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OBSERVATION METHOD

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 OBSERVATION METHOD

Observation Methods
Ankit Kumar (M.Phil. Research Scholar)

Department of Library & Information Science, University of Delhi, Delhi – 110007, India
Email: [email protected]

Abstract
Observation method is described as a method to observe and describe the behavior of a subject
and it involves the basic technique of simply watching the phenomena until some hunch or
insight is gained. We are almost constantly engaged in observation. "It is our basic method of
obtaining information about the world around us”. Man’s eye has been a basic tool for
observation for a long time. Now-a-days, a number of tools like camera, video-camera, tape-
recorder etc. Are also being employed by researchers. They are also utilizing ‘laboratory
conditions’ to study certain aspects. The term includes several types, techniques, and approaches,
which may be difficult to compare in terms of enactment and anticipated results, the choice
must be adapted to the research problem and the scientific context. As a matter offact, observation
may be regarded as the basis of everyday social life formost people; we are diligent observers
of behaviors and of the materialsurroundings. “We watch, evaluate, draw conclusions, and make
commentson interactions and relations”. However, observation raised to the rank of a scientific
method should be carried out systematically, purposefully, and on scientific grounds—even if
curiosity and fascination may still be its very important components. This Paper discusses the
meaning and purpose of the observation method of data collection. It also dwells on how to
plan for and the different types of observation. The advantages and disadvantages are also
stated.

Keywords: Observation Methods, Observation Research, Observation Types, Data

Collection Method, Research Method

1. INTRODUCTION
Observation method is “a data collection method in which a person (usually trained) observes
subjects of phenomena and records information about characteristics of the phenomena”.
{Sproull, 1988} Science begins with observation and also uses observation for final validation
of findings. Observation is used quite often in social sciences and is supplemented by
interviews and study of records. Observation is considered as a classic method of scientific
inquiry. Observation involves the investigation watching the subjects or research situation.
Observation method of collecting the data is one of the oldest and this technique is used by
both the scientists and social scientists. The term observation sounds to be simple and gives
an impression that the collection of data through this method is easy. But it is not true in
scientific investigation. There is also a criticism that this method is unreliable but by doing it

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 OBSERVATION METHOD

more scientifically, limitations could be overcome. This method of data collection is one of
the oldest methods and it can be treated as scientific only when the criteria such as objectivity,
free from bias, reliability and systematization is followed. So, we can say that observe means
“to watch attentively in a scientific manner”. In an observational study, the current status of
phenomenon is determined not by asking but by observing (Ronald R Powell, 1997).

2. DEFINITION OF OBSERVATION
Definitions of observation per se are difficult to find in the literature. Gorman and Clayton
define observation studies as those that “involve the systematic recording of observable
phenomena or behavior in a natural setting” (2005, p. 40). Other authors defi ne observation
within the broader context of ethnography or the narrower one of participation observation.
What is consistent in the definitions, however, is the need to study and understand people
within their natural environment. Spradley wrote that participation observation “leads to an
ethnographic description” (1980, p. vi). He defined ethnography as the “work of describing a
culture” with the central aim of understanding “another way of life from the native point of
view” (p. 3). Chatman defined ethnography as a method that allows the researcher to get an
insider’s view through observation and participation “in social settings that reveal reality as
lived by members of those settings” (1992, p. 3). Becker and Geer defined participant
observation as either a covert or overt activity “in which the observer participates in the daily
life of the people under study observing things that happen, listening to what is said, and
questioning people, over some length of time” (1970, p. 133). To observe people in their natural
settings, there are a variety of roles researchers can adopt. The roles and how they have changed
over time are described below. Where possible, examples of LIS studies are included.

