LAND DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK SERIES

De1111berry®
LAND DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK
ABOUT THE AUTHOR

DEWBERRY, headquartered in Fairfax, Virginia, is a fully inte- transit, and ports and intermodal design; water, wastewater,
grated engineering and architecture firm operating in more and water resources engineering; architectural and interior
than 50 locations throughout the United States. It consis- design; environmental, coastal engineering and resilience
tently ranks among the top 45 design firms by Engineering services; emergency management and mitigation; full-service
News-Record, top 20 engineering/architecture firms by Build- geospatial mapping and analysis; and alternative project
ing Design + Construction, and the top 5 engineering firms by delivery inclusive of design-build, public-private partnerships,
the Washington Business Journal. Working in multiple federal, and turnkey construction. The firm enjoys a reputation for
state and local, and commercial markets, Dewberry's services quality, deep subject-matter expertise, community engagement,
include site/civil engineering and surveying; transportation, and putting the client first.
 LAND DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK
A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PLANNING, ENGINEERING, AND SURVEYING

I Dewberry·

Editor-in-Chief Sidney 0. Dewberry, PE, LS

Principal Editor: Cody A. Pennetti, PE
Editor: Christopher J. Guyan

FOURTH EDITION

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 To the hardworking Dewberry employees
who dedicate their talent, energy, and passion to building amazing places.
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CONTENTS

Foreword ix 4.3. Conceptual Design 355

Preface xi 4.4. Schematic Design 364
Contributors xv
CHAPTER 5: FINAL DESIGN
5.1. Components of a Site Plan and the
PART I: OVERVIEW Approval Process 380
5.2. Existing Conditions and Field Survey 395
CHAPTER 1: OVERVIEW OF LAND DEVELOPMENT 5.3. Transportation Design 417
1.1. Land Development Design Process 6 5.4. Grading 437
5.5. Stormwater 462
PART II: PRE-DESIGN 5.6. Utility Design 486
5.7. Erosion and Sediment Control 586
CHAPTER 2: DUE DILIGENCE
2. 1. Development Program, Site Selection,
PART IV: POST-DESIGN
and Defining Property 20
2.2. Comprehensive Planning 29
CHAPTER 6: PERMITS AND CONSTRUCTION
2.3. Zoning 41
6.1. Permits and Bonds 638
2.4. Subdivision Ordinance, Review Process,
Building Codes, and Development Costs 67 6.2. Construction Documents and Construction
Phase Services 650
2.5. Environmental, Geotechnical, and Historical
Considerations 79
PART V: APPENDIX
CHAPTER 3: SITE ANALYSIS AND ENGINEERING
FUNDAMENTALS CHAPTER 7: ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

3.1. Feasibility Study, Site Inspection and Plan Sheet 7.1. Technical Appendix 668
Comprehension 126 7.2. Types of Stormwater Management Facilities 686
3.2. Base Map and Site Diagram 144 7.3. Soils 709
3.3. Transportation Fundamentals 171 7.4. Floodplain Studies 745
3.4. Grading Fundamentals 207 7.5. Stream Restoration 751
3.5. Stormwater Fundamentals 225 7.6. Engineering Feasibility Study 761
3.6. Utility Fundamentals 255 7.7. Detailed Case Studies 779
7.8. Special Considerations for Public Sector
PART Ill: DESIGN Development 854

CHAPTER 4: CONCEPTUAL AND SCHEMATIC DESIGN Contributors and Reviewers of Prior Editions 862
4. 1. Preliminary Plan Submission and Site Studies 308 Index 863
4.2. Product Types and Development Principles 321

vii
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FOREWORD

Today, we are constantly reminded of the importance of infra- • New content for the environmental and sustainability
structure engineering-aging structures, population growth, topics, which has been integrated in every applicable
diminishing resources, and a changing climate are all chal- topic ofland development.
lenges faced by the engineering community.
These challenges are best overcome through collaboration As a leader in the civil engineering academic commu-
among industry leaders and by publishing technical content nity, and an active member of the American Society of Civil
that improves the knowledge-base of our industry. The Land Engineers, American Institute of Steel Construction, Ameri-
Development Handbook provides an enormous depth of tech- can Iron and Steel Institute and Structural Stability Research
nical content, which is authored by a multitude of professionals Council, I sincerely appreciate when an industry leader sets an
working within an architecture, engineering, and consulting example for supporting the advancement of civil engineering.
firm that has a proven history of commitment to the industry. The continued publications and philanthropy of Dewberry
Led by Mr. Sidney 0. Dewberry, this edition continues to keep are examples of significant contributions to the land develop-
pace with social and technological changes. This edition builds ment community. This community includes the educators,
from the success of prior editions and has been revised with developers, engineers, architects, and every individual that
benefits from the road, water, power, bridge, recreation, and
• A new format to support use by professionals and building systems that are imagined and designed by the hard-
students-the sequential process of how information working professionals.
is organized is beneficial to both novice engineers I know that our industry will continue to face new
and industry experts. challenges and I am excited to see that a resource like the
Land Development Handbook is available and continuously
• A broadened approach to land development services
improved. Every year there are advancements in environ-
that include a range of public and private project
mental research, management techniques, design tech-
types, including retail, office, residential, recre-
nology, transportation policies, and a multitude of other
ational, institutional, mixed-use, and others.
systems that invent ways we can improve our built environ-
• Updated graphics that communicate complex techni- ment. I congratulate Mr. Dewberry and his entire team in
cal concepts, developed specially for this book. the achievement of this new publication-we appreciate the
passion and dedication of everyone that supports the effort
• Valuable context from a geographic expansion of
to grow our industry knowledge.
content and case studies based on a variety of project
topics including feasibility studies, resiliency, trans-
W. Samuel Easterling, PhD, PE, F.SEI, F.ASCE
portation, stormwater management, and others.
Montague-Betts Professor of Structural Steel Design and
• A refinement to every page to ensure all content Department Head
is current and relevant to current policies and The Charles E. Via, Jr. Department of Civil &
practices. Environmental Engineering
Virginia Tech

ix
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PREFACE

When this business was launched in 1956 the Land Devel- over these issues as we advocated for sustainable and resil-
opment Planning, Engineering, and Surveying professions ient infrastructure that exceeded the minimum standards.
were largely viewed as a backwater branch of Civil Engineer- Gradually, the localities mandated better infrastructure and
ing and not respected as a legitimate engineering field. Other improved environmental performance through enhanced
consultants looked down their noses at anyone engaged in standards and regulations. These requirements are still pro-
this practice and felt it was not "real engineering:' Since land gressing and evolving today as evidenced by the tremen-
development consulting was how I made a living, I strongly dous strides taken in the Green Building and environmental
resented the notion. I felt then, and still feel now, that this is movements. Today, most developers and localities acknowl-
a very noble profession. It requires expertise in all branches edge the importance of infrastructure investments.
of civil engineering including surveying, roadway design, The profession of Land Development Consulting is now
grading, drainage, water systems, wastewater systems, dry recognized and respected among the engineering disciplines.
utilities, and environmental science; as well as knowledge Every major A/E consulting firm has a land development
of the related fields including urban planning, landscaping, practice. It is taught in many colleges and universities and in
archaeology, and architecture. We also have a responsibility some cases, as its own specialty track within the civil engi-
to understand the economics, schedule, and vision of a proj- neering program. Young people are aware of and attracted to
ect. But more important than the experience gained as a land the profession. They enter this field inspired, bringing with
development consultant, is the product of our diligent labor: them new ideas, the most recent technology, and a youthful
we work to improve our communities. perspective on the world that challenges us "old-timers" to
For this reason, I have devoted my career to elevating this keep pace with the speed of learning, rise above convention
profession to the level it deserves. and truly innovate for the benefit of our clients and our com-
In the early days, infrastructure was often considered an munities. I feel that our firm, in its way, has greatly contrib-
inconvenience that reduced the overall budget of the proj- uted and remains attuned to this dynamic industry with the
ect. Few regulations required adequate drainage, utilities, Land Development Handbook series.
and other infrastructure to provide good, reliable access to The first Land Development Handbook began as a dream
housing, employment, healthcare, public transportation, of mine many years ago. In the mid-eighties I committed to
and retail developments. We often clashed with our clients developing a literary resource that could be shared with the

Pictured left to right: Sid Dewberry, Jim Nealon, Dick Davis when the firm was known as Dewberry, Nealon & Davis. Leaning on Nealon's era 1935 airplane.

xi
xii

civil engineering industry. Rather naively, I thought a book all our 52 offices have contributed in both large and small
was something you sat down to do and finished within a few ways. This diverse corporate presence has yielded valuable
weeks' time. How surprised I was to learn that it would take insight and fresh perspective from across the country.
years. The first edition of this text, in fact, took 7 years from Our lead contributors, Cody Pennetti, Chris Guyan,
start to finish. When looking for interest from publishers, Kat Grimsley, and Claire White have demonstrated tremen-
I was pleased that many were anxious to publish and distrib- dous dedication and passion toward a shared vision of cre-
ute the book. We then entered into what has become one of ating a great resource for the industry. This team is unique
the most treasured and unique business relationships I have with backgrounds in both professional consulting and aca-
formed over the years with a premier technical publisher, demia that adds depth to the content of the texts.
McGraw-Hill Publishing. After the first edition, McGraw-
Hill told us they would want us to update the handbook • Cody Pennetti served as an editor and contributor
every few years (if the book was successful). By their mea- for this edition of the Land Development Handbook,
sures this book is a best seller for the industry and continues and capably handled the complex task of managing
to serve as a great resource. I'm proud to see the book in the the production of the three book Land Development
offices of our clients, in the hands of students, and on the Handbook series. Cody began his career with
shelves of other design firms. Dewberry and has always been passionate about
This business and our communities have changed dra- the industry and continuous teaching and learning.
matically since the first edition was published. To evolve Cody is now pursuing his PhD at the University of
with these changes, we regularly update the book to capture Virginia with a goal of serving in academia while
changes in policies and identify ever-changing design pro- staying involved in land development consulting.
cesses. With this fourth edition we have also expanded the Cody lent a unique perspective and new ideas in this
scope of the book to better represent the expanded scope of undertaking and helped produce a great resource for
land development. New technologies, tightened econom- both the professional and academic industry.
ics, and more complex projects require a broader range of • Christopher Guyan was instrumental in the devel-
knowledge. This fourth edition of the Land Development opment of this edition of the Land Development
Handbook has evolved into three books to focus on (1) busi- Handbook and operated as both an editor and con-
ness, (2) design, and (3) construction. Together, these texts tributor. Chris joined Dewberry after earning his
are the Land Development Handbook series: undergraduate degree in civil engineering from
Penn State. He is currently working on his MS in
I. Development of the Built Environment is all about Urban and Regional Planning at Virginia Tech. He
business and economics of public and private projects. has shown tremendous promise with his design work
This book is meant to improve understanding and and his efforts on the Land Development Handbook.
communication between consultants and developers/ Chris has a strong focus on the planning and design
owners to ensure greater success of projects. associated with land development. This focus has
2. Land Development Handbook continues to focus on helped shape some of the underlying themes in
both the process and the technical design of civil this fourth edition to emphasize the importance of
engineering. We also emphasize the importance of planned development and the community.
public, private, and community relationships and • Dr. C. Kat Grimsley was the primary contributor,
involvement. We can't design in a silo-everything is writer, and editor for Development of the Built
connected to the community and the environment. Environment. This new text benefits from Kat's
3. Construction Practices for Land Development extensive knowledge of commercial real estate.
describes the construction and operations of a proj- She is the director of the Masters of the Real Estate
ect. Our industry is quickly trending toward design/ Development program at George Mason University,
build processes. Design is influenced by construc- has served at the U.S. Department of State manag-
tion and operation considerations, and the design ing an international development portfolio, and
team should be actively involved in the construction. has private sector experience working on financial
modeling and commercial transactions. Kat com-
I want to personally thank everyone who contributed to pleted her doctorate at the University of Cambridge
the fourth edition. Having been through this process several in the United Kingdom with a focus on tenure secu-
times before, I know the success of this exciting Dewberry rity and international property rights and has since
endeavor is due to the dedication of each team member. A been appointed as a NAIOP Distinguished Fellow
new edition of a book is no small task, and the develop- and member of the UN Economic Commission for
ment of two new books is a monumental effort. This latest Europe's Real Estate Market Advisory Group under
edition truly represents a corporate-wide effort, as nearly the Committee for Housing and Land Management.
 PREFACE Xiii

• Claire White was the primary contributor for the unique project. In this edition, we've introduced case stud-
Construction Practices for Land Development. Claire ies throughout the book-these real-world engineering
earned her bachelor's and master's degrees from cases demonstrate the technical complexities of our profes-
Virginia Tech and has experience working in the sion while showcasing the exciting projects that we've been
consulting field, starting as an intern with Dewberry. involved with. These projects would, of course, not be pos-
She has recently transitioned into a teaching role at sible without the shared vision of our clients.
Virginia Tech where she focuses on land develop- Two other individuals that have contributed greatly to
ment and real estate courses. From her consulting this edition are Matt Pennetti and Dave Huh. Matt is an art-
and academia roles, Claire has witnessed the critical ist who developed hundreds of new illustrations and had the
role of engineers and the development team during complex task of creating graphics of technically complex
the construction phase of a project. She has struc- topics. Dave is a talented photographer at Dewberry who
tured the text to help engineers improve design and has an amazing eye for showcasing our projects in the best
further contribute to project success by anticipating way possible. Our profession relies heavily on communica-
construction processes. tion through graphics (plans, drawings, details), and these
two professionals have contributed amazing works of art that
Thank you all for your commitment to this endeavor! complement the technical content of the books.
I also recognize that the efforts of these individuals are sup- Craig Thomas, Dewberry's General Counsel, helped us to
ported by family and friends that work behind the scenes. initiate this project with McGraw-Hill, has overseen all the
I want to sincerely thank those that are always there to sup- contractual arrangements since we first published the Land
port us while we work on these demanding projects. I have Development Handbook many years ago, and has been a valu-
continued to hold the role of editor-in-chief for the fourth able legal resource throughout. Thank you, once again, for
edition of the Land Development Handbook and the two your support in this endeavor.
new books in the series and have been proud to work with Finally, I want to express my deep regard for our partner in
this team. this effort, our publisher Lauren Poplawski of McGraw-Hill.
I also want to extend a special thank you to Dottie Spin- She took over a large project and has been instrumental in
dle, my administrative assistant, who took care of the little the development of the new edition of the Land Develop-
things, the big things, and everything in-between so that I ment Handbook and the expansion of the Land Development
could focus on the things that truly matter to me, like these Handbook series. Thank you for believing in us, for helping
books and this company. Keeping me on schedule and on us elevate land development consulting as a profession and
task is a challenge, but it is one she embraced with a smile making one of my dreams-this book-come true, again!
for 33 years up until her recent retirement. Her replacement, In 1956, if you had told me that our six-person land devel-
Janice Spillan, a career executive assistant, has picked up the opment consulting company would grow into becoming one
pieces seamlessly and continues to move the ball forward. of the top 50 A&E companies in the United States, I would
Many thanks to her as well. have thought you were nuts! I learned the hard way that real
Peer reviewers are a critical component of our text. estate development was subject to the many ups and downs
Those who think writing is difficult should try peer review- of the economy. For that reason, we sought early on to diver-
ing (or editing); balancing criticism with encouragement sify our company into other facets of the A&E business. This
is a tall order. Our peer reviewers rose to this task under diversification effort has been hugely successful for us, but
tight timeframes and across great distances. Their expertise land development continues to be one of the primary under-
was invaluable and that they were willing to lend it to this pinnings of our practice. We love it and every new project
endeavor speaks highly of their commitment to Dewberry, continues to get the enthusiasm and professional care that
to their practice, and to mentoring others. Dozens of other we gave when we were first trying to get established. I would
engineers and planners within Dewberry have reviewed the urge the thousands of small land development consultants
final book and reviewed any changes that we made to sec- throughout the United States to always consider the connec-
tions of the original editions that they had contributed. Every tion between the projects across geographies, design firms,
region within the United States has certain procedures to go the environment, and communities. It's necessary to diver-
through to obtain permits to do land development construc- sify our skillset to adapt to industry changes and economics
tion. Developers and public- or institutional-sponsored proj- while also considering the big picture of our responsibili-
ects generally retain the services of local professionals who ties as design professionals. And ultimately, deep down, we
are familiar with local regulatory requirements, but the basic get supreme joy out of helping plan and build safe, healthy,
principles of design are universal. financially feasible, sustainable, and beautiful places for peo-
I would like to extend my sincere gratitude to all our ple to learn, work, worship, shop, play, and live.
clients for your continued support. Many of you have will- When I was born, 91 years ago, the horse and buggy had
ingly offered components of your projects for inclusion in almost been completely replaced by the horseless carriage.
the text and we are happy to have your cooperation in this Telephone, radios, and electricity were getting to be the norm.
xiv

Television was just coming on the scene. The information challenge to the engineers and scientists to provide solutions.
technology era was being developed. Population in the Just in the next few years, many of these changes will have a
United States had grown from 120 to over 328 million today. huge impact on society, and how the engineers and scientists
Air travel was beginning to be a serious competitor of rail, provide solutions for them will be amazing. Oh how I wish I
road, and water. The United States had been completely were a young engineer facing these opportunities to provide
rebuilt. It is now a different place-totally new in just one solutions to the many challenges!
lifetime. My first great grandchild, who is 18 months old, will
see even more rapid changes with driverless cars and intel- Sidney 0. Dewberry, PE, LS
ligent machines taking over our day-to-day activities, along Chairman Emeritus, Dewberry
with changes in healthcare. All these things will surely be a Editor-in-chief
CONTRIBUTORS

Primary Editors and Contributors of the 4th Edition Additional Contributors

Sidney 0. Dewberry, PE, LS C. Kat Grimsley, PhD
Editor-in-Chief, contributor
Claire M. White, PE
Cody A. Pennetti, PE
Principal editor, contributor Matt A. Pennetti
Illustrator
Christopher J. Guyan
Editor, contributor Dave Huh
Photographer

Aileen Heberer, Molly Johnson, Kimberly Mc Vicker

Dewberry corporate information and cover art content

Craig N. Thomas, General Counsel Dewberry

Legal advice and guidance

Reviewers of the 4th Edition

Daniel T. Anderton, RLA Illena Ivanciu, PhD
Site Selection, Comprehensive Planning, Zoning, Environmental and Historic Preservation, Post-construction
Subdivision Ordinance, Review Process, Form Based Code Services

Tim Belcher, PE Gary Kirkbride

Subdivision Ordinance, Site Selection, Components Overview, Due Diligence, Comprehensive Planning,
of a Site Plan, Approval Process, Bonds, Bond Estimates, Zoning, Subdivision Ordinance, Review Process,
Permits Environmental and Historic Preservation, Conceptual
Design, Schematic Design, Development Types
Andrea Burk
Historic Preservation Larry Smith, PE
Environmental Planning
Brian K. Bradner, PE
Grading, Stormwater Fundamentals Brian Sayre
Natural resources
Chris Cirrotti
Feasibility Study, Road Design, Site Selection, Development Zach Davis
Types, Conceptual Design, Schematic Design, Components Cultural resources
of a Site Plan
Steve Eget, PE
Dennis Couture, RLA Regulatory compliance
Site Selection, Development Types, Conceptual Design
Robert "Skip" Notte, PE
Jesus H. Echevarria, LS Utility Design
Base Maps, Existing Conditions, Field Survey

Bill Fissel, PE The contributors and reviewers of prior editions, who built
Complete Review the foundation of this textbook, are listed on page 862.

xv
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PART I

OVERVIEW
This page intentionally left blank
 CHAPTER 1

OVERVIEW OF LAND DEVELOPMENT

The conversion ofland from one use to another is the gener- The site engineer, planner, and surveyor are an integral
ally accepted definition of land development. This is a very part of the development team. They are usually among the
broad term, but as used in this book, this definition applies first to arrive on the site and the last to leave after comple-
to land conversion and infrastructure improvements com- tion. They help guide and direct the process from start to
pleted by public, quasi-public, and private developers for a finish. This text presents the material in a sequential order
variety of project types. Schools, parks, government facilities, according to the typical land development design process;
public roads, transit systems, airports, utility networks, hos- however, it is rare to see a "typical" project or process.
pitals, office complexes, residential communities, industrial By the nature of land that the project is built from, every
facilities, and retail centers are just some of the types of proj- project is unique. The terms "generally;' "often;' "usually;'
ects within the realm of land development. In all cases, land "typical;' and other conditional notes are used in the text
development should be performed responsibly and sustain- to acknowledge the variation in project requirements.
ably to improve communities for people to live, work, wor- Every professional should be aware of the applicable proj-
ship, shop, and play. ect requirements and project goals. For the projects, cases,
Today, the process for finding solutions and developing and material not specifically identified in this text, the
scenarios for land use that serve the greater good is a system- fundamentals and principles mentioned herein provide a
atic one. The team working on land development projects resource for design professionals.
focus on the preparation of required documents to secure Figure 1. IA provides a graphic representation of the con-
the land entitlement approval from official having jurisdic- tent associated with each chapter of the Land Development
tion. These officials issue permits for the development of a Handbook. The book begins with a focus on pre-design site
project. The process also requires the preparation of con- investigation and analysis efforts, transitions into planning
struction documents, typically consisting of construction and engineering design phases, and eventually describes the
drawings and technical specifications, to fully detail the con- permitting and construction phase (post-design). Each chap-
struction requirements of the proposed project. The engi- ter is divided into subchapters (e.g., Chapter 2.1, Chapter 2.2,
neering principles outlined in this book are applicable to any etc.) with detail on different topics. Chapter 7-Additional
project, regardless of its nature. Information has supplemental information relevant to spe-
This book is, in its entirety, an overview of the land design cific topics of land development. Additionally, case studies
process as it applies to civil engineering, planning, and sur- are included throughout the book to provide context to the
veying. The term "site engineer" is used in this text to distin- material presented. The format of how information is pre-
guish between other civil engineers that exclusively focus on sented in this book is intended to follow the typical process,
structural, geotechnical, traffic, or other disciplines that fall but some of the earliest project efforts require expertise in all
within the practice of civil engineering. aspects of design and consulting.

PRE-DESIGN DESIGN POST-DESIGN

CHAPTER2 CHAPTER3 CHAPTER4 CHAPTER 5 CHAPTER 6

Due Dilligence Site Analysis Conceptual & Final Design Permits &
Schematic Design Construction

FIG uRE 1 . 1A The land development design process.

3
4 bitUHi► i i·MU:i@1i,ii!ii1¥1fM@i@i

SPECIAL CONSIDERATION FOR PUBLIC AND SEMI-PUBLIC SECTOR DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS

Public sector developers are government entities at either the federal, state, or local level.
The public sector is an extremely active developer, responsible for both infrastructure projects, such as highways, and
building projects, such as post offices, courthouses, military hospitals, and local schools or state universities. Semi-public
and non-profit entities are also active developers whose projects can include hospitals, university facilities, and other
buildings that serve the public. The fundamental development tasks are essentially the same for both public and
private sector developers: they must find and evaluate a potential site, obtain funding, and coordinate the design and
construction of each project. The technical engineering principles cited in this Handbook are applicable to any project,
whether it be a private development or a public, semi-public, or non-profit project.
Despite high-level similarities, however, the priorities and processes of public sector developers are extremely different
from their private sector counterparts. Public sector development projects at federal, state, and local levels are all subject
to unique challenges created by funding limitations, changes in political will, and formalized bidding processes. Similar
limitations exist for semi-public and non-profit developers. Unlike private sector activities, public development is not
driven by the desire to earn profit but rather by the need to provide services to citizens. Public projects typically begin
as a function of evaluating public needs and current capacities; funding must then be appropriated and permission
obtained for the public sector developer to begin a formal procurement processes.
The government's role in serving its citizens is directed by elected officials at the federal, state, and local levels. Political
will refers to the degree to which these officials, individually and collectively, support a project as a matter of priority
and are willing to commit resources to it. This often means allocating funds, but may also involve advocating for needed
approvals, supporting related policy changes, and championing the project despite citizen opposition or party dissent.
The willingness of elected officials to support projects depends in part on the nature of the project itself but can also be
heavily dependent on a politician's individual beliefs or priorities, lobbying influences, current citizen responses, reelec-
tion considerations, and other competing priorities. Citizen opposition to a particular project, especially during an elec-
tion cycle, can have disastrous results if/when political candidates engage in election-oriented behavior and withdraw
support in order to satisfy voters and boost reelection chances. Election results that lead to a change of office for key
political supporters of a project can easily result in a lengthy delay or even cancelation of the project.

FIG uRE 1A Example of a public project-Tolleson Police and Municipal Court; Tolleson, AL
 1 ■ OVERVIEW OF LAND DEVELOPMENT 5

Even when projects receive the necessary approval and support, public sector developers are accountable to tax payers
and political leaders for their results and, as such, are required to comply with a multitude oflaws, regulations, and poli-
cies that guide everything from procurement to construction practices. The federal, state, and local regulatory structure
is complex and prescriptive, including components that are sometimes overlapping or inter-dependent. In instances
where a state project benefits from federal funding, such as for a National Highway System road project, the state must
comply with both relevant state and federal regulations. This serves to add another layer of complexity to any project and
often binds states to federal procedures. These controls are intended to ensure responsible stewardship of tax revenue,
fair competition, and transparency in government operations; however, somewhat ironically, this cumbersome structure
often makes the public sector process less efficient and more costly than that of the private sector.
Public sector developers do not use traditional loans to finance their projects. Instead, they rely on sources such as
appropriations from tax revenue or the issuance of bonds. Regardless of the specific form, obtaining public sector fund-
ing for development projects involves a lengthy approval process that often requires the public sector developer to sub-
mit project budget estimates a year or more in advance of undertaking a specific project. While it is understandable that
the public sector must engage in long-term budgetary planning exercises, accurate estimates for the cost of materials
and labor for future development are difficult to predict so many years in advance. Further, approval for development
projects and must compete for funds with other spending priorities. For these and other reasons, federal, state, and local
public sector developers can all find themselves facing budget shortfalls when the time comes to actually begin a devel-
opment project. As a result, partnerships with the public sector are being used with increasing frequency as a strategy
to offset funding shortfalls. Public-private partnerships, also called PPP or P3s, are projects in which a public sector
government agency works in partnership with a private sector developer in order to complete a public-sector project.
Note that in a P3, the private sector does not necessarily pay for the project, but does finance it. P3s reallocate risk and
responsibilities between the public sector and private sector, often leading to cost and time efficiencies, as well as techni-
cal innovations not previously accessible to the public sector.
The challenges and unique considerations of public sector developments will be discussed in greater detail in
Chapter 7.8.

FIG uRE 1 B Example of a public highway project-lntercounty connector Route 29 over Briggs Chaney Road, aerial, Montgomery & Prince
George's County, MD.
 CHAPTER 1.1
LAND DEVELOPMENT
DESIGN PROCESS

1.1.1. Introduction entities at either the federal, state, or local level. Land devel-
Land development design and consulting constitute the sys- opment is often attributed only to private sector work, but
tematic process of collecting data, studying and understand- public sector development represents a major component of
ing the data, extrapolating the data, and creating plans for the development industry. Examples of public sector develop-
reshaping the land to yield a project that is politically, eco- ment projects include large-scale infrastructure projects such
nomically, and environmentally acceptable. Land develop- as highways, post offices, courthouses, government-owned
ment ties together a wide range of interests, pressures, user agency office buildings, and local schools or state universities.
groups, and economic goals; thus it is a design field that is The project type, as public or private, can influence the
heavily influenced by the surrounding context-political, land development design process. This reiterates the point
economic, environmental, and cultural-within which the that each project is different but still generally follows the
land development will take place. This contextual influence same path. The land development process can be fluid, but
has driven the development of laws that provide a common projects still have the same requirements that must be met.
framework for land planning and design, and has directed the Understanding the process and the requirements will lead to
focus ofland development efforts throughout U.S. history. success for any project.
Land development consulting merges the science of city The fundamental development tasks are essentially the
building with the art of placemaking through a collaborative, same for both public and private sector developers; they must
multidisciplinary approach to project delivery. The challenge find and evaluate a potential site, obtain funding, and coordi-
for land development professionals is to understand the nate the design and construction of each project. Public and
factors contributing to the demand for growth and expan- private developers both must interview and hire technical
sion. Part of that understanding includes knowing where experts who form their development teams. Public and private
the industry has been and how it evolved into the practices sector developers must also be knowledgeable enough about
and procedures of today. The other part is understanding all aspects of the development process to play an active role
the nature of the land development industry and how to in coordinating their teams' activities. Despite these high-level
maintain the standards of quality, flexibility, and value that similarities, however, the priorities and processes of public and
we have attained. Design professionals must meet the chal- private sector developers are extremely different.
lenges of today while not losing sight of yesterday's lessons Public Sector. Development within the public sector is
and today's high standards. a relatively prescribed function of evaluating public sector
needs and current capacities, appropriating necessary fund-
1.1.2. Public and Private Project Types ing, and gaining permission to begin a formal procurement
The most important distinction of project types to make is process. The mechanisms guiding public sector development
between developers operating in the private sector versus the are generally inflexible, but the public sector can be just as
public sector. While private sector developers are individu- innovative and passionate about projects as the private sec-
als or corporations, public sector developers are government tor. Perhaps unsurprisingly, as a developer the public sector

6
 1.1 ■ LAND DEVELOPMENT DESIGN PROCESS 7

is risk averse and rule oriented. Public sector developers are Typical Members of Development Team
accountable to tax payers and political leaders for their results
ClienVDeveloper
and, as such, are required to comply with a multitude oflaws,
regulations, and policies that guide everything from procure-
ment to construction practices. The federal, state, and local Legal Team Business Team Design Team Construction
Team
regulatory structure is complex and prescriptive, including
components that are sometimes overlapping or interdepen-
Land Use Broker General
dent. These controls are intended to ensure responsible stew- Attorney Contractor
Lenders
ardship of tax revenue, fair competition, and transparency in Property
government operations; however, somewhat ironically, this Manager
Sub Contractors
cumbersome structure often makes the public sector process Marketing
Professional
less efficient and more costly than that of the private sector.
Equity Partner
Private Sector. Private sector developers are (usually)
incentivized by profit-seeking activities, which can make
Building Team StteTeam
them appear to be unsupervised opportunists when com-
pared to their public sector counterparts. Unlike many devel-
opment team members, developers are not licensed and are Architect Site Engineer Geotechnical
constrained only by their own partnership relationships or Structural Landscape Engineer
Engineer Architect Traffic
sometimes, for larger development firms, investment com-
MEP Engineer Surveyor Engineer
mittee approvals. Private developers tend to be optimistic Environmental Land Planner
and can have a fairly high tolerance for risk, calculated or Engineer
otherwise, as compared to other professions.
FIG uRE 1.1B Typical members of the development team.
Private sector developers typically generate revenue by
(1) charging fees for their work, (2) creating value for inves-
tors and selling properties after they are built or entitled,
(3) receiving rental payments from tenants in properties they the development team, but the organization chart is gener-
build and continue to own, and (4) by appreciation in the ally defined by Figure l.lB.
value of their ownership position in properties they build and As shown in the organizational chart, the client/developer
continue to own. In virtually all cases, profit cannot be real- represents the position of authority of establishing require-
ized until after a development project is completed, meaning ments and making project decisions. The client/developer
that during the development process itself, developers must looks to the rest of the development team for consulting
take the risk that unexpected factors will reduce or eliminate and design services. The legal team includes the land use
their future earnings. To safeguard future returns, develop- attorney-a critical team member that can navigate land use
ers will constantly seek to control project costs and timing. and zoning laws. The business team is primarily involved
Anything that increases either of these two critical factors in the financial elements of the project and includes the
will weaken the project's overall profitability and, in serious broker, lenders, marketing group, property manager, and
circumstances, can negatively affect the developer's ability equity partner. The design team is separated into a build-
to repay investors and lenders. The sooner a project is com- ing team that focuses on the vertical development and the
pleted, the sooner the developer can begin to earn revenue site team that focuses on the site infrastructure (horizontal
and generate profit. development). The construction team is generally engaged
Some organizations may not fall under the public sec- toward the end of the design phases and includes a gen-
tor but may operate differently from other for-profit private eral contractor with subcontractors that perform different
developers. A charitable foundation, low-income housing trades. This text focuses on the design team with an empha-
developer, animal shelter, hospital, or other similar nonprofit sis on the role of the site engineer and how they interface
organization will have different goals from a for-profit devel- with other team members.
oper but will be subject to many of the same permit process- There are several other professionals that can be included
ing and development requirements. in the development team, and in some cases, not all the team
members identified in Figure 1. 1B will be needed for every
1.1.3. Development Team Structure project. The type of project will influence the role of each
The development team, as defined with this text, includes team member. For example, in a traditional neighborhood
all members involved in the project from pre-design efforts project, the site engineer and land planner will be the pri-
through construction. The team is generally categorized by mary members of the design team. For a roadway or utility
legal, business, design, and construction teams that (should) project, the building team would not be involved at all. If a
work together to meet project requirements and develop a project focuses primarily on the redevelopment of an exist-
successful project. The reporting structure of each project ing building in a city, the site engineer will hold a tertiary
may change based on the project's contractual hierarchy of position to the building team.
a bitUHi► i i·MU:i@ i,ii!ii1¥1fM@i@i
1

