2. Glazed Flat Plate Collectors: These collectors have a glass cover to reduce
heat losses and improve efficiency. They are commonly used for residential
and commercial water heating.

3. Selective Surface Collectors: Equipped with a selective coating on the

absorber surface, these collectors enhance absorption while minimizing heat
loss. Selective coatings are designed to optimize the absorption of solar
radiation.

14
 4. Integrated Collector-Storage Systems (ICS): Combining a collector and a
storage tank in one unit, ICS systems simplify the design and are often used in
small-scale residential applications.

5. Batch or Breadbox Collectors: These collectors are like flat boxes with a
transparent cover. They absorb sunlight and transfer the heat to a fluid inside
for storage or immediate use. They are often used in passive solar water
heating systems.

6. Evacuated Flat Plate Collectors: Combining features of flat plate and

evacuated tube collectors, these systems use a vacuum to minimize heat loss.
They are efficient in colder climates.

7. Concentrating Flat Plate Collectors: These collectors use reflectors or lenses

to concentrate sunlight onto a smaller absorber area, increasing the
temperature of the collected heat. They are suitable for high-temperature
applications.

8. Photovoltaic Thermal (PV/T) Collectors: Integrating photovoltaic cells with

flat plate collectors, these systems generate both electricity and heat. They are
a hybrid technology that maximizes energy utilization.

When selecting a flat plate collector type, considerations such as application,

climate, and desired temperature range play a crucial role. Each type has its
advantages and limitations, catering to specific needs in the context of solar
energy utilization.

 Importance in Renewable Energy:

15
 => Clean and Sustainable Energy Source: Flat plate solar collectors harness
energy from the sun, a renewable and abundant source, contributing to a
cleaner and sustainable energy mix.

=> Reduced Dependency on Fossil Fuels: By utilizing solar energy, flat plate
collectors help reduce reliance on conventional fossil fuels, thus mitigating
environmental impact and decreasing greenhouse gas emissions.

=> Versatility in Applications: These collectors find applications in a wide

range of sectors, including residential, commercial, and industrial, providing
versatile solutions for diverse energy needs.

=> Energy Cost Savings:

- Solar thermal systems utilizing flat plate collectors can lead to significant
energy cost savings over the long term, making them economically viable
alternatives.

=> Integration with Existing Infrastructure: Flat plate solar collectors can be
integrated into existing buildings and infrastructure, facilitating the adoption of
solar energy without major structural modifications.

=> Global Applicability: Suitable for deployment in various climates, flat plate
solar collectors can be effective in both sunny and moderately cloudy
conditions, making them adaptable to different geographical regions.

=> Job Creation and Industry Growth: The development and deployment of
flat plate solar collectors contribute to the growth of the renewable energy
sector, creating job opportunities and fostering technological advancements.

 Why we Used Copper in Honeycomb Structure?

16
Integrating copper into flat plate solar collector honeycomb structures offers
several advantages, enhancing their performance and efficiency. Here are some
key advantages:

1. Excellent Thermal Conductivity: Copper possesses high thermal

conductivity, allowing for efficient heat transfer within the collector. This
property enhances the overall thermal performance of the honeycomb
structure, maximizing the absorption and transfer of solar heat.

2. Optimal Absorption of Solar Radiation: Copper's natural properties make it

an excellent absorber of solar radiation. When incorporated into a honeycomb
structure, copper facilitates the absorption of sunlight across a larger surface
area, optimizing energy capture.

3. Durability and Longevity: Copper is known for its durability and resistance
to corrosion. When used in the construction of flat plate collectors, particularly
in a honeycomb arrangement, it enhances the longevity of the system, ensuring
sustained performance over an extended period.

4. Flexibility in Design: Copper's malleability and ductility make it easy to

shape and mold into complex honeycomb structures. This flexibility in design
allows for the creation of intricate patterns that can further improve heat
absorption and distribution.

5. Ease of Manufacturing: Copper is a readily available and cost-effective

material. Its properties make it easy to work with during the manufacturing
process, contributing to the cost efficiency of producing flat plate solar
collectors with honeycomb structures.