3. OBSERVATION: PLANNING AND PROCESS

The observer should examine the following questions well in advance to enable to have
effective plan of action. They are:
What should be observed
How the observation should be recorded
What type of tools and techniques need to be used
How to ensure accuracy of observation and
What type of relationship should be there between the observers and observed how the
desired relationship should be established?
The planners need to have comprehensive knowledge of the problem and techniques of
investigation. They also need to have experience, on the basis of which the plans could be
devised. The planning includes forecasting the situation and preparation of step-by-step
procedure. Each step has to be logically arranged to get the factual data. Proper planning is
essential to get the factual data through this method (egyankosh, p. 168-169).
The following are the steps used for planning:
It is essential to examine the relevance of the observation method for collecting data
for the study of research problem.

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 OBSERVATION METHOD

If observation method is found suitable, it is essential to identify and analyses the type
of data the researcher is looking for through observation.
The questions are to be identified, for which the answer / data has to be collected from
the observation.
The samples for observation have to be identified.
The researcher has to examine the conditions, events and activities, where the
observation is being made.
On the basis of the above, the researcher has to plan how to observe, what tools to be
used, what will be the place of the researcher in the specific situation and how can the
process of observation be initiated. While selecting a tool or technique the researcher
should weigh their pros and cons.
While observing, the researcher finds many variables and it is essential to observe and
collect the data from relevant variables only. It is also essential to state the operational
definition for each variable chosen for observation.
It will be better to decide the timings for observation, recording procedure, and identify
subjects/items to be observed. It may be worth to work out these things in detail.
There may be a situation, where number of observers are being arranged for
Observation Method the purpose of observation. All of them may not be trained nor
equally knowledgeable for the chosen purpose. Therefore, it is essential to train them
properly both theoretically and practically.
It is also necessary to consider seriously about the validity of the observation.
Therefore, the researcher may need to take measures to validate the data.
(Observation involves three processes, Namely)

Sensation
• Sensation reports facts as observed. Using sense organs (like eyes, ears, nose
etc.) This process depends upon physical alertness of the observer.

Attention
• Attention or concentration which is deeply related to will-power. Training and
experience enable the observer to form a habit which can go a long way to
archive concentration required for scientific observation.

Perception
• Perception comes last and is concerned with interpretation of sensory reports.
This enables the mind of the observer to recognize the facts.

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 OBSERVATION METHOD

4. ROLES OF RESEARCHER (OBSERVER)

According to Chatman, (1984) Roles have been defined as “the characteristic posture[s]
researchers assume in their relationship” with the people whom they are studying (hereafter
referred to as “insiders”) (p. 429). In his article on roles in field observations, Gold (1958)
“credited, and expanded on, Buford Junker’s typology of four roles researchers can play in
their efforts to study and develop relationships with insiders, including complete observer,
observer-as-participant, participant-as-observer, and complete participant” (p. 217). More
recently others, such as Spradley (1980) and Adler and Adler (1994), have proposed slightly
different roles or used different terms than did Gold (p. 217) as will be discussed below.
While Gorman and Clayton described Gold’s four roles as “a range of flexible
positions in a continuum of participatory involvement” (2005, p. 106), not everyone has to start
as a complete observer. The adopted role depends on the problem to be studied, on the insiders’
willingness to be studied, and on the researcher’s prior knowledge of or involvement in the
insiders’ world. Going into a new environment may require the researcher to adopt the role of
complete observer, whereas studying a group in which she/he is already a member allows the
researcher to adopt the complete participant role. What is important is that the researcher
assumes an appropriate, fluid role—-one that allows her/him to observe intimately the everyday
life of the insiders (Chatman, 1984; Carey, McKechnie, & McKenzie, 2001).
Observations (Morrison 1993: 80) enable the researcher to gather data on:
 The physical setting (e.g., the physical environment and its organization)
 The human setting (e.g., the organization of people, the characteristics and make-up of
the groups or individuals being observed, for instance, gender, class)
 The interactional setting (e.g., the interactions that are taking place, formal, informal,
planned, unplanned, verbal, non-verbal etc.)
 The Programme setting (e.g., the resources and their organization, pedagogic styles,
curricula and their organization).