For a project to be successful, the development team errors that arise during the construction phase. The expec-
requires the support of the community and local jurisdic- tations should be clarified early in the project, so all team
tion. While these entities are not official team members, members understand their roles and responsibilities.
they will often influence the design and progression of a Legal Team. The land use attorney for a project is critical
project. throughout the entire design process and through construc-
A detailed description of each team member's position is tion. A land use attorney should be familiar with the legal
provided herein. and political aspects of real estate development. The land use
Client/Developer. The client/developer is referenced as the attorney will assist the team on legal aspects of development,
developer in this text but can represent a land owner, owner's such as deeds associated with easements, interpretations of
representative, public entity, or other authority that estab- local codes, document recordation, and authoring proffers or
lishes the project requirements. Several examples of different development conditions. Additionally, the attorney may serve
developers are listed: as an advocate for the developer during negotiations with the
public agencies and may lead the presentations to the com-
• A developer interested in subdividing a large tract of munity during public meetings. The design team, especially
land for a new neighborhood. the site engineer and the surveyor, will coordinate closely with
the attorney and developer throughout the project phases.
• Homeowners interested in seeing the development
During early phases of the project, the attorney will advise
potential of their property.
the developer on allowable uses of the land based on zoning
• An owner's representative for a hospital that has and other regulatory requirements. If a developer is unable to
been hired to manage the development of a future use the land for the desired purpose, the attorney will work with
expansion. the development team to process the necessary entitlement
applications. The attorney will have a major role in projects that
• A retailer considering multiple sites for a new store.
require rezoning, variances in zoning, or special permits. The
• A landowner looking to build an addition to an exist- involvement of the land use attorney will extend through the
ing building. design process and into construction for coordination with
the title company and lender for construction draws.
• A government agency looking to construct additional
public buildings.
Business Team. The business team is a reference to those
team members that are primarily responsible for the mar-
• A department of transportation (DOT) interested in keting and financial aspects of a project. This team interacts
building a new public road. with the developer, and there is likely minimal coordina-
tion between the business team and the other profession-
• A utility provider extending, upgrading, or repairing
als. Lenders and equity partners often provide the financial
service.
means for project development. A marketing team may
• A university redeveloping the campus for new hous- advise the developer of potential tenants, appropriate home
ing or classrooms. prices, growth potential, demographics, and other market
conditions of the area. The brokers will often coordinate with
The distinction between the client and developer is leasing, specifically for a commercial site, as they work with a
important-while they may often represent the same entity, developer to find appropriate tenants for retail space.
in some cases the contractual hierarchy will be structured The business team will likely be involved throughout the
such that a site engineer's client is an architect, and the archi- duration of the project, focusing on marketing research in
tect's client is the developer. Additionally, the client may be early phases and then financing prior to design and through
the land owner, but the program manager for the develop- construction.
ment is a separate company (often referred to as the owner's Design Team. As a part of the development team, the design
representative). The reporting structure and relationship team includes the building team and site team for the project.
should be defined in the contract language between the client The design team members are required to be licensed profes-
and members of the development team. sionals including architects, engineers, and surveyors to sign
The role, experience, and responsibility of each developer and seal plans that are submitted for permit. There is often a
will vary. In some cases, the developer will look to the design significant amount of coordination between all design team
professionals for guidance through the process. In other members, and in some cases, there may be an overlap of
cases, the developer may have enough experience such that responsibilities. For example, the architect may provide ini-
they are only seeking design services from the team. Many tial site layout designs to depict the proposed building loca-
developers are not inherently familiar with the design pro- tion, which is then validated or refined by the site engineer.
cess, and all team members should work together to develop As noted in the preceding section, the contractual hierarchy
the project schedule and review project requirements. Unre- may be established such that some design professionals act
alistic project schedules and late changes to design require- as the client for other design professionals, or all may be con-
ments will burden the design team, and often result in costly tracted directly with the developer.
 1.1 ■ LAND DEVELOPMENT DESIGN PROCESS 9

Building Team. As a part of the design team, the building another member of the design team (usually, the architect
team focuses on the vertical design. Team members include or site engineer) depending on the site characteristics. These
the architect, structural engineer, and MEP (mechanical, design team members coordinate closely to avoid conflicts
electrical, plumbing) engineers for the project. This team will in site features while delivering a functional and attractive
work on the building plans that are used to secure a building site design. This text focuses primarily on the role of the site
permit. The building plans and permit often rely on the site design team with a specific focus on the site engineer.
design and permit, and all information should be carefully Construction Team. As a part of the development team, the
coordinated. The building team will have a different design construction team includes a contractor and subcontractors.
process and schedule than the site team, but ultimately both The general contractor is responsible for coordination between
design sets and permits are necessary prior to starting work the design team, developer, and subcontractors to perform the
on a project with a building. construction work of a project. A contractor will have a differ-
The architect is often involved in early phases of the proj- ent role, depending on whether a project follows the traditional
ect and may even provide an initial site layout for the proj- design-bid-build process or follows a design-build process.
ect. In later phases of design, the architect and site team will With design-bid-build, the developer works with the other
often refine the layout based on site engineering, landscape members of the development team to secure a permit and
architecture, and geotechnical requirements. Throughout the request bids from contractors to perform the work. In design-
design phases of a project, the building team and site team will build, the design team and the contractor work together to
exchange design information on a regular basis and will bal- prepare design documents. Additional information on project
ance design requirements across the various disciplines. The delivery methods is described in this chapter.
building team and site team will coordinate on building size, The contractor is typically involved in the later phases of
location, building access points, accessibility requirements, the project, near the time permits are secured for construc-
utility connections, grading along the building face, and other tion (if the project follows a design-bid-build project deliv-
interface considerations. As noted in the preceding sections of ery method). During construction, the contractor will work
this chapter, a building team will not be involved in projects with the design team and developer and may coordinate
that focus exclusively on infrastructure (roads, utilities, etc.). shop drawings, request for information (RFI) documents,
Site Team. As a part of the design team, the site team project addendums, or other post-design-related tasks.
focuses on the infrastructure design and surveying associ-
ated with the project. Some of the team members (surveyor, 1.1.4. Public Involvement
traffic engineer, geotechnical engineer, environmental engi- In today's land development practice, a working knowledge
neer) are involved in various phases of design to collect and of the public process is essential for success. The commu-
report site data. Other team members (site engineer, land- nity and public agencies should be considered as part of the
scape architect, and land planner) will have a significant role development team. Even though the public agency involve-
in the planning, designing, and permitting throughout the ment may seem mostly regulatory, in many jurisdictions,
entirety of the project. public entities have the power to shape projects, deny appli-
The surveyor is usually involved in the early phases of cations, and grant approvals. It is necessary to understand
design for boundary and topographic survey work and is the applicable regulations and submit compliant plans that
involved again during later phases of design to prepare ease- are legible and complete.
ment, subdivision, consolidation, and other relevant plats. Involvement by public agencies is pervasive and must
The traffic engineer is involved in early site analysis work and be understood thoroughly by the land designers, as there
will compile traffic studies as needed. The traffic engineer are many agencies involved, often with conflicting goals.
may also be involved in supporting transportation design for Approvals must be obtained from all involved agencies
a project. The geotechnical engineer will perform soil inves- before the project can proceed. Compliance with applicable
tigations and prepare reports and recommendations based rules and regulations is often required by ordinances or local,
on soil conditions. Additional documentation and report- state, or federal law. A brief description of representative
ing may be necessary from the geotechnical engineer if war- agencies and selected rules is included throughout this book.
ranted by the proposed buildings and grading conditions. The nature of public agency involvement varies greatly
During construction, the geotechnical engineer will provide from jurisdiction to jurisdiction and agency to agency. Fed-
soil investigation and testing services. The environmental eral regulations, however, are reasonably consistent. Each
engineer will be involved during early phases of site analysis state has its own set of rules that are dissimilar to other states.
in determining environmental conditions and requirements Even within a state each county, town, and city can be differ-
of the site and in processing environmental permits and pre- ent. Projects within the same ZIP (zone improvement plan)
paring mitigation plans as required. code may have different requirements. Sometimes regional
The site engineer, land planner, and landscape architect authorities have jurisdiction for such services as sewer or
serve as the primary designers for the infrastructure, site water. It is imperative that the development team thoroughly
layout, and landscape design. A land planner is a role that understand the rules of all the agencies having jurisdiction
may be served by a certified planner or informally held by over a project.
10 i@U4ii l NU:@¥il!i/i,i@IWJ:1:@i
1

Citizens have become much more involved in the process engineering disciplines (structural, environmental, geotech-
of approvals for a project. It is important to respect the opin- nical, traffic, etc.). The roles and responsibilities of the site
ion and goals of the community. Some design changes may engineer, an important member of any land development
seem insignificant to the development team but could pro- team, are the focus of this book.
vide a benefit to the community and garner support. There A registered professional engineer has the authority to
may also be opposition to a project only because of a lack sign and seal design documents that are used for permit
of understanding. The communication, design, and negotia- issuance. As outlined in the National Society of Professional
tion process are critical elements to a successful project, even Engineer (NSPE) Code of Ethics, a fundamental responsi-
if it is not always a formal process or requirement. bility of a professional designer is to "hold paramount the
safety, health, and welfare of the public:' The public relies
1.1.5. Project Communication on the honesty and integrity of professionals to perform
As described in the preceding section of the development actions in a manner that adhere to the professional eth-
team members, a land development project involves a multi- ics. The technical complexity of site engineering requires
tude of people with many different expertise and roles. For the professional to continuously apply solutions based on
the project to be successful, good communication is para- engineering judgment. This responsibility extends beyond
mount. The entire development team should work closely technical analysis.
to define the requirements for the land development design The site engineer operates as both a technical professional
process and each design phase of the project. There is no uni- and a consultant. The technical responsibility of an engineer
versal method for preparing design documents. The sche- includes the application of natural sciences and adherence to
matic design for one project may look different on another local land development regulations. The consultant role does
project, and some projects may not even require a schematic not have a set of prescribed requirements and relies heavily
design phase. Therefore, communication within the teams on the judgment of an engineer as they provide design solu-
and between the teams is important. tions to the development team. This responsibility involves
A good communication process requires members decision making, which relies on an understanding of proj-
of the team to be in constant contact with each other, ect requirements while considering economic and environ-
approval agencies, and with citizens. A project undergoes mental context to provide the best solutions. Most projects
many changes between its inception and completion. These have a multitude of technically correct solutions, but the best
changes occur very rapidly and for many reasons. It is design must be decided by the engineer and the development
imperative to communicate changes and updates to the right team.
people at the right time. To do this effectively, one must ulti- The work performed by an engineer is often arduous.
mately know what has transpired and understand how and Each design for a project will be unique, which means the
when to communicate the information. Project information design has never been tested-the complexity of this task
will be presented differently when provided to a technical is compounded by aggressive schedules with minimal con-
expert compared to a nontechnical stakeholder. The ability to tingencies for rework. A new design must be developed for
effectively communicate through writing, presentations, and each project based on careful analysis of available informa-
graphics is an important credential for the land development tion while considering the potential for unforeseen project
professional. Further, documentation of project-related cor- conditions that may require design changes. The engineer
respondence is critical from a business standpoint. Consul- is responsible for following a systematic process of design
tants should maintain a prudent plan for tracking, recording, and development with attention to quality while also meet-
and retrieving all forms of project correspondence. ing the aggressive schedule requirements. The balance
It is important to present ideas clearly and precisely. Good of schedule, budget, and quality requires expert project
public speaking skills before small and large groups is nec- management.
essary in many professions, but it is particularly important The amount of reference material focusing on land
in land development where presentations to public approval development and specifically project design is extraordi-
agencies often make or break a project. This includes skills nary. Similar is the case with the volume of resource materi-
in adapting material for a technical audience, nontechnical als that more singularly focus on specific development and
group, or a mixture of the two. Accuracy should be unques- building prototypes such as residential, commercial, indus-
tionable and authentic enthusiasm is a key ingredient. The trial, office, recreation, mixed use, planned communities,
ability to communicate effectively, regardless of the media, is waterfront, golf course developments, etc. Basic to the suc-
an essential quality for a consultant. cess of project design is the need for the designer to have
an appreciation for the concepts and standards identified in
1.1.6. Responsibilities of the Site Engineer that body of information. Historically, land development is
The term "site engineer" is used in this text to reference the steeped in technical solutions. These projects satisfy a mul-
civil engineer responsible for the site infrastructure scope tiplicity of functional and regulatory requirements inherent
of work for a land development project. The term is used to site engineering and ultimately program constructability;
to distinguish the role of the site engineer from other civil however, they do not necessarily address the environmental,
 1.1 ■ LAND DEVELOPMENT DESIGN PROCESS 11

social, sensory, or visual dimensions, which are fundamen- community. An engineer may be responsible for answering
tal components of the built environment. Design solutions to another design professional (such as the architect) and
need to be based in a sensitivity to basic sociocultural, physi- may be responsible for managing subconsultants that pro-
cal, economic, and political concerns, while reflecting the vide professional services associated with the land develop-
importance of economic and marketing constraints. In pri- ment design.
vate sector land development activity, a design must be capa- Design coordination should be carefully managed-each
ble of being constructed and it must provide a financial (or design professional is working through an iterative and
social) incentive to warrant its undertaking. No one profes- incremental design process in the same way the site engineer
sion possesses a monopoly on the diverse body of knowledge is. Project design elements are often negotiated between the
and resources required to achieve quality land development building, landscape, infrastructure, environmental, geotech-
design. Land development is a process that is dependent on nical, and other site requirements. The design team should
diverse disciplines and an extraordinary commitment to work together to determine the best solution for the site
promote all aspects of the project with equal fervor. based on project requirements and site constraints. Because
Design Elements. Every development program comprises of the importance of infrastructure, the site engineer will
elements that define, shape, and establish the essence of that often establish or validate building locations and site fea-
use. The constituent parts include both the physical-dimen- tures. The typical scope of work for a site engineer involves
sional-building blocks that house principal activities, as well all aspects of the land development design process.
as the ancillary or support elements, which are necessary to
sustain the principal use. The former are the major space- 1.1.7. The Land Development Design Process
taking elements that characterize a land use and its related The land development design process is iterative and incre-
building components. For example, the dwelling unit is the mental. Many projects will investigate several design alterna-
principal building module in residential development. The tives before working toward a preferred option, which will
accessory uses include such considerations as connection be refined through several more iterations. By the nature
to vehicular or pedestrian circulation systems, and utility of the land a project is built from, each project is unique
requirements necessary to maintain a certain quality of life, and requires a tailored design process that ensures project
such as water, sewer, power, communications, etc. Collec- requirements are met. There are many different terms and
tively, they constitute an operational "whole:' Project design processes used for project design phases-each developer,
must address all of these elements. There may be several jurisdiction, or contract may use different terminology and
ways to orchestrate a design that satisfies some of the basic processes. It is important for the development team to iden-
requirements associated with a given land use or product tify the design process and the terminology prior to estab-
type. However, the successful response seeks to reduce any lishing requirements and starting the project. In general, the
conflict with program objectives and optimizes the relation- project process will begin with analysis and feasibility, transi-
ship between all component parts. This approach applies to tion into design phases, and eventually move into construc-
large-scale and mixed-use projects as well. The manner in tion and commissioning.
which a site design addresses these requirements should be a The stages of design encompass pre-design efforts, design
result of a conscious decision and not insensitivity to or the efforts, and post-design efforts. These stages are not always
ignoring of any component or relationship. linear, and some may be omitted on certain projects. The
Project design requires an ability to understand the complexity of design and variability of the development con-
relative needs and physical attributes of the program com- ditions will influence the process.
ponents. More homogeneous uses at lesser densities or Figure 1.1 C depicts the typical land development design
intensities are generally more easily dealt with than mixed- process. The exact process and terminology of each step will
use programs at higher densities. As an example, there is sig- depend on the client, project, and jurisdiction. It is impor-
nificantly more flexibility in siting a single-family residence tant to remember that although it is typically sequential and
on a large lot than there is for an urban mixed-use project. will be described as a sequential process throughout this
The challenge of site design rests in both knowledge of the book, it may not always be. At any point during a project
requirements associated with a given land use or building it is possible that early phases of work will be revisited. For
type and an ability to make valid judgments and establish example, changes to financial conditions may occur during
priorities as to which requirements should take precedence final design efforts, which requires a change in scope. The
in formulating the design response. development program would need to be revisited, and the
Scope of Work. The scope of work for a site engineer is process may return to site selection. This graphic is provided
contractually described through agreements between the cli- as a reference to how content is presented within this book.
ent/ developer and the engineering firm. The scope of work Pre-Design. The pre-design stage is often identified as a
will generally include the preparation of design documents feasibility study period. During this stage, the focus of the
that are used to obtain project-specific permits. Inherent development team is to identify the project requirements
to the design services, the engineer is required to coordi- and to study a project site for development opportunities
nate with the development team, public agencies, and the and constraints. At this stage, the effort is exploratory with
12 i@U4ii l 1 NU:i@¥il!i/i, ■ @ifriJ:1:@i
Development adjacent land uses, are evaluated in the context of the client's
Program proposed development plan. The physical characteristics, as
well as land use conditions, will influence the project eco-
Site Selection nomics and feasibility.
C:
Ol
Pre-design efforts begin with evaluating the development
-~ program and then performing the site selection, due dili-
Due Diligence
9 gence, and site analysis.
@
a. Development Program. The development program is
Site Analysis the developer's goal and requirement for the project. The
developer should provide information on the proposed use
Feasibility Study Site Diagram
of the site and any supplemental design requirements for
the site. Requirements should be communicated across all
members of the development team and openly discussed to
Conceptual
Design verify the requirements are understood. The design team
C:
Ol may be involved in drafting the development program for
-~
Concept Plans 0 the developer because they are most familiar with design
~ requirements and local jurisdictional requirements. The
ca
C:
development program may be influenced by information
Schematic Design :~@ produced in later phases of design, but major requirement
a.
changes in later design phases can negatively affect the proj-
Preliminary
ect schedule and budget.
Plan
C:
The development program is introduced in Chapter 2.1.
Ol
Final Design -~ Site Selection. Site selection is the process of identifying
0 suitable sites for a development project. The developer may
]l have one site in mind or several they are deciding between.
"oi
Final Site Plan ci3 The development team assists the developer with the site
0
selection process by performing due diligence studies for
Permits each site under consideration. This may include a legal due
diligence, financial due diligence, and a site-based due dili-
Construction
gence. The site engineer is focused on this site-based due
C:
diligence to evaluate the project's regulatory and physical
Ol
"iii
CJ.)
characteristics.
9 Site selection is described in Chapter 2.1.
iii
f1. Due Diligence. A technical site-based due diligence is per-
formed by the site engineer to assist the developer as they
perform their site selection. This phase initiates the land
development design process for the site engineer and begins
with a general review of regulations governing each site
being evaluated. This includes understanding the proposed
FIG uRE 1.1C The land development design process. development program; determining development potential
by reviewing the local ordinances, master plans, codes, and
regulations; and performing a preliminary desktop review
minimal investment (compared to later design stages) as the of each site. Constraints and opportunities should be iden-
development team determines if the project is feasible. This tified for each site. At the end of this phase, an initial go/
phase requires a deep knowledge of all aspects in land devel- no-go decision can be made on each potential site based on
opment design, an understanding of the political conditions, the information collected and assessed by the development
and experience with regulatory requirements. The feasibility team.
of the project focuses on the economic conditions and the Due diligence is described throughout Chapter 2.
physical conditions. Site Analysis. The site analysis is a detailed analysis of the
This initial step in the process requires an understanding existing physical conditions of each site as part of the due
of the proposed development program and an overview of diligence. This phase analyzes the existing site conditions
the site characteristics and surrounding area. The objective with particular emphasis on identification of environmental,
of the pre-design stage is to become familiar with existing cultural, and infrastructure resources. This helps to further
site conditions and the developer's intended application on identify development opportunities and site constraints. Site
the site. The physical characteristics, including site configu- constraints may require modifications to the development
ration, topography, soils, hydrology, utility availability, and plan, or else may require a new site.
 1.1 ■ LAND DEVELOPMENT DESIGN PROCESS 13

The site analysis results in a complete site inventory, should satisfy the development program and previously
identification of usable site area, and forms the foundation identified site requirements, and then can be presented to
of further design efforts through provision of adequate base the developer for review or used in informal conversations
mapping. These initial mapping efforts and the information with other stakeholders.
identified during the site analysis help to produce the feasi- Conceptual design and the concept plan are described in
bility study and create the site diagram for the project. Chapter 4.3.
The feasibility study is a product of the site analysis Schematic Design. Schematic designs begin with the pre-
and represents a formal document to record information ferred concept plan alternative, as decided by the developer
obtained during the site analysis phase of work. This should and other stakeholders. The schematic design is a refinement
also identify any gaps in information or assumptions that of the conceptual design that provides more precise scale
have been made. The feasibility study requires information and site detail of program components and supporting site
from both the site analysis and due diligence. It is important improvements. The detail included in the schematic design is
to note that there are different types of feasibility studies, but based, in part, on information obtained during the due dili-
the site engineer focuses on an engineering feasibility study, gence and site analysis stages and provides further assurance
not an economic analysis or other type of feasibility study. that the development program can be achieved. Included
The site diagram is the first graphical representation of the in the schematic design is a site layout, which details and
site layout that depicts the proposed site conditions. This is depicts the dimensions of the arrangement of program
illustrated on the base map during the site analysis as devel- components. The site layout should confirm that the devel-
opment opportunities and site constraints are identified. The opment plan is consistent with the goals and objectives
diagram is prepared in early project phases (pre-design) and established by the client and conforms to all regulatory
is meant for graphic context to evaluate geographic rela- requirements.
tionships of the project elements. The site diagram requires An important element of schematic design is prelimi-
information from both the site analysis and due diligence. nary engineering. The purpose of the preliminary engi-
This site analysis often overlaps with the initial due dili- neering analysis is to verify and document the technical
gence efforts. These efforts require a thorough understand- aspects of the schematic design. The result of this study
ing of all elements of land development and will reinforce is usually in the form of a graphic such as a preliminary
the go/no-go decision as the developer continues their site plan. Checklists and/or reports are often prepared as well.
selection process. These pre-design efforts will inform These documents represent a "final check'' of the devel-
the site selection and allow a developer to make the best opment program prior to proceeding with more detailed
decision. final engineering.
Site analysis is described in Chapter 3, along with engi- While the content provided in schematic design is rudi-
neering fundamentals that contribute to the site analysis mentary, the design should be carefully developed to ensure
efforts. The feasibility study is described in Chapter 3.1. The that major components are not overlooked. The schematic
preparation of base maps and site diagrams are described in design is often used by the development team to estimate
Chapter 3.2. project cost and verify feasibility. At the end of the schematic
Preliminary Design. The design tasks during the prelimi- design phase, the team should have a defined layout for the
nary design phase provide simple design elements to com- site, but modifications can be expected throughout the rest
municate the intent of the project. The work associated with of the design process. At the end of this phase, a complete
conceptual designs may contribute to internal discussion or schematic design will be produced known as the preliminary
could be used for informal conversations with public agen- plan. This completed preliminary plan usually represents
cies and the community. The schematic design phase repre- about 30% of the effort required to produce the final design
sents a level of detail beyond conceptual design that can be drawings for the project.
used for formal submissions associated with rezoning appli- Schematic design and the preliminary plan are described
cations or special permits. in Chapter 4.4.
Preliminary design efforts include the conceptual design Detailed Design. Detailed designs build from the prelimi-
and schematic design. nary design efforts to focus on the engineering details nec-
Conceptual Design. Conceptual designs begin with the site essary for permitting and construction. The scope of work
diagram prepared during pre-design efforts. The objective of includes refinements to the site layout, performing calcula-
the conceptual design is to establish a preliminary frame- tions, compiling details, and writing technical narratives and
work depicting the distribution, organization, and arrange- project specifications. During the detailed design phases,
ment of the development program. The conceptual design major changes to the site layout or project requirements may
should honor the development constraints yet take advan- result in reverting back to earlier design phases. Before pro-
tage of opportunities identified during the due diligence and ceeding to the detailed design phase, it is important to vali-
site analysis. The resultant concept plan may include several date earlier design work and verify concurrence on project
alternatives that illustrate different arrangements of principal progression.
land uses and infrastructure requirements. Each alternative Detailed design efforts include the final design.
14 i@U4ii l NU:@¥il!i/i,i@IWJ:1:@i
1

Final Design. The work to produce the final design is establish the scope and performance requirements for the
predominantly carried out by the site engineer, as the pre- construction team.
liminary plans are enhanced with a level of detail sufficient Construction documents are described in Chapter 6.2.
enough to construct the project. Ultimately, the final design Construction. After the necessary permits are acquired and
reflects the detail necessary for project approval by local a construction contract agreement has been signed, the project
governing agencies for permit issuance. There may be a moves into the construction phase. The permits allow for con-
series of preliminary reviews at different stages while work- struction, the contract documents represent the project design
ing toward plan approval. During this time there may still and construction requirements, and the final site plan is fol-
be several iterations in the design before a final layout is lowed during construction. At this phase, the design has been
developed, but major layout features should be established completed and any revisions to the design during construction
from the schematic design phase. Project requirements may are processed in the form of addendum and revisions. During
be refined during these iterations. Additionally, the building construction, the general contractor will coordinate with the
design team will (very) likely refine the building architec- design team to ensure compliance with design documents and
ture, which may require adjustments in the infrastructure may request additional information as needed.
design as well. Closeout. After construction is complete, the project enters
The final site plan is the product of the final design efforts. the utilization, operations, and maintenance phase-this is
The final site plan is submitted for formal regulatory review commonly referred to as commissioning. Many localities
and permit processing and eventually used for construc- require "as-built" or record drawings of the site infrastruc-
tion. Jurisdictional approval is necessary for permit issuance, ture to document the actual built conditions (which could
which is required before construction can begin. Project differ from the original design documents). Design docu-
specifications that are developed during this phase are usu- ments and record drawings are often used for operations and
ally included with the final site plan. The approval of the final maintenance of a facility and are useful when planning for
site plan is an indication that the design is complete; how- future projects.
ever, additional information is often required during post- Postconstruction services are described in Chapter 6.2.
design efforts, prior to construction.
Final design is described in Chapter 5. More information 1.1.8. Project Delivery Types
about the review process is described in Chapter 2.4 and the Several project delivery methods for land development
submission process in Chapter 5.1. projects are available to developers. Traditionally, private
Post-Design. The post-design stage includes permits, land development projects have used the design-bid-build
construction documents, procurement, construction, and method, but the available methods provide options to the
closeout. development team.
Permits. Permitting is the project phase that requires
application for and procurement of all necessary site and Design-bid-build: Traditional delivery has design pro-
building permits. This is required before any construction fessionals under contract with the developer-the
can begin. A final site plan is required for permit issu- project is bid, and the developer subsequently enters
ance, but there are often a number of permits required into a contract with a builder/contractor for the project
for different scope items of the project. Development construction.
permits include demolition, land disturbance, transporta- Design-build: Developer contracts with a team that
tion, and other permits associated with land development includes the design professionals and contractor for the
work. Permits may also be required based on the scope project. Contractor is typically the lead for the team.
of site environmental conditions and building construc-
tion. Project bonds and other legal agreements are often Value-based award: Developer hires design professionals
required before a permit is issued. to prepare appropriate project construction documents.
Permitting and bonds are described in Chapter 6.1. Bids are solicited from contractors (sometimes from list
Construction Documents. Construction documents of contractors prequalified) with requirement for price
include the final site plan and other design documents- proposal and technical proposal. Award of contract
many of which are produced by other members of the based on weighted evaluation of technical qualifications
design team. These documents also include technical con- and price.
tent necessary to communicate the project design and con- Design-build-finance: Developer contracts with a team
struction requirements. Additional information required that includes the design professionals, contractor,
for bidding the project, such as bid invitations, general and financial institution. The team is under contract
conditions, agreements, and bid forms, is included with to deliver the project, including long-term project
the construction documents. A contract to perform the financing.
work is part of the construction documents, and once the
agreement has been signed, the construction documents There are other hybrid construction delivery methods,
represent the contract documents. The contract documents but in general, all result in the integration of the design
 1.1 ■ LAND DEVELOPMENT DESIGN PROCESS 15

and construction. These alternative delivery methods have or as they seek to broaden their professional understanding
given rise to the need for and development of new standard of complexities of land development. For public and private
contract documents for the design professionals and the developers, this book will be an invaluable tool to under-
contractors. stand the services they will be acquiring from various design
specialists and will prepare them for the regulation labyrinth
1.1.9. This Handbook ahead. For those entering the land design profession, whether
Undeniably the land development design process, however in the public sector or as a consultant, this handbook will aid
systematic it is, varies considerably throughout the United in developing the skills needed to be a successful, contribut-
States due to the diversity of state and local regulations con- ing member of the development team. For the practitioner, it
trolling land use and land subdivision. Yet within the process will prove a treasured reference tool.
there are many elements common throughout the jurisdic- The Land Development Handbook is intended to be a
tions. Similarities do exist. Even if it were intentionally writ- practical guide to the land development industry, detailing
ten for a particular microregion, no book could present the the intricacies of each discipline while providing a compre-
specific design process due to the dynamics of the regula- hensive view of the process including the interrelationships
tions. This book is a presentation of a typical design process between various disciplines. This book will answer techni-
and multitude of engineering fundamentals, but in no way cal questions and provide "next step guidance'' through the
should it be construed as the only design process. entire land development process. Systematic implementation
This book helps professionals in anticipating the multiple of this design process by creative, passionate, and dedicated
scenarios and requirements they will likely encounter as they professionals is the basis for successful land development
progress through the various stages of project development projects.
This page intentionally left blank
PART II

PRE-DESIGN
This page intentionally left blank
 CHAPTER 2

DUE DILIGENCE

Chapter 2.1 focuses on the due diligence of the project, the These various regulations are important to understand
beginning of the land development design process. This at the beginning of a project. The subdivision ordinance
includes an introduction to the various regulations that must is similar to the zoning ordinance and must be followed,
be followed for a project. Additionally, an overview of the but instead defines the physical characteristics of a site and
development program, site selection, as well as an introduc- jurisdictional procedures. This includes the review process
tion to defining property is described. which will determine how the plan development will occur.
Chapter 2.2 introduces the comprehensive plan. The An introduction to building codes is necessary to ensure
comprehensive plan is the long-range planning document future designs are in conformance. Finally, development
for a jurisdiction. This is a guide for future growth in the costs must be understood to be properly accounted for
community and may provide recommendations for a site. throughout the project.
Chapter 2.3 covers the zoning ordinances. Zoning is a legal Chapter 2.5 is separated into parts A, B, and C to focus
ordinance that governs each site. This includes information on environmental, geotechnical, and historical regulations.
on uses, dimensional standards, and other related procedures. There are many federal, state, and local regulations that will
The local zoning ordinance must be followed for all projects. affect a project. These are important considerations that will
Chapter 2.4 introduces the subdivision ordinance, govern many aspects of the design process later.
review process, building codes, and development costs.

PRE-DESIGN DESIGN POST-DESIGN

~2-----~> CHAPTER2
Due Dilligence
CHAPTER3
Site Analysis
CHAPTER4
Conceptual &
Schematic Design
CHAPTER 5
Final Design
CHAPTER 6
Permits &
Construction

FIG uRE 2. 1 A The land development design process.