6. Resistance to High Temperatures: Copper can withstand high temperatures

without degrading its structural integrity. This property is particularly
advantageous in solar collectors, where exposure to elevated temperatures is
common.

17
 7. Compatibility with Selective Coatings: Copper surfaces can be coated with
selective materials to enhance their solar absorption and thermal emissivity
characteristics. This compatibility with selective coatings further boosts the
efficiency of the honeycomb structure.

8. Reduction of Heat Losses: The combination of copper's high thermal

conductivity and the honeycomb structure's design can help minimize heat
losses. This results in improved overall energy efficiency and enhanced
thermal performance.

 Future Scope:

The future scope of flat-plate solar collectors holds promising advancements

driven by ongoing research and technological innovation. Several areas offer
opportunities for growth and improvement:

1. Efficiency Enhancements: Continued research aims to improve the overall

efficiency of flat plate solar collectors. Advancements in materials, coatings,
and design optimization can lead to higher conversion rates and increased
energy output.

2. Smart and Integrated Systems: Integration with smart technologies, such as

sensors and automated tracking systems, can enhance the performance of flat-
plate collectors. These systems can optimize the orientation of the collector
panels based on the sun's position, improving energy capture.

3. Nanotechnology Applications: The integration of nanomaterials in absorber

coatings holds potential for enhancing heat absorption and reducing heat
losses. This could lead to improved performance and increased efficiency in
flat-plate collectors.

4. Hybrid Systems: Combining flat-plate solar collectors with other renewable

energy technologies, such as thermoelectric generators or combined

18
photovoltaic-thermal (PV/T) systems, can provide a multifaceted approach to
energy production and utilization.

5. Advanced Materials and Manufacturing Techniques: The development of

new materials and manufacturing processes, including 3D printing and
advanced alloys, can contribute to more cost-effective, durable, and
lightweight flat plate collectors.

6. Storage Integration: Integration with advanced energy storage systems, such

as high-capacity batteries or thermal storage solutions, can enable flat plate
collectors to provide a more consistent and reliable energy supply, even during
periods of low sunlight.

7. Increased Durability and Longevity: Research focused on enhancing the

durability and longevity of flat-plate solar collectors can contribute to reducing
maintenance requirements and ensuring sustained performance over extended
periods.

8. Environmental Sustainability: The development of eco-friendly materials

and sustainable manufacturing practices for flat plate collectors aligns with the
global focus on environmentally conscious technologies.

9. Application Diversification: Exploring new applications for flat plate

collectors, such as integration into building materials or mobile energy
solutions, can broaden their scope and contribute to a more widespread
adoption of solar energy.

10. Market Integration and Policy Support: Supportive policies, incentives,

and increased awareness can drive the widespread adoption of flat-plate solar
collectors, contributing to their integration into mainstream energy systems.

As technology continues to evolve and sustainability becomes a priority, the

future of flat-plate solar collectors is likely to witness exciting developments,

19
making them even more efficient, cost-effective, and adaptable for various
applications.

20
 Chapter 2
Literature Review

The existing literature on flat plate solar collectors is comprehensive and

spans various aspects of their design, performance, and applications.

21
 Researchers have extensively investigated both experimental and
theoretical aspects, contributing valuable insights to the field.
We have gone through various previous research papers. Some are these.

➢ Experimental and numerical analysis of an efficiently optimized evacuated

flat plate solar collector under medium temperature.