Flick (1998: 137) suggests that observation has to be considered along five dimensions:
 Structured, systematic and quantitative observation versus unstructured and
unsystematic and qualitative observation
 Participant observation versus non-participant observation
 Overt versus covert observation
 Observation in natural settings versus observation in unnatural, artificial settings (e.g., a
‘laboratory’ or contrived situation) O self-observation versus observation of others

Cooper and Schindler (2001: 375) suggest that observation can be considered along
three dimensions:

 Whether the observation is direct or indirect: the former requiring the presence of the
observer, the latter requiring recording devices (e.g., video cameras)
 Whether the presence of the observer is known or unknown (overt or covert
research), whether the researcher is concealed (e.g., through a one-way mirror or

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 OBSERVATION METHOD

hidden camera) or partially concealed, i.e., the researcher is seen but not known to
be a researcher (e.g., the researcher takes up a visible role in the school)
 The role taken by the observer (participant to non-participant observation, discussed
below).

We address these throughout this article:

Structured, systematic and Unstructured

Observation

Participant and Non-participant Observation

Direct and Indirect Observation

Covert – Overt

A. STRUCTURED, SYSTEMATIC AND UNSTRUCTURED OBSERVATION

Structure Observation: - It is often used to provide systematic description or to test

casual hypotheses. It can be applied in field studies and laboratory type settings where focus
being on certain aspects of behaviors. The most important step in structure observation is the
development of observational categories.

Source - https://slideplayer.com/slide/8209112/

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 OBSERVATION METHOD

Unstructured Observations: - A researcher does not have a predetermined set of

categories of behaviors. Thus, this technique is relatively flexible and extremely useful in
exploratory research. In this type of observation, the subject to be studied are the type of
behavior, the setting, duration and frequency of the behavior.

Source - https://www.slideteam.net/business_powerpoint_diagrams/unstructured-
observation-ppt-powerpoint-presentation-ideas-graphic-images-cpb.html

B. PARTICIPANT AND NON-PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION

Participant Observation: - Participant observation is the one in which the observer

becomes a part of the group under observation. He shares the situation as an attentive
listener, recording and interpreting the behavior of the group. He gets a feel of the activities
of the group like any member. Participant observation has an important role to play in case
studies.

Source - https://www.questionpro.com/blog/participant-observation/

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 OBSERVATION METHOD

Non-participant Observation: - In non-participant observation, the observer takes a

vintage position, from where he can observe in detail the behavior of the subjects, with
least disturbance to group. When the observer is observing in such manner that his presence
may be unknown to the people he is observing, such observation is described as disguised
observation.

Source - https://www.achieveriasclasses.com/participant-observation-key-points-to-
remember/

C. DIRECT AND INDIRECT OBSERVATION

Direct observation: - means that a researcher has a direct view. The observer merely
records what occurs. No attempt is being to control / manipulate the situation.

Source - https://uxdesign.cc/direct-observation-what-when-and-how-f09d9f2c315c

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 OBSERVATION METHOD

Indirect observation: - means indirect view, involving use of a camera, tape-recorder, or

video-camera for recording. Indirect observation is being made where either the subject is dead
or refuses to take part in the study. The observer may observe the physical traces left behind
and make conclusions about the subject. For Example - the police may visit the site of the
crime and look for traces left by the criminal for further investigation or study.

Source - http://www.thomasgmccarthy.com/an-introduction-to-collider-physics-x

D. COVERT – OVERT OBSERVATION

Covert observation: - In covert observation, the subjects / group being observed are not
aware that they are being observed. Participant observation could be covert observation as the
observer is a participant in the group and their activities.

Source - https://slidetodoc.com/evaluate-participant-nonparticipant-naturalistic-overt-
and-covert-observation/

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 OBSERVATION METHOD

Overt observation: - In overt observation, the subjects are aware that they are being
observed. Once the subjects know that they are being observed, there is every possibility of
change in their behavior. We can take an Example of a police man’s behavior with the accused/
criminals, while he knows that he is being observed. He will be polite and may not use abusive
language.