19
 CHAPTER 2.1
DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM,
SITE SELECTION l AND
DEFINING PROPERTY

2.1.1. Introduction The development program is initially a determina-

Due diligence is the engineer's technical site-based evalua- tion on the part of the developer regarding what type of
tion of potential sites, which occurs during the early phases development is expected for a given parcel of land. For the
of the project. This assessment is regulatory focused and most part, such preliminary determinations are based on a
assists the developer with the site selection process to apply cursory review of zoning, planning, and market consider-
the development program to potential sites. This will be the ations as applied to a specific property. Deal breakers such
first look at a property to begin to understand development as unfavorable zoning, a complicated review process, envi-
potential by identifying constraints and opportunities. Then ronmental constraints, site access issues, site grading con-
in the next chapter (Chapter 3) site analysis will analyze the flicts, or lack of utility services on a property could derail
physical characteristics of each specific site. Both reviews are a project. These constraints may be identified during the
necessary for the developer's site selection. While arranged developer's preliminary determination, or could be deter-
sequentially in this book, it is common for the due diligence mined after the design team is consulted. That is why it is
and site analysis to overlap and may be performed or com- important to identify constraints during the due diligence
pleted at the same time. and site analysis stages of the project. Constraints will have
to be overcome, a new site will be required or the develop-
ment program modified.
2.1.2. Development Program The initial development program, based on the devel-
Understanding the development program is the first step of oper's preliminary determination, is usually first presented
the land development design process. The development pro- to the business team, before the design team, for discussion
gram is the scope of work, the developer's vision and goals and refinement. The challenge of project design is formu-
for the project. This program is achieved through design lating a response that simultaneously balances the "highest
efforts and ultimately construction. In order to ensure the and best land use" with the character of the site and its envi-
success of the project, the development program must be rons; developer and consumer expectations; economic and
understood by all members of the development team as marketing factors; and public and private approval require-
early as possible. The program affects the design process ments. Land uses and their associated building types need to
through the due diligence as suitable sites are investigated, be consistent with current construction practices, as well as
site analysis as constraints and opportunities are identified, consumer and user requirements. Market conditions, devel-
and later as the design efforts begin. opment costs, and numerous alternatives in development

20
 2.1 ■ DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM, SITE SELECTION, ANO DEFINING PROPERTY 21

technologies afford the opportunity to develop distinctly consulted to verify the program. This is where this book
different designs for any given property. begins. The site engineer, as a member of the site team within
In some cases, the site planner may be an initial participant the design team, will be responsible for due diligence and site
in orchestrating the research and background information analysis. The information prepared by the site engineer will
that leads to describing the development program. The role be used to provide the developer with the information neces-
of site planner could be held by the site engineer or other sary to select a site.
members of the design team, such as the architect. In larger It is important that development program objectives be
and more complex projects, there may be a dedicated planner discussed in the context of existing local planning and regu-
on the design team. As noted, in many cases the develop- latory controls. Land use type and use intensity should be
ment program is initially being spearheaded by the devel- reviewed with a clear understanding of existing jurisdictional
oper alone or in concert with their business team. The site comprehensive plans and zoning. Based on this discussion,
planner is, however, in a position to assist the developer in the development program or alternative programs should
refining the use associated with the development program reflect a realistic proposed land use. Ultimately, the success
based on site characteristics and public planning, land use, of the development program will be measured to the extent
and regulatory controls. it optimizes developer objectives against those of public sec-
The development program should be predicated upon tor expectations and standards. It is a benefit to no one to
a thorough understanding and appreciation of the success foster questionable expectations associated with unreason-
associated with previous land development designs. Such able program formulation. An assurance is necessary that all
awareness strengthens the posture of the site planner. The regulatory requirements can be satisfied in conjunction with
intent is not to mimic that which has proven successful, but refinements to the proposed development program. These
rather to gain an understanding as to the reasons for success regulations will be discussed during the due diligence within
and expand on those attributes. The fundamental require- Chapter 2.
ment of land design rests in a working knowledge of both After the due diligence and with a clear understanding of
the physical and functional characteristics and constraints the proposed development program and options, the identi-
associated with specific building products. fication of site constraints and opportunities is required for
While certain base considerations, such as site access each site the developer is considering. During site selection a
(vehicular, pedestrian, bike, and/or transit), represents a positive finding is necessary to ensure that the physical and
common requirement for all land use types, the appropriate functional characteristics envisioned by the developer can be
design response varies substantially. This variability can be realized. This physical site analysis is introduced throughout
seen when comparing low-density single-family residences Chapter 3.
to urban mixed-use development. The developer should These steps are a precursor to design. It is, in reality, an
consider all these factors when determining the develop- information -gathering stage, but information gathering
ment program. Again, this determination may occur before with specific purpose and direction. Information is expen-
the site engineer is consulted. sive to compile and time consuming in its review. Therefore,
To secure a firm understanding of the development pro- it is important to undertake these site assessment efforts
gram, the site planner should elicit from the developer as with a clear focus on the judicious expenditure of time and
much information as possible and help to refine their initial resources. At this juncture in the development process, all
development program. Developers generally have strong, available existing information, including base maps, aerial
preconceived ideas regarding the character of the project photographs, engineering information and controls, and
they wish developed. At a minimum they can relate their planning reports, should be assembled.
expectations relative to existing projects they believe most Most developers have completed at least a rudimentary
resemble their current proposal. Even the most unseasoned assessment of the possible return on their investment for a
developer has certain base development objectives that have project prior to the initiation of discussion with a design
prompted the initiation of a specific development effort. The team. The design team should attempt to verify the antici-
site planner should discuss these expectations with the devel- pated yield, green building certification level (if a prior-
oper, including an inventory of objective criteria such as unit ity) as well as preliminary budgetary allowances for such
or building type, building dimensions, architectural finish, items as utility construction, amenity development, and
parking ratios, amenity elements, sustainable or green build- landscape, to understand better the anticipated character
ing design goals, and more subjective statements regarding and quality of development. This will be completed during
the desired character the finished product. Although devel- the conceptual and schematic designs, as is introduced in
opers will often indicate the density or intensity of the devel- Chapter 4.
opment they desire, more information is needed to initiate a While it is important to define the development program
site design. early in the project, actual site design efforts will not be
After the initial development program has been refined required until after the site has been selected and analyzed.
by the business team and site planner, the design team is Preliminary design is further discussed in Chapter 4.
22 i@U4fi iiffll@i@IH
2.1.3. Site Selection Process (grants, loans, tax benefits, etc.) that encourage the
The site, or a particular piece of real estate on which a devel- redevelopment.
opment program will be implemented, affords a special set
of resources and opportunities for project design. Each site Site Selection. For most projects, the developer has come
is unique and requires an understanding of and apprecia- to the design team with a site in mind. They could own this
tion for the specific characteristics to elicit a tailored design property outright or be in contract to purchase the site. In
response. Consideration should be inclusive of both surface other cases, the developer has several sites that they are con-
and subsurface characteristics, as well as the dynamics asso- sidering. In each case, the site selection process is required
ciated with the natural and cultural context that prescribe its to ensure the development potential for each site under
unique character. Attributes of a site normally considered consideration. This is necessary to achieve the development
relevant to land development activity include those that bear program previously defined. And if there are multiple sites
on the land's ability to absorb specific development program under consideration, the site selection process will deter-
elements. These include both on-site and off-site consider- mine the best site for the developer.
ations and include a range of issues from site configuration If the developer is in contract to purchase a site, they may
to adjacent land uses. have located a property that appears to satisfy the develop-
Development Types. Typical sites encountered are green- ment program. To act quickly but still minimize risk, many
fields, redevelopment, and continuous development. In some developers will initiate an "option'' on the property, thus
cases, brownfield or grayfield sites are encountered. making the final purchase contingent on satisfactory reso-
lution of pertinent land design issues. These issues may
Greenfield sites reference an undeveloped site or could include the ability to achieve a successful rezoning or verify a
reference a minimally developed site (such as a farm). proposed use can be accommodated.
These sites are attractive because there is often less During the site selection process, or the pre-design of a
complication associated with existing buildings or util- project, the developer employs the land development con-
ity systems, but environmental and historic features are sulting team for the project. The team members assist the
more likely to be discovered. Additionally, a significant developer with the site selection. The site engineer will
change in the development intensity may prove chal- support a more detailed due diligence (Chapter 2) and site
lenging when evaluating connections to existing utility analysis (Chapter 3).
systems and transportation systems. During this site selection, the developer performs a com-
Redevelopment sites reference a project the removes an plete analysis for the property likely including a market
existing development to provide an opportunity for the survey, financing options, sales potential, pro forma financial
new development. The original development may have models of the proposed project and, not the least, a detailed
paved the way for new development opportunities, but engineering feasibility study. The feasibility study is a report
it could be difficult to verify all existing conditions of of the due diligence and site analysis efforts which are intro-
the site. Without a record of the original design plans or duced in Chapter 3.1.
assurance that the site has been adequately maintained, If under contract, the developer may be able to proceed
it is possible that unforeseen conditions may arise. An with negotiations to purchase the property (exercise the
existing development is a sign that utility systems are option) within a relatively short period of time. If a more
available, but the capacity would need to be verified to detailed study is required, there is still usually a limited
meet proposed demand. number of days (typically 15 to 45), although it could take
60 days or more. During this time the purchaser can release
Continuous development represents a case where his option to purchase the property for any number of
there is ongoing development, whether greenfield or reasons. If the feasibility study or other analysis indicate the
redevelopment. This condition is common in campus potential for problems, renegotiations may be necessary.
settings, such as higher education or hospitals. These Often during a feasibility study period, items are discov-
projects are often maintained in a single site, which ered that will cause the developer to drop the contract or
may provide a benefit to site analysis. These sites will renegotiate the terms based on the new information.
likely have continuous operation, which should be Market Analysis. With the development program deter-
considered when planning and phasing new develop- mined and a site in mind, all land development projects
ment so that utility and operation disruptions are should begin with extensive planning. Frequently the first
minimized. step in the planning process, preceding the technical plan-
Brownfield or grayfield development references a ning by the engineer, is a market analysis by the developer.
development on a site that has a documented (or is This analysis can determine the type of development hav-
highly probable to have) hazardous environmental con- ing potential for success and the design suited for the site
ditions. These sites require evaluation and consideration location.
for necessary site mitigation, but may be attractive This market analysis is dependent on the type of project
because of size, location and financial incentives and will vary based on each developer. For example, a private
 2.1 ■ DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM, SITE SELECTION, ANO DEFINING PROPERTY 23

residential home builder looking to build a new townhouse These terms are important to understand when working on
development will have different needs then a public univer- any land development project.
sity looking to build new dorm buildings on campus. Both
will need to find a location for their project, but the uni- Real property: Real property is a piece of the earth's sur-
versity may already own land but would need to consider face extending downward to the center of the earth and
larger program elements when choosing the right size and upward into space, including all things permanently
location. The private home builder, on the other hand, may attached to it by nature or by people, as well as the inter-
need to locate a piece of property to purchase and would ests, benefits, and rights inherent in real estate ownership.
consider product type (townhome, single family, duplex, Fee simple estate: The maximum possible estate or right
etc.) based on market conditions. More information about of ownership of real property, continuing forever.
the market analysis can be found in a "Development for the
Built Environment", which is part of the Land Development Title: The title is the right to or ownership ofland. The
Handbook Series. physical title also is evidence of ownership of land.
Due Diligence and Site Analysis. In most cases, a site Plats: A plat is map indicating the location and boundar-
engineer begins working on a project after the developer ies of individual properties. This could be for an entire
has identified a site of interest, or the developer may have community or for a specific subdivision.
a few site options. For public projects, the site is likely pre-
defined based on land owned by the public entity. With a Subdivision: Subdivision is a tract ofland divided by the
site selected, the developer often has a concept for a develop- owner, known as the subdivider, into blocks, building
ment program. The developer should work closely with the lots, and streets according to a recorded subdivision plat,
site engineer to verify feasibility of the development program which must comply with state regulations and the local
based on an investigation of the site's physical characteristics subdivision ordinance.
and the applicable jurisdictional regulations. Parcel: A parcel is a specific tract of real estate defined by
Chapter 2 begins with the initial due diligence of the prop- a legal description and used for taxing purposes, among
erty performed by the site engineer. Due diligence is the first others. Also termed a surveyor's parcel and a tax parcel.
look at a site to understand the regulations that govern the
site. This can quickly determine if the development program Conveyance: A conveyance is a written instrument that
is feasible on a given site. The next part of the due diligence evidences a transaction in which any interest in land is
is the site analysis, described in Chapter 3, which is a more created, alienated, mortgaged, assigned or "otherwise
detailed analysis of the existing physical conditions of each affected in law or in equity:' A grantee is a person who
site. The site engineer will identify constraints and oppor- receives a conveyance of real property from the grantor.
tunities that assist the developer as they perform their site The grantor then is the person transferring title to or an
selection. Although presented sequentially in this book, the interest in real property to a grantee.
due diligence and site analysis stages may overlap. Depend- Covenant: A covenant is a written agreement between
ing on the project, the requirements of the developer, the two or more parties in which a party or parties pledges
experience of the site engineer, and other factors will deter- to perform or not perform specified acts with regard to
mine the land development design process. It is important to property; usually found in such real estate documents as
remember that each project is unique. deeds, mortgages, leases, and land contracts.
It is important to follow the plans, ordinances, and
regulations presented in Chapter 2 in all projects that are Deeds. A deed is a written instrument used to transfer an
encountered to ensure that the site is in conformance with interest in land or real property. A deed is a form of contract
all requirements. Any challenges or constraints identified and as such a legally valid deed must meet certain require-
will have to be overcome to ensure that the project will be ments. A deed provides a clear definition of the description,
approved and successful. If not, a new site or development the transfer of land, the rights of an easement, etc. A deed
program may need to be selected. The due diligence is the must have at least two parties-a grantor and a grantee. The
starting point that gives the site engineer a framework of what grantor must own the interest and rights being conveyed.
is allowed on the site and how to proceed with the project. The interest and rights being conveyed must be described
When satisfied with the feasibility of a project and after with reasonable specificity. The laws of the jurisdiction
understanding the process to proceed, the project will be in which the land or real property is located must permit
able to move into a more detailed site analysis and ultimately the transfer of the interest or rights described. The inter-
able to produce conceptual and schematic designs, are dis- est or rights being described must be current at the time of
cussed in following chapters of the book. conveyance.
The writing within a deed will be in legal wording
2.1.4. Defining Property that clearly express the intent of the parties. These words
Before continuing into the pre-design efforts, it is impor- must identify both grantor and grantee. The written words
tant to understand key definitions related to property itself. must convey the intent of the parties. The deed must include
24 i@U4fi iiffll@i@IH
a descriptive clause and statement of the consideration brief as possible while maintaining clarity, completeness, and
involved. This is the premises. The deed must also contain accuracy. Incomplete, inaccurate, and unclear descriptions
a description, called the habendum clause, which defines the will result in boundary disputes, which may turn into title
limits of the estate. This clause must agree with the premises. disputes later. A description of a specific parcel of real estate
Words used to close the deed are the tenendum. complete enough for an independent surveyor to locate and
Deeds must state exceptions and reservations when such identify it.
exist. The exceptions exclude parts of the estate described Metes and Bounds. For legal descriptions that comprise
from the conveyance. These exceptions must not be greater metes and bounds.
than the whole estate. The reservations retain rights to the
grantor of an estate. A deed restriction can also be written as • Metes are measured values that follow a line that can
clause to limit the future uses of a property. be defined geometrically by a bearing (direction) and
The benefit of consideration to the grantor must exist distance.
as stated in the instrument of transfer. Consideration must o N 45° 05' 29" E (bearing) 134.25' (distance)
pass between parties and that consideration must be ade-
quate compensation. Laws require that parties to the deed • Bounds are a general reference to another feature
have the opportunity to read and examine the document such as a watercourse, building, or county boundary.
before its execution. Finally, the deed transfer consists of o Fifteen feet on each side of the utility pole line
the signing of the instrument by the parties to the agree-
ment. This step takes place before a notary or other person Metes provide an accurate description of the land by provid-
authorized to witness signatures. There is a requirement of ing information that can be measured relative to the starting
delivery, or the actual placement of the instrument into the and ending point of each line. Bounds are not as accurate but
hands of the grantee. Strict interpretation of this require- may be used when the accuracy is not required.
ment is rare. The bearings and distances associated with metes are rela-
Deeds used in the transfer of ownership in the United States tive to each other, but do not provide a reference to a physi-
are warranty deeds, quitclaim deeds, and deeds of bargain cal location. To establish a location there must be a known
and sale. The warranty deed contains a covenant of title. This and identified point, referenced as the point of beginning
covenant is a guarantee by the grantor that the deed conveys (POB). The POB provides a starting and ending point for the
a marketable title. Quitclaim deeds convey only the present description of the land. When starting from the POB and fol-
interest of the grantor and do not warrant or guarantee good lowing the metes around the property the final point should
title. Deeds of bargain and sale convey definitive estates in match back to the POB.
land, but do not imply a warranty. Figure 2.IB provides a simple example of a plat showing
Legal Descriptions. The description of land is provided a POB, description, owner information, and other relevant
through a combination of graphics, such as a plat, and writ- data typically included with a plat.
ten words, referred to as the legal description. Parts of a Description. The description is composed of
The part of the deed devoted to the physical location of three parts: the caption, the body, and the qualifying clause
the real property is known as the legal description. A general (such as exceptions and reservations). In some cases, aug-
definition of a legal description can be stated as those words menting clauses are added (for easements). Each part of the
and maps or plats that uniquely delineate the tract from any description serves a definite purpose.
other. The description must be written in such a manner that The caption establishes the general placement of the
it will stand any test under law and litigation. subject property and limits title in the remainder of the
Such descriptions can be formed in various ways. Words description to that general area outlined in the caption. A
describing lines composed of bearings and distances and typical caption in a description could read as follows "that
calling for monuments are "metes and bounds" descriptions. certain tract or parcel of land, situated at or near City, Dis-
Some descriptions reference other documents that refer to trict, County, State and being more particularly described
tracts that are already recorded in the public records. Other as follows:'
types of descriptions are used for situations such as strip The body of the description generally follows the caption.
descriptions (or baseline) for right-of-ways for roads, power A typical body in a colonial state deed description might
lines, and other utilities. An example of a strip description read as follows:
would be for "That portion of__ included within a strip of Beginning at a set stone at a corner of rail fence on the old
land, 10.00 feet wide, lying 5.00 feet on each side of the fol- baggage road, and running with the said road to the Noah D.
lowing described line:" Johnson line, and with said line to the John C. Williams line,
The thread common to all of them is that each describes thence with the Williams line back to a set stone corner on
a specific parcel of land that cannot be applied to another said John C. Williams line, thence a straight line to the begin-
parcel. The legal description should be written such that is as ning, containing three (3) acres, more or less.
 2.1 ■ DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM, SITE SELECTION, ANO DEFINING PROPERTY 25

POINT OF BEGINNING
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PARCEL "8"
SOLSTICE VIEW
SECTION 3 SOLSTICE VIEW PUBLIC SCHOOLS
D.8. 13112 PG. 2169

FROM THE POINT OF BEGINNING;

THENCE, S 81 ° 19' 51.8" E FOR A DISTANCE OF 279.8370 FEET TO A POINT ON A LINE.
THENCE, S 08° 41' 31.7" W FOR A DISTANCE OF 540.1593 FEET TO A POINT ON A LINE.
THENCE, S 88° 25' 50.4" W FOR A DISTANCE OF 284.0934 FEET TO A POINT ON A LINE.
THENCE N 08° 39' 51.2" EA DISTANCE OF 590.6547 FEET TO
THE POINT OF BEGINNING;
BOUNDARY SURVEY
CINTtEIIIUDl'YDI'
L.H. PENNETTI
D.8. . . . . . . Mltl.

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FIG u RE 2 . 1 B Example of a plat.

2s i@U4fi iiffll@i@IH
Describing parcels within land subdivisions employs the use viewpoint, the search is to determine intent of the parties at
of reference to a subdivision map of record. Such a descrip- the time of the original survey or, if there was no original
tion follows: survey, the intent of the parties based on the original writ-
ings. The search should establish a line of unbroken owner-
Being situated at or near City, County, State, and being more ship in the subject property.
particularly bounded and described as follows, to-wit:
Having concluded the search back in time, the reverse
Lot No. 98 of the Forest Hills Subdivision, as the same is
process-called a forward search is then conducted. The
shown and designated on a map or plat thereof which is of
record in the office of the Registrar of Deeds of (County), forward search begins with the name of oldest grantee from
(State) in Map Book 8, at page 67. the search described above. In the subsequent conveyance,
this name becomes the grantor. Using the grantor index
The third part of the description, the qualifying clause, does and starting with this name, title can be traced forward in
not follow any particular arrangement. These clauses may time to the present. This provides the surveyor with the
except some part of the conveyance or reserve some part chain of grantors. By reviewing each conveyance, it can be
generally for the Grantor. Qualifying clauses often follow the determined if any owner in the chain of title has encum-
body of the description. Such a clause might read bered or impaired title to the land with, for example, ease-
ments, other sales, mortgages, or liens. This search will also
There is excepted and reserved from this conveyance a reveal the creation of servient estates (e.g., providing access
10 foot lane, which lies on the western boundary of the
to the real estate across another property), reservations, and
property herein described, which serves as access and
egress to Donald Thompson and this reservation is for the
exceptions.
benefit of the owners of the property presently owned by This chain is composed of links. A link is a connection
Donald Thompson and to the successors in title to Donald or transfer of property between consecutive owners of the
Thompson. property. These links are not always in the form of a deed
but can be a will, the records of an intestate estate (an estate
Any form of description must meet the requirements of the left by a deceased without a will), or a court order. In the
law for a conveyance to be complete. Again, deeds must be in absence of a will, the actions of the court must be docu-
writing and must include the grantor (vendor) and grantee mented. In order to place the various documents in their
(vendee). The description must clearly identify the interest proper chronological order and context, a brief summary
conveyed. There must be an expressed intent to convey the of each may be prepared.
property identified by the description. Easements. Easements are a right granted by the owner of
Chain of Title. The succession of conveyances, from some a parcel of land. These rights, granted to another party, are
accepted starting point, whereby the present holder of real for use of the land for a specified purpose.
property derives his or her title. A simple general definition of an easement is a nonpos-
Title Report. Identifying and addressing issues affect- sessory interest held by one person in land of another. The
ing title to real property is a critical element in the transfer person holding that interest is accorded partial use of the
of ownership during the land development process. A title burdened estate for a specific purpose. An easement restricts
examination will track the chain of title to real property over but does not abridge the rights of the burdened estate fee
a specified period of time and may uncover conveyance of a owner to the use and enjoyment of his land.
portion of the property either in fee simple or in rights of use, Easements are critical to land development and this sec-
such as easements. tion includes more details concerning them. Various types of
The title report is intended to reveal any information that easements exist for various purposes.
may influence the ability of the purchaser or owner to use Many land and title features may be located within ease-
the property. It will include a description of the property, any ments. In addition, easements needed to install or main-
conveyances of ownership or use, liens or judgements against tain the infrastructure of the land development must be
the property, and any special exceptions that may affect how established. These include easements for streets, wells,
the property can be used. drainfields, stormwater runoff, storm and sanitary sewers,
The title report is an important element in the feasi- gas lines, and power lines. Because of their importance,
bility study conducted to determine whether a property the nature and location of easements that already exist
is suitable for the user's intended purpose. A survey of and those that are to be created must be carefully consid-
the property will support the title report by identifying ered. Often, proposed easements will connect to existing
whether its boundaries match the description noted, and easements.
by addressing whether or not special exceptions listed Types. Easements fall into three broad classifications: sur-
affect the property. face, subsurface, and aerial. Each can be classified as either
The Title Search. If conducting a title search, the subject affirmative or negative. Affirmative and negative easements
deed should be searched back in time until the property are both common in occurrence. Affirmative easements
lines of the tract involved originated. From the surveyor's are those that allow activity on the estate burdened by the
 2.1 ■ DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM, SITE SELECTION, ANO DEFINING PROPERTY 27

easement. Some activities mentioned in easements restrict accomplishing adverse possession. This period is a pre-
burdened estates. When such is the case negative easements scriptive period and varies among states.
result.
Examples of affirmative easements include alleys, the
Necessity: An easement of necessity arises when par-
ties grant land but fail to provide access to a public
approach to airports, private roads through subdivisions
roadway system except over the land remaining with
and railway rights. Other easements include pipelines, util-
the grantor. In such instances, an easement by necessity
ity poles and electrical transmission lines. Party wall agree-
or by implication provides for access over the seller's
ments and public utility dedications are also easements.
remaining land.
When appropriate, use easements to cover the use of springs
and wells. Important too, are surface rights to serve oil and Implication: Implied easements evolve through implica-
gas leases. Easements provide a way to grant rights to flood tion, prior use, necessity, or prior map or plat dedication.
land or drain land. Other uses for easements are to allow for The crucial element for an implied easement is that of
encroachments and to provide for excavation along bound- prior uses. Often nondocumentary, these easements
aries. They also exist to carry out temporary building con - must be recognizable through a reasonable inspection
struction beyond the limits of the project. Some easements of the property. A property survey should therefore
listed above are nonaccess easements but most include rights reveal easements of the implied type. The requirement
of entry for reasonable maintenance. of appearance and visibility of such easements extends
Negative easements, on the other hand, are those that beyond professional scrutiny and includes the grantee of
prevent specific activities by the servient estate owner. These property. They constitute necessary and reasonable use
usually prevent certain types of improvements to protect the of the property subjected to these easements. Such ease-
easement owner's rights. Such rights might include scenic ments can affect land development.
views and access to sunlight. An example of an implied easement follows. Party"/\.'
Creation. The manner and reason for creating an ease- owns two lots. Lot one contains the home of party "A:'
ment determine its type and category. There are many com- A storm drainage pipe runs from this home across the
mon examples of easements and nine prevalent means exist second lot owned by party "A:' There is a catch basin
to create them. The nine methods follow: grant, dedication, located on the second lot. Party "/\.' sells the second lot
condemnation (eminent domain), statutory layout, prescrip- to party "B:' The visible catch basin is sufficient evidence
tion, necessity, implication, express reservation, and estoppel. and notice to party "B" that an easement for drainage,
over the lot mentioned, exists.
Grant: Creation of easements by express agreement gen-
erally arises from a deed of grant; however, occasionally Express reservation: Creation of easements by reservation
one is created by verbal agreement. This is true regard- and exception allows an owner who conveys a posses-
less of the duration of the interest conveyed. sory interest to a party or parties to except or exclude a
corporeal interest from the terms of his grant.
Dedication: Dedication of an easement consists of the
appropriation ofland to the public use. The rightful Estoppel: Estoppel forms the basis of creation of some
owner must make the dedications and an acceptance easements. These easements can restrict the grantor
must follow for the right to become public. in the use of her land. In the case of Battle Creek v.
Goguac Resort Ass'n the Goguac Resort was a riparian
Condemnation: Easement by condemnation is the pro- owner on a lake. The resort sold land for an easement
cess whereby property of a private owner is taken for use to Battle Creek knowing that the city wanted water
by the public. When this occurs without consent of the from the lake for municipal purposes. The resort com-
private owner, that owner receives an award of compen- pany was later estopped from use of the lake because
sation for his or her loss. the resort use contaminated the lake making the water
Statutory layout: Acquisitions of easements by statu- unfit for the city.
tory layout proceedings provide for ingress and egress
Identification. As part of the due diligence, it is important
to public highways over intervening land. These ease-
to identify existing easements on a site.
ments provide for this access when no other reasonable
The foregoing list is provided to apprise those persons
way is available for cultivation, timbering, mining,
involved in land development of the many types of easements
manufacturing plants or public or private cemeteries.
that may exist. A visual inspection of a site, or even research
State statutes vary as well as the methods for establish-
of prior plans, is not enough to determine the existence of
ing these ways.
easements. The surveyor or engineer must uncover existing
Prescription: Easements acquired by long and continual easements before the commencement of design work on the
use by an individual are easements of prescription. The development project. Knowledge of the various means of
required period of use is usually the same as that for creating them should assist in this task.
20 i@U4fi iiffll@i@IH
2.1.5. Eminent Domain of way so the land from the project site would be dedicated
Eminent domain is a right of the state that affects the rights for that purpose.
of the private property owner. Eminent domain is the power Common law and statutory law provide for dedications.
held by governments and certain quasipublic entities to Common Law. Common law dedication confers only an ease-
take private property for public use. Appropriation of pri- ment. This dedication is not a transfer of rights. Such dedica-
vate land for road construction, drainage channels, and lay- tions do prevent the burdened landowner from exercising his
ing water lines are common. This provides another way of rights in a manner inconsistent with the rights of the public.
obtaining access across private land. Normally, this power This form of dedication is not a grant ofland because there is no
is reserved to governments. Many states, however, have grantee. Common law dedications transfer the land by estoppel
adopted legislation extending this power to private individ- in pais. Estoppel in pais is an estoppel by conduct of the parties
uals and other legal entities. In these instances, the power compared to estoppel by deed, which rest on public records.
allows private owners to gain access to inaccessible (or Statutory Law. Statutory dedications occur when there is
landlocked) land. a grant of rights. These differ from common law dedications
Eminent domain differs from easement by necessity. The because they pass legal title covering the area so dedicated to
former requires compensation from the party claiming the a governmental body or agency. Statutory dedication must
power. Just compensation for land interests condemned is comply with statutory law. Laws concerning dedication vary
required by the United States Constitution and by some State from state to state. To constitute a dedication either expressed
Constitutions. Easement by necessity requires no additional or implied there must be an intention, on the owner's part, to
compensation other than the amount paid in the convey- grant the property to some public use. A dedication is a volun-
ance of the property involved. Land developers might use tary action on the part of the fee owner. The party alleging a
this power to gain rights-of-way in some situations but the dedication must prove the intentions of the other party to do so
method is one oflast resort because of the cost involved. (Ray Hamilton Skelton, 1930).
A site for a public project will likely have similar easement Plats show actual intention to reserve any portion of lands
and dedication conditions as a private site would. Although for the public good. If such a reservation is not on the plat, then
a public easement on a public site may seems redundant, dif- an equally certain method is essential for establishing the inten-
ferent public entities may have different interests in the land tion to reserve for dedication. Public notice of the intention to
rights. For example, a public storm drain easement may exist reserve is equal to that given by a plat. Intentions to dedicate
on a public school site to allow maintenance and inspection land without supporting evidence or acts signify nothing.
of the site's storm system. Additionally, if the public entity Before dedications become binding on either party, there
ever transfers the property, the easements will be conveyed must be certain proof of the acceptance of the dedication.
with the property. The acceptance can be actual, expressed, or implied. Until
Dedication. A dedication is a donation of land for the therew is an acceptance by the public, the public has no
public good. Governments provide for the long-term main- rights and neither has the public assumed any responsibility.
tenance of this land. Only the fee owner or his authorized
agent can make these dedications. A dedication of land REFERENCES
would occur in a situation where a site requires a new high- Michael Davidson, Taming the Beast. Planning, 2002.
way turn lane or public sidewalk along the frontage. The turn Ray Hamilton Skelton, Boundaries and Adjacent Properties, Bobbs-
lane and sidewalk are required to be within the public right Merrill Company, Indianapolis, 1930, p. 435.
 CHAPTER 2.2
COMPREHENSIVE PLANNING

2.2.1. Introduction aesthetically pleasing and retain the natural integrity of the
How does a jurisdiction show where new roads are planned? land. The planning process also serves to allocate land to
How do residents know where new parks are planned? How varied uses necessary for stable and healthy growth. Prop-
do developers know where future infrastructure is planned? erly executed planning will enhance the relationship of vari-
The answers to these questions can usually be found in a ous land uses.
jurisdiction's comprehensive plan. The comprehensive plan Cities as old as Athens and Rome saw careful planning ini-
is a guideline for the future land development conditions of tiatives that shaped their growth and have continued to have
a community. The plans and policies contained within help a lasting impact on their development. In the United States,
to shape growth and implement specific community goals. many early cities were also built from detailed urban plans
A comprehensive plan will make recommendations for including the national capital, Washington DC, in 1791. In
the jurisdiction and include maps that depict future infra- the 19th century, cities matured throughout the country
structure improvements, changes in land use, as well as spe- and became large industrial powerhouses. During this time,
cific descriptions of planned changes. The comprehensive several projects began to highlight the importance of well-
plan may show a new highway, or identify that an industrial designed and carefully planned cities. In New York City, the
area could become the next town center. movement of creating parks and public spaces within the city
An understanding of the comprehensive plan is crucial led to the creation of Central Park in the 1850s. The Chicago
to begin any project-the information contained within will World's Fair of 1893 created an idealistic city with all the
shape all aspects of the land development design process. newest technology to showcase and explore how cities of the
This chapter describes how the content contained within a future could be built. These progressive ideas led to beautifi-
comprehensive plan varies, and how all comprehensive plans cation efforts of cities, to update and improve public spaces
are different based on the locality the project is in. The plan and attempt to support population growth, across the coun-
is often complex and continuously changing based on the try in the early 20th century.
economic, environmental, and social conditions. The infor- The first comprehensive zoning was adopted by New
mation within this chapter, though, will provide an under- York City in 1916 to control development through land use
standing of comprehensive plans and how they can impact a regulations, to protect the public's health and well-being
development project. from new skyscrapers and potential overcrowding. The city
was divided into districts and limits were set on building
heights and setbacks, amongst other regulations. The U.S.
2.2.2. Historical Context Department of Commerce published a Standard State Zon-
Jurisdictional planning processes are as old as the govern- ing Enabling Act in 1924, which was based on New York
ing bodies themselves, but comprehensive plans and zon- City's zoning regulations. The Zoning Enabling Act set out
ing processes are of 20th century vintage. One of the main the process for jurisdictions throughout the country to adopt
objectives of the planning process is to increase economic and administer their own comprehensive plans and zoning
efficiency by coordinating the size and location of physi- regulations. It grants the power of zoning "for the purpose
cal facilities with projected future needs. Planning should of promoting health, safety, morals, or the general welfare
provide an overall design for urban expansion that will be of the community:' It also requires that zoning regulations