Datong Gao, Guangtao Gao, Jingyu Cao, Shuai Zhong, Xiao Ren, Yousef
N Dabwan, Maobin Hu, Dongsheng Jiao, Trevor Hocksun Kwan, Gang
Pei

Applied Energy 269, 115129, 2020

Medium temperature solar thermal systems have a great prospect to be an

efficient energy source for practical industrial applications. Although the
evacuated flat solar collector is a potential non-concentrating collector for
this application, current designs have not fully demonstrated its
superiority. In this paper, a medium-scale (50.96 m2) solar thermal system
based on an efficiently optimized evacuated flat plate solar collector
structure is designed. A systematic four month long real-time experiment
under the natural environment is conducted for medium solar thermal
applications in a region with four distinct seasons. An annual performance
analysis is then conducted in four different locations through a validated
numerical model. Experimental results demonstrate that, when the inlet
temperature is 123.0 °C, the ambient temperature is 35.7 °C and the solar
irradiation is 835.2 W/m2, the thermal efficiency and exergy efficiency can
reach 59.67% and 14.35%, respectively. The efficiently optimized
evacuated flat plate solar collector can also achieve a stable annual
average thermal efficiency at the four studied locations with values
reaching up to 50%. Therefore, the superiority of this efficiently
optimized evacuated flat plate solar collector design over previous ones is
demonstrated.

22
➢ investigation on the effect of different coated absorber plates on the
thermal efficiency of the flat-plate solar collector

Seyed Ali Sakhaei, Mohammad Sadegh Valipour

Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry 140 (3), 1597-1610, 2020

The aim of the present work is to compare thermal efficiency of three flat-
plate collectors, which are different in the type of coatings used in the
absorber plate. The thermal efficiency of the collector was investigated
using three types of absorber plate: the black painted, the black chrome
coating, and the carbon coating. The thermal performance of the
collectors was considered based on American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers Standard 93 (2010). The
volume flow rate varied from 0.5 to 1.5 L min 1. The field emission
scanning electron microscope images demonstrated that the carbon
coating had high absorption due to trapping the light and avoiding the
reflection of the light. The collector with the carbon-coated absorber plate
at the flow rate of 1.5 L min−1 has the maximum thermal efficiency of
approximately 69.4%. Furthermore, the thermal efficiency of the carbon-
coated absorber plate and black chrome-coated absorber plate is on
average 13% and 11.3% higher than the black-painted absorber plate,
respectively. Additionally, the removed energy parameter () at the flow
rate of 1.5 L min−1 decreases approximately 35.4% for the collector with
the carbon-coated absorber plate and 28.4% for the collector with the
black chrome-coated absorber plate compared to the black-painted
absorber plate.

➢ A brief review on solar flat plate collector by incorporating the effect of

nanofluid.

Ritvik Dobriyal, Prateek Negi, Neeraj Sengar, Desh Bandhu Singh

Materials today: proceedings 21, 1653-1658, 2020

23
 The design, analysis and installation of solar collectors are the need of
time as its application in the existing systems will reduce the use of
conventional source of energy which is limited. On other hand, renewable
energy sources are unlimited, and it will continue to exist till the existence
of life on the planet earth. The main objective of solar collectors is to
absorb heat from solar energy for increasing the temperature of fluid
flowing through the solar collector and this heated fluid can be used for
different applications namely heating to room in colder region, the heat of
fluid can be utilized in cement industry and many other similar
applications. This article attempts to provide an overview of the various
techniques and improvements which allow the flat plate collectors to
absorb as much solar radiation as possible while minimizing losses to the
surroundings. It has been observed that the use of nanofluid enhances the
performance of solar collectors. Finally, recommendations have been
provided.

➢ Experimental and numerical analysis of an efficiently optimized

evacuated flat plate solar collector under medium temperature.

Datong Gao, Guangtao Gao, Jingyu Cao, Shuai Zhong, Xiao Ren, Yousef
N Dabwan, Maobin Hu, Dongsheng Jiao, Trevor Hocksun Kwan, Gang
Pei

Applied Energy 269, 115129, 2020

Medium temperature solar thermal systems have a great prospect to be an

efficient energy source for practical industrial applications. Although the
evacuated flat solar collector is a potential non-concentrating collector for
this application, current designs have not fully demonstrated its
superiority. In this paper, a medium-scale (50.96 m2) solar thermal system
based on an efficiently optimized evacuated flat plate solar collector
structure is designed. A systematic four months long real-time experiment
under the natural environment is conducted for medium solar thermal
applications in a region with four distinct seasons. An annual performance
analysis is then conducted in four different locations through a validated