Source - https://study.com/academy/lesson/participant-observation-definition-and-
examples.html

5. OBSERVER SKILLS AND COMPETENCY REQUIRED

The observer needs skills and training to observe and record the data. It is essential to have the
knowledge of different types of tools used to record the data. This is mainly due to the reason
that the observer is totally relied upon for amount and quality of information. He may collect
the data single handedly. Therefore, he may need a background, such as knowledge of the
subject, experience, adaptability, flexibility, ability to mix with others. Further, he should not
mix his ideology with observation data and should be free from bias. If necessary, the observers
may be given training to enable them to concentrate on the subject of study. The observer needs
to know (Source - https://www.egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/11231/1/Unit-10.pdf)
Topic and background of the Research
Purpose of the observation

knowledge of the group / people to be studied

Level and extent of involvemen

Environment or conditions in which the observation has to be made

Knowledge of tools and techniques used for data collection

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 OBSERVATION METHOD

6. OBSERVATION: ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

 It is direct and helps to study the  This method is not useful to study
behavior as it appears / occurs the past events.
(collected in natural environment).  It will not help to study the
One need not ask anyone about the opinions. It may be difficult to
behavior but can-do self-watching structure the situation.
and collect the data.
 Another limitation is stability of the
 The data collected in a natural conditions. Observation is difficult
environment or situations is reliable. under unstable conditions.
 The data may be much more accurate  The collected data may not be
as it is collected out of intimate and possible to quantify.
informal relationship.
 Most difficult could be how to get
 t is one of the best methods which can entry in the group being observed,
be adopted in a situation where i.e., how to become participant?
people are unable to state
 It may not be possible to study or
meaningfully, e.g., studies about the
observe everything simultaneously,
children, tribal, animals etc.
and the study could be limited.
 It helps to study the whole event and
 The internal attitudes and opinions
therefore, may provide the
are difficult to study
opportunity to study the insights or all
aspects.  The sample may have to be limited;
unlike the questionnaire- where in
 It is easy to observe in disguising
number of respondents from
rather than disguised questioning.
different places is difficult to study.
 It helps to collect when the
respondents are unwilling to  It is a slow, time consuming and
expensive process
cooperate for giving information.
 It is expensive but it is also possible  This method is difficult to apply in
large social settings and there is no
to collect the data on emotional
set procedure for observation.
reactions.
 The observer’s ability, consistency,
 It helps to analyses the contextual
knowledge, bias and familiarity
background also.
influence the data collected.

Source - https://www.egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/11231/1/Unit-10.pdf

7. ETHICAL ISSUES IN OBSERVATION (SOME CAUTIONARY COMMENTS)

Many observation situations carry the risk of bias (e.g., Wilkinson 2000: 228; Moyles 2002:
179; Robson 2002: 324–5; Shaughnessy et al. 2003: 116–17), for example by:
a) Selective attention of the observer: what we see is a function of where we look, what
we look at, how we look, when we look, what we think we see, whom we look at, what