29
30 i@U4fi iiffll@i@IH
"shall be made in accordance with a comprehensive plan:' project site (e.g., road widening along the project site front-
Most communities quickly thereafter adopted comprehen- age). The recommendations for project density or intensity
sive plans and zoning regulations based on the text of the should be understood as well as other conditions required
Zoning Enabling Act, thus making zoning commonplace to achieve the full potential of a given piece of property. The
throughout the United States. plan may also include other requirements to reduce potential
It is important to understand that zoning regulations impacts on the neighborhood and community that should be
are the implementation tools for much of the compre- followed.
hensive plan. The two work together by proposing devel- In most states the comprehensive plan is a guide that
opment in the comprehensive plan and then ultimately is advisory in nature and not a legally binding regulation,
achieving them through zoning. The comprehensive plan unlike the zoning ordinance which indeed is law. Instead,
serves as the backbone for zoning regulations. The com- the comprehensive plan is executed with the zoning process,
prehensive plan is discussed in this chapter and zoning in referenced in the zoning ordinance, and enforced with zon-
Chapter 2.3. ing regulations. Zoning is based off the recommendations of
the land use plan and other elements within the comprehen-
2.2.3. Comprehensive Plan sive plan. Therefore, through zoning, the goals and objec-
The comprehensive plan, also known as the master plan or tives of the comprehensive plan are ultimately achieved.
general plan, is a long-range planning document that serves The comprehensive plan also has an influence on rezoning
as a formal statement of the community's goals and objec- applications because the proposed rezone will be evaluated
tives. The plan establishes policies and procedures relating with the planned use of the area identified in the compre-
to the community's future growth, including new develop- hensive plan. More information about zoning and rezoning
ment of land and maturation of existing neighborhoods. is discussed in Chapter 2.3.
It represents the collective input of public and private sec- Purpose. Land development requires significant public,
tor attitudes, needs, and desires. The recommendations private, and personal investment. Because of this invest-
included in the comprehensive plan are based on extensive ment, there is an increased importance on the compre-
analysis of economic, social, demographic, environmental hensive plan as a guide for development. To government
as well as other forces evident in the community. Through officials, the comprehensive plan serves several purposes.
these recommendations, the comprehensive plan provides It defines a general pattern of projected land use for the
an adopted vision of the community for some distant point community. It recommends policies that encourage desired
in time, typically between 5 and 20 years. The comprehensive development or discourage inappropriate uses or intensity
plan provides valuable guidance for those making important of development. The plan establishes and reinforces com-
economic decisions, including local officials, land develop- munity standards for appearance, design, delivery of public
ers, existing and prospective residents, employees, and busi- services, and protection of the environment. The plan also
ness operators. serves as an important guide for allocating resources used
The comprehensive plan usually includes multiple plans for the provision and distribution of public facilities and ser-
that provide the strategies and recommendations to imple- vices. The overall objective of the comprehensive plan is to
ment and achieve the community vision and goals. These establish and achieve goals for a locality by considering the
more detailed plans are called elements and are standalone needs of the community.
plans within the overall comprehensive plan that cover To the community's residents, the comprehensive plan
everything from housing to the environment. One of the provides a blueprint for the quality oflife they can anticipate.
most important elements is the land use plan that sets future It creates identity for the neighborhoods in which they live
land use patterns within the jurisdiction. The transporta- and defines the services they expect to receive. The decision
tion plan is another important element that defines future to move to a community and purchase a home is perhaps the
transportation infrastructure needs in the jurisdiction. most important of personal investments made-the com-
More information about these elements is discussed later in prehensive plan is viewed to predict the soundness of that
this chapter. investment. It identifies the location of new neighborhoods,
Comprehensive plans, and all the elements within, are office and retail centers, new roads, and schools that may
broad in scope. They usually cover a wide geographic area affect that investment. The plan provides a way of anticipat-
and offer strategies and recommendations at a macro level. ing intrusion or impacts that could reduce property value
Usually, they do not identify individual properties, but with relative certainty.
instead denote large areas that fall into a specific category. For the business sector, the comprehensive plan is an
For example, these categories could be a large swath of land essential source of information on potential new markets.
projected for a high-density development, or a long linear The future locations of new centers of employment or resi-
roadway that is recommended to be upgraded with addi- dential communities are particularly important to businesses
tional lanes. Of importance to note when reviewing the com- operating support, supply, and service establishments. The
prehensive plan for a project are the impacts on the specific plan provides information that can be used to determine the
 2.2 ■ COMPREHENSIVE PLANNING 31

potential customer base available to the business commu- governing body ultimately must approve and adopt the com-
nity. Large employers in need of properties with room for prehensive plan.
expansion also rely on the comprehensive plan for guidance. Since the plan is intended as a reflection of the com-
Existing and future labor forces and sales markets can be munity attitudes and desires, the process usually involves
determined from the comprehensive plan. At the same time, several opportunities for citizen participation and input. In
businesses and employers look to the plan for an expres- many jurisdictions, outreach to citizen groups, such as home
sion of long-term commitment to business and economic owners associations (HOAs) or business associations, has
development. become increasingly common and important in the creation
Much in the way that residents look to the plan as an indi- of a plan. This outreach aims for plan development that will
cator oflong-term investment value, the land developer also be more representative of the wishes of the community and
views the comprehensive plan as a protection of property less contentious at the mandated public hearings. Charrettes
value. More importantly, however, the developer uses the sponsored by local authorities, city council, or community
plan to identify new opportunities. They can use the com- association meetings are all vehicles for public participation.
prehensive plan to determine the suitability of purchasing The information gathered and attitudes voiced are an invalu-
specific land for new projects based on the planned land use able resource for preparing future proposals. The planning
and their development program. staff will use this input as they prepare recommendations
Many developers specialize in a specific land use and for the governing body. Public opinion will sometimes have
product; therefore, the plan is an important tool in iden- a greater effect on a comprehensive plan adoption then any
tifying the area, and sometimes the specific parcel(s), that of the other demographics or statistics that the planning
are best suited for the development program being pur- staff compiles.
sued. The availability of public facilities and services is an A timetable for the plan development or revision and
important part of identifying the potential of a property. a framework for the analysis will be prepared. Sometimes
The plan may also aid the developer, by projecting when working with an ad hoc task force, created for the sole pur-
public and private infrastructure and services will be avail- pose of dealing with a development issue, comprising the
able to the site. Similarly, the compatibility with and impact community's civic, business, and political leaders, the staff
of adjacent uses is an important factor in selecting property undertakes extensive data collection. The planning staff
for development. Just as a homeowner is concerned with will compile the demographic and economic inventory
the neighborhood, so too is the developer concerned about statistics needed for the analysis, as well as review existing
the character of the community. For example, an upscale development patterns and activity. The process that some
office developer may not believe that an adjoining indus- municipalities follow to adopt or revise a comprehensive
trial or warehouse facility is a suitable neighbor. The plan plan is often lengthy and controversial. Depending on the
helps define the market area of a site. The developer uses size of the community, the entire process can take several
this information to determine whether there are (or will be) months to several years. To spread the demanding work-
sufficient employees, residences, or customers to make the load, many municipalities update their comprehensive
project a successful venture. plans, or portions of it, on a cyclical timetable. Some states'
It is important to understand that the comprehensive plan legislation mandates the time within which the jurisdiction
does not guarantee an outcome or timeframe. The plan sim- must review and update the comprehensive plan, such as
ply serves as a recommendation to achieve the community's every 5 years.
vision. This can take years (or decades) to come to fruition, Circumstances unforeseen in prior plans, such as expan-
and is subject to change. There is risk associated with an over sion of an airport, new rail system, a decline of a neighbor-
reliance on the comprehensive plan. Consider a developer hood, and/or influx of new industry, may justify an update.
that builds an apartment building next to a future town cen- Similarly, assembly of smaller parcels into a large develop-
ter, which is identified in the comprehensive plan. If the town ment tract may also suggest an opportunity for a project of
center takes five years to be planned, designed, approved, grander scale than anticipated in the plan. The planning
permitted, and constructed; then the developer's apartments staff and other involved groups consider these proposals
may not be successful for those five years. Now consider, in preparing the comprehensive plan. More information
if the town center proves to be too costly and the project about updates to the comprehensive plan is discussed later
is abandoned, that could be detrimental to the developer's in this chapter.
apartments. Comprehensive Plan Contents. Comprehensive plans
Adoption. Most municipalities employ a professional plan- generally begin with an introduction that includes a his-
ning staff, which coordinates the overall planning effort, torical context for the area, plan development and adoption
while smaller communities often retain outside consultants process, local standards, and an overall community vision.
for this purpose. The governing body relies heavily on the The vision statement summarizes the objectives of the com-
recommendations of its planning staff, although decisions munity and identifies what is to be achieved in the future, at
about the plan and policies will ultimately be its own. The a 5- to 20-year outlook. This statement is the basis for the
32 i@U4fi iiffll@i@IH
whole comprehensive plan. The vision statement is usually Greenfield I Vision Statement
crafted by the planning staff but with extensive input from 2050 Plan
the local community.
The vision statement leads to a series of goals and objec-
tives. The goals should be realistic and achievable within the • Investment in infrastructure that attracts new
timeframe of the comprehensive plan. The goals statements business and employment opportunities.
are usually general and align with the overall community
vision. They set the parameters for the quality and char-
acter for the future development of the jurisdiction. They
• Continued focus toward our environmental
should also maintain a balance among the interests of the
resources and policies that protect these
governing institutions: the community, the land owners, and resources.
developers.
Typically, goals of the comprehensive plan focus on

• Land use • Neighborhood development that promotes

healthy lifestyles to grow new relationships.
• Transportation
• Population
• Housing • Opportunities for all income ranges, ages, and
lifestyles.
• Employment
• Economic activity FIG uRE 2. 2 A Sample vision statment.

• Retail activity
• Industrial output force, home, and automobile ownership of the citizens. The
inventory from previous years can provide information for
• Energy
a forecast of population growth of the region. An inventory
• Recreation and open space analysis can also describe land use characteristics, including
a breakdown of number and type of housing units, structural
• Natural and historic resources
condition, and land and building area of nonresidential uses.
• Public utilities, services, and facilities Economic data, such as retail sales and manufacturing output
is often reported and analyzed to estimate future economic
As an example of community goals, Kirkland, Washing-
development. Many plans contain information on real estate
ton, adopted their comprehensive plan in 2015 to envi- absorption and conversion rates, property sales, and leas-
sion the community in 2035. This jurisdiction includes a
ing activity, while others may offer statistics on commuting
paragraph as their vision statement. The following guid-
patterns and transportation use. With the help of the land
ing principles
development consultant, the developer uses the inventory
express the fundamental goals for guiding growth and and trends information to determine the needs of residents
development in Kirkland over the 20-year horizon of the and business, and their financial capacities and limitations.
Comprehensive Plan. They are based on and provide an During the design phase of a project, the inventory and
extension of the aspirations and values embodied in the trends data can also be used by the design team to make
Vision Statement. The principles address a wide range of development decisions. This can include recommendations
topics and form the foundation of the goals and policies on development amenities, internal accessibility, and char-
contained in the elements of the Comprehensive Plan. They
acter of the development. For example, an area that is expe-
strive to make Kirkland in 2035 an attractive, vibrant and
riencing population growth from an age group over 65 years
inviting place to live, work and visit.
old may put more of an emphasis on accessible design and
See Figure 2.2A for a generic sample of a vision statement. low impact recreational facilities. The design team and devel-
The vision and goals in a comprehensive plan are sup- oper should discuss the specific character of the community
ported by data that contains a detailed inventory of existing to provide a development that fits the current and projected
conditions and predictions of future trends. Then, compre- demographics of the area.
hensive plans contain elements that lay out the strategy to Elements Summary. The elements of a comprehensive
achieve a specific goal or objective. plan include specific strategies and recommendations to
Inventory and Trends. The inventory and trends section implement and achieve the community's vision and goals.
provides a report of the overall existing community and pro- The elements may be referred to as chapters, subsections,
jections on the future of the community. It shows statistics or simply as plans within the comprehensive plan, depend-
such as age distribution, household formation, income, labor ing on the jurisdiction. The type and number of elements
 2.2 ■ COMPREHENSIVE PLANNING 33

included in a specific comprehensive plan vary by jurisdic- 4. Policies to be applied to achieve the element's goals
tion and the priorities of that locality.
5. Maps and text depicting and discussing the com-
For example, Table 2.2A shows that Clark County, Nevada,
munity, showing current and future land use, the
includes 8 elements in their comprehensive plan, while
location of future public facilities, environmental
Burlington, Vermont, includes 10. Kirkland, Washington,
resources, and other features
includes 11 elements. Longmont, Colorado, on the other
hand, decides against specific element plans and instead 6. Implementation plan how the community intends to
includes chapters focused on policy, growth, and implemen- carry out the goals of the element
tation to achieve their vision and goals.
The goals and objectives are more detailed for each spe-
Many elements of a comprehensive plan are focused on
cific element. These may be similar to the overall community
development and infrastructure goals, but the elements will
goals and objectives of the comprehensive plan, but within
often include policies on education, safety, and economic
each element they will be more focused. The inventory and
development. While some policies might not directly iden-
trends are also more detailed to support the element's recom-
tify infrastructure requirements, they may serve to inform
mendations. For example, the land use plan will include the
the jurisdiction's decisions on what conditions are placed on
existing uses in the jurisdiction and predict future develop-
development plans. For example, the comprehensive plan may
ment patterns. An area with industrial uses that are unde-
identify the need for new schools because of overcrowding-
rutilized by abandoned warehouses and old factories, may
this goal may prevent a developer from gaining approval
be recommended for new residential uses. The transporta-
for increased density in a residential development until the
tion plan will summarize the existing infrastructure and
schools are constructed. It is important to be aware of all
project future needs in the inventory and trends section. On
elements within the comprehensive plans to know how they
an over capacity road corridor, new transit may be recom-
may affect a site. Each element's strategies and recommenda-
mended alongside to support future demands. The housing
tions overlay and work in conjunction with the underlying
plan, other elements, and parcel-specific findings. plan will analyze existing housing stock and forecast future
housing trends. If the region is experiencing a large popula-
Each element usually consists of a plan that includes
text, graphics, and maps related to that element. It is impor- tion growth in the younger age group, high-density housing
developments with retail within walking distance may be
tant to be aware of each of these plans to know how they
recommended.
may affect a project. These element plans usually contain
The policies and maps will also be relevant to each specific
six major parts:
element. Different regulations may exist for different areas
I. Goals and objectives for the element to achieve the within a locality depending on where a site is located. For
overall community vision example, an urban area may require smaller vehicular travel
lanes and larger sidewalks to promote pedestrian circula-
2. Inventories of existing characteristics, features,
tion, as recommended in the transportation plan, but roads
resources, land uses, and/or facilities related to the
within the rural area of a jurisdiction will have different
element
design requirements. An area near a natural body of water
3. Projections of trends expected within the life of the may be subject to more stringent environmental require-
element ments because it is near a protected waterway, but another

TA BLE 2 . 2 A Elements Included within Comprehensive Plans

CLARK COUNTY, NEVADA ELEMENTS BURLINGTON, VERMONT PLANS KIRKLAND, WASHINGTON GENERAL ELEMENTS

Conservation element Land use plan Community character

Historic preservation element Natural environment Natural environment
Housing element Built environment Land use
Land use element Historic preservation Housing
Public facilities and services element Transportation plan Economic development
Recreation and open space element Economic development plan Transportation
Safety element Community facilities and services plan Parks, recreation, and open space utilities
Transportation element Energy plan Public services
Housing plan Human services
Education plan Capital facilities
34 i@U4fi iiffll@i@IH
waterway may not have the same classification and may not offers a projection of what the community would like to be at
have the same requirements. a distant, but determined, point in time. Figure 2.2B provides
The implementation is important to ensure success of the an example of a land use map.
overall comprehensive plan and to produce results. Through The mapping of land use at a large scale often generates
these implementation recommendations, the overall com- considerable controversy. The land use map appears to fix
munity vision is achieved. The section may include a list of geographic location for the proposed facilities it recom-
items that need to be implemented. A matrix may be included mends. People may be concerned if these locations are near
that doles out work for each item, labels responsibility, sets a their homes. Consequently, it is not uncommon for residents
date for implementation, and includes a cost. to view the plan as a certain future rather than a recommen-
As mentioned, comprehensive plans are regularly updated, dation for development.
and this includes the elements within. A state government Often, the final land development does not conform to
may require this at set intervals of time, or goals may need to the finite categories and specific locations shown in the land
be changed to reflect new community priorities, large-scale use map. Some properties may undergo several use changes
transportation improvements, new economic development, awaiting conditions favorable to the ultimate land use; and
or new trends in urban design and development. More infor- some, toward the end of the life of the plan, may wait for
mation about comprehensive plan updates is discussed later changes proposed by a new plan. To eliminate some of the
in this chapter. ambiguity created by scale and time, many communities
Again, a jurisdiction's size and the community vision undertake a multitiered and multiphased planning effort
will determine how many and what kind of elements they through a sector plan, which is discussed in the next section.
have included in their comprehensive plan. It is important It is important to remember that land use maps are pro-
to remember that comprehensive plans are all unique and a jected future uses recommended by the comprehensive plan.
representation of the local community, so the elements will The zoning maps depict the existing and approved land uses.
be different depending on the jurisdiction. The most com- Therefore, the zoning map depictions, supported by the zon-
mon elements that are important for the site engineer that ing regulations, are the legal and enforceable use of a site that
will be discussed within this section are land use plans, trans- must be complied with, not the comprehensive plan's land
portation plans, and utility plans. use map.
Land Use Plan. The land use plan is one of the most impor- Transportation Plan. Transportation plans are another ele-
tant elements found within a comprehensive plan. It projects ment commonly found in comprehensive plans. This plan
the future use of land in accordance with the jurisdiction's shows existing transportation infrastructure and facilities,
vision and community goals. The land use plan also serves as well as future transportation needs. This future transpor-
as a guide for the jurisdiction as they adopt or amend zon- tation may include new roads, widening of existing roads,
ing regulations. If a developer investigates the opportunity sidewalk improvements, future transit lines, and more.
to change the zoning (through rezoning), the land use plan These improvements are determined through extensive
will identify whether the change in use or density will match studies that project the adequacy of existing facilities and
the jurisdiction's expectations. Refer to Chapter 2.3 for more necessary improvements to support future growth. A map
information on zoning and rezoning. usually accompanies the text. Figure 2.2C shows an example
The land use strategies in the land use plan can help to of a transportation plan map.
spur growth in a community. For instance, the plan may The transportation plan can allow the development team
identify an area as high density residential because the area is to identify desirable parcels of land based on future access
desirable next to an existing commercial center. Or the land improvements-but the funding and schedule of transpor-
use map may maintain low densities in an existing residen- tation projects are typically uncertain as they often rely on
tial neighborhood that is not anticipating future growth. state or federal funding sources, so the transportation plan
Accompanying the land use plan text is the proposed land should be used as a guide. A transportation plan may also
use map. Often color-coded or shaded, the generalized land require the design team to consider how a future road widen-
use maps of the community represent a graphic depiction of ing at the front of a parcel may impact the proposed design.
future land uses and facilities. The map divides geographic Similarly, a new roadway that is proposed through a parcel of
areas into desired and projected uses and intensity. These land may require the developer to dedicate the land or con-
areas usually represent the broad categories of land use, such struct the roadway.
as residential, commercial, and industrial. Subcategories of Utility Plan. A utility plan may be included as an element
development intensity show the gradation ofland use patterns or within an element in the comprehensive plan. The util-
from high to low densities. The map defines the boundaries ity plan identifies existing utility infrastructure and ensures
of the area, and provides a range of relative densities. utility delivery in the future. The design team should review
The map frequently shows the proposed location of sig- the content regarding available public utilities such as water
nificant facilities, such as transit centers, proposed freeway and sewer. The existence of such utilities, system capacities,
interchanges, regional shopping malls, and new schools. It and timing of future improvements is important where these
 2.2 ■ COMPREHENSIVE PLANNING 35

COUNTY
LAND USE PLAN
Adopted 2025
------- Parcel Boundary
Residential Commercial Other - .. · - Stream Corridor
1 - 2 DU/AC ~ Office Industrial - - - Road Centerline
SCALE IN FEET
2 - 4 DU/AC f·:-:-:-:-:-:-:j Retail and Other ~ Public Facilities,

~~
Commercial Uses Governmental and
4- 6 DU/AC Institutional
6- 8 DU/AC L1 INCH_J

FIGURE 2.2B Exampleofalanduseplan.

3& i@U4fi iiffll@i@IH
I
:
I ! /
ORCHARD ROAD

-----
I:
___ .. >-II ___ ..... - - -

••
... i
------1-----
• II

I
•••••

,, i
i
I

I •♦
♦
••♦ I

1'
·r
I •• i
i L_______ _
-------1
· · · · · · · ~1· · · I

--- ________ .J
HOl-~E-ET

I
r·-------
/
I
I
I

- i
I
I

--- ••
----r· I

\
--
\ I
I
I

i \ Q.
: \ /; /I
_______________L_______ ~
I '-
l.--------: ;;
-C/J 1/
~•
1---------- _,
: g
COUNTY
TRANSPORTATION PLAN
Adopted 2015
- - - - - - - Parcel Boundary
•••• Arterial Road (Four Lanes Divided) - .. · - Stream Corridor
- - - Collector Road (Three Lanes)
- •- •- Local Street (Two Lanes) SCALE IN FEET
• - - - - • Widen or Improve Collector Road to Three Lanes
1• • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1

I l I I Ill l l I I I l I I I l I l I I I I I I
Construct Two Lane Collector Road on New Location
Planned County Trail Network (£i)~ L1 INCH_J

FIG uRE 2. 2 C Example of a transportation plan.

 2.2 ■ COMPREHENSIVE PLANNING 37

entities are needed to support the proposed development; in The sector plan (or a group of sector plans) may be
some localities the adequacy and phasing of public facilities included within the comprehensive plan itself. Or, it is com-
controls development. mon for the sector plan to be a separate document( s) released
Even when the comprehensive plan and actual parcel zon- after the comprehensive plan is adopted. This will spread
ing agree on land use and density, the sewer and water mas- the planning efforts across multiple documents that may
ter plan dictates lot size and project density. Consequently, be adopted at different times after the comprehensive plan.
the final project may be significantly less intense than envi- This will ensure the local jurisdiction to remain up to date,
sioned, unless the developer can improve the system or defer while continually meeting community needs and potentially
the project to a consistent time frame with the adopted com- responding to market changes.
prehensive plan. Policy language in the plan often prohibits Figure 2.2D shows the general land use plan for the
the developer from constructing needed improvements to Ballston region in Arlington County, Virginia. Arlington
advance project development. Some localities may use this adopted sector plans for the areas around each metro station
approach to discourage premature development in areas throughout the county. Along with the accompanying plan
where growth is not anticipated or desired. text, the Ballston Sector Plan has helped to guide develop-
Sector Plans. Many large localities will segment their plan- ment in this area.
ning focus into several planning areas or sectors, and other Plan Implementation. Although the goals statements rep-
communities may identify smaller areas that warrant special resent the community's vision of quality of life and future
study. These planning areas and studies utilize sector plans development, the plans for implementation are the key to that
to offer a more detailed analysis at a micro level to achieve vision's realization. Despite its detail and breadth of coverage,
the community's vision and goals. These sector plans may be including all the elements and sector plans, the comprehen-
referred to as small-area plans, district plans, or master plans sive plan is only a guide in most jurisdictions. The governing
(master plan can also be in reference to the comprehensive body should strongly consider the plan's recommendations
plan itself or a large-scale development), depending on the when making land use or fiscal decisions. It is through the
jurisdiction. This effort focuses the community vision, often capital improvements plan and local zoning that the compre-
at several intermediate steps, to examine smaller subsections hensive plan is ultimately achieved.
of the jurisdiction. At its extreme, the plan makes parcel-by- The recommendations of the comprehensive plan will
parcel recommendations on land use, density, compatibility, help the local jurisdiction to adopt a capital improvements
and the facilities that serve them. When this happens, the plan (CIP). The CIP is a short-range plan which identifies
sector plan begins to resemble the zoning ordinance more capital projects, provides a planning and implementation
than a plan to guide future development. However, even at schedule, and strategies for financing the projects. This
this scale, the plan still serves only as recommendation for may include details about the location of each project and
future development, albeit a strong one. recommended timing for implementation. Capital projects
Sector plans can be thought of as a comprehensive plan refer to major public expenditures of the local jurisdiction.
within a comprehensive plan. The sector plan outlines the This includes parks, schools, public buildings, transporta-
vision and goals for the smaller area, includes more detailed tion infrastructure, and public utilities such as water and
inventory and trends for that area, and incorporates multiple sewer. These capital projects can be new projects or mainte-
elements to provide specific strategies and detailed recom- nance, upgrades, or replacements of existing infrastructure.
mendations for implementation. The text provides extensive The CIP ranks each capital project by priority and
discussion of sector-wide policies, issues, and opportunities, includes a year-by-year schedule of expected project fund-
in addition to the jurisdiction-wide seen in the rest of the ing, estimates of project cost, and potential financing
comprehensive plan. Specific recommendations in the sector sources. This is listed in tables and matrixes to reflect all
plan achieve the overall vision and goals of the comprehen- of the proposed improvements. The elements of a compre-
sive plan. hensive plan will help the jurisdiction to make decisions
In addition to having a large geographic area that requires about each capital project. Specific recommendations of
several smaller planning areas, a community may require a the comprehensive plan can be achieved through the CIP.
sector plan and more focused detailed planning for other rea- As an example, if a new road is proposed in the transpor-
sons. The jurisdiction may try to anticipate growth around new tation plan, the CIP may denote it as a capital project and
infrastructure, such as a new sports stadium. Or the jurisdic- schedule its construction for the near future. The CIP is
tion may simply be trying to revitalize a declining region, such regularly updated to reflect changing community needs,
as an old manufacturing facility. Examples of areas that require priorities, and funding opportunities, so it is important to
a more detailed plan include business districts, highway cor- stay up to date.
ridors, transit centers, areas of important institutional use, or The link between the comprehensive plan and zoning
other significant concentrations of population and employ- ordinance is important to remember. Again, most commu-
ment. Such areas often have unique circumstances deserving nities rely on the findings in the comprehensive plan when
closer examination due to their presence in the community. considering zoning and site plan applications. The zoning
3a hiiU4 ►1 i@i@Miih

--
llllll Low
Low MP.dium

MediuD>

--
~ High Medium

High

-
OFFICE DENSITY APARTMENT DENSITY HOTEL DENSITY
MEDIUM 2.5 F.A .R . allowable up to 115 units/acre up to 180 units/acre
HIGH 3. 5 F.A.R. allowable up to 135 unit s/ acre up to 210 units/acre

FIG uRE 2. 2 D Example of a sector plan.

 2.2 ■ COMPREHENSIVE PLANNING 39

ordinance may mandate that the developer consider the Comprehensive Plan Amendments. Sometimes the com-
detailed provisions of the plan and address those issues in prehensive plan is outdated and the planning staff may believe
the site plan proposal. For example, if the transportation that it no longer accurately reflects the community vision or
plan recommends a trail network through a site, approval of good planning principles. This often occurs when a significant
that project may require the trail network to be constructed. amount of time has passed since the adoption of the existing
In some areas, sometimes referred to as "plan conformance plan or to reflect conditions that have changed since its adop-
jurisdictions;' the comprehensive plan is a mandatory direc- tion. A comprehensive plan amendment would be warranted
tive for land use regulations and, by law, zoning decisions to update the comprehensive plan. This could update a certain
must conform to the plan's mandates. part of an element, an entire element, or multiple elements
The existing zoning of a parcel takes precedence over the within the comprehensive plan. The plan amendment process
recommendations of the comprehensive plan in almost all varies greatly among jurisdictions; nonetheless, the opportu-
cases. This is true even where the use and intensity provisions nity to amend the plan is typically available in some form.
of the comprehensive plan are more restrictive than those in Specific authorization to undertake a comprehensive
the zoning ordinance. If a parcel is zoned for an industrial plan amendment might require legislative action. This can
use then a developer can propose a project conforming to be initiated by the jurisdiction itself, or sometimes a devel-
the industrial use by right, even if the comprehensive plan oper may propose an amendment to achieve more favorable
identifies that the parcel is recommended for residential development conditions. In undertaking a comprehensive
development. For this reason, an important role of the com- plan amendment, the local jurisdiction undergoes a compre-
prehensive plan is to recommend the adoption of changes to hensive study. When the proposed amendment is prepared,
ordinances that regulate land use and development. notice is given to the community through mailings, adver-
The comprehensive plan represents an invaluable resource tisements, and/or posted signs. The draft comprehensive
in the data and direction it offers, yet the language in the text plan amendment is reviewed by the professional staff and
is often vague and subject to interpretation, which can make will be the subject of meetings and public hearings before
implementation challenging. Frequently, the comprehensive the community's planning commission and governing body.
plan content leads to varying interpretation by regulatory This process is lengthy and uncertain, and can potentially
officials, citizens, or the developer. This adds to the consid- add as much as a year or more to the development process.
erable challenge facing the development team in preparing a For example, a new mass transit line has the potential
project development application that conforms to the com- to spur new growth near the station locations. To respond
prehensive plan. Assumptions may have to be made based to this opportunity, the jurisdiction can initiate a compre-
on the interpretation of the comprehensive plan that may be hensive plan amendment to their comprehensive plan. This
revised during the review and approval process. amendment will recommend policy updates, in a specific
Comprehensive Plan Updates. Typically encountered area surrounding the new transit stations, to support growth
updates to the local comprehensive plan include supple- and new development. These include changes to many of
mental comprehensive plan additions, comprehensive plan the comprehensive plan elements including plans for higher
amendments, and new comprehensive plans. A new compre- densities in the land use plan, and new roads around the
hensive plan, or other major updates, may occur at a set 5- or station in the transportation plan. The comprehensive plan
20-year interval depending on the jurisdiction. Additions and amendment may change some specific elements or it may
amendments are possible during this time, but are not fre- change all of the elements, depending on the update.
quent occurrences. It is important to review the local compre- Too many amendments can make the comprehensive plan
hensive plan and see if any updates have been included. cumbersome to read and difficult to understand. It creates a
Supplemental Comprehensive Plan Additions. Planning long and confusing document that is ineffective. Therefore, a
staff respond to the community needs and continue to refine new plan may be required.
the goals and objectives even after the adoption of a com- New Comprehensive Plan. If the entire comprehensive
prehensive plan. As mentioned, sector plans provide a more plan is outdated, the community may initiate the creation of
detailed analysis, but they may be released sometime after a new comprehensive plan. This usually happens after the
the initial comprehensive plan. This is to ensure that the plan span of many years and is a significant effort for the commu-
is up to date and meeting current community needs, while nity to undertake. It requires a great deal of time, generally
potentially responding to market changes. several years, to develop a new plan and will be very costly
Like these sector plan updates, there are sometimes sup- for the local jurisdiction.
plemental comprehensive plan additions that update the ini- It is important to understand that the comprehensive plan
tial comprehensive plan. These supplement additions may is a "fluid" document that changes with time. The plan may
support specific areas and new growth potential; update change or have additions implemented every few years as
the elements within the existing comprehensive plan; or be the community grows. The design team, including the site
in response to new strategies the community is trying to engineer, should be aware of the comprehensive plan and its
implement. changes in each jurisdiction they work in.
40 i@U4fi iiffll@i@IH
2.2.4. How to Use the Comprehensive Plan return to the developer in exchange for features that provide
Depending on the size of the community and its plan- public benefit. This is important to understand as a project
ning and zoning authority, the comprehensive plan may gets started, but ultimately the developer will have to make
consist of several documents and maps. The development their own decision regarding fiscal impacts of these recom-
team must be aware of the current comprehensive plan, all mendations to determine initial project feasibility.
amendments, and pending updates. Local governments The development team should be aware of how the com-
periodically revise their comprehensive plans, both in their munity prepares its land use maps and the intent of their
entirety and on a piecemeal basis. Minor small-area amend- graphic representations. For example, a symbol proposing
ments or sector plans may have been adopted in response a regional shopping center site on the comprehensive plan's
to new information, changing circumstances, or by another land use map may not necessarily fix its location. The text
developer's proposal. The governing body frequently acts may refer to specific circumstances or conditions that are
on amendments apart from a more extensive plan review favorable to another site in the general area of the symbol.
process, so updates may be separate of the most current Furthermore, specific land use maps may make explicit rec-
versions of the plan. ommendations for specific parcels.
All documents and maps that relate to jurisdiction-wide Land uses different from those shown on the maps may
issues should be assembled by the land development team, be permitted, and sometimes even encouraged, depending
and analyzed for possible impact on a specific parcel planned on circumstances and conditions identified in the text. For
for development. It is important to read all texts and under- example, the map may show a broad geographic area iden-
stand all the maps within a comprehensive plan. tified as low-density residential; however, text may explain
Table 2.2B shows all of the plan that Montgomery County that nonresidential uses, such as neighborhood shopping
has adopted. Each has a different function and purpose for or service facilities, are appropriate. In such cases, the plan
different areas within the county. It would be important to specifies conditions that the land developer must consider in
understand each document if working in this jurisdiction. developing such uses.
The development team should identify the techniques Again, it is important to remember that the comprehen-
and procedures that the local government uses to accomplish sive plan is simply a guide for development. Zoning is based
plan recommendations. These procedures may range from off the recommendations of the land use plan and other ele-
new or revised regulations or disincentives that discourage ments within the comprehensive plan. Zoning is the legally
development to incentives that provide greater economic binding regulation.