24
 numerical model. Experimental results demonstrate that, when the inlet
temperature is 123.0 °C, the ambient temperature is 35.7 °C and the solar
irradiation is 835.2 W/m2, the thermal efficiency and exergy efficiency can
reach 59.67% and 14.35%, respectively. The efficiently optimized
evacuated flat plate solar collector can also achieve a stable annual
average thermal efficiency at the four studied locations with values
reaching up to 50%. Therefore, the superiority of this efficiently
optimized evacuated flat plate solar collector design over previous ones is
demonstrated.

➢ Heat transfer enhancement in a flat plate solar collector with different

flow path shapes using nanofluid.

Mohammad Reza Saffarian, Mojtaba Moravej, Mohammad Hossein

Doranehgard

Renewable Energy 146, 2316-2329, 2020

In the present study, in addition to using nanofluid, the flow direction in a

flat plate solar collector is changed to increase the convective heat transfer
coefficient. To this end, U-shaped, wavy and spiral pipes with identical
pipe lengths on a flat plate collector are simulated. Three-dimensional and
steady state equations of continuity, momentum, SST k-ω turbulence
model, and energy are solved. Al2O3/water and CuO/water nanofluids are
used in volume fractions of 1% and 4%. Results show that using wavy
and spiral pipes can significantly increase the heat transfer coefficient and
Nusselt number. Also, it is observed that the pressure drop has its highest
value for the wavy pipes. In all cases, the heat transfer coefficient
increases by using nanofluid instead of water. In all cases except for the
CuO 4%, the Nusselt number has decreased due to a remarkable increase
in thermal conductivity by adding nanoparticles to water. Results reveal
that by using wavy pipes and CuO/water nanofluid with a volume fraction
of 4%, the heat transfer coefficient can increase up to 78.25%.

25
➢ Performance comparison of innovative spiral shaped solar collector
design with conventional flat plate solar collector

Sujit Kumar Verma, Kamal Sharma, Naveen Kumar Gupta, Pawan Soni,
Neeraj Upadhyay

Energy 194, 116853, 2020

Flat plate solar collector is an essential device, which facilitates direct

application of solar energy for water heating in household and industrial
sector. Existing Flat plate solar collectors (FPSC) suffer from stagnant
and comparatively low efficiency. Further research to improve efficiency
of FPSC by inculcating innovative design is necessary. To fill the gap, the
presented work is an experimental investigation of an innovative design
and fabrication approach which deals with analysis of flat plate solar
collector efficiency. Design modifications of solar collectors always offer
an important alternative to achieve significant effect on thermal
efficiency. In this work single spiral shaped collector tube as compared to
number of riser tubes connected with headers in conventional type flat
plate solar collector has been developed. Keeping all other parameters
similar to conventional design, it has been observed very encouraging
outcomes in efficiencies of solar collector. Under forced mode of testing,
enhancement in thermal efficiency achieved is, 21.94% compared to
conventional flat plate collector design. Enhancement in exergy efficiency
is 6.73%. Overall material saving is about ∼30% and cost of
manufacturing and maintenance can be significantly reduced at
equivalent performance of conventional collector.

➢ A review of performance improvements in design features of liquid flat-

plate solar collector

Yogesh Kumar, Manoj Verma, Harish Kumar Ghritlahre, Satish Kumar,

Priyanka Verma, Shiena Shekhar

International Journal of Green Energy, 1-35, 2023

26
 Solar energy is a widely used, cost-effective, environmentally friendly,
clean, and carbon-free renewable energy source that reduces reliance on
coal, electricity, and other sources. It is considered the most valuable
among all renewable energy sources available. Solar energy is widely used
for a range of applications, including water heating in domestic and
industrial settings, with flat-plate solar collectors (FPSCs) being a popular
choice due to their simple design, ease of installation and operation, and
lower maintenance requirements compared to other types of solar
collectors. This review attempts to provide attention to the up-to-date
technological advancement and enhancement in the performance of water
heater using design features of FPSC such as flow tube design and shape
of collector, absorber coating and material, glazing material, and
insulation used. This review aims to offer a useful method for assessing
and contrasting various methods of heat transfer enhancement, ultimately
leading to the selection of the most suitable option. Additionally, the study
highlights the research gaps and suggests potential areas for future
improvement, which is expected to assist researchers in advancing this
technology further.