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 OBSERVATION METHOD

is in our minds at the time of observation; what are our own interests and experiences.
b) Reactivity: participants may change their behavior if they know that they are being
observed, e.g., they may try harder in class, they may feel more anxious, they may
behave much better or much worse than normal, they may behave in ways in which
they think the researcher wishes or in ways for which the researcher tacitly signals
approval: ‘demand characteristics’ (Shaughnessy et al. 2003: 113).
c) Attention deficit: what if the observer is distracted, or looks away and misses an event?
d) Validity of constructs: decisions have to take on what counts as valid evidence for a
judgement. For example, is a smile a relaxed smile, a nervous smile, a friendly smile,
a hostile smile? Does looking at a person’s non-verbal gestures count as a valid
indicator of interaction? Are the labels and indicators used to describe the behavior of
interest valid indicators of that behavior?
e) Selective data entry: what we record is sometimes affected by our personal judgement
rather than the phenomenon itself; we sometimes interpret the situation and then record
our interpretation rather than the phenomenon.
f) Selective memory: if we write up our observations after the event our memory neglects
and selects data, sometimes overlooking the need to record the contextual details of the
observation; notes should be written either during or immediately after the observation.
g) Interpersonal matters and counter-transference: our interpretations are affected by our
judgements and preferences – what we like and what we don’t like about people and
their behavior, together with the relationships that we may have developed with those
being observed and the context of the situation; researchers have to deliberately
distance themselves from the situation and address reflexivity.
h) Expectancy effects: the observer knows the hypotheses to be tested, or the findings of
similar studies, or has expectations of finding certain behaviors, and these may
influence her/his observations.
i) Decisions on how to record: the same person in a group under observation may be
demonstrating the behavior repeatedly, but nobody else in the group may be
demonstrating that behavior: there is a need to record how many different people show
the behavior.
j) Number of observers: different observers of the same situation may be looking in
different directions, and so there may be inconsistency in the results. Therefore, there
is a need for training, for consistency, for clear definition of what constitutes the
behavior, of entry/judgement, and for kinds of recording.
k) The problem of inference: observations can record only what happens, and it may be
dangerous, without any other evidence, e.g., triangulation to infer the reasons,
intentions and causes and purposes that lie behind actors’ behaviors. One cannot always
judge intention from observation: for example, a child may intend to be friendly, but it
may be construed by an inexperienced observer as selfishness; a teacher may wish to
be helpful but the researcher may interpret it as threatening. It is dangerous to infer a
stimulus from a response, an intention from an observation.

According to Dunkin, M.J. and Biddle, B.J. (1974) “The issues here concern validity and
reliability. With regard to the validity of the observation, researchers have to ensure that the

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 OBSERVATION METHOD

indicators of the construct under investigation are fair and operationalized” (p. 396). for
example, so that there is agreement on what counts as constituting qualities such as
‘friendly’, ‘happy’, ‘aggressive’, ‘sociable’ and ‘unapproachable’. The matter of what to
observe is problematic. For example, do you focus only on certain people rather than the
whole group, on certain events and at certain times rather than others, on molar or molecular
units? Do you provide a close-grained, close-up observation or a holistic, wider-focused and
wide-ranging observation, i.e., do you use a zoom lens and obtain high definition of a limited
scope, or a wide-angle lens and obtain a full field but lacking in detail, or somewhere between
the two? Expectancy effects can be overcome by ensuring that the observers do not know
the purpose of the research, the ‘double-blind’ approach.

8. APPLICATION IN LIBRARIES AND INFORMATION CENTERS

Observation method is used in libraries, the data collected is analyzed, and the outcome is used
for improvement of the library activities and services. Some of the sample observations are
listed below:
How do the users approach the library for identification of relevant books? Do they use
catalogue or directly go to the shelf? What is the outcome of directly going to shelves?
In the process, how much time is lost by them?
What is the approach of the users in identifying the relevant reference books or
information?
How far the furniture (especially chairs, tables etc.) are comfortable to the users?
The work standards can be prepared with the observation method. For example, how
many labels can be pasted in an hour?
It is also possible to observe the accessibility of the documents / information and the
satisfaction levels of the users.
Behavior of the users in use of various types of documents such as periodicals, AV
materials etc. can be observed.
Lot of research studies on information seeking behavior is being made by the researchers in
LIS. Probably, if they use this method the results could be more accurate. Further, the data
collected from observation may be combined with the data collected through other methods /
sources and the conclusions be made, which can be used for improvement of the library (Source
- https://www.egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/11231/1/Unit-10.pdf)

9. CONCLUSION
According to Bush and Harter, (1980) “Observation method is frequently considered very
valuable in research. Thus, it is widely recognized as a prime requisite of research in general
and descriptive research in particular” (p. 103). Among all the methods, observation method is
the oldest method which have been used as a technique of investigation both in the natural and
social scientists, but it cannot be used to gain information about a person's perception, belief,
feelings, emotions, motivations, anticipations, future plans, etc. According to Eminent
Researcher Dunkin, M.J. and Biddle, B.J. (1974) “In this respect it has been suggested that
additional methods of gathering data might be employed, to provide corroboration and
triangulation, in short, to ensure that reliable inferences are derived from reliable data” (p. 396).

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 OBSERVATION METHOD

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