TAB LE 2 . 2 B Listing of Montgomery County, Maryland General, Master, Sector, and Functional Plans
The type and number of plans available from various public agencies that can aid in the early design stages of a project vary
widely according to the municipality. For example, this list describes the types of plans available for Montgomery County,
Maryland.
General Plan:
Identifies, in broad terms, those areas suitable for various types of land uses-residential, commercial, agricultural, open
space, etc.
Local Area Master Plan:
Are available for each of the county's 27 planning areas. The local area master plans include a statement of planning policies,
goals, and objectives, and a description of the planning area. Plans also include maps outlining recommended land uses, zon-
ing, transportation facilities, and recommended general locations for public facilities, and possibly even include recommenda-
tions for scheduling financial capital improvements.
Sector Plans:
Are comprehensive plans for a portion of the Master Plan area. They describe the relationship of various land uses to trans-
portation, services, and amenities. Plans may include maps or other graphics, text, and design guidelines .
..........................................................................................................................................................................................
Functional Master Plan:
Shows details of a specific system such as major highways, drainage, and stormwater management systems.
 CHAPTER 2.3
ZONING

2.3.1. Introduction impacts on land development and the way regulations or

Despite the effort involved in adopting a comprehensive plan, procedures are implemented.
legally, in most jurisdictions, it serves only as an advisory rec-
ommendation. In these majority jurisdictions, the plan does 2.3.2. Zoning
not have the force of law. The enforcement of development The zoning ordinance is a legislative text that is adopted by
regulations falls to the community's zoning ordinance. The a local jurisdiction to regulate their land. It is usually a sepa-
zoning ordinance is the legislative means by which a commu - rately published title or chapter in the jurisdiction's code of
nity sets detailed regulations for all aspects of the use of land. laws. Per the Zoning Enabling Act of 1924, zoning is based on
The zoning regulations include use, layout, and intensity of the recommendations of the comprehensive plan. The com-
each parcel of ground within the jurisdiction as well as height, prehensive plan outlines strategies to achieve community
setbacks, parking requirements, open space, and others. goals at a macro level. These recommendations then must
The zoning ordinance is law and must be followed-the be drafted into the zoning ordinance to be implemented
zoning regulations must be met to obtain project approval through zoning regulations. The zoning defines the micro
and permits. The approval process for rezoning cases is level detail that the comprehensive plan outlines.
described in greater detail in this chapter, and the review The land use plan of the comprehensive plan, which
process for a jurisdiction is introduced in Chapter 2.4. There- offers a broad land use strategy for the jurisdiction, is usually
fore, it is important to understand the zoning regulations and the starting point for zoning. The zoning will assign more
ensure that it is followed early in the planning stages of a detailed zoning districts to each parcel. These zoning dis-
project. Zoning will affect all aspects of the project as design tricts can be identified on the zoning map, which accompa-
work begins and plans are produced, which is described nies the zoning ordinance. The comprehensive plan is only a
throughout Chapters 4 and 5. guide and serves as an advisory planning tool. Zoning is law
The comprehensive plan is used as the primary guide for and the zoning ordinance is enforceable. The existing zon-
making zoning decisions and writing a zoning ordinance. ing of a parcel takes precedence over the recommendations
A decision-making body may disregard the recommenda- of the comprehensive plan, even if there is a newer version
tions of the comprehensive plan, but it does so at the risk of the comprehensive plan. Updating a zoning ordinance to
of losing regularity and uniformity in its zoning practices. align with the comprehensive plan will sometimes be initi-
This will also undermine the integrity of the comprehen- ated by the jurisdiction itself or can be achieved through the
sive plan. In most cases, all of the different elements in the rezoning process, which is described later in this chapter.
comprehensive plan shape the zoning regulations. As is dis- In its simplest form, zoning separates different or incom-
cussed later in this chapter, the land use plan usually guides patible land uses and serves as a "nuisance-prohibiting"
the zoning district adoptions. device. Its purpose is to reduce the likelihood of one use creat-
This chapter addresses the most typical zoning ordi- ing a nuisance or having an undesirable impact on occupants
nances, concepts, and procedures. It is neither practical nor or future occupants of adjoining property (i.e., ensuring com-
possible to address all variations that exist throughout the patible uses). Provisions for zoning ordinances come from the
nation. However, there are basic similarities in the structure state's police powers, and are necessary to protect the health
of each type of regulation. This text focuses on their differing and safety of the public. Such zoning prevents overcrowding,

41
42 i@U4fi iiffll@i@IH
establishes appropriate sanitary regulations, provides for a the zoning ordinance and what to consider at the beginning
more efficient transportation system and protects quiet resi- of a project.
dential areas.
For instance, the operation of a business such as a grocery Euclidean zoning: Conventional rigid zoning that sepa-
store requires the installation of signs, lighting, parking, and rates uses
trash disposal facilities and generates traffic. If that grocery Negotiated zoning: Negotiation of regulations and
store operates next to a residence, the adjoining residents' standards
use and enjoyment of their property is diminished. The traf-
fic, noise, activity, and lighting are likely to become a nui- Performance zoning: Zoning based upon set performance
sance that infringes upon the residential character expected standards
by the homeowner. As a residence, its location has become Form-based codes: Zoning regulations primarily based on
less desirable than others in the neighborhood. However, geometric conditions
if development conditions are regulated then the nuisances
of the grocery development could be mitigated, which may Euclidean Zoning. Euclidean zoning, also known as sin-
increase the value of the residential property because of gle-use zoning, is the traditional type of zoning that most
retail convenience. Zoning can regulate the impact of one people think of-it is the oldest type of zoning in the United
use upon another. Conventional zoning prevents conflicts by States. This rigid zoning concept creates several zoning dis-
providing a greater separation between incompatible uses. tricts within the jurisdiction, specifies allowable uses, and
Where greater distance cannot be achieved between incom- applies development standards for each parcel. These zoning
patible uses, the zoning ordinance requires other techniques districts include everything from residential to commercial,
to reduce impacts such as a different architectural solu- and groups similar uses together.
tion, smaller signs, a larger yard between the building and Euclidean zoning is a very straightforward process
property lines, fencing, landscaping, or restricted hours of because it allows a property to be developed to any land use
operation. that is allowed by right (provided that the development meets
Each parcel within a community is typically zoned for zoning standards and complies with other development poli-
specific uses (residential, commercial, industrial, etc.), which cies and regulations). There are several other options for
specifies the character and use of the site. If a developer pro- developers to pursue if the project is not by right, including
poses a project with a different use or character from what special exceptions, variances, and rezoning (this introduces
is allowed in the current zoning the developer will need to opportunity but also complications). These will be discussed
seek special use permits, rezoning, or both. The developer in the following sections and will show the challenges of
may reference the comprehensive plan for initial insight into Euclidean zoning.
potential support for rezoning approval. If the comprehen- The allowable uses for each zone are determined differ-
sive plan indicates that the parcel is better served through ently, as is the subsequent process of development review by
a different zoning condition, there is a higher probability of the jurisdiction. The uses are usually related to the land use
support for the rezoning case. If the proposed project meets plan in the comprehensive plan. Situations sometimes arise
the use requirement of the parcel zoning, the developer must where the zoning is not in conformance with the compre-
adhere to the conditions of the ordinance but would not be hensive plan. Strategies to overcome these differences in the
required to process a rezoning case or special use permit. A plans are described later in this chapter. The variations of
project that follows all existing zoning conditions is often uses in a zone dictate what land use options exist for a site
referred to as by-right development. and how project design can be undertaken. This will affect
In some jurisdictions the only requirement for develop- the way in which local government approves development
ment is compliance with the zoning ordinance and building projects and the durability of that approval. The advantage of
codes. Some projects, however, have intricacies that require this type of zoning is greater certainty in both product and
more review, like those that subdivide a parcel. In most juris- project approval, however, the end result might be rather
dictions, detailed site plan reviews are required for all projects. uniform.
In addition to determining the allowable use of a parcel, The Euclidean approach to zoning does not allow for much
the zoning ordinance regulates building and dimensional flexibility and this may limit the developer. This may make it
standards. This determines the building's square footage, difficult to address site concerns or respond to shifting market
density, heights, setbacks, parking, open space requirements, activity or preferences. For example, a developer may plan for
and more. This will dictate the size and shape of buildings a new residential community with a by-right condition that
and their location on a property. Therefore, the zoning can allows for single family homes. But if a new light-rail system
also be used to establish aesthetic goals. is constructed near the site then it may be more appropriate
There are four main types of zoning that are common to for a higher density development based on the new charac-
find in a zoning ordinance. Some jurisdictions prefer one ter of the region. Under a Euclidian zoning, the developer is
over the other or use a combination of these zoning concepts. still restricted by the original zoning and the associated con-
It is important to understand each type to know how to read ditions of development. If the developer chooses to pursue
 2.3 ■ ZONING 43

a higher density they will be required to apply for rezoning, building height, open space, and yard setback can have dif-
which requires time and resources. ferent definitions in each jurisdiction and should be studied
It should be noted that the exhaustive set of development by the development team. Figure 2.3A provides the example
criteria, including the allowable uses and lists of standards text from the Fairfax County Zoning Ordinance for one of
for each zone, can result in a lengthy ordinance. Euclidean several zoning classifications; C-2 Commercial.
zoning often contains the longest text compared to other Zoning Districts. The zoning ordinance for Euclidean
types of zoning. The format of a zoning ordinance will zoning begins by dividing the jurisdiction into zoning
vary across jurisdictions and the definitions of terms used districts. The zoning ordinance ensures compatible uses
within the ordinance may differ as well. Terminology such as and achieves separation in the community by defining

COMMERCIAL DISTRICT REGULATIONS

PART2 4-200 C-2 LIMITED OFFICE DISTRICT

4-201 Purpose and Intent
The C-2 District is established to provide areas where predominantly non-retail connnercial uses
may be located such as offices and financial institutions; to provide for such uses in a low
intensity manner such that they can be employed as transitional land uses between higher
intensity uses and residential uses; and otherwise to implement the stated purpose and intent of
this Ordinance.

4-202 Permitted Uses

1. Accessory uses and accessory service uses as permitted by Article 10.

2. Churches, chapels, temples, synagogues and other such places of worship.

3. Financial institutions.

4. Mobile and land based telecommunication facilities, subject to the provisions of Sect.
2-514.

5. Nursery schools and child care centers, limited by the provisions of Sect. 205 below.

6. Offices, to include the display and sales of scientific, electronic or medical equipment of a
type not customarily retailed to the general public.

7. Private schools of general education, private schools of special education.

8. Public uses.

9. Quasi-public athletic fields and related facilities, limited by the provisions of Sect. 205
below.

10. Teleconnnunication facilities.

4-203 Special Permit Uses

For specific Group uses, regulations and standards, refer to Article 8.

1. Group 4 - Connnunity Uses, limited to:

A. Swinnning clubs and tennis clubs/courts

2. Group 5 - Connnercial Recreation Uses, limited to:

A. Connnercial swimming pools, tennis courts and similar courts

3. Group 7 - Older Structures, limited to:

A. Restaurants

4-9

FIG uRE 2. 3 A Example of zoning text. (Source: Fairfax County Zoning Ordinance.)
44 i@U4fi iiffll@i@IH
FAIRFAX COUNTY ZONING ORDINANCE

B. Rooming houses

4. Group 8 - Temporary Uses.

4-204 Special Exception Uses

For specific Category uses, regulations and standards, refer to Article 9.

1. Category 1 - Light Public Utility Uses.

2. Category 3 - Quasi-Public Uses, limited to:

A. Colleges, universities

B. Conference centers and retreat houses, operated by a religious or nonprofit

organization

C. Congregate living facilities

D. Cultural centers, museums and similar facilities

E. Independent living facilities

F. Medical care facilities

G. Private clubs and public benefit associations

H. Quasi-public parks, playgrounds, athletic fields and related facilities

I. Alternate uses of public facilities

J. Dormitories, fraternity/sorority houses, rooming/boarding houses, or other

residence halls

3. Category 4 - Transportation Facilities, limited to:

A. Electrically-powered regional rail transit facilities

B. Regional non-rail transit facilities

4. Category 5 - Commercial and Industrial Uses of Special hnpact, limited to:

A. Carryout restaurants

B. Commercial off-street parking in Metro Station areas as a temporary use

C. Drive-in financial institutions

4-10

FIGURE 2.3A (Continued)

categories of land use for each zone. Most zone categories districts for low-, medium-, and high-density zones-these
relate to residential, commercial, industrial, and agricul- zones may limit building types to single family, townhomes,
tural uses. Sometimes they also include mixed-use or spe- or multifamily.
cialty zones. The text associated with these zoning districts will usually
The ordinance is usually organized in a hierarchy for each describe the purpose of the zone, allowable uses, and devel-
zone that reflects intensity and operating impacts on the opment standards. These represent the differing types and
community. The broad zoning categories are broken down intensity of uses possible within each zoning district. This
into more detailed zoning districts. For instance, under the ensures the intended magnitude and character of the devel-
broad category of residential, an ordinance might specify opment is appropriate for the community.
 2.3 ■ ZONING 45

COMMERCIAL DISTRICT REGULATIONS

D. Establishments for scientific research and development to include assembly,

integration and testing of experimental prototype products as an incidental use

E. Golf courses, country clubs

F. Restaurants

4-205 Use Limitations

1. All business, service, storage, and display of goods shall be conducted within a completely
enclosed building, except those accessory uses set forth in Part 1 of Article 10, and special
permit and special exception uses which by their nature must be conducted outside a
building.

2. Nursery schools and child care centers shall be subject to the standards set forth in Sect.
9-309.

3. All refuse shall be contained in completely enclosed facilities.

4. All uses shall comply with the performance standards set forth in Article 14.

5. Quasi-public athletic fields and related facilities shall be permitted by right in accordance
with the following:

A. Such use is not specifically precluded or regulated by any applicable proffered

condition, development condition, special permit or special exception condition;

B. Such use shall be permitted on an interim basis for a period not to exceed five (5)
years, provided, however, that upon request by the property owner, subsequent
extensions of up to five (5) years each may be approved by the Board;

C. No structure or field shall be located within I 00 feet of any adjoining property

which is in an R district;

D. The use of lighting or loudspeakers for the athletic field or facility shall not be
permitted;

E. Notwithstanding the provisions of Article 13, transitional screening shall not be

required unless determined necessary by the Director;

F. Parking to accommodate such use shall be provided on-site. In the event such use
is to be located on-site with another use, the Director may allow existing off-street
parking to serve such use provided the hours of operation of the two uses do not
coincide; and

G. There shall be a sign which identifies the athletic field as an interim use of the site.
No such sign shall exceed thirty-two (32) square feet in area or be less than ten
(10) square feet in area, exceed eight (8) feet in height or be located closer than five
(5) feet to any street line.

4-11

FIGURE 2.3A (Continued)

Many jurisdictions draw zoning district boundar- distance from the most intense commercial area increases.
ies in a step-down fashion. This pattern seeks to provide Similarly, the residential density will decrease as the dis-
gradation between two disparate uses, usually residential tance from the most intense commercial area increases
and commercial or office. This reduces the most signifi- (the highest density residential is located nearest the most
cant conflicts between the more extreme uses. Figure 2.3B intense commercial zone).
represents a zoning map with property divided into sev- This can be seen in a more traditional sense when con-
eral districts between the most intense residential zones sidering town centers and attempting to provide gradation
and least dense residential zones. The permitted intensity between high and low densities within a jurisdiction. The
of commercial use reduces in each of several districts as highest density will be in the urban center and then will
4& i@U4fi iiffll@i@IH
FAIRFAX COUNTY ZONING ORDINANCE

4-206 Lot Size Requirements

1. Minimum lot area: 20,000 sq. ft.

2. Minimum lot width: 100 feet

3. The minimum lot size requirements presented in Par. 1 and 2 above may be waived by the
Board in accordance with the provisions of Sect. 9-610.

4-207 Bulk Regulations

1. Maximum building height: 40 feet

2. Minimum yard requirements

A. Front yard: Controlled by a 30° angle of bulk plane, but not less than 25 feet

B. Side yard: No Requirement

C. Rear yard: 25 feet

3. Maximum floor area ratio: 0.50

4. Refer to Sect. 13-30 I for provisions that may qualify the minimum yard requirements set
forth above.

4-208 Open Space

30% of the gross area shall be landscaped open space

4-209 Additional Regulations

1. Refer to Article 2, General Regulations, for provisions which may qualify or supplement
the regulations presented above.

2. Refer to Article 11 for off-street parking, loading and private street requirements.

3. Refer to Article 12 for regulations on signs.

4. Refer to Article 13 for landscaping and screening requirements.

5. Refer to Article 17 for uses and developments which are subject to site plan provisions.

4-12

FIGURE 2.3A (Continued)

gradually step-down to the less dense suburbs. For example, Some jurisdictions establish districts that provide for flex-
transit-oriented developments will have the highest density ibility as well as a mix of uses and appearance where zoning
near the transit station. The allowable densities will then classifications meet. At urban centers with high-density resi-
taper down as the distance from the station increases. High- dential and more intense commercial, it is common to find
rise towers at the station may taper down to midrise build- mixed use zones that allow for more flexible designs.
ings, then townhouses, and ultimately single-family homes As an example, the table in Figure 2.3C is from the City of
on the periphery. Lafayette, Louisiana's Unified Development Code, the local
 -p;:;,~ :::_,,.--l-/--=:-/--;~~H~;f:;H=:d-----bP~¥~ ~w;;t------tr4 ~--;;-ri-:-.-~
\ 'I>--
.-
-~ 1 I I~
i1 : :
ffl ~I I !
57q9"f \'·lF
!
I 1.J • I ~
Tl(lr,lr,l'Mffi 5,t

',\\ \

))
'\
\ \

FIGURE 2.38 Zoning map showing zoning transition, modified from Fairfax County zoning maps.
4a i@U4fi iiffll@i@IH
Article 2. Districts
Summary: this Chapter establishes the Zfining districts for the City of Lafayette, the regulations that apply to each district, and a
comprehensive list of uses (the 'Vse Table").

¢:!> Technical standards such as how building height and setbacks are measured, how buildings relate to utility easements,
development in required setbacks, and development on substandard rights of way, are addressed in Artidt: 3.

89-6 Generally
To promote the public health, safety, morals, and general welfare of the community, the City of Lafayette is
divided into the following districts:

District Cross-Reference PlanLafayette Future Land Use

"A" Agricultural 89-8 Rural / Agriculture.
¢:!> Buffer and building design requirements ofArticle 4
apply ifthe area is not zoned.
"RS" Residential Single-Family 89-9 Residential
(RS-1, RS-2)
"RM" Residential Mixed 89-10 Mixed Residential
(RM-1, RM-2)
"MN" Mixed Use Neighborhood 89-11 Transitional Mixed-Use
(MN-1, MN-2)
"MX" Mixed Use Center 89-12 Mixed-Use Center
(MX-1, MX-2)
"D" Downtown 89-13 Mixed-Use Center
"CM" Commercial Mixed 89-14 Commercial / Office
"CH" Commercial Heavy 89-15 Commercial / Office
"IL" Industrial Light 89-16 Office / Industrial
"IH" Industrial Heavy 89-17 Office / Industrial
"PD" Planned Development 89-18 Any of the above
"Pl" Public / Institutional 89-19 Any of the above & Public Park

(a) Notwithstanding any setback established by this Article, buildings adjacent to substandard streets may be
subject to additional setbacks (see Article 3, §89-38).

(h) Private Roads and Driveways. A Private Road or driveway shall be accessory to the principal
use of the parcel or lot upon which the same is located. Where a Private Road or driveway is the
principal use of a parcel or lot, the use of such Private Road or driveway shall be concordant
with the zoning district of the property upon which the Private Road or driveway is located.
Accordingly, a Private Road or driveway located on property zoned RS shall not be trafficked
except for traffic accessory to uses permitted in the RS district. Notwithstanding the forgoing,
traffic accessory to uses permitted in the RS district shall be permitted on Private Roads and
driveways located within the RM district; traffic accessory to uses permitted in the RS and RM
districts shall be permitted on Private Roads and driveways located within MN, CM, CH and CH
and PI districts shall be permitted on Private Roads and driveways located with IL and IH
districts.
FIG uRE 2. 3 C Layfayette, Louisiana, zoning districts.

zoning ordinance. This table lists all zoning districts within A zoning map provides a graphic depiction of zoning
the jurisdiction. It also correlates each district to the future areas to reflect density transitions and geographic rela-
land use designated in PlanLafayette, their comprehensive tionships between parcels, transportation, and natural
plan. It is important to see that the zoning is connected to resources. Each district is labeled with the name of the zone
and achieving the comprehensive plan. that corresponds directly to the ordinance text. Frequently,
Zoning Map. Zoning districts for each parcel can be located the district name is a shorthand indication of the use and
on the accompanying zoning map. This is included with the intensity of the district.
zoning ordinance and shows the division of the entire juris- While the meaning of these labels is consistent within a
diction into each zoning district that is defined in that text. single jurisdiction, they often vary between jurisdictions. For
These zoning districts reflect the actual zoning of the land. instance, a district labeled "R-5" might be a residential dis-
Each individual property in the jurisdiction is associated with trict with a permitted density of five dwelling units per acre.
a zoning district. Or, it may indicate a residential district permitting minimum
 2.3 ■ ZONING 49

lot sizes of 5,000 square feet. On the other hand, it may sim- crucial to understand what a property is zoned as, and how it
ply be the fifth in a hierarchy residential district. relates to the comprehensive plan.
As an example, in the City of St. Louis, Missouri, their The zoning map itself is often available in several forms
Official Zoning District Map disregards the previously and scales, and usually includes a generalized zoning map
described shorthand indication altogether. Instead, each with a single-sheet depiction of the entire community. Most
zone is identified by a single letter from ''X' through "L:' jurisdictions publish the zoning map online, which allows for
''X' stands for the single-family dwelling district, "B'' is for dynamic navigation of the jurisdiction. The map shows major
the two-family dwelling district, and so on. Therefore, it is roadways, landmarks, and natural features, with zoning dis-
important to be familiar with all local zoning documents and trict boundaries identified by various symbols or labels.
naming conventions. A large-scale map will frequently include parcel boundar-
Overlay Districts. Zoning overlay districts may be identi- ies or may reference a tax map designation for each prop-
fied on the zoning map. Jurisdictions use the overlay zones erty. In some jurisdictions, the official map shows additional
to address areas with special conditions; unique opportuni- information, such as previous and pending zoning, special
ties due to local culture, historic land use, or location; and/or exception or special permit applications, as well as subdivi-
unusual physical characteristics. Typical situations that sug- sion activity.
gest the use of overlay controls include downtown areas, The map in Figure 2.3D is the zoning map for Portland,
redevelopment opportunities, airports, highway corridors, Oregon. The map includes a key that lists the major zoning
resource protection, floodplains, and historic areas. classifications, effective dates of rezoning, and special require-
Overlay districts are mapped on top of conventional dis- ments. The major zoning classifications are residential, com-
trict boundaries on the zoning map. These generally outline mercial, and manufacturing districts, which are denoted by
an area on the map that has additional regulations or codes. "R;' "C:' and "M" letters on the map. Each zoning district is
The specific criteria for each overlay district will be included described in the local zoning ordinance. An overlay district
in the zoning ordinance, usually within a separate chapter or can also be seen on the map as designated by the lowercase
subsection. Parcels in the overlay must conform to both sets letter. For example the "C:X" represents central commercial
of zoning district text (the base zoning district ordinance and zoning and the "d" represents a design overlay district.
the additional overlay district criteria), or the more restric- Allowable Uses. In Euclidean zoning, the regulations for
tive if conflicts are apparent. each zoning district specify what uses may or may not be
For example, Brooklyn, New York, has an overlay district constructed or undertaken on parcels within its boundaries.
called the Special Downtown Brooklyn District (DB). This The most common zoning ordinances present an exhaustive
overlay "establishes special height and setback regulations list of land uses permitted in each zoning district. This for-
and urban design guidelines to promote and support the mat regulates how much density and the overall intensity of
continued growth of Downtown Brooklyn as a unique mixed development that is acceptable on each property in a specific
use area:' The Special Downtown Brooklyn District has a zone. In the zoning ordinance, a typical listing of land uses
separate chapter within New York City's zoning ordinance allowed in the zoning district includes:
that has additional provisions that must be followed for par-
cels within the overlay. • Uses permitted by right
Additional examples of overlays for environmental and
• Uses permitted by right if certain specified condi-
historical preservation are included in Chapter 2.5.
tions apply
Map Creation. How local jurisdictions create their zoning
map varies. Many jurisdictions adopted the first zoning map • Uses permitted by special exception
simply as a graphic representation of land use patterns that
• Uses permitted by special permit
existed at the time. Areas of vacant land were frequently zoned
to a district similar to the surrounding area. In some com - • Uses prohibited in a specific zone
munities, the adoption of the comprehensive plan is followed
by a jurisdictional-wide rezoning to match the recommenda- By-Right Development. In undertaking a project where
tions of the comprehensive plan. In such cases, the zoning the use is allowed by right, the developer need only show
map closely mirrors the land use patterns recommended in compliance with the requirements of the zoning ordinance.
the land use plan of the comprehensive plan. Plan review to secure approval from the jurisdiction is
For jurisdictions that do not automatically rezone sub- accomplished through the normal administrative proce-
sequent to comprehensive plan adoption, rezoning may be dures and the building permit acquisition, which will be
required to be in conformance to the comprehensive plan. discussed in the review procedures section of Chapter 2.4.
Any more intense use generally requires that the developer The site plan application will simply need to provide the
seek a rezoning to a higher classification. The rezoning pro- information necessary to confirm that zoning conditions
cess, discussed later in this chapter, addresses rezoning and are met, such as a density calculation, building setback,
the map amendment process in more detail. Therefore, it is building height, and parking.
50 i@U4fi iiffll@i@IH

City of Portland, Bureau

of Plannin and Sustainabili

1111111111 Historic or Conservation District or N.R.M.P. Boundary • Historic Landmark

(R1 Q) ~~~:~~=:~~~~ec:~~:.~~~:~n~1;:n':':re t•""'"~~•;~18
E3 'F-------3 ... &
-----+----~-~----i
::::::::::::::: Plan District Boundary * * * * * Major Public Tralls
•

----
11 • 11 • 11 City Boundary
Urban Service Area Boundary
- State ID Map Boundary
NW1/4SEC.
03-1S-1E 3129
FIG uRE 2. 3 D City of Portland, Oregon, zoning map.

Zoning districts are organized in a hierarchy for each additional impacts to the surrounding neighborhood and
zone, so therefore, the more intense zone will generally allow warrants special consideration. For instance, often private
for more uses then a less intense zone. For example, if the schools or dormitories are considered a special exception use
low-density zoning district allows for single-family homes, in residentially zoned districts. Some jurisdictions may also
the medium-density zone may allow for single-family homes allow for a higher density of development within a site if a
and townhomes. There are exceptions, however, because an special exception is granted. Despite the potential for negative
ultrahigh-density zone may not allow for low-density uses. impacts, the principle underlying the classification of special
A single-family home may not be allowed in an urban area exception uses is that, if properly regulated, they are accept-
where zoning is established for multifamily residential. able uses in the zoning districts where they are permitted.
Special Exception. A special exception, or conditional use, Special exception review is most often focused on physi-
is a use permissible within a zoning district subject to the cal appearance and compatibility of the use within the exist-
fulfillment of requirements dealing with compatibility and ing neighborhood of the property. Special exception uses
site-specific design. A special exception is one that generates must adhere to the character intended by the zoning district,
 2.3 ■ ZONING 51

as well as comply with the community's comprehensive authority may impose conditions to lessen potential impact.
plan. They may be desirable to the community and add to Following approval, the normal administrative procedures for
its convenience; however, due to possible impacts such as subdivision and construction will apply.
noise, traffic, or visual disruption, most zoning ordinances Prohibited Uses. Uses prohibited in a specific zone are not
establish conditions that apply in the development of special allowed at all in that zoning district. In most cases, if a juris-
exception uses. Such conditions may include a limitation on diction does not list a use as allowable it is prohibited. In this
the hours of operation; additional landscaping, buffers, and case, the developer can only attempt to change the zoning
barriers that exceed the standard specified for the underlying through the rezoning process to be able to change the zone to
zoning district; and a specification of the activities permitted allow for a more favorable use. In some cases, the ordinance
in conjunction with a special exception use. may list specific limitations of permitted uses. For example,
In contrast to uses allowed by right, most ordinances a home office may be allowed in a residential district but is
specify that uses needing special exception approval must prohibited from selling goods as a primary use.
comply with the community's comprehensive plan. These For example, Lafayette, Louisiana, includes an extensive
requirements subject the development proposals needing a use table in their zoning ordinance, as shown in Figure 2.3E.
special exception to the broad variety of policies and restric- This designates allowance for every use category type in
tions in the comprehensive plan that might not otherwise every zoning district in the jurisdiction. The use table lists
apply. These could include density controls, requirements for if it is allowed by right, as a conditional use, as an accessory
specific environmental measures, constraints on traffic gen - use, or not permitted.
eration, or desirable public improvements. Frequently, these The "P" stands for by right: The use is permitted if it meets
apply even to existing land uses proposed for redevelopment the standards established in the zoning district, and any
or expansion oflong-established uses. other applicable standards of this chapter.
The authority empowered to grant rezoning approval is The "C" stands for conditional use: The use requires a con-
usually the same one that grants special exception approval; ditional use permit approved by the Planning and Zoning
this may be the governing body, a planning commission, or Commission.
zoning hearing officer. These bodies hold public hearings to The 'Ji'' stands for accessory use: A use customarily inci-
solicit input from community residents on upcoming cases dental and subordinate to the principal use or building and
being processed for consideration. Special exception approv- located on the same lot with the principal use or building.
als are specific to the applicant with such approvals usually Empty spaces are not permitted: A blank cell indicates that
remaining valid for a specific period within which construc- the use is not allowed in the district. A property owner who
tion must begin and be diligently pursued. wants to establish the use may apply for a rezoning to a dis-
Special Permit. Some jurisdictions administer a sepa- trict that does allow that use.
rate special permit process for accessory uses. Projects that Dimensional Standards. Euclidean zoning includes dimen-
involve uses listed as needing a special permit, or designated sional standards for many details of project design for each type
as an accessory use, must go through an approval process not ofland use. Typical criteria identified in the zoning district text
unlike the special exception. However, the governing body include lot size, density, lot coverage, and bulk requirements.
frequently delegates its authority to a board of appeals or These requirements strive to protect and preserve the char-
zoning staff administrator. acter of the community by preventing overcrowding, reduc-
Approval of a special permit comes with conditions ing conflicts between neighbors and neighboring properties,
attached that, like a special exception, help to reduce incom- guarding against encroachment on streets, and intrusion of
patibility between the use and adjoining neighborhood. traffic noise. Examples of these are listed below:
Typically, opportunities for public hearings are incorpo-
rated into the process, allowing affected neighbors to voice • Lot size
support or opposition to the issuance of the permit. Within o Minimum and average lot size and lot width
a residential zoning district a special permit use may include
a home office, home child care, or church, but likely will not • Density
permit a commercial use such as a retail establishment. o Maximum density or intensity of development.
When the intended use requires review as a special permit,
o Usually expressed in dwelling units per acre for
approval to allow that use in the zoning district usually rests
residential uses.
with an elected or appointed body, or both. These are most
frequently the jurisdiction's governing body, its planning o Expressed as floor area ratio (FAR) for nonresi-
commission, a zoning appeals board, or a zoning hearing offi- dential uses. FAR is further defined later in this
cer. In addition to a review by the professional planning staff, chapter.
the governing body usually holds public hearings to assess the
• Maximum lot coverage
attitudes of neighbors and civic groups toward the project.
Using plans prepared by the design team, the developer must o Defined either by buildings or by impervious
justify the appropriateness of the proposed use. The approving surface, often expressed as a percentage
52 i@U4fi iiffll@i@IH
Notation Category Description
p By right The use is permitted if it meets the standard ' established in the zoning
district, and any other applicable standards of this Chapter.
Conditional U se The use requires a conditional use permit approved by the Planning and
C Zoning Commission (see§ 89-54).
Accessory Use A use customarily incidental and subordinate to the principal use or
A build ing and located on the same lot with the principal use or buildi ng.
Not permitted A blank cell indicates that the use is not allowed in the district. A property
owner who wants to establish the use may apply for a rezoning to a district
that does allow the use.

'"Cl
Table 89-21-2 Use Table 0

.. .
0
J:.
0
..a 'C
'"Cl
C1I J:.
tlO
.... a., GI
X ~ iii
C
X C Ill
.... >
~
"ii
z u
C1I ~ GI
::c
0
"Z >
'iii
"Z
GI
Ill "'
GI
::::, C . ..
Ill
·u iii
·u
...
::,
·.:;
J:.
~
tlO
Ill
GI
::c
::::, Ill
C
C1I
'"Cl
'"Cl
GI
'C
I

GI
~
....0C
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E
GI
E
C
.::::. -~...
iii -~....
iii
"iii X .!:! E E .!:! Ill "'
::,
C1I
a:: ~ ~ ~ 0
u 0 ::c::, ::,
'"Cl '"Cl
0 u .5
~ ~
z
~
X C ~
~
0. .5
~ ~ ~ ::c :.., ~
Use Category ~ ~ ~ fl ~ ~ fL
Residential
Residences:
Dwell ing, single-fam ily detached p p p C
Accessory apartment p p p p p p C
Cottage Courts p p p p
Dwel ling, two-fam ily {duplex) p p p
Multi-family p p p p p p
Live/Work Dwelling p p p p p
Manufactu red home
Manufactured Housing Land
p C C
Lease Community
Apartment House p p p p p
Apartment Hotel p p p p p
Townhouse/ Row house p p p p p p
Zero lot line home p p p p
Group Living:
Boarding House p p p p

FIGURE 2.3E Lafayette, Louisiana, use table.

• Minimum required open space lines, including street rights-of-way, utility cor-
ridors, transit lines (most commonly rail), water-
o Usually expressed as a percentage and referring to
front or other environmentally sensitive areas.
parcel area unencumbered by buildings or parking.
o In some communities with waterfront property, the
o Often pedestrian-oriented hardscape is consid-
yard facing the water is considered the front yard.
ered open space especially in urban areas.
o The ordinance may specify when structures or
• Setbacks
architectural features, such as porches and steps,
o Minimum front, side, and rear yard requirements may extend beyond the setback line. The front
that define the building envelope. These refer to setback line is also called the building restriction
the distance of building setback from property line (BRL).
 2.3 ■ ZONING 53

• Minimum lot width screening, and similar conditions that mitigate impact to
adjacent properties.
o If the lot is shaped so that its width at the nor-
On occasion, a property has limitations that hinder the
mal setback line does not meet the minimum
ability to meet the required development standards. For
standard, the building restriction line is forced to
example, due to limitations of the size and shape of the prop-
be located farther from the front property line,
erty, the site might not be able to meet the minimum set-
to a point where the width complies with the
backs or minimum lot widths. In this case, the developer can
standard.
apply for a variance or variation to deviate from the zoning
• Maximum or average building height ordinance's development standards.
Floor Area Ratio. Floor area ratio is the relationship
o Defined in feet and/ or stories
of building floor area to parcel size. For example, on a
• Angle of bulk plane 40,000-square-foot parcel, if the zoning ordinance allows a
maximum FAR of 1.0, then it would be possible to construct
o Relationship between building height and prop-
erty line. a building or buildings totaling 40,000 square feet of floor
area. This could result in a single-story building covering the
• Functional requirements entire parcel, a two-story building covering half the parcel,
o The dimensional standards in the zoning ordi- or some other configuration. Yard and height requirements
nance may include off-street parking, landscap- affect the actual parcel layout. A FAR of 0.5 for this same
ing, screening, buffering, and tree preservation parcel would allow 20,000 square feet of building area. See
requirements. Figure 2.3F for an illustration of FAR.
Bulk Plane. Bulk plane is a representation of the rela-
Other development standards that may be required by tionship of building height to property line. This protects
the zoning ordinance can be found in the Development adjoining property views or access to sunlight and airflow.
Standards Manual within the subdivision ordinance. See Figure 2.3G illustrates angle of a bulk plane as applied to
Chapter 2.4 for more information about the Development building restriction lines.
Standards Manual. Ordinance Example. Figure 2.3H shows the dimensional stan-
Special exception or special permit uses also have dards for an "RS" zone in Lafayette, Louisiana. This includes lot
minimum dimensional standards and criteria listed sepa- requirements, setbacks, and bulk plane for each parcel. Other
rately in the text that identify criteria for size and inten- development standards are included in the notes on that page,
sity, proximity to other properties or facilities, landscaping, as well as throughout the zoning ordinance text.

Parcel Area = 1 Story 2 Story 4 Story Multiple

u
40,000 sq. feet Building Building Bu ilding Structures

□ ■
□
E; ,, ~ ~

-rl
Floor Area Ratio (FJ
Building Floor Area

[I '-''
.I
FAR = 0.5
Bu ilding Floor Area = 20,000 square feet

FIG uRE 2. 3 F Graphic depiction of FAR.

s4 i@UH:U 1,m@i@iH
As with variances, variations must not provide precedent
for future requests; however, in the case of variations "practi-
cal difficulties" may be a consideration in the review of the
application. In general, the findings must conclude:

1. The granting of the variation will not be detrimental

to the public safety, health, or welfare, or injurious to
other property.
2. The conditions on which the variation is based are
unique to the property for which the variation is
LL MYR sought and are not applicable generally to other
properties.