➢ Experimental investigation on flat plate solar collector using frictionally

engaged thermal performance enhancer in the absorber tube

K Balaji, P Ganesh Kumar, D Sakthivadivel, VS Vigneswaran, S Iniyan

Renewable energy 142, 62-72, 2019

This paper deals with an experimental investigation of mixed convection

effects of flat plate solar collector with copper rod and tubes thermal
performance enhancers in absorber tube and comparison was made
between them for the same operating condition. The highest value of
Rayleigh, Grashof, and Richardson number based on wall heat flux
showed the heat exchange mode in the flat plate solar collector as of a
mixed convection mode with the free convection predominant mode. The
thermal performance enhancer collector significantly reduced the
Rayleigh, Grashof and Richardson numbers compared to smooth pipe flat

27
 plate solar collector at all the operating condition. The experimental heat
transfer coefficient for the flat plate solar collector was analyzed, and the
rod thermal performance enhancer collector was found providing a
higher heat transfer than tube thermal performance enhancer collector
and smooth copper pipe flat plate solar collector. The highest performance
evaluation factors were 1.38 and 1.29 for rod and tube thermal
performance enhancers respectively.

Utilization of honeycomb structure for a flat-plate solar collector by

reduction of natural convection heat loss

➢ Thermal performance enhancement of micro-grooved aluminum flat plate

heat pipes applied in solar collectors.

Gong Chen, Yong Tang, Longhua Duan, Heng Tang, Guisheng Zhong,
Zhenping Wan, Shiwei Zhang, Ting Fu

Renewable Energy 146, 2234-2242, 2020

Micro-grooved aluminum flat plate heat pipes (MFPHPs), fabricated by

hot extrusion and subsequent inner surface treatment via chemical
corrosion, were developed to improve the thermal efficiency and reduce
the costs of solar collectors. Thermal performances of MFPHPs, including
temperature distribution, maximum heat transfer capability, and thermal
resistance, were experimentally conducted. The effects of treatment time
and solution concentration on the thermal performance enhancement of
MFPHPs were also investigated. The experimental results show that inner
surface treatment can substantially enhance the thermal performance of
MFPHPs, and different treatment morphologies of inner surfaces result in
differences in thermal performance enhancement. The optimal treatment
parameters were determined to be a treatment time of 10 min with a
solution concentration of 1.5 moL/l. This resulted in the optimal thermal
performance enhancement: an increase of approximately 80% in heat
transfer capability and a decrease of more than 44% in thermal

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 resistance, compared to the untreated MFPHP. This study provides a
convenient, effective, and low-cost method to enhance the thermal
performance of MFPHPs applied in solar collectors.

➢ Experimental and numerical investigation on thermal performance of PV-

driven aluminum honeycomb solar air collector.

Yan Zhao, Tian Meng, Chengjun Jing, Jiayu Hu, Siru Qian

Solar Energy, 2020

An experimental analysis and a numerical modelling of a newly designed

solar air collector was conducted. The honeycomb structure with large
surface area was introduced to the collector to form a blackbody-like heat
absorbing core. PV panels were used to drive an electric fan that provides
mechanical air circulation without additional energy supply. The effect of
irradiance and PV panel coverage ratio on the overall thermal efficiency
of the collector were investigated. The system was experimentally tested
under irradiance of 200 W/m2 to 600 W/m2 with PV coverage ratio of
15%, 30%, 45%, 60%, 75% and 90%. The thermal behavior of the
system was analyzed. It was observed that the honeycomb solar air
collector integrated with well-designed PV configuration would be able to
achieve suitable thermal efficiency. Over the range of experimental
conditions, the maximum instantaneous efficiency reached 64% when PV
coverage ratio was 45%. A numerical model was developed and verified,
further exploring the thermal efficiency dependency on PV coverage ratio
and radiation conditions. The investigation confirmed that there is a
theoretical optimum PV coverage ratio that can maximize overall
efficiency and the numerical model offered a methodology to predict
thermal behaviour of the system under practical conditions.