KEY 3. The variation does not constitute a violation of any

other applicable law, ordinance, or regulation.
e Angle of bulk plane
LL Lot line 4. Because of the particular physical surroundings,
MYR Minimum yard requirement shape, or topography of the specific property
EBH Effective building height involved, a particular hardship to the owner would
MBH Maximum building height result as distinguished from a mere inconvenience, if
G Grade (finished) the strict letter of these regulations is carried out.
FIG uRE 2. 3 G Graphic depiction of angle of bulk plane, modified
Additionally, nonconformity may exist as to a lot, use, or
from Fairfax County Zoning Ordinance.
structure that does not fully comply with the requirements of
the zoning district in which it is located. This situation often
Variances and Variation. Two processes that allow devia- occurs with the adoption of a new zoning ordinance, text or
tion from the existing Euclidean zoning ordinance are vari- map amendment after a subdivision plat is recorded, or when
ances and variations. Most variance applications address a land use is legally established. In most instances, the goal
building setbacks or similar technical requirements of the of the community and governing body is to eliminate non-
ordinance, due primarily to physical characteristics of the conforming uses and/or structures. Where that is not practi-
site under development. Some districts do allow usage vari- cal, most ordinances also include provisions that explain the
ances as well if the existing land uses have been modified and conditions under which such uses may continue to operate
changes to the zoning ordinance make it difficult to adhere or expand (i.e., to certify the nonconforming uses) .
strictly to the current ordinance. There are two types of nonconformities: nonconform-
To be allowed a variance, it must be proven that comply- ing as to standards and nonconforming as to use. The first
ing with newly adopted ordinances impose a hardship on the case addresses uses permitted in a district whose develop-
property owner, who is otherwise unable to use the property ment standards have since been revised in the ordinance.
in the manner permitted prior to the change in the zoning This frequently occurs in older residential areas or estab-
ordinance. The hardship must be unique to the property, and lished commercial areas when the lot size, density, parking,
the variance must be necessary to allow reasonable use of the or setback requirements have been changed in the zoning
land. A purely economic hardship does not normally satisfy ordinance. Most ordinances usually allow these uses to
this "hardship" test. In the case that development standards continue, provided they are not expanded or enlarged, but
are not limited by the physical site or usage hardship, but require that future additions comply with the new require-
the developer wants to change other zoning regulations, like ments. For instance, a new garage added to a house would
increasing the FAR or raising the maximum building height, have to comply with new setback provisions, unless a vari-
then the negotiated zoning process or a rezone should be ance is granted. A developer constructing a new depart-
investigated. ment store addition to an existing strip shopping center
A variance to zoning ordinance requirements may be might be required to adhere to the newer off-street park-
granted by the governing body, a subordinate body to whom ing requirements. In a zoning district requiring lot sizes of
that power has been delegated, or, in some jurisdictions, a one acre, the zoning ordinance will usually allow a house
quasi-judicial body appointed by judicial officials. As with to be built on a smaller existing lot of record; however, the
other zoning applications, opportunities for public comment structure must otherwise fulfill all other requirements of
are normally provided. The approving authority may impose the ordinance.
conditions on development. In granting the variance, it must Sometimes, the actual use of a property becomes noncon -
ensure that the variance will not change the basic character forming due to a recent zoning text amendment eliminating
of the area, weaken enforcement of the ordinance, or provide the once-permitted use. Typical ordinance provisions allow
precedent for future requests for variances. the use to remain, but prohibit any expansion or enlargement.
 2.3 ■ ZONING 55

89-9 "RS" Residential Single-Family

P111pose: the "RS" districts implement the Residentialfutt1re land use category of PlanLafqyette l?J providingfor predominant(y
detached, singleJami/y neighborhoods. The dimmsional standards accommodate a variety of densities and lot sizes.

(a) Pennitted Uses. See§ 89-21.

(b) Dimensional Standards

RS-I RS-2
1 Lot size (min) 6,000 sf 4,000 sf
2 20% 15%

Setbacks rmri al bm w,.

3 Front / comer street (111i11) 20' 5'
4 Side (n1i11) 5' 3'
5 Rear (,11in, co111111011 lot line) 10' 10'
6 Rear-alley (111i11) 3' 3'

Bulk Plane (~ .1'11· S9-T

7 From RS district boundary or another 3 srories fi r the first 50' from the front, ide r rear lot line,
RS zoned lot or parcel then 1 additional story for each additional 50 feet from the
setback line. This requirement does not apply beyond 200' from
any lot line.

~ Refer to Article 3 for rules and measurement of building height, lots, and setbacks.

(1) Required front, ide, and r ar setbacks must be planted in grass or other planting except for required
ingress and egress.

(2) or buildings ad jacent to substandard streets, an additional setback may apply (see Article 3, § 89-38).

(3) Non-residential uses in the RS district are subject to the same standards as residential uses, except as
provided in Article 5.

(4) In developments larger than 40 acres, the open space required must be satisfied by civic space that,
taking into account the appropriate multiplier in Article 3, 89-40, amoun ts to 5% credit towards the
overall requi rement.

(5) For any subdivision of 3 or more lots zoned RS-2, an alley will be required and access must be
provided by that alley.
FIG uRE 2. 3 H Lafayette, Louisiana, dimensional standards.
5& i@U4fi iiffll@i@IH
Repairs and limited reconstruction could be allowed. Some final plan and proffers are usually the result of extensive nego-
communities also adopt a schedule to enforce the removal tiation with community residents and the governing body.
and/or amortization of nonconforming uses that they con- The proffered conditions must be in writing, be signed,
sider undesirable, such as billboards or other signage. must relate to the zoning itself, and should be in accord
Rezoning Process. The Euclidean zoning ordinance provides with the comprehensive plan as well. If the governing body
details on the administrative and legislative approval proce- accepts the proffers and approves the zoning, the proffered
dures for uses requiring approval of a rezoning. These specify conditions then run with the land. Thus, both current and
the required information needed for the preparation of plans future owners or developers are bound to the approved plan
and supporting documentation for rezoning and similar appli- and conditions agreed to during proffer negotiations. Any
cations. Ordinance provisions also provide the methodology change to the development plan or the actual proffers must
for amendments to the zoning ordinance text. Text amend- be accomplished through a subsequent rezoning.
ments can change development potential as much as map The development team should work closely with the
amendments by (for example) allowing a use previously not developer and business team when writing proffers. In many
permitted in a zone. Both amendment procedures may be ini- cases, the land use attorney will author the proffers, but may
tiated by either the governing body or individual appellant. In rely on the expertise of the design team to determine real-
most cases the request for a change in zoning is evaluated with istic proffer requirements. If a proffer is not written well, it
the proposed use identified in the comprehensive plan. More may delay the project approval because interpretations are
information about rezoning is provided later in this chapter. required to understand the original intent. It is common
Negotiated Zoning. The next type of zoning is the negotiated that different regulatory groups may have conflicting rec-
zoning, also known as incentive zoning. This zoning maintains ommendations for proffers. For example, the city may want
all aspects of the Euclidean zoning including the ordinance and the developer to install a new traffic signal at the project
maps, with allowable uses and dimensional standards. The dif- entrance, but the state department of transportation may not
ference is in the procedure during the approval process. While permit the installation-any conflicts should be discussed
Euclidean zoning is a simple yes or no, that a project does or between all stakeholders to ensure compliance is feasible.
does not meet the specific criteria to allow for development, Some examples of proffers are
negotiated zoning allows for more flexibility.
This negotiation can occur on a project by project basis, • Land reservation for a new park or school
or through a large-scale development project. Some jurisdic- • Dedication ofland for new street right-of-way
tions choose to offer incentives to developers if they meet cer-
tain criteria. For example, the zoning may allow for an 8-story • Installing new traffic signals at warranted intersections
office building, but the jurisdiction will allow a 10-story build- • Meeting green building standards
ing if the developer includes a public park, meets green build-
ing standards, and/or donates to the local affordable housing • Contributing funds for local capital improvements or
fund. This situation can be beneficial for both the developer affordable housing
(higher returns even if there are additional up-front costs) and
the local jurisdiction (benefitting and providing for the public Planned Unit Development. A planned unit develop-
good). Proffers are another way that an individual developer ment (PUD) is an example of a negotiated zoning process
may work (or must work) with the local jurisdiction to achieve that attempts to enhance both flexibility and functional rela-
approval. Planned unit developments (PUDs), on the other tionships between land uses. With conventional zoning pat-
hand, may allow more flexibility for larger projects by working terns, the developer cannot easily respond to the changing
with the local jurisdiction upfront. market demand associated with shifts in the economy of the
Understanding the local jurisdiction is important to know region. Nor can the developer address consumer preferences
if they allow negotiation or offer incentives during the zon- for other than a single lot size or housing type. Individual
ing process. Some explicitly require it while others may allow projects, undertaken in a small geographic area, by differ-
it as an option. It will depend on the project and the goals of ent developers sometimes lack cohesiveness, causing com-
the development program to determine if negotiation should munity identity to suffer. In addition, the extreme separation
be pursued. of land uses, which results from conventional zoning, often
Proffers. A proffer (pro offering) mandates that the certain places unnecessary stress on community facilities.
conditions are volunteered in writing by the developer prior The PUD allows for a mix of land uses, building types,
to action on the zoning request. The proffers bind develop- and intensities that can be constructed within a single proj-
ment of the property to a specific development plan or set ect. It is most often applied in larger tracts ofland by a single
of textual conditions. In addition, the developer sometimes land developer. Many jurisdictions will set a minimum parcel
offers to construct improvements to public and private facili- size that can be considered for a PUD. Typically, a PUD can
ties that minimize impacts generated by the development. include single family detached, single family attached, multi-
The developer may also provide operational and aesthetic family housing, and light neighborhood-serving commercial
incentives to the community as a condition of approval. The retail uses. In larger projects, local zoning regulations may
 2.3 ■ ZONING 57

permit other more intense uses like mid-rise residential, high- Performance Zoning. Performance zoning is another type
rise residential, commercial office, and commercial retail. of zoning that may be encountered in a jurisdiction. Perfor-
PUD allows the design team the opportunity to con- mance zoning provides flexibility by regulating the effects or
sider the project design in a comprehensive manner, rather impact of land uses on surrounding properties through per-
than treat each use individually and separately. PUD also formance standards. Types of performance standards may
presents design opportunities to address broad functional include number of vehicle trips, density, or noise levels of
relationships between land use and facilities. These include the development. Performance zoning may result in greater
entrances to the community, vehicular and pedestrian traf- expense in up-front analysis, both for the community and
fic, stormwater management, and other infrastructure sys- the developer. To community residents, it sometimes does
tems. The design team has greater control over placement of not provide the desired clarity and certainty with respect to
uses, their design, and access between them. expected development. It is in performance zoning where
A PUD offers the opportunity to interrelate uses in a com - greater conflicts may arise in the interpretation and establish-
mon and controlled setting providing more flexibility than ment of requirements for development with differing views of
achieved under conventional zones. The team addresses ele- development from the public and private sectors.
ments that affect community appearance and identity with a Form-Based Code. A form-based code is a land develop-
unified approach including architectural style, landscaping, ment regulation that fosters predictable built results and a
street furnishings, open space, and signage. This comprehen - high-quality public realm by using physical form (rather than
sive approach to design and construction of PUDs may allow separation of uses) as the organizing principle for the code. A
for a more efficient use of the land. In addition to a greater form-based code is a regulation, not a mere guideline, adopted
efficiency in the use of the land, the developer is in greater into city, town, or county law (https:/ /formbasedcodes.org/
control of product marketing and the business environment. definition/.).
Due to this design flexibility, cost savings in streets and utili- Form-based codes focus on the geometric conditions of
ties design, construction, and maintenance may be a result to the form, placement, and design of the development more
benefit both the developer and public agencies. PUD processes than the use of the land. They are less concerned with
are more intense for the developer and the team, demanding specific separation of uses for a property, like the Euclidean
much more up-front work, more community outreach and a zoning that enforces a segregation of uses. Form-based codes
lengthier time frame; the trade-off is increased flexibility and, instead allow for a mix of uses, such as residential on the
often, increased density or intensity of development. same block as commercial, to create holistic neighborhoods
Some communities delineate PUD districts on their zon- and encourage walkability. This allows for more flexibility in
ing maps. Ordinance provisions set use and intensity con- design by focusing on the arrangement of the building and
ditions that reflect the district's relationship to other uses. the coordination with public spaces.
Other communities have the zone "float;' and it becomes Prescriptive in nature, form-based codes regulate develop-
fixed during the rezoning process, frequently where the ment through specific standards dealing with the relationships
applicant has assembled several properties and the project of building massing, proximity to streets, height, scale, and
may take on the general characteristics of the underlying other elements that help define the character of a community.
zones. A PUD in an otherwise residential area may still be This provides greater predictability about the look and feel of
required to incorporate primarily residential uses. However, development and how it functions as a place. This also allows
housing type and arrangement may deviate from conven- developers a clearer understanding of what the community
tional district requirements. Often, limited neighborhood seeks. Regulations and form-based code standards are repre-
serving retail areas will also be allowed. PUD provisions may sented in both diagrams and words, and are coded to a regu-
also address areas intended to be primarily shopping centers, lating plan that illustrates the intentions of the community.
industrial, and office parks. Some jurisdictions allow PUD as This determines which standards apply to which properties.
a special exception, which most closely resembles the float- The Transect is often utilized to organize the form-based
ing zone, with the processing and administration differing code. An illustrative example of the transect system is pro-
among jurisdictions. vided in Figure 2.31. The Transect relies on a categorization
The flexibility associated with PUD often means that system that organizes all elements of the urban environ-
the final development may be viewed as less predictable to the ment on a scale from rural to urban. This focuses first on the
community. Consequently, PUD approvals often involve intended character and type of place of each neighborhood,
extensive review procedures, public outreach, and negotiated and second on the specific mix of uses within. The Transect
designs that might discourage their application. Considerable has six categories, moving from rural to urban. It begins with
up-front design costs may be encountered by the developer, two that are entirely rural in character: Natural (protected
with no guarantee of project approval. Frequently, PUD pro- areas in perpetuity) and rural (areas of high environmental
visions also require the developer to provide additional on - or scenic quality that are not currently preserved).
site amenities, such as open space, recreational facilities, and Next are two transition categories. First is the sub-urban,
land for public facilities such as schools or fire stations. This which is the most purely residential zone, with some mixed-
may be documented in writing during the proffer process. use (such as civic buildings). Next is general urban, the largest
5a i@U4fi iiffll@i@IH
RURAL I I I I I I I I I 111111111111111 TRANSECT 111111111111111 I I I I I I I I I I URBAN
RURAL ZONES URBAN ZONES

0
0
0
0
0
~~~~~u ~-41""'1~bl::ar?~'7'!'r~P7";_~x_i\."}.......!,...,"-? ~0000~::n=l'{J 0
@.~~~~~.l.~-0~~~ Yod,l-1n ,J.,').,~'.!.~~'"1.:-n-,.....!."1..'lai4----- 0
0
0

T1 NATURAL T2 RURAL T3 SUBURBAN T4 GENERAL URBAN T5 URBAN CENTER T6 URBAN CORE

FIG uRE 2. 31 Illustration of the Transect system. (Modified for color, courtesy Duany Plater-Zyberk & Company.)

category in most neighborhoods. General Urban is primarily The regulating plan is similar to a Euclidean zoning map.
residential, but more urban in character (somewhat higher The regulating plan identifies each parcel with a classification
density with a mix of housing types and a slightly greater mix similar to Euclidean's zoning districts. The difference, though,
of uses allowed). is in the form-based code standards. The regulating plan zones
At the urban end of the spectrum are two categories which correspond to the Transect and are organized around the cat-
are primarily mixed use: urban center (this can be a small egories of the Transect. Sometimes instead of a zone, the regu-
neighborhood center or a larger town center, the latter serv- lating plan may depict a frontage type on the map and include
ing more than one neighborhood) and urban core (serving setback lines. The frontage type then corresponds to the cat-
the region-typically a central business district). The urban egories of the Transect. The form-based code standards have
core is the most urban zone on the Transect. specific regulations that apply to each zone or frontage type.
The form -based code document is similar to the Euclidean In addition to providing specific information on the devel-
zoning document. Both ordinances are legislative texts that opment parameters for each parcel, the overall regulating plan
are a separately published title or chapter in the jurisdic- shows how each lot or project relates to the surrounding neigh-
tion's code of laws. If a jurisdiction has both Euclidean and borhood. The regulating plan may identify additional regula-
form-based zoning, these documents will usually be located tions and/or special circumstances for specific locations. The
together in the zoning ordinance. The biggest differences in overlay districts, which were previously defined in this chap-
the documents, however, is that the Euclidean zoning ordi- ter, may be included on a form-based code regulating plan. It
nance is mostly text and in a longer document, while the is common for an overlay, such as a historic district overlay, to
form-based code is highly illustrative and usually is a shorter be included on top of the zones on the regulating plan.
document. For example, Figure 2.3J is the regulating plan for Flag-
Form-based codes generally include the regulating plan, staff, Arizona. This plan utilizes Transect categories as zoning
public space standards, building form standards, administra- classifications, shown as T3 to T6. Each zoning district is fur-
tion, definitions, and may include other standards. ther described in the city's form-based code. The subsequent
Regulating Plan. The regulating plan graphically shows, map, in Figure 2.3K, is the street regulating plan for Beaufort,
applies, and places the regulations and standards established South Carolina. This plan prescribes the allowable street sec-
in a form-based code. It provides a public space master plan tion. Geometric requirements for each street section focus on
with specific information on development parameters for character, lane widths, sidewalk elements, necessity of bike
each parcel within. The regulating plan is the map for the lanes and other elements. An example of street sections from
area that depicts the zones where the different form-based the Beaufort, SC plan are provided in Figure 2.31.
code standards apply. The area may be the entire jurisdic- Public Space Standards. The public space standards are the
tion, or it is common for jurisdictions to utilize form-based first form-based code standards that apply to the zones (or
codes for specific areas, such as a downtown. The regulating frontage types) denoted on the regulating plan. These stan-
plan may include subareas within the overall area. Different dards help to define the streetscape, or street-space, for the
subareas may have different form-based code standards and form-based code area. This ensures a coherent streetscape
specific regulations for each subarea. In addition, there may throughout and assists developers to understand the relation-
be a more detailed regulating plan for each subarea. ship between the public space and their own building.
 2.3 ■ ZONING 59

- T4 Neighborhood 1 Open (T4N.1-O)

- TS Main Street (TS)
- TS Main Street Open (TS-O)
- T6 Downtown (T6)
Feet
0 1,000 2,000

FIG uRE 2. 3 J Flagstaff, Arizona, regulating plan.

The public space standards establish the rules, stan- Building Form Standards. The building form standards are
dards, and recommendations for the public realm, espe- the next form-based code standards that apply to the zones
cially streets and sidewalks. This identifies the basic (or frontage types) denoted on the regulating plan. These stan-
configurations and street type specifications by address- dards shape the streetscape through placement and form con-
ing vehicular traffic lane widths, curb radii, sidewalk trols on buildings. They are intended to ensure that proposed
dimensions, and on-street parking configurations. This development is compatible with existing and future develop-
also defines the parameters for the streetscape including ment on neighboring properties and produces an environ-
the placement of street trees, sidewalks, and other ameni- ment of desirable character. The standards establish basic
ties or furnishings. parameters governing building form, including the envelope
More information about open spaces, or civic spaces, for building placement, and certain permitted or required
identified on the regulating plan will be included in the pub- building elements as they frame the streetscape, such as win-
lic space standards. dows, doors, stoops, balconies, front porches and street walls.
&o i@U4fi iiffll@i@IH

...

••
Historic District/ I
I
I
I
I
I

j •
STREET NETWORK DIAGRAM - EXISTING, NEW ADOPTED, AND NEW PROPOSED STREETS- SECTOR 1 AND PORTIONS OF SECTORS 2 AND 4

LEGEND
Major Thoroughfare Avenue Parkway
Boulevard Neighborhood Street 1 - General Low Impact Road
Main Street 1 - Primary Neighborhood Street 2 - Yield Rural Road
Main Street 2 - Limited Neighborhood Street 3 - Lane Military Roads
Commercial Alley Rear Lane Other (specific street section)
FIG uRE 2. 3 K Beaufort, South Carolina, street regulating plan.
 2.3 ■ ZONING 61

C.6.7 Boundary St. 28 -

East of Ribaut Road
(ST: 66 ft - 76 ft)

•Boundary Street (from Ribaut Road to Carteret Street) -

intended to be applied as a final Phase 2 condition in the
Specific Applicability redevelopment of the Boundary Street corridor. The preliminary
phase condition is illustrated in "Boundary St. 2A" above.

Curb Type Curb

Right-of-Way Width 66 to 76 feet
40'
Traffic Lanes
2 lanes (10 to 14 feet each)
{Pavement Width)
Movement
Slow (25 MPH)
(Design Speed)
Parking Lanes (Width) 2 sides parallel parking (7 to 8 feet each)
Bike Facilities _____
Sh_a_rr_ows~(_10_t_o_14_f_eet_sh_a_re_d_la_ne_s~)_ _ _ _ 5x5 PLANTER
Sidewalk (Width) 2 sides (16 feet each) SIDEWALK---<"'
Planter Type (Width) Tree wells (5 feet by 5 feet) DECORATIVE _______.,
Street Trees 40 feet on-center max., overstory; STREET LIGHT
24 feet on-center max., understory or palms

6'
10'-14' 10'-14' 7'-8( '16'
66'-76' , '

C.6.8 Burton Hill Rd.

(BLVD: 100 ft)
•Burton Hill Road - entire length; This ambitious street
section was designed due to the purpose this road
serves. It links residential neighborhoods to higher
intensity commercial and industrial development. A
private developer will be required to install the entire
street section only if developing a whole block -
bound by perpendicular streets on both the north and PARALLEL
Specific Applicability PARKING
south edge of the development - along Burton Hill 40'
Road. If developing less than one block, the only
portion required to be installed, per table 7.1.3, are
the portions of the street section behind the curb,
on whichever side of the road the development is
located on.

Curb Type Curb

20'
Right-of-Way Width 100 feet
Traffic Lanes
2 lanes (11 feet each)
(Pavement Width)
Movement
(Design Speed) Slow (25 MPH)

Parking Lanes (Width) 2 sides parallel parking (8 feet)

Bike Facilities Multi-use path (one side only)
Sidewalk (Width) Sidewalk on west side (5 feet),
Multi-use path on east side (1 Ofeet)
Planter Type (Width) Planting strip (8 feet) & Planted median (16 feet)
Street Trees 40 feet on-center average

'" 7' , _5', 8' , 8' , 16' , 11' , 8' , 8' , 10' , 7' l
100'

FIG uRE 2. 3 L Example specific street sections from the street regulating plan of Beaufort, SC.
&2 i@U4fi iiffll@i@IH
Building form standards also ensure that the buildings station is shown in Figure 2.3M. This building, for example,
cooperate to create a functioning, sustainable, block structure. establishes requirements for visibility of fuel stations and
The established boundaries (the building envelope) within maximum number of pumps.
which development can occur ensures that the buildings More information about parking, allowable uses, signage,
relate to each other and form a functioning and consistent and other building standards may be included within the
block structure. This may include information on allowed building form standards.
building types, frontage style standards, and block standards, Administration and Definitions. An administration section
depending on the jurisdiction. These standards aim for the is commonly included within the form-based code. This
minimum level of control necessary to meet those goals. includes information on the jurisdiction's application process
The building form standards may include rules for devel- and the typical review process for plan approval. More specific
opment and redevelopment on private lots. This includes details about the form-based code process are also included.
regulation of private frontages, the components of a building A definitions section is included at the end of a form-based
that provide an important transition and interface between code with a list of key terms to help understand the code.
the public realm (streetscape) and the private realm (yard or Form-based codes are intended to be easy to understand and
building). An example of building form standards for a fuel easy to follow (compared to Euclidean zoning ordinances).

GAS/FUEL STATION DIAGRAMS

example- store located on street (top);

sketch view plan view -detached liners
pitched canopy(bottom)
A. Description: This building type contains a series of fuel pumps in conjunction with a
convenience or retail store.
B. Building and Fueling Station Requirements
l. Specific to T5-UC
a. The nw11ber of pumps shall be limited to 3 - a maximum of ix fueling position
in the Historic District and 6 pumps elsewhere.
b. The fueling stations hall be located behind the convenience tore or a Liner
Building. Outside of the Historic District, the fueling cations may be located to the
ide of the convenience store or Liner Building with the following provi ion :
1. The building shall be located on a comer
ii. The pump hall be set back a minimum of 10 feet from the front line of the
building
111. The shore ide of the pumps hall be parallel to the Primary Street - ee Street
Hierarchy Diagram in Appendix C
1v. The frontage build-out percentage shall be met by the convenience score and/or
Liner Building
v. Fueling stations shall not be located between the building and the adjacent street
c. One or more pedestrian entries shall be located along the Primary Street frontage.
FIG uRE 2. 3M Beaufort, SC example of building form standards.
 2.3 ■ ZONING 63

Other Standards. Other form-based code standards may these zoning types to separate uses and ensure compatible uses,
be included in a form-based code that apply to the zones (or while others use zoning as a specific tool to promote growth.
frontage types) denoted on the regulating plan. These are Zoning techniques are different types of tools that can be
more detailed standards that support the code to achieve the useful in addressing different goals with the community. A
community goals. It depends on the jurisdiction what stan- comprehensive plan may recommend, through the land use
dards they include in their form-based code. Additional com- plan, to allow for higher density and the zoning ordinance will
mon standards include architectural standards, landscaping be utilized to achieve this goal. For example, a jurisdiction with
standards, signage standards, and environmental standards. a new bus rapid transit line may allow for the revitalization of
an old, low-density industrial park. Their comprehensive plan
Architectural standards: Architectural standards are used will recommend transit oriented developments at that loca-
to achieve a coherent and high-quality building design tion, and the zoning can then adopt this recommendation into
throughout the form-based code area. These standards the ordinance. The jurisdiction can achieve new development
govern a building's exterior elements and set the param- and the community will grow because of the cooperation
eters for allowable materials, configurations, and tech- between the comprehensive plan and zoning. Every situation
niques. This may include information on massing, facade is different so it is important to be aware of the comprehensive
composition, windows and doors. plan and to understand the local jurisdiction's zoning.
Landscaping standards: Landscape standards control
landscape design and vegetation materials on property as
2.3.4. Rezoning Overview
they impact the streetscape. Some jurisdictions will pre- The development program of a project frequently differs from
scribe allowable tree species and quantity of trees required. the land use allowed by the zoning district in which the prop-
erty is located. Consequently, the property may be rezoned to
Signage standards: Signage standards ensure that signs achieve a more favorable zone during the entitlement process,
reinforce the existing and envisioned character of the which is introduced in Chapter 2.4. The rezoning will occur
community. They control allowable signage sizes, mate- early in the land development design process before any proj-
rials, illumination, and placement. ect plans can be produced and development can proceed.
Environmental standards: Environmental standards To accomplish a rezone, the developer must demonstrate,
control issues such as stormwater runoff, steep slopes, through analytic and legislative procedures, that the proposed
tree protection, conservation and preservation, zoning is suitable for the property and that the proposed use is
viewsheds, and others. appropriate for the community. This usually requires confor-
mance with the jurisdiction's comprehensive plan. Even when
Implementation. Form-based codes can be implemented the comprehensive plan recommendations support the zoning
in a jurisdiction by being mandatory, optional, or floating. It change, the developer must earn the support of the public for
is important to understand and follow the requirements of a project that might dramatically alter their community, which
the local jurisdiction. can be a formidable task. The site engineer should anticipate,
respect, and accommodate community input.
Mandatory: Mandatory form-based codes are required
From the developer's perspective, the most prevalent rea-
to be followed. The existing Euclidean zoning has been
son for rezoning is to increase the land use intensity for higher
removed and replaced by the form-based code.
yield and greater profit potential or change the use to meet
Optional: Optional form-based codes, also known as development goals. Developing a tract to the maximum den-
parallel codes, exist alongside the Euclidean zoning. In this sity permitted by its existing zoning does not necessarily mean
case, the form-based code may be an overlay in a specific profits to the developer. In fact, in some instances, develop-
area of the jurisdiction. But in that area, both types of zon- ment at existing zoning is not economically feasible. In a typi-
ing are available. The developer is able to decide if they want cal economic market, the highest and best use of a property is
to follow the Euclidean zoning or the form-based code. a critical factor in setting land value and prices. This land value
is established based on the scarcity of developable land and the
Floating: Floating form-based codes are available but
demand for property of similar potential.
only become fixed through the rezoning process.
The community's comprehensive plan and zoning ordi-
nance play an important role in determining and subsequently
2.3.3. Zoning Techniques obtaining the highest and best use. For example, a commu-
It is important to note that the types and techniques to admin- nity's comprehensive plan might suggest that a 20-acre parcel
ister zoning are used differently by jurisdictions, and sometimes of land located near a commercial area should be developed
are different within a community itself There may even be mul- at a multifamily residential density of 15 dwelling units to the
tiple types of zoning within a jurisdiction. Euclidean zoning may acre. Although existing zoning allows one dwelling per acre,
exist throughout the community, but form-based codes may based on the comprehensive plan recommendation, the land's
be along one specific corridor that is in redevelopment. Some highest and best use becomes multifamily; this instance rep-
jurisdictions may offer incentives, allow for negotiations, and/or resents a great case for rezoning. The land use value is based
require proffers. In addition, some jurisdictions simply use on the demand for multifamily development, the scarcity of
&4 i@U4fi iiffll@i@IH
multifamily zoned land and the potential yield of the land. Standard application forms and information checklists
The developer's successful rezoning effort is essential to the are usually available from the municipality's planning or
subsequent purchase of the land. zoning office. Public notice may be required by way of certi-
Other motivations exist for seeking rezoning approval. As fied mailings and posting signs at the property. The notices
noted in Chapter 2.2, comprehensive plans often set a range of generally contain information regarding the proposed use,
densities and uses, rather than set a finite density. In evaluating scheduled public hearings, and the responsible staff person
the plan to determine potential uses, the developer's feasibility of the coordinating agency.
analysis may suggest land uses for which there is considerable The applicant must follow legislated administrative proce-
market demand in the area. The situation may exist where an dure to the letter as adversary groups can delay or terminate
intended use may be more compatible to the surrounding area projects where proper notice has not been given. State legis-
than existing uses or uses permitted by existing zoning. As lation generally mandates that action of the decision -making
an example, a suburban office park with high vacancies may body must be completed within a certain specified time
be better suited for residential development. A rezone from period including the holding of public hearings required and
commercial office to residential would allow for more oppor- the specific findings relating to the application.
tunities of development. Further, the developer may wish to Public Presentations. The development team may make
rezone because of a preference or bias for a particular type of initial public presentations at civic association or neighbor-
development. For instance, a residential home builder would hood group meetings. These presentations will educate the
not be interested in a commercial property, but a rezone to res- public on the project and the rezoning, and gain their confi-
idential would allow for the construction of new townhomes. dence and support in the project proposal. The development
Success in the rezoning process depends in part on the tech- team is there to listen to the support and concerns from the
nical analyses performed by the developer's team. Consider- citizens and to devise solutions for the negotiation details.
ation of the rezoning proposal, however, frequently takes place Facts, figures, and graphics should be prepared to sup-
in a politically and emotionally charged atmosphere. Private port the statements made at all meetings. In view of the vari-
sector motivations, including the development and business ous levels of understanding of the project and local process of
community, and public sector policies often come into conflict the audience, graphics should be simple and easy to read. The
with each other and local citizens' concerns and desires. development team should be flexible and, consequently, pre-
It is important to note that the design team will become sentation graphics should imply that flexibility. The graphics
involved with the interpretation and application of zoning must be prepared and reflect honesty, and they must be drawn
ordinances and comprehensive plans. These interpretations in such a manner as to imply accommodation to change.
are central to evaluation of the development for approval. The The development team should be prepared with answers
rezoning process represents a major up-front expense to the to issues that are increasingly common. Perhaps the most fre-
land developer and comes with few guarantees that the goals quent issue is neighboring residents' concern regarding the
of that investment will be realized. In view of the legal require- compatibility of the proposed project with existing commu-
ments of rezoning, the development team relies heavily on its nity. Concerns about traffic congestion are also high on the
legal consultants throughout the process. The attorneys in the list of neighborhood objections to new projects. Sometimes,
legal team are an essential component of the development team. those objections are withdrawn when commitments are made
With the advice of an experienced land use/zoning attorney, a to change the proposal or provide concessions to the commu-
developer ensures that technical procedures are adhered to and nity. For example, a developer may proffer the construction of
that government actions are consistent with the requirements a new traffic signal to accommodate the increased traffic vol-
oflocal, state, and federal laws. During the rezoning process, it umes of a new retail site. As with all design modifications, the
is typical for the legal advisors to take the lead. cost of the proposed improvement must be balanced against
Rezoning Process. A rezoning application will be provided expected return or investment. However, if incorporating the
by the local jurisdiction. After that is submitted, initial public changes means that the plan is more likely to win the support
presentations may be required to inform the public about the of the community and can be made more marketable at the
project. Finally, a formal public hearing with the local plan- same time, rezoning approval is more likely to be granted.
ning commission is required where a decision (or recommen- After initial meetings, the development team should eval-
dation to board of supervisors) on the rezoning will be made. uate comments. Analysis will include the practical and finan-
Review of the Application Submittal. The review proce- cial costs of modifying the plan proposal. All parties will not
dures of the rezoning application vary, depending on state be satisfied with the final plan. However, if the majority of
enabling legislation, local development ordinances, and cus- the people can be satisfied and the development team has
toms and practices. In general, applications are prepared in made a legitimate attempt to accommodate outstanding
accordance with specific development ordinance standards issues, the project stands a reasonable chance for approval.
that specify graphic information that must be included and
the format for presenting the proposal. Such information usu- 2.3.5. The Public Hearing
ally includes extensive analysis and studies addressing pos- The public hearing scheduled by the planning commission,
sible impacts of the new development on the community and zoning hearing examiner, and/or decision-making body is
the demand for additional public services that it will generate. often the only formal opportunity for the development team
 2.3 ■ ZONING 65

to directly address the decision-making body to discuss their process and can significantly delay a project, compounding
intentions and the merits of the application. In addition, this the lengthy rezoning process. The combined amendment and
forum provides citizens with an opportunity to express their rezone may prove to be extremely costly to a developer.
opinions about the project. For instance, consider a site that is currently zoned as low
The meeting sessions during which development appli- density and the comprehensive plan recommends a medium
cation-related public hearings are held are lengthy in many density, but the developer wants a high density. The devel-
jurisdictions. For the governing body, the public hearings oper will have to initiate a comprehensive plan amendment
may be part of an even longer agenda reflecting their role in to change the comprehensive plan from medium density to
managing the municipality. These public hearings frequently allow for a high density. Then the developer would have to
run for hours, as participants in each case present testimony rezone the property from low density to high density. Each
reflecting their position on the application. of these steps can take several months or years to obtain
Members of the commission or governing body usually approval, and this must be completed before any project
are given a packet of materials prior to their meeting reflect- plans can be produced.
ing the day's agenda. These information packets are often
lengthy, with endless photocopies of development applica- 2.3.6. How to Use the Zoning Ordinance and Map
tions, maps and plans, engineering analyses, traffic studies, Most zoning ordinances can be found online, as well as their
staff analyses, and recommendations as well as letters of amendments, at the local jurisdiction's website. The accom-
support and opposition. Members often engage in lengthy panying zoning map can also be found online, usually with
debate when discussing a rezoning application. the zoning ordinance link.
The legislative or governing body normally renders its Many communities adopt text amendments on a continu-
final decision at the close of the hearing. Their decision ing basis as the government responds to development trends
will be based on the information presented by the appli- or constituents' issues. If an amendment exists for the zoning
cant, advice from the staff, and commissions and testimony ordinance, they may be published separately from the primary
from the citizens. If it is believed that continued negotiations document. The development team must use the most current
between the developer and the opposing groups can achieve version of the zoning ordinance and should be familiar with
greater accord, the public hearing or decision may be contin- the terminology used by the jurisdiction.
ued or deferred to a later date. The land development team must be familiar with the
The outcome of the vote is contingent upon the response ordinance and terminology of the region where a project is
of the citizens and how sympathetic the board or zoning planned. Most zoning ordinances will have a section for defi-
administrator is toward the project. It is imperative that the nitions, where key terms are defined by the jurisdiction. Again,
development team proceed through the various stages by the it is important to remember the terminology may vary across
book, for example, all applications at the state level and local localities, such as the term "building height" may be a measure
level filled out and properly submitted and proper notifica- from the lowest point of the building in one jurisdiction but
tion given. The negotiation and hearing process for a rezone might be measured from average grade around the building in
may take several months and possibly several years depend- another jurisdiction. The definitions of a use may also differ
ing on the complexity of the project and the number of citizen across jurisdictions, and may be subject to interpretation.
groups involved. The developer should anticipate this time Additionally, interpretations of the ordinance may need
frame and establish the purchase contract accordingly. to be documented. An interpretation provides clarification
The governing body often suggests or imposes conditions of any text that was noted as ambiguous. For example, the
or modifications that the developer must incorporate into code may require that one tree is planted along a road for
its proposal subsequent to final certification of the rezoning every 50 feet of new road centerline. This could mean one
application. Further, it may direct the applicant to establish tree on each side of the road every 50 feet, or an average of
communication with neighborhood groups to resolve out- one tree per 50 feet of roadway (100 feet separation on each
standing differences, deferring its decision until the proposal side). An interpretation of the ordinance would serve to doc-
is modified. Zoning ordinances usually establish procedures ument the resolution of the ambiguity so that it is enforced
for anyone aggrieved by the decision of the governing body consistently. Ideally, the zoning ordinance is later clarified to
to appeal that decision in the court system. A waiting period remove the ambiguity.
is often established after an approval is granted in order to Development Program. When considering sites during
allow appeals to be filed. Once this statutory period passes, the due diligence of the site selection process, it is crucial to
the rezoning stands final. understand what each property is zoned as. This will require
Comprehensive Plan Amendment. The rezoning must be reading the zoning ordinance to see what kind of zone it is,
consistent with the local jurisdiction's existing comprehensive what the allowable uses are, zoning dimensional standards,
plan. If not, then a comprehensive plan amendment may be and other regulations contained in the ordinance. This will
required before the rezoning process can be initiated. A com - define the development potential of the site.
prehensive plan amendment, as described in Chapter 2.2, is a The development program must be considered with the
change to the comprehensive plan that a developer can utilize property's zoning. A favorable zoning will allow for an eas-
to achieve a more favorable condition. This can be a lengthy ier approval process. Choosing a residential property for a
66 i@U4fi iiffll@i@IH
commercial development, on the other hand, would require These differences not only affect the number of public offi-
a rezone that could prove costly for the developer. Likewise, cials and agencies the development team must encounter, but
choosing a site zoned under a form-based code or initiating also the level of scrutiny given to the proposed rezoning doc-
a PUD, may allow for more flexibility for the project. This uments or development plans. As the government's size and
could be great for the development program, as long as the structure grows so does the potential for conflict between its
developer is prepared for additional up-front costs. Each administrative and elected officials. Each official or depart-
zone must be thoroughly considered during due diligence to ment manager reviews rezoning and development proposals
best achieve the development program. with a different constituency or agenda in mind. Each has
Jurisdictional Challenges. It is common for a developer competing needs and generates competing conclusions. The
and their team to operate in several jurisdictions. Conse- environmental staff may not agree with the transportation
quently, they will encounter a broad variety of plans, ordi- staff as they review a plan that widens a roadway by impact-
nances, regulations, policies, and procedures that all can ing undeveloped land. These conflicts bear directly on the
affect project design, economics, and plan approval. time it takes to secure zoning approval.
Figure 2.3N, depicts the Washington, D.C., metropoli- As a jurisdiction matures, political or civic leaders often
tan area surrounded by two states: Maryland and Virginia. demand more exacting standards for development and
Each state operates under a different legislative process and construction. The government responds by tailoring zon-
constitutional mandate. Within those two states, there are 13 ing regulations and procedures to address new priorities.
adjacent or nearby counties, 4 major cities, and a significant Sometimes, these new rules and standards take effect even
number of independent towns and villages of varying sizes. while a proposed zoning project is well underway. These new
Each of the jurisdictions of the region is unique in its eco- standards and/ or regulations, coupled with increased review
nomic base, its citizens' attitudes, and its government's pri- time and sometimes circuitous approval procedures, can
orities. Perhaps more to the point, each of these jurisdictions, increase the future land development costs dramatically. The
within the metropolitan area, has its own unique set of com- land development team must frequently adjust design and
prehensive plans and zoning regulations. The breadth and construction budgets during the rezoning process.
expansion of the Washington market is not unique; similar Given these differences, the site engineer must become
situations exist in numerous metropolitan areas. familiar with the comprehensive plan, and also the zoning
Differences in a local government's size, budget, and staff documents and other regulations, in effect in each jurisdic-
also have broad implications for the development team. tion within which the professional operates; otherwise plans
and/ or proposals may not win government approval. It is the
site engineer to whom the developer looks to be an expert on
local policies and the controls applicable to each new project.
Even site engineers with prior local government work expe-
rience must keep track of newly evolving priorities, policies,
regulations, and standards.
As government workload increases and operating funds
decrease, development review staffs are forced to limit their
efforts to technical review. They are unable to devote con-
siderable time or energy to shepherd applicants through the
jurisdiction's regulations or review procedures. This places
a heavier burden on the site engineer to develop indepen-
dence and expertise in the local land development review
and approval process. The plan reviewers are not responsible
for plan conformance-the site engineer and applicant bear
that responsibility. If noncompliance or nonconformance is
identified late in the design process, it can have a detrimental
impact on project schedule, design, and cost.
Developing a clear understanding of local plans, poli-
cies, and requirements may seem a monumental task. It is
impractical for one person to be sufficiently familiar with all
local regulatory programs in the region. Acquiring an overall
familiarity with the basic structure of government function
and regulations makes it easier to assimilate this information.

REFERENCE
Form Based Code Institute website, http://www.formbasedcodes
FIG uRE 2. 3 N Jurisdictions in the Washington, D.C., metropolitan area. .org/, accessed October 2007.
 CHAPTER 2.4
SUBDIVISION ORDINANCE, REVIEW
PROCESS, BUILDING CODES, AND
DEVELOPMENT COSTS

2.4.1. Introduction projects and ensuring the safety and structural integrity of
In addition to the comprehensive plan and zoning ordi- proposed buildings. In many jurisdictions, site plans are syn-
nance, development is subject to other local regulations. onymous with subdivision plans and require only an admin-
These should be evaluated during the pre-design stage to istrative review. In contrast, some jurisdictions require site
ensure project success. First is the subdivision ordinance, plans to undergo greater scrutiny of not only an adminis-
which is similar to the zoning ordinance by establishing a trative staff review, but also the governing body, with public
legal requirement for conformance. A primary focus of the hearings as part of a very formal approval process.
subdivision ordinance is the modification to parcels through The underlying purposes of land use ordinances dis-
subdividing a large parcel into smaller parcels or by con- cussed within this chapter are to protect the community at
solidating multiple parcels. Therefore, when considering the large from negative impacts of a forthcoming development
feasibility of a project, it is important to first determine if a and to ensure that time tested standards are honored in the
subdivision or consolidation of the property will be required construction of new structures. Like comprehensive plans
to achieve the project goals. The subdivision ordinance also and zoning documents, a great deal of effort is required to
provides additional requirements to guide development implement and enforce subdivision ordinances, site plan
in the jurisdiction. In addition, the subdivision ordinance approval, and building permits. Local governments are
defines the review process of site plans for the jurisdiction. invested in this effort because they retain a vested interest
Other regulations to consider that could affect a project are in knowing that its residents and business operators are pro-
building codes and associated development costs imposed by vided with safe, durable, and efficient developments. Land
a jurisdiction. is an exhaustible resource and its development is a primary
A site plan, the development design document, demon- generator of revenues needed to provide public services and
strates conformance with subdivision ordinance and other maintain fiscal health. Government, therefore, assumes an
development regulations. The site plan must be reviewed important role in protecting that resource and ensuring that
and approved as part of the subdivision process. Its form development projects remain marketable and a continued
and purpose are usually prescribed in the various ordi- community asset.
nances administered in the community, and the level of
detail required may vary among ordinances even within a 2.4.2. Subdivision Ordinance
single locality. Like the zoning ordinance, the subdivision ordinance is a
Together, site plans and building codes play an impor- legislative text that is adopted by a local jurisdiction and is
tant role in assuring proper review of proposed development included within the jurisdiction's code oflaws. Sometimes the

67
&a i@U4fi iiffll@i@IH
subdivision ordinance is included alongside or with the zoning police powers. They are intended to protect the health, safety,
ordinance. It is important to note the difference between zon- and welfare of its citizens and facilitate community growth
ing and subdivision ordinances: whereas zoning ordinances in a controlled manner. Subdivision regulations are an
regulate the permitted use of the land and the spatial relation- important mechanism to ensure that proposed development
ships of those uses, subdivision ordinances specify the poli- complies with the requirements of the zoning ordinance. In
cies, procedures, and standards by which the infrastructure addition, the subdivision ordinances provide protection to
systems necessary to support the use are physically created. purchasers and users by ensuring that subdivided lots are
In 1928, the U.S. Department of Commerce created the suitable for their intended purpose.
Standard City Planning Enabling Act and granted local A subdivision plan must be submitted and approved by
municipalities the right to regulate the subdivision of land the jurisdiction to allow for the subdivision or consolidation.
to "provide for the proper arrangement of streets in relation This plan includes a plat that shows the original boundary
to other existing or planned streets and to the master plan, survey of the parcel (to be discussed in Chapter 3.2) and
for adequate and convenient open spaces for traffic, utilities, the proposed subdivided (or consolidated) parcel. Any open
access of fire-fighting apparatus, recreation, light and air, and space parcels, requisite easements, or right-of-way dedica-
for the avoidance of congestion of population, including min- tions for public infrastructure improvements are also shown
imum width and area of lots" (Department of Commerce). in this plan. The production of a subdivision plat is usually
Items such as grading, utility construction, and bonding were performed by a surveyor in coordination with the site engi-
also established as a part of the act and were permitted to be neer. This occurs after schematic designs are produced but
conditions precedent for subdivision plat approval. before final construction documents are completed (as are
As a condition of plat approval, municipalities use these described in Chapters 4 and 5). Figure 2.4A shows an origi-
subdivision ordinances to control street patterns, clustering nal boundary survey for a site and then a proposed subdivi-
of housing, placement of public infrastructure, and availabil- sion plat.
ity of open space. As subdivision ordinances evolved, approv- Development Standards Manual. The Development Stan-
als for land subdivision included exaction requirements and dards Manual is often included with the subdivision ordi-
finally the addition of impact fees. These are discussed later nance. This manual may be a section contained in the
in this chapter with development costs. Subdivision approv- ordinance or an independent/separate document. The
als are also tied to adequate public facility requirements for manual may be referred to as a Design Standards Manual,
schools and water, sewer, police, and fire-protection services. Engineering Standards Manual, Facilities Standards Manual,
Finally, the latest addition to many subdivision requirements Manual of Standard Specifications, Manual of Practice, or
is the allocation of perpetual easements that set aside natural some other variation depending on the jurisdiction. The
resource areas for public benefit. Development Standards Manual is a supplement to the sub-
Subdivision Plan. The subdivision of land, as defined by division ordinance to guide development in the jurisdiction.
most local subdivision ordinances, is the division of land In addition to being required for projects under subdivi-
into two or more parcels. In addition, most ordinances also sion plan review, some zoning ordinances require compli-
cover the consolidation of parcels into larger areas. Jurisdic- ance with the Development Standards Manual as well (more
tions may include condominium and cooperative owner- information is provided with site plan review later in this
ship as forms of division where both horizontal and vertical chapter). It provides policies, standards, and design details
divisions may take place. In these cases, both the land and for the various methods and requirements for construction
building may be subdivided. Long-term leaseholds are also within the jurisdiction.
frequently included in the definition as well. The Development Standards Manual performs several
As an example, a developer may be interested in purchas- specific functions. Of paramount importance is the adoption of
ing a large tract to construct a new residential community. The design, construction, and material standards for facilities that
zoning may allow for the proposed use (single-family homes), serve and support the project and continued development of
but as a single tract ofland the property is suited for only one the larger community. In many cases, the Development Stan-
home. A developer may subdivide the land so that it still con- dards Manual will reference national or state design regulations
forms with the zoning but establishes additional lots for more and details. Although jurisdictions vary on the listing of
homes. The zoning ordinance may identify the minimum lot systems addressed by their development standards, the most
size for the use, but it will be the subdivision ordinance that typical features, systems, and facilities are listed below:
will set requirements on the geometric configuration of the
new lots, the design standards for roads within the subdivi- • Street design
sion, tree preservation requirements, utility requirements for
• Parking geometry
the community, and other design conditions.
Local governing bodies impose standards and procedures • Lot size and geometry
for the subdivision ofland with the adoption of regulations in
• Utility design and distribution
the subdivision ordinance. Like the zoning regulations, sub-
division regulations are an exercise of the local government's • Sidewalk and trail design
 2.4 ■ SUBDIVISION ORDINANCE, REVIEW PROCESS, BUILDING CODES, AND DEVELOPMENT COSTS 69

Original Boundary Subdivision

LH PENNETll
l.63053 AC.

ASHLEIGH ROAD

SOLSTICE VIEW PUBLIC SCHOOLS SOLSilCE VIEW PUBLIC SCHOOLS

Cl,ll, 1;)112 PG, 2169
(a) (b)

FIG uRE 2. 4A The above plats show (a) the original boundary survey of the parcel containing a single dwelling unit and (b) the subdivision
plan including eight lots and three (open space) parcels as well as requisite easements and ROW dedications for public infrastructure improvements.
Note: Plats have been modified for content and are intended as illustrative of the subdivision concept.

• Easement requirements costs and avoid costly reconstruction of otherwise less dura-
ble facilities. Maintenance and repair will be made easier
• Signage
because the ordinances provide for a record of the design of
• Well and septic systems roads and drainage facilities. Final construction documents
record the location of most underground utilities. In addi-
• Survey standards
tion, the development standards help achieve continuity and
• Landscape and buffer requirements compatibility of systems. Since a residential or commercial
• Open space requirements subdivision is part of a larger neighborhood and commu-
nity, the infrastructure and public facilities must coincide
• Protection of environmental and historic features efficiently with the entire pattern. Not only must new devel-
• Erosion and sediment control opment connect with the existing community, it must antici-
pate, and in some cases serve, future development.
The Development Standards Manual requirements Public infrastructure design criteria and construction
attempt to offer protection to the consumer, who has a per- standards ensure that the public facilities and transporta-
ception of the quality, design, and functionality of a project. tion network are compatible from one project to the next.
It provides assurance that systems will be adequate and Provisions in the Development Standards Manual address
working at the time of purchase and that the investment is most components of those systems to ensure that individ-
sound relative to public infrastructure. Standards provide for ual projects do not disrupt the community. For instance,
safe and proper design of transportation facilities and other improperly designed and located driveway entrances and
critical public facilities, such as adequate and safe water sup- intersections can create hazardous driving situations, which
ply and sewer capacity. may severely impair the efficiency of the transportation net-
The jurisdiction desires protection because it will own, work. Similarly, stormwater management systems can cause
operate, and maintain many of the infrastructure facilities flooding and damage on both upstream and downstream
provided by the developer. By setting minimum standards, properties if those properties are not considered in the
the jurisdiction can better predict lifecycle maintenance design. Every component of a development project has an
10 i@U4fi iiffll@i@IH
effect on neighboring properties and the surrounding com- designation of the area to be developed. The regulations
munity. During the construction of one project, uncoordi- allow for the categorization of existing and proposed forest
nated development on adjoining properties can have severe areas, which allows for the protection or enhancement of
consequences. higher priority areas over the areas that are deemed lower
Related Development Ordinances. All levels of the devel- priority. The result is that considerable forest areas have
opment community (local, national, and even global) have been protected or reestablished as a part of the subdivision
experienced a heightened concern with respect to the effect process. These types of preservation ordinances are further
ofland use on the environment. To respond to this concern, discussed in Chapter 2.5.
stormwater management ordinances, grading ordinances, These issues and other development ordinances have led
erosion and sediment control ordinances, and resource to an evolution in site planning practices. Sensitive environ-
ordinances have been developed to reduce the impact on mental features now play a more central role in the project
the environment. These related development ordinances are layout. Where they must be preserved, either by regulation
either included as a part of the subdivision ordinance, within or by good design, environmental features are a key factor
the Development Standards Manual, or adopted as an inde- in decisions about project feasibility. Additionally, the site
pendent ordinance. The provisions within require greater engineer must consider the size and placement of perma-
care in both design and construction of site facilities and nent stormwater facilities during the design process. Rather
must be considered early in a project. than being viewed simply as constraints, creative develop-
Local, state, and federal legislators focus on the impacts of ment teams have begun to view environmental features as
land use on both ground and surface water quality and quan- an opportunity to enhance project appeal and marketability.
tity. Water quality has been found to be degraded not only In some regions, the link between land use and the envi-
by sediment runoff, but by the many chemical and metal ronment has been made stronger where the latter's degra-
byproducts of both agricultural and urban activities. Related dation has been shown to threaten a significant economic
to water quantity, continued attention has been focused on resource. Comprehensive programs to protect these fea-
the flooding caused by construction activities, including the tures seek to balance private property development rights
clearing, grading, and subsequent paving required to develop with broad public and economic concerns. Two examples of
land, and the inadequacy of design efforts and regulatory this are in Texas, where protection of groundwater recharge
practices for stormwater and site runoff. areas is a high priority, and in the mid-Atlantic's Chesapeake
Early storm drainage requirements led to the design of Bay region. In the latter case, administrative subdivision
systems intended to collect and discharge site runoff quickly, reviews are being supplemented, and in some cases, sup-
without regard to the downstream property. Recognition of planted with more extensive discretionary reviews. The goal
the negative effects of this type of system for many applica- is to ensure that land disturbing activities are kept to abso-
tions has led to the adoption of stormwater management lute minimums. The land development team must design
ordinances requiring on-site collection, trapping, and slow protective devices with greater efficiency to prevent pollut-
release or infiltration of storm runoff. Stormwater manage- ant and sediment damage.
ment facilities have become a common feature in land devel- How to Use Subdivision Ordinances. It is necessary to
opment, particularly in ecologically sensitive areas or coastal obtain the most current version of the subdivision ordi-
watersheds. Coupled with greater interest in the use of natu- nance. In addition, it is important to identify and compile
ral features, such as wetlands to filter runoff, greater inves- other ordinances, related regulations, or supplemental docu-
tigation on environmental effect, including water quality ments referenced in the subdivision ordinances that control
and quantity, is now required by many communities. These the physical development of land, including the Develop-
effects are further discussed in Chapter 2.5. ment Standards Manual and all related development ordi-
Concern about sediment damage and sediment runoff nances. The community amends all of these ordinances and
from construction activities, other land disturbing activi- documents from time to time, either by administrative or
ties, and agriculture has led to the adoption of grading legislative action with the latter being preferable.
ordinances and erosion and sediment control ordinances. Note the effective dates of ordinances and amendments,
Many jurisdictions also have tree protection, stream pres- as they may have different applications or may exempt preex-
ervation, or other similar resource ordinances. For exam- isting conditions. Policies concerning existing recorded plats
ple, the Mississippi River has an intercounty conservation for otherwise undeveloped subdivisions vary. These plats
regulation for water protection. These resource ordinances sometimes predate even the earliest version of ordinances, or
include water quality regulations that are designed to pro- more restrictive ordinances that might be in effect. Whether
tect existing natural resources by requiring preservation or not a project can proceed and what required public
of existing river buffer areas. Additionally, the ordinances improvements apply varies depending on the jurisdiction. In
may require the creation of new buffers if little or no forest some jurisdictions, plat approvals have an expiration date if
currently exists on a property. Minimum vegetative cover- no development takes place. Grandfathering is an exemption
age thresholds have been established based on the land use granted to projects from later ordinance changes.
 2.4 ■ SUBDIVISION ORDINANCE, REVIEW PROCESS, BUILDING CODES, AND DEVELOPMENT COSTS 71

It is important to identify possible exemptions for certain stage establish yield, floor area ratio, type, size and
types of developments. Among those often excluded are so- location of structures, streets, lots, parking, stormwa-
called "minor" subdivisions that sever one or two parcels from ter facilities, utilities, open space, and landscaping,
a larger tract. An ordinance or a local policy may define a tract and the provision of exactions or proffers for public
using the parcel boundaries as they existed as of a certain date. improvements (see Development Costs later in this
Family conveyance provisions may allow for a certain num- chapter). Entitlement approvals are not a guarantee of
ber of gift lots to be given to immediate family members. The site plan approval, but designate the literal intent or
ordinance may exempt large lot subdivisions and permit estate spirit of what is to be expected during all subsequent
or agricultural use of these properties. Boundary adjustments stages of a project review. The concept and prelimi-
between adjoining properties and divisions caused by govern- nary plans for the entitlement review are developed
ment condemnation are also frequently excluded from full during the conceptual and schematic design stage. See
compliance with subdivision ordinances. Simple plat prepara- Chapter 4 for more information about the production
tion and recordation procedures often apply to these exempted of these plans.
divisions of property; however, minimum standards to protect
Site plan review includes the jurisdictional review
public health and safety may also apply.
of final site plans and/or final subdivision plans (if
When reviewing the subdivision ordinance, determine
applicable). A subdivision review may be required
the procedures for administrative waivers of certain require-
separately. This book focuses on the site plans, which
ments, appeals, and judicial challenges to administrative
include detailed engineering, landscape architec-
or legislative actions by agency personnel or the govern -
ture, and surveying plans. These plans are based on
ing body. Identify provisions for execution of performance
the approvals received during the entitlement review
bonds and bond release procedures. These include prepara-
process. The purpose of this stage is to finalize how
tion of as-built drawings.
each of the development components relates to each
The subdivision ordinance outlines permit processing
other and what will be constructed. The entitlement
requirements that should be verified. Identify sections of the
stage is predominantly planning intensive, while the
ordinance that address site planning and design criteria, con-
site plan stage is engineering intensive. See Chapter 5
struction standards, and permit application requirements.
for more information about producing the final site
Required submission dates, schedules, and fees should also
plan design documents.
be documented. More information about permit processing
is discussed during the review procedures in this chapter as Plat preparation, approval, and recordation in the land
well as in Chapter 6. records occur once development review agencies are
comfortable that all subdivision requirements have been
2.4.3. Review Process appropriately documented in accordance with local
The review procedures for a development project in a juris- development ordinances. More information about these