Existing literature on flat plate solar collectors extensively explores

various aspects, including design enhancements, performance evaluations,
and integration with different technologies. Key findings highlight
advancements in efficiency, materials, and applications. However, there is

29
a noticeable gap in the direct comparative analysis between traditional
flat plate collectors and those incorporating honeycomb structures.

Key findings:

1. Enhanced Heat Transfer in Honeycomb Structures: Studies indicate

that incorporating honeycomb structures in flat plate collectors improves
heat transfer efficiency due to increased surface area and enhanced fluid
flow characteristics within the collector.

2. Optimized Absorption and Reflection: Honeycomb designs are found to

optimize the absorption of solar radiation while minimizing unwanted
reflections, leading to improved overall collector performance.

3. Temperature Regulation: The literature suggests that honeycomb

structures contribute to better temperature regulation within the collector,
reducing overheating issues and enhancing thermal stability.

4. Material Compatibility: Research explores materials compatible with

honeycomb structures, focusing on lightweight and durable options that
can withstand varying environmental conditions.

Gap:

Despite these positive findings, there is a notable gap in the literature

regarding a comprehensive comparative analysis between traditional flat
plate collectors and those with honeycomb structures. Key aspects that
remain understudied include:

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1. Long-Term Durability and Reliability: Limited research assesses the
long-term durability and reliability of flat plate collectors with
honeycomb structures, crucial for practical applications.

2. Economic Feasibility: Few studies provide a thorough economic

analysis, comparing the cost-effectiveness of implementing honeycomb
structures against traditional designs in different contexts.

3. Performance in Diverse Climates: There is a need for research

evaluating how honeycomb structures perform across diverse climates,
considering variations in sunlight, temperature, and weather conditions.

4. Practical Implementation Challenges: Literature lacks in-depth

exploration of potential challenges and practical considerations involved
in implementing honeycomb structures at a scale.

Closing this gap would contribute to a more nuanced understanding of

whether and in what conditions honeycomb structures offer significant
advantages over traditional flat plate solar collectors. It would guide
future research and help inform practical applications for sustainable
solar energy harvesting.

References:

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CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

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 Main components of Flat Plate Solar Collector with Honeycomb
structure:

1. Absorber Plate: This is the part of the collector that absorbs the sunlight and
converts it into heat energy. It is usually made of a dark-colored material with
high thermal conductivity.

2. Transparent Cover: The transparent cover is used to cover the absorber plate
and protect it from the external environment. It allows sunlight to pass through
and minimizes heat loss from the absorber plate.

3. Honeycomb Structure: The honeycomb structure is made of a series of

interconnected cells that are designed to maximize the heat transfer efficiency
and increase the overall surface area for capturing sunlight.

4. Insulation: Insulation material is often used to prevent heat loss from the
back of the collector. It helps to maintain a high temperature within the
collector and improves its overall efficiency.

5. Fluid Circulation System: A fluid circulation system is used to carry the heat
collected by the absorber plate to the desired location for storage or immediate
use. This typically includes pipes, pumps, and a heat exchanger.

6. Frame and Support Structure: The frame and support structure provide the
necessary stability and strength to the collector. It is important for the collector
to be firmly secured in place to ensure optimal performance and durability.

7. Glazing: Glazing material is used to cover the transparent cover and provide
additional protection against environmental factors such as dust, wind, and
precipitation.

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 These components work together to capture sunlight, convert it into heat
energy, and efficiently transfer that heat for various applications such as water
heating, space heating, and electricity generation.