diction are usually included with the subdivision ordinance required plats is given in Chapter 5.1.
or another development ordinance. In most municipalities, Permit acquisition is the stage in which environmental,
five general stages of review and approval can be expected as a building, and other permits are issued. An approved
part of the development review process. It is important for the final site plan is necessary to acquire these permits. In
developer and development team to recognize that the timing addition, construction cost estimates are approved, and
of the stages can take several months to several years of pro- letters of credit or bonding requirements are fulfilled.
cessing depending on the nature of the project and the admin- Permits are discussed in Chapter 6.1.
istrative requirements of the jurisdiction. Understanding the
development review and approval process a municipality uses Closeout is the final stage of development and entails
cannot be overstated. While the names of the stages are differ- as-built drawings, final construction inspection and
ent in various parts of the country, the underlying intent and approvals, public street acceptance, and the return of
staging is fairly common and proceeds as follows: letters of credit or bond release. See Chapter 6.2 for more
information about closeout.
Entitlement review includes the jurisdictional review
of concept plans (optional in some jurisdictions) and Entitlement Review. Some development projects can
preliminary plans for the purpose of processing one take place without the necessity for an entitlement review.
or more of the following: subdivision plan, compre- Often, though, the entitlement process precedes the
hensive plan amendments, and/or rezoning efforts. detailed final design of a site plan. It should be understood,
This could also include review of special exceptions that approval of an entitlement review is insufficient to ini-
and variances under Euclidean zoning, planned unit tiate construction. Detailed design and structural analyses
development approval under negotiated zoning, a are rarely incorporated to a sufficient degree in the entitle-
form-based code review, and more. Approvals at this ment process.
12 i@U4fi iiffll@i@IH
The engineering analysis performed for a site plan in final compliance with the zoning ordinance and building codes
design often reveals that the assumptions used in the entitle- (to be discussed later in this chapter), assuming that there
ment submittal were insufficient, sometimes are imprecise, is no entitlement review required with the project. Absent
and in some cases incorrect for final design. This is because controlling regulations seen in subdivision ordinances, on-
of the differing level of detail each type of approval requires. site private facilities are designed at the discretion of the land
Because of the risk and expense involved in achieving this development team, with only a cursory review during the
level of accuracy in the entitlement stage with the more spec- building permit stage (as is the case in Houston, Texas).
ulative legislative rezoning application, many land develop- The site plan review may require compliance with sub-
ers are reluctant to incur the costs associated with greater division regulations, including the Development Standards
exactness. Some jurisdiction may accept basic plan submis- Manual. The site plan ordinance for each jurisdiction
sions for entitlement review and processing, while others describes the information that must be shown and the param-
seek a formal commitment on the site design. Modifications eters within which it must be reviewed. In these jurisdictions,
to the site layout or use of the site, after entitlement approval, the site plan review has a special role in securing develop-
may require reprocessing the entitlement application. ment approval. It is neither a technical subdivision plan-type
The entitlement process is not intended to be the approval document given an administrative staff review nor an elabo-
process to begin construction. The entitlement process is rate rezoning application given extensive public hearing by
merely intended to designate the allowed use of the land the governing body. It is somewhere in between, and usually
under the circumstances portrayed in the plans and other applied in circumstances demanding greater control to guard
documents submitted in support of that process. Compared against incompatibility.
to final site plans, the design information included in the In some cases, developments are subject to both the sub-
entitlement process is rudimentary. Much more detailed division and site plan review processes, which may result in
site plans are necessary for permit and construction. These repetitive reviews. In such cases, the subdivision review pro-
detailed engineering site plans must also be approved by pub- cessing is aimed at ensuring compliance with the zoning ordi-
lic agencies prior to the issuance of a permit, as the site plans nance, producing durable records of ownership, and proper
must contain instructions and requirements to be adhered to consideration of fees and exactions. The site plan review pro-
and met by the contractor to ensure protection of the public. cess provides control of on- and off-site infrastructure, access,
Each jurisdiction has administrative requirements and and other features to ensure compatibility and connection
procedures that govern the various site plan submittals, which with the larger environment.
are usually contained within the subdivision ordinance. Fail- In Montgomery County, Maryland, for example, the site
ure to follow these requirements can at best result in a delay plan review is used when the zoning ordinance specifies some
in the site plan's approval. It is possible for the site plan to be discretionary authority in the physical arrangement of a proj-
disapproved if it fails to adhere to the administrative require- ect. One of the county's ordinances, for instance, calls for the
ments that a jurisdiction desires to see in the design informa- mandatory provision of affordable housing in projects with
tion. Most jurisdictions welcome a pre-application meeting more than 50 dwelling units with an automatic density bonus.
with staff so that the types of site plans needed and the appli- Normally, a site with residential zoning would only require
cation process are understood. More information about the subdivision and construction plans, approved administratively.
submission process is given in Chapter 4.1. However, the increased density triggers the requirement for a
The land development design process is often lengthy and site plan review. This gives the professional staffand the county's
arduous. This is especially true in developing urban areas. Planning Board greater leeway to consider a project's internal
Some minor development plans take as long or longer to physical arrangement and relationship to its neighbors.
follow the review process than it has taken to develop the The Montgomery County, Maryland, process contrasts
design. The time schedule for the review process needs to be with nearby Arlington County, Virginia. In Arlington County,
considered when planning a land development project. This as part of the approval process, both the Planning Commission
will avoid costly surprises and provide a realistic timeframe and County Board review the site plans and hold public hear-
under which the client can anticipate approvals and the abil- ings. Although the county is limited in the off-site improve-
ity to procure required permits. ments that it can require from the developer, site plans are
Site Plan Review. After the entitlement review, the site given much the same public scrutiny as a rezoning application.
plan review is required by the jurisdiction for permit issu- Again, it depends on the local jurisdiction and their
ance. This review ensures that projects are accorded the review process if they require and how they administer the
same level of review and are subject to the same standards site plan review. Some municipalities even require several lev-
of performance as subdivision plans and meet jurisdictional els of review within their site plan review process. This book
requirements. These plan reviews are intended to verify con- assumes that the site plan review is required. However, in gen-
formance, and not meant to provide a formal constructability eral, this book refers to "site plans" as the design documents,
review-that responsibility falls on the professional engineer. not the review process. Site plan review will be explicitly stated
In communities without site plan review authority, when being discussed. More information about produc-
the only requirement for development may be to show ing site plan design documents is given in Chapter 5. More
 2.4 ■ SUBDIVISION ORDINANCE, REVIEW PROCESS, BUILDING CODES, AND DEVELOPMENT COSTS 73

information about submitting these plans for final review is building plans have been established nationwide to ensure
given in Chapter 5.1. the health, safety, and welfare of future occupants of a
Benefits to the Development Team. Development ordi- structure. There are a number of nationwide building
nances, including the zoning and subdivision ordinances, codes that are routinely used as the foundation for local
impose considerable cost and time constraints on the devel- jurisdictions to augment, in order to meet and reflect local
oper; however, when consistently applied by local officials, concerns and issues.
the ordinances can also offer protection to land developers. While most jurisdictions adopt and modify one of the
Land development is an extremely competitive industry in national model codes published by long-established building
which many firms and individuals operate. Development code organizations, some develop extensive amendments to
ordinances establish a uniform standard of plan processing, reflect local concerns and experiences.
design, and construction to which all developers must adhere. With a few important exceptions, the building codes play
In addition, the ordinances offer a predictable framework for little role in horizontal land development planning. Their
allocating development costs. Nearly every jurisdiction has primary focus is on structural integrity, fire prevention,
its own nuances to zoning and subdivision ordinances that control and safety, suitability of materials, and support sys-
should be evaluated prior to starting a project. tem operations (the vertical design of a building). However,
Most subdivision ordinances also set maximum time limits building codes do affect site design in three ways.
in the review procedures within which the local government First, to control the spread of fire, building codes place
must act to approve or disapprove the submittal. Where prop- limitations on the proximity of buildings to each other
erly applied, these ordinances can guard against costly project and to adjoining property lines. These restrictions become
delays and affirms that plans will be reviewed in a timely and important considerations in the design of clustered single-
predictable manner. Such provisions also ensure that jurisdic- family detached homes, townhouses, and multiple building
tions maintain adequate manpower levels based on projected complexes (these product types are described in Chapter 4).
workload volumes. Mandatory time limits also prevent unfair When locating a building, the proximity to a property line
treatment of developers, since reviewing authorities cannot may increase fire-protection requirements and add to con-
set aside a plan viewed to be unfavorable for an indefinite struction costs-it is important to coordinate fire- protection
period as a tactic to discourage or delay a project. requirements with the building design team.
For the site engineer and other members of the design In addition, to improve building occupants' chances of
team, the development ordinances define essential param- surviving a fire, building codes specify maximum building
eters that help to guide the project site design. In some height, the distance a person must travel to exit a building,
regards, they eliminate the need to perform original research and the number of building or unit exits. Both height and
and analysis, expediting project design and budgeting. Infor- distance are often expressed as the number of stories above
mation concerning plan processing also guides in the prepa- grade-the height measurement within the building code
ration of project work programs and budgets. may be different from the height measurement defined by a
local jurisdiction. The height restrictions may vary depend-
2.4.4. Unified Development Codes ing on type of construction and the presence of automatic
Unified Development Codes, or Community Development fire suppression systems. However, the site engineer must
Codes, consolidate all development-related ordinances and determine final grade elevations during the preliminary and
regulations within a jurisdiction. This document will include final design phases of a project to ensure these regulations
all components of the zoning ordinance, subdivision ordi- are satisfied.
nance, Development Standards Manual, and review proce- Secondly, building codes and site design requirements have
dures. By having everything contained in one document, the an interface point- the location where the site connects to
Unified Development Code helps to streamline the develop- the building. Building utilities are subject to different require-
ment process by removing overlaps and having a more conve- ments than site utilities, but both requirements must be con-
nient document for all applicable regulations. It is important sidered when connection points are designed. The building
to be aware if a jurisdiction has a Unified Development Code code requirements for allowable materials, minimum slopes,
or separate development ordinances. and geometric requirements must be considered when con-
necting the site to building utilities. In addition, the location
2.4.5. Building Codes of building entrances affects site grading and the placement of
Building codes are important to consider during pre-design. walkways, parking, lighting, and landscaping.
These codes must be followed to ensure that development is Lastly, federal regulations concerning access for persons
viable and the buildings themselves can be occupied. Follow- with various types of disabilities play a considerable role in
ing these codes will be required to obtain building permits, site grading and development. These regulations are incor-
which are discussed in Chapter 6.1. porated into building codes, which specify that ground floor
Building codes are adopted to protect the lives of build- units of all apartment buildings as well as places of public
ing occupants and to guarantee safe, habitable, durable accommodation and commercial facilities must be accessible.
structures. The review processes for building codes and Accessible, according to the ADA Standards for Accessible
14 i@U4fi iiffll@i@IH
Design (Excerpt from 28 CFR Part 36), describes a site, substantial public obligation remains, the private sector
building, facility, or portion thereof that complies with these has been given an increased share of the burden. Develop-
guidelines (referring to the Standards). Taking this one step ment regulations play a critical role in allocating the costs of
further and applying it to a site, the primary consideration basic public infrastructure between private developers and
from an engineering and design standpoint is the provi- the community's taxpayers and prospective consumers in an
sion of accessible routes. An accessible route is "a continu- effort to fairly distribute the cost of growth.
ous unobstructed path connecting all accessible spaces of a Guaranteed Performance. Applicable development ordi-
building or facility.... Exterior accessible routes may include nances and other regulations may not only establish design
parking access aisles, curb ramps, crosswalks at vehicular requirements, but protect the public from developers that are
ways, walks, ramps, and lifts" (28 CFR Part 36). unable to complete a project (usually due to financial prob-
Accessible route provisions specify maximum grades and lems). Subdivision ordinances usually include provisions
minimum widths for walkways as well as grading allowances, requiring the execution of performance and maintenance guar-
configuration recommendations, and surface treatments for antees, such as bonds, letters of credit, cash escrow accounts,
ramps and crosswalks. It is important to note than an acces- or similar financial instruments to underwrite the installation
sible route is required between designated accessible spaces; of public infrastructure. These guarantee construction of pub-
this does not mean that every possible route must be accessi- lic improvements in accordance with approved plans. If the
ble, only the one designated as such. In addition to accessible developer is unable to complete the project, the municipality
routes, the standards detail handicap parking requirements, uses this money to construct the improvements. More infor-
including the minimum number, acceptable location, sig- mation about bonds is provided in Chapter 6.1.
nage, and dimensions for the spaces and passenger loading Exactions, Infrastructure Enhancements, and Fees. In
areas. For each site, the site engineer should identify whether recent decades, a significant portion of the responsibility
the accessibility standards apply, and from there determine for improving the public infrastructure systems has been
how to best incorporate and account for handicap accessibil- transferred from federal, state, and local governments to
ity. This may include preparation of an accessible routes map, the land developer. This allocation of responsibility varies
special details for ramps, walks, and signs, detailed or large- widely among jurisdictions. Significant differences exist in
scale grading plans for certain areas of the site, commonly the form of the applicable regulations, timing of contribu-
those surrounding building entrances, and enhanced coordi- tions, and the magnitude of financial commitments that
nation efforts with the project architects. More information must be made. In most cases, the zoning ordinance, subdivi-
about accessible routes is provided in Chapter 3. sion ordinance, or site plan regulations identify much of the
developer's obligations, which are typically limited to on-site
2.4.6. Development Costs improvements. Some jurisdictions have adopted separate
Development costs associated with the approval of a project ordinances that relate development projects to existing com-
must be considered and accounted for an early in-land devel- munity public facilities by tying required improvements to
opment design process. This includes costs attributed to the existing capacity thresholds or deficiency levels for systems
approval process (often referred to as a soft costs) and the beyond the boundaries of the site that serve the develop-
construction of the project, as well as other requirements by ment. Typically, requirements are determined during the
jurisdictions to provide public facilities. Both must be under- project approval negotiation process, usually at the rezoning
stood and accounted for each project. or entitlement phase.
Public facilities range from subdivision streets to major The land development team must closely evaluate the laws,
commuter highways, tot lots to regional parks, water lines ordinances, and standards of the locality in which they are
to fire stations, and sewer lines to treatment plants. As these proposing a development, to determine what exactions, infra-
systems reach their capacities, their ability to function effi- structure enhancements, and fees can be expected. The type,
ciently or accommodate new growth is diminished. The form, and number of such requests or mandates for public
consequences range from government leaders' frustration to improvements are numerous and varied in their nature and
dissatisfied constituencies or hazardous, even life-threaten- can represent a considerable expense. Depending on the size
ing, conditions created by inadequate facilities. and impact of a development proposal, they can range from
Historically, it has been the responsibility of the govern- simple road frontage improvements to dedication of land for
ment to provide and improve many public facilities. Reduc- schools or parks. Nevertheless, whatever dedications, reser-
tions in federal funding and corresponding local budget vations, fees, or other monetary retributions are required, it
impacts paired with increased citizen expectation for effi- is important that they are identified early in the process so
cient service and fiscal responsibility have led many local that design and pro-forma economic analysis (performed by
governments to find alternative, even innovative, ways to the developer and business team) can account for these exac-
pay for growth. Frequently, these efforts become the subject tions. This section highlights the most common methods by
of lengthy court challenges, as important public goals and which infrastructure improvements, fees, and other exactions
policies often conflict with private property rights. While become part of the development process.
 2.4 ■ SUBDIVISION ORDINANCE, REVIEW PROCESS, BUILDING CODES, AND DEVELOPMENT COSTS 75

Exaction is the term applied to the provision that the land owner the land's fair market value, if it takes title to the prop-
developers establish public, communal, and consumer ben- erty. Sometimes, the jurisdiction will release the reservation
efits in exchange for and as a condition of development autho- after considering the cost of the property, available funding
rization. Depending on the jurisdiction and the type of project sources, or alternative sites for the intended public use. This
or plan submission, exactions may be referred to as proffers allows the developer to proceed with site development activi-
(as described in Chapter 2.3), development conditions, or ties unencumbered by a reservation.
concessions. More specifically, exaction may include the fol- Dedications. Mandatory dedication is a mechanism com-
lowing activities (adapted from Frank and Rhodes, 1983, p. 3): mon to most jurisdictions, and is usually among the provi-
sions contained in the subdivision regulations. Mandatory
• Reservation, preservation, or dedication ofland for dedication requires the developer to transfer ownership or
public or common facilities and use. property rights of certain privately held lands to the govern-
• Construction, dedication, and/or operation of public ing body at no cost. Mandatory dedications, however, must
or common facilities and services. not violate the Fifth Amendment's ban on taking of prop-
erty without just compensation. Land most often subject to
• Purchase ofland, facilities, goods, and services for
mandatory dedication includes rights-of-way for streets and
public or common use.
public utilities, floodplains, easements, park and recreation
• Payment of monies to the jurisdiction to defray the facilities, and similar uses. Such dedications usually are made
cost of its purchase ofland, facilities, equipment, and a condition of plan approval.
services. Although the dedication is made and recorded on the
• Restriction of development potential or provision subdivision record plat, the government rarely accepts the
of features and facilities intended to achieve social, land immediately. Instantaneous acceptance could result in
aesthetic, or economic goals or other public benefits. the transfer of maintenance obligations to the jurisdiction
before construction of required improvements is completed.
Exactions add both direct and indirect costs, which must Subsequent construction vehicle damage would become the
be identified in preparing project budgets. Direct costs jurisdiction's liability. In addition, the governing body must
include those costs associated with design and engineer- determine if the property will serve the public good and pro-
ing, hard construction, direct cash payments, operating, and vide economic benefit. The cost oflong-term maintenance of
plan review. Indirect costs may include lost project yield and the dedicated parcel is a primary factor in the government's
interest-carrying charges incurred in review and delay of decision whether or not to accept the property. Still another
approval. These costs will be passed on to the consumer by consideration is the fact that the transfer to public owner-
way of purchase price or leasing fees. ship also reduces the land area subject to real property taxes.
The cost of providing the exaction should be weighed Most jurisdictions advance density credit when a dedication
against the direct and indirect benefits to the occupants of is made.
the proposed development as well as the less tangible value Transfer of ownership in some cases reduces maintenance
that may be brought to the project. Indirect benefits address and other obligations that may be incurred by the developer
important public goals or mitigate an undesired impact created or by occupants of the project. In addition to a reduction of
by the project. While the developer may incur an initial eco- operating and maintenance costs, dedicated features can add
nomic loss to fulfill the exaction, it is possible to recoup value, to the market appeal of certain projects. Often, by setting
both from approval of the project and improved marketability. aside land for schools, libraries, parks, recreational facili-
Land Reservation. Many communities have the author- ties, and fire and rescue, the project becomes more attractive
ity to require the land developer to "reserve" private land to potential buyers, and the developer enhances its "good
that may be needed for public use, including parks, schools, neighbor" image within the permitting jurisdiction.
or major road rights-of-way. Typically, the need and loca- Perhaps the most frequent dedication is that of additional
tion of these facilities will be identified in the jurisdiction's right-of-way along roadways bordering a project. The local
comprehensive plan or capital improvement projects budget government intends this widening to bring existing roads
(as described in Chapter 2.2). up to current standards and accommodate the new traffic
Notice of the reservation usually comes during the earli- movements associated with the project. Whether construc-
est stages of project review of entitlement. Depending on the tion of improvements is performed by the jurisdiction or
size of the project, the reservation may be for an entire parcel required of the developer, the added right-of-way improves
or a small portion of it. Such a reservation does not imme- the efficiency of the transportation system and enhances the
diately involve the transfer of ownership. It does, however, safety and convenience of site access.
obligate the developer to keep the reserved area free from Preservation. Community residents usually place a high
construction for a specific period, during which the local priority on natural, cultural, or man -made features that
government considers acquisition of the property. The res- add to the health, beauty, or character of the community.
ervation is typically not a gift, as the jurisdiction will pay the Often, these features become threatened by a proposed
1s i@U4fi iiffll@i@IH
development that prompts the community's desire to pro- road improvements on either side of the subject parcel. A
tect them. However, the local government may not have the needed facility may be located offsite, such as a major road
financial resources or legal authority needed to acquire and or regional stormwater management facility that is not under
maintain them through reservation or dedication. To fill this the developer's control or serves a broader population. In
void, some communities are empowered to preserve these such cases, a cash payment representing actual construction
features as an exaction in the development process. cost, prorated share, or a flat fee may be required of the devel-
Environmental preservation is often a goal contained in a oper rather than actual construction of the improvement.
jurisdiction's comprehensive plan. Plan language can recom- These various forms of payments in lieu, if allowed in the
mend that an important environmental or cultural property jurisdiction and acceptable for the required improvement,
be set aside in lots or private open space with covenants and are typically specified as an alternative within the approved
restrictions that prohibit future disturbance. This language proffer or exaction. The jurisdiction may wait until suffi-
is implemented as a proffer or development condition usu- cient funds are collected and available in conjunction with
ally tacked on to and approved as part of rezoning or special other developments before it constructs the facilities. The
exception applications. funds usually are earmarked for improvements that serve
Environmental and historic protection can also be the project or an improvement in proximity to the project.
achieved with the adoption of preservation ordinances that The jurisdiction may also require or allow one developer to
allow reasonable use of the property while ensuring that the construct the improvements, and direct subsequent develop-
desired feature is protected. Most common among these are ers to reimburse their prorated share of the costs.
historical or archaeological preservation ordinances, which If the project is small, the jurisdiction may also waive the
may require a developer to pursue adaptive reuse or preser- requirement for land dedication. This occurs in instances
vation of the sensitive portion of the site. In some instances, where the dedication of land for facilities, such as a recre-
developers have been required to restore historic facades as ation area, is disproportionately indexed to the size of the
part of a larger construction effort. project. If the resulting parcel will be of insignificant size, the
Recently, communities have sought to adopt tree preser- jurisdiction may offer the option of cash payment in lieu of
vation ordinances, which limit clearing and grading on por- the land dedication. In this case, the payment represents the
tions of the site. Although preserved areas remain in private project users' impact on existing or future facilities that will
or communal ownership, covenants and restrictions provide be provided by the municipality.
permanent protection against future disturbance by builders Impact Fees. An increasing number of jurisdictions are
or lot owners. Such ordinances often limit the development adopting impact fees. This is a direct payment by a developer
potential of a site or may involve added costs to accommo- to a jurisdiction and is intended to reimburse the jurisdic-
date their provisions. These restrictions often present the tion's actual capital costs of expanding public infrastructure
developer and consultant with unique design opportunities and facilities to service new development. The facilities are
that can enhance a project's appearance and marketability if not necessarily located on site and may not be used exclu-
accounted and planned for early in the process and incorpo- sively by the development that pays the fee.
rated into the overall site concept. Some communities have a longstanding, limited form of
Payments in Lieu. As noted in the prior discussion of sub- impact fee relating to the provision of water and sewer sys-
division ordinances and site plan regulations, many juris- tems. In this case, a residential or commercial user is assessed
dictions commonly require that the developer construct a "tap" fee, also called a connection or availability charge,
improvements that connect to and/or directly serve the usually at the issuance of a building permit. The actual fees
project. Most jurisdictions tie the required improvements are derived through an elaborate analysis that projects the
to a specific "trigger event" within the development process, capital costs of expanding treatment plants, pump stations,
such as a required permit or compliance timeframe. As an and trunklines to serve new growth.
example, depending on local policy and industry practices, However, more recently, impact fees are being considered
improvements should be completed prior to the issuance for such items as roads, storm sewers, schools, libraries, and
of occupancy permits or release of performance bonds. similar services. What may distinguish sewer and water
The required improvement and its trigger conditions are services from these other facilities is, perhaps, the degree of
typically specified in the proffer, development condition, certainty with which the demand from and benefit to new
or exaction that binds it to the development program (see users can be isolated and quantified. This may be determined
Table 2.4A). Specific trigger conditions allow jurisdictions by an adequate public facilities (APF) ordinance. An APF is
to more thoroughly track required improvements and adopted by the local jurisdiction, and sometimes approved
contributions. by a special legislative authority. In communities with an
In some instances, the jurisdiction may not require the APF, a project cannot be approved if its demand will exceed
developer to construct the improvements proposed for dedi- the available capacity.
cated lands. Typically, this happens when the improvement An APF ordinance requires deference to a project if
is of little immediate value, such as the widening of an abut- the projected demand on public services exceeds the total
ting roadway section where there are no existing or proposed capacity or funding approval of any of the systems. The
 2.4 ■ SUBDIVISION ORDINANCE, REVIEW PROCESS, BUILDING CODES, AND DEVELOPMENT COSTS 77

TA BLE 2 . 4 A Sample Exactions

EXACTION TYPE SAMPLE LANGUAGE: INFRASTRUCTURE PROVISION AND TRIGGER EVENT

Land Future Road Alignment. The Applicant shall reserve an area of the site as depicted on the CDPICDPAIFDP for
Reservation future right-of-way (ROw,J for an interchange. Upon demand by the Board of Supervisors (BOS). the Applicant
shall convey said ROW area in fee simple to the BOS, as generally shown on the CDP/COPA/FOP.
However, if said interchange is not funded for construction within 15 years from the date of these proffers or
if said interchange is deleted from the County's Comprehensive Plan, whichever event first occurs, the Appli-
cant's obligation under this proffer shall terminate and cease and the Applicant will be entitled to use said
ROW area in any manner permitted by law.
Dedication Urban Park. The Applicant shall construct the improvements in the Urban Park generally as detailed on the
CDP/FOP as may be modified by coordination with the Fairfax County Park Authority and following construc-
tion, dedicate to the FCPA the Urban Park in fee simple, prior to final bond release.
Preservation Tree Preservation. The Applicant shall preserve trees on the Property as shown on the Tree Preservation Plan
prepared by Dewberry dated March 14, 1997 .... The Applicant shall record conservation easements for the
Daniel's Run stream valley, the northern boundary adjacent to the trail, and the 25' wide area along the Prop-
erty's eastern boundary to ensure perpetual conservation of these tree preservation areas. Said easements
shall be recorded with the record plat for each phase of construction contiguous to that section of trail and/or
conservation area.
Payments-in- Utilities. The Applicant agrees to contribute the sum of $553,000 to the City of Fairfax to be used for under-
Lieu ground placement of existing overhead utility lines along portions of the Property's frontage on Main Street and
Old Lee Highway. Payments shall be made on a pro rata basis at the time of the issuance of building permits
for each dwelling unit. These moneys shall be placed in escrow by the City in an interest bearing account to
be used solely to underground such existing overhead utilities within seven (7) years from the date of issuance
of the final building permit. At that time, the City shall either designate the construction of other improvements
which will directly benefit the Property, subject to the Applicant's concurrence or the escrowed funds and
accumulated interest shall be returned to the Applicant.
Impact Fees School Contributions. Prior to approval of the first Building Permit for the approved development, the Applicant
shall provide documentation to DPWES that the Applicant has donated the sum of $127,500.00 to the BOS for
the Fairhi/1 Elementary School. ... Prior to approval of the first residential use permit (RUP) the Applicant shall
provide documentation to DPWES that the Applicant has donated the sum of $22,500.00 to the BOS for the
Luther Jackson Middle School and the sum of $60,000.00 to the BOS for Falls Church High School.
Linkage Maximum Density and Permitted Uses. A maximum of 270 multiple family dwelling units may be provided in 2
buildings, which will also include approximately 65,136 sf of retail uses to be located on the first and second
floor(s) of the North building and approximately 40,364 sf dedicated to retail uses to be located on the first
and second floor(s) of the South Building. The site shall not exceed 1.35 FAR and as depicted in the tabula-
tions on Sheet 2 of the CDP/FOP the FAR increase over 1.2 shall consist of ADU's and related bonus density
units as defined in Part 8 of Article 2 of the Zoning Ordinance. Project density as specified in this proffer shall
be reviewed and approved as part of the site plan approval process.

typical systems covered by an adequate facilities ordinance Total capacity of public systems is derived by adding
include transportation, water, sewer, and school systems. to the capacity available in existing systems those facility
More recently in some communities, fire and police avail- improvements that are planned, budgeted, or funded within
ability and response times have been included in the APF a specified period. For some systems, capacity can be deter-
ordinances, as fire and police service and effectiveness can mined by direct measurement, such as by measuring design
be seen as directly tied to the quality and effectiveness of the capacity for sewage or water treatment. For others, a policy
infrastructure systems. must be established concerning the level of service before
10 i@U4fi iiffll@i@IH
the calculation of projected use is made. For instance, the service area. This total dollar figure is converted to a unit
governing body must determine the number of students cost, using the projected number of dwelling units or non-
per classroom that is acceptable to the community before residential building areas. Thus, the fee applicable to each
determining the total capacity of the school system. Simi- development project is based on project size. Typically, the
larly, while determining the capacity of the transportation fee is offered in conjunction with a discretionary rezoning
system, consider the level of service and congestion that will process, with payment being one of the proffers or condi-
be tolerated by the community. The jurisdiction must then tions attached to the approval.
determine the existing use of those systems, again either by Linkage. Previously, the discussion of affordable housing
direct measurement or estimated usage. In estimating cur- focused on the adoption of inclusionary zoning ordinances.
rent demand, the jurisdiction might determine the average These ordinances require that residential developers provide
use generated by each residence and equivalent nonresiden- affordable, price-controlled housing as a condition of devel-
tial operation. It is possible to calculate per unit demand by opment approval. As an extension of that trend, nonresiden-
analyzing historical data, field research, and demographic tial developers may also be required to provide affordable
information such as housing type or number of bedrooms. housing. A growing number of jurisdictions argue that new
The community must also estimate the projected demand job creation in the community generates demand for afford-
for projects that are committed, but not completed. These able workforce housing-housing for office workers and
are projects that are approved but not built, or projects over other service employees. Due to high land and construction
which the government has no control because a discretion- costs, it is increasingly difficult for these workers to find suit-
ary approval, such as rezoning, is not required. These are able housing in price ranges they can afford. In jurisdictions
called projects in the "pipeline:' The final step is determining where this "linkage'' is required, the developer must mitigate
the available capacity and system adequacy. If, after subtract- this impact, either by building affordable housing units or by
ing current and committed demand from the total system paying, on a per square-footage basis, into a housing trust
capacity, capacity remains, then the facility is considered fund established by the jurisdiction. Money deposited in this
adequate. However, each development proposal must dem- fund is used by the jurisdiction or its designee to purchase or
onstrate that its demand on systems will not exceed that construct affordable housing.
available capacity. Again, this is done by determining per Review and Processing Fees. Most state zoning and sub-
unit demand, such as average gallons per day of water use, or division enabling acts authorize jurisdictions to collect
number of vehicle trips per day of traffic generation. development review fees from the developer. These fees
When the APF ordinance restricts the approval of a proj- offset jurisdiction expenditures for review personnel. In
ect, the developer may be allowed to finance improvements some jurisdictions, this fee represents only a nominal fixed
that will increase system capacity, thus allowing the project charge. Urban jurisdictions that perform extensive reviews
to meet the adequacy test, or pay into a fund through impact often index their fees according to project size or the esti-
fees to be used by the jurisdiction to make the improvements mated cost of public improvements. These fees may repre-
necessary to meet the public facility needs. sent a substantial expense. This enables the government to
Despite the controversy and concern that the impact fees maintain an adequate work force of qualified personnel. It
can add dramatic costs to home ownership and businesses, provides some assurance to the development team that proj-
impact fees for services other than water and sewer are pro- ect reviews will be timely and thorough. Some jurisdictions
liferating. Even in those communities not authorized to col- also impose inspection fees to offset the costs associated
lect impact fees for infrastructure improvements, they have, with that activity. These fees may be charged for inspection
in many cases, imposed a "voluntary" fee to finance certain of the public improvement construction, as well as for the
major facilities. The jurisdiction bases the fee calculation actual structure. Like review fees, these add to the cost of the
on the estimated cost of improvements needed to support development project and must be considered during project
the total development projected to occur within a specific budgeting.
 CHAPTER 2.5
ENVIRONMENTAL,
GEOTECHNICAL, AND
HISTORICAL CONSIDERATIONS

2.5.1. Introduction PART A-ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS

With an understanding of the local regulations, it is impor- Part A of this chapter focuses on the environmental impacts
tant to next investigate the potential environmental, geo- of a project-what to consider and understand as a project
technical, and historical constraints that may exist on a site. begins and moves through pre-design. This includes a
Through research and evaluation, which are discussed in this review of environmental regulations, an overview of natural
chapter, the site engineer will be aware of and able to account resources, local preservation efforts, required environmental
for these site constraints and additional opportunities. due diligence, and sustainability practices.
An environmental, geotechnical, and historical review
should be conducted early in the pre-design stage to ensure 2.5.2. Environmental Policy and Regulations
that appropriate measures can be taken (or a new site This section reviews environmental policy and how regula-
selected). This review could determine that an entire site or tions protect natural resources. Localities continually update
a portion of a site is not suitable for development. Most chal- their development ordinances and add new regulations to
lenges that are identified can be overcome, and strategies will protect the environment and help reduce the effects of cli-
be developed as designs are produced. However, if constraints mate change. In many jurisdictions, environmental regula-
are identified and prove to not be resolvable, the site may not tions are now an integral part of the development process.
be the best option for the developer. The challenge of envi- As an example, conservation regulations that require mitiga-
ronmental and historical site review lies with the ability to tion for loss of woodlands, wetlands, or wildlife habitats are
identify the resources-areas such as floodplains, wetlands, increasingly common and have a substantial impact on the
or areas of historical significance. These resources can often development process. The preparation and formal submis-
be identified with a desktop review in the office; however, a sion of environmental inventories that document existing
site visit by a qualified professional is typically required to conditions and identify environmental problems in need of
confirm the presence or absence of these resources. It is criti- remediation is also regularly required. Sustainability prac-
cal to have an understanding of the importance of the envi- tices are commonly included within these regulations as well.
ronmental and historical considerations while continuing to Environmental Policy. Land development is faced with
work through the site selection. the issue of meeting the demands of human needs, while
This chapter is separated into three parts: (A) Environ- also protecting the environment and natural resources. Our
mental Considerations, (B) Geotechnical Considerations, past actions as a society have resulted in significant impacts
and (C) Historical Considerations. to the environment due to human consumption and the

79
ao i@U4fi iiffll@i@IH
mismanagement of our natural resources and hazardous was right for the national discussions of how to effectively
waste. To minimize degradation of the environment, envi- address environmental problems. The National Environ-
ronmental regulations were established to ensure that every- mental Policy Act (NEPA) was signed into law in January
one acts responsibly toward the protection and conservation of 1970, and it became the catalyst for the environmental
of the environment. regulations to follow. NEPA is the declaration of the U.S.
Land development processes involve many activities that policy on the environment. This national policy takes into
have environmental impacts. Site selection, planning, grad- consideration balancing the preservation of the natural envi-
ing, construction, and landscaping all require many decisions ronment with human needs caused by population increases,
that shape neighborhoods, towns, and regions in profound high-density urbanization, and industrial expansion, taking
ways. These decisions result in changes to the existing envi- into account economical and technical considerations.
ronment, which are long term (in human scale) and commit Apart from being the declaration of national environ-
natural resources in a way that affects future options. As these mental policy, NEPA establishes procedures to ensure that
decisions became more and more complex, natural ecosys- appropriate actions are taken to protect, restore, and enhance
tems may not be able to accommodate the impacts of devel- the environment. NEPA provides a systematic means of deal-
opment. Consequently, government environmental policies ing with environmental concerns and the associated costs. It
and regulations have been developed to preserve a quality of requires an environmental impact review for actions of fed-
life through vital natural resource protection, preservation, eral and nonfederal agencies that use federal funds or require
and/or mitigation strategies. Regulations have allowed stan- federal approval or permits, such as a National Pollutant
dards to be set avoiding ad hoc approaches with uneven con- Discharge Elimination (NPDES) permit, which is discussed
sequences. This has allowed for land development to proceed later in this chapter with the Clean Water Act. One of the
with managed consequences while minimizing impacts to unique components of NEPA is that it provides a mechanism
overall environmental conditions. for public participation.
The environmental policy and regulations mentioned in The NEPA process is intended to help public officials
this text are not intended to be exhaustive or all-inclusive as make decisions that are based on understanding the envi-
there are regional, state, and even local policies that shape ronmental consequences associated with a proposed action
development projects from conception to actualization. by a federal agency as well as the public feedback. This per-
The site engineer must bear this in mind and become aware spective influences decisions made in land development
of the agencies and regulations at all levels that may affect projects. NEPA requirements are invoked when federal
development in a particular locale. development activities are proposed, such as highways, air-
Environmental Regulations. Environmental regulations ports, government buildings, military complexes, parkland
are the mechanism for implementing the intent of the various purchases, and others. In addition to federal projects, NEPA
acts and statutes developed to protect human health and the requirements and environmental reviews can be required
environment. The challenge for developers is that these reg- for private developments in federally protected wetlands or
ulations are diverse; they are also continually being updated projects on/adjacent to federally controlled property, such as
and revised. Therefore, the development team must take the limited access highways or military bases. This also includes
necessary steps to ensure compliance in order to minimize federal funding and federal permitting activities, so that any
liability, and avoid unanticipated costs and delays associated involvement by the federal government triggers the NEPA
with the purchase and/or development of a property. process. Many local jurisdictions have a similar environmen-
A brief summary of important environmental regulations tal analysis process for state, local, and private actions.
from over the past few decades can help put into perspective Following the requirements of NEPA and prior to imple-
the progression of environmental regulations and their future menting a proposed action, an environmental review must
focus. The regulations most likely to have implications on a be performed to identify and address:
project are the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)
that establishes the need for and extent of environmental • Any environmental impacts of the proposed action.
assessments; the Clean Water Act (CWA) that regulates wet- • Any adverse environmental effects that cannot be
land impacts and sets land disturbance permit and stormwater avoided.
treatment requirements; the Comprehensive Environmental
Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) that • Feasible alternatives to the proposed action.
focuses on response to existing environmental conditions and • The relationship between local, short-term uses
required remediation; and the National Flood Insurance Pro- of built environment and the maintenance and
gram (NFIP) that encourages responsible development prac- enhancement of environmental functions and values.
tices in flood-prone areas and establishes floodplains.
National Environmental Policy Act. In the 1960s, as a • Any irreversible and irretrievable commitments of
result of deteriorating environmental conditions and seri- resources that would be involved in the proposed
ous health effects associated with those conditions, the time action should it be implemented.
 2.5 ■ ENVIRONMENTAL, GEOTECHNICAL, AND HISTORICAL CONSIDERATIONS 81

There are three levels of environmental review in the that require a permit may include clearing and grubbing,
NEPA process: (1) categorical exclusion (CE), (2) environ- grading, and excavation. In some states, a permit may not
mental assessment (EA), and (3) environmental impact be required if the runoff does not discharge into a water-
statement (EIS). An EIS is a major undertaking and requires way, as in the case where it evaporates from a catch basin
a significant investment of time and money. Environmental or similar isolated water body. As discussed previously
specialists with experience in the NEPA process are typi- under NEPA requirements, the NPDES permit may trigger
cally required to perform these kinds of environmental a NEPA environmental review.
reviews. Additionally, as a result of the NPDES permit program,
Through NEPA, the Environmental Protection Agency construction sites will be required to have a Stormwater
(EPA) was established in December of 1970 to set standards Pollution Prevention Plan (SWPPP) prior to commence-
and enforce environmental regulations. While NEPA sets ment of any construction activities. Stormwater runoff
policy goals, the regulations of the EPA are the prescriptions from construction sites can cause significant harm to
and methods to achieve those goals. The EPA is charged with downstream bodies of water. The goal of the SWPPP is
the responsibility of federal laws and rulemaking to imple- to maximize the benefits of pollution prevention and ero-
ment U.S. environmental policy. sion and sediment control practices through the use of best
Clean Water Act. Originally known as the Federal management practices during the construction process.
Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972, the act Since the primary focus of this program is on controlling
was amended in 1977 and renamed the Clean Water Act pollutants in any storm water discharge, incorporation of
(CWA). The objective of the CWA is to restore and main- well-thought-out and carefully implemented erosion and
tain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of U.S. sediment control measures is more important than ever.
water resources. One of the major focuses of this program Erosion and sediment control measures are discussed in
is to control point source discharge of pollutants to water Chapter 5.7.
through use of total maximum daily loads (TMDL). Point Waters of the United States. Waters of the United States
sources are discharges that come from a single point, like a (WOTUS) are defined in the 1972 CWA as "navigable
pipe, ditch, or even a smokestack. Nonpoint sources (NPS) waters:' The CWA regulates the discharge of dredged or fill
are discharges that come from many diffuse sources, like material into these WOTUS. This authority was extended
storm water runoff from agricultural fields, chemicals from to non-navigable waters and wetlands, as well, but this con-
urban runoff and energy production, and sediment from tinues to be challenged in courts regarding the actual juris-
improperly managed construction sites. TMDLs regulate dictional reach intended by the CWA. Many development
the amount of pollutants permitted to be discharged to U.S. projects affect stream channels or wetlands that constitute
waters. WOTUS and, as such, are regulated by the EPA and the U.S.
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System. Mandated Army Corps of Engineers (Corps) under the CWA. A permit
by Congress under the CWA, the National Pollutant Discharge from the Corps is required before dredged or fill material,
Elimination System (NPDES) program is a national program related to construction activities, may be discarded into the
that addresses the non-agricultural sources of storm water dis- WOTUS.
charges that adversely affect the quality of U.S. waters (addi- Each state has a role in the federal permitting process
tional detail is provided in Chapter 3.5). The CWA requires because each state must certify that the granting of a permit
an approved NPDES permit to discharge pollutants through by the Corps will not violate state water quality standards.
a point source to surface waters. Again, point sources are dis- Many states have initiated programs to protect wetlands and
crete conveyances such as pipes or human-made ditches. The other waters beyond the range of WOTUS. Typically, state
permit specifies limits on what is being discharged and spells wetland protection laws regulate draining, channelization,
out monitoring and reporting requirements, as well as other or clearing of vegetation. In addition, some states have gone
provisions. Generally, the NPDES permit program is admin- further to protect those areas by requiring buffer areas adja-
istered by authorized states. cent to wetlands to prevent damage to the resource. Many
Construction activities are considered an industrial states have used the authority to issue or deny water qual-
activity and, as such, will typically require an NPDES per- ity certification of the CWA to regulate some fill impacts to
mit (the actual permit may be called something differ- wetlands and other WOTUS, including intermittent streams.
ent depending on the state). Usually, an NPDES permit A