 Process and Considerations

The design of the flat plate solar collector with an incorporated honeycomb
structure involves careful considerations to optimize heat transfer efficiency
and overall performance. The following design aspects highlight the
integration of the honeycomb structure:

1. Absorber Plate Geometry: - The absorber plate is designed with a series of

honeycomb cells, strategically arranged to enhance light absorption. The
honeycomb pattern provides multiple surfaces for sunlight to interact with,
promoting effective absorption and minimizing reflections.

2. Material Selection:

- Consideration is given to selecting materials with high thermal conductivity

for both the absorber plate and the honeycomb structure. The absorber plate
material should have high absorptance and low emissivity properties to
maximize solar energy absorption and minimize heat loss.

3. Honeycomb Cell Size and Configuration:

- The size and configuration of the honeycomb cells are crucial design
parameters. Optimization involves selecting an appropriate cell size that
balances the need for increased surface area (enhancing absorption) with
considerations for pressure drop and fluid flow within the honeycomb
structure.

4. Integration with Transparent Cover - The honeycomb structure is integrated

beneath a transparent cover providing protection against environmental factors
while allowing sunlight to reach the absorber plate. The cover material is
chosen to maximize transparency in the solar spectrum.

5. Fluid Flow Pathways:

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 - The design incorporates a fluid flow system within the honeycomb cells to
facilitate efficient heat transfer. The pathways are carefully designed to ensure
uniform flow distribution, minimizing the risk of hot spots and improving
overall collector performance.

6. Structural Integrity and Durability:

- Considerations for structural integrity and durability are paramount. The

honeycomb structure should be robust enough to withstand environmental
conditions and mechanical stresses, ensuring a long operational life for the
solar collector.

7. Thermal Insulation:

- The design includes thermal insulation around the edges of the collector to
minimize heat losses. This helps maintain a higher temperature difference
between the absorber plate and the ambient environment, improving overall
efficiency.

8. Manufacturing Feasibility:

- Practical aspects of manufacturing are considered, considering the

feasibility of producing the honeycomb-enhanced flat plate solar collector on a
larger scale. Cost-effective fabrication methods and materials are explored.

In summary, the design process involves a careful balance of geometric,

material, and operational considerations to harness the benefits of the
honeycomb structure. By addressing these design aspects, the goal is to create
a flat plate solar collector that effectively utilizes the honeycomb configuration
to enhance heat transfer efficiency and overall performance in solar energy
absorption.

 Assembly of Flat plat Solar Collector with Honeycomb Structure:

The assembly of a flat plate solar collector honeycomb structure

involves the following steps:

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1. Cut the Copper flat plate to the desired size using a saw or cutting machine.
Dimension of copper is approx. 450 mm * 600 mm.

36
2. Prepare the honeycomb structure by cutting and assembling the individual
copper honeycomb cells to the desired dimensions.
Each piece is of 29mm and welded with other piece at 60 degree.

37
3. Place the honeycomb structure onto the flat plate and ensure that it is
cantered and aligned properly.

38
4. Secure the honeycomb structure to the flat plate by using welding (copper
welding)

39
5. Install the absorber plate onto the honeycomb structure, making sure that
it is aligned and sealed properly.

6. Attach the glass cover to the frame of the flat plate solar collector, ensuring
that it is sealed and airtight.

7. Install the inlet and outlet pipes for the fluid to flow through the collector.

40
8. Build a sturdy frame to support the collector. The frame material is durable
and resistant to weather conditions and made up of A one quality of wood.

41
 (Dimension of frame: 812 mm * 660 mm approx.)

9. Apply insulation material around the sides and bottom of the collector to
minimize heat losses.

10. Test the flat plate solar collector honeycomb structure to ensure that it is
functioning properly and effectively absorbing solar energy.

11. Place the assembled flat plate solar collector honeycomb structure in the
desired location for solar energy collection.

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12. Regular maintenance and cleaning of the flat plate solar collector
honeycomb structure is necessary to ensure optimal performance and

longevity .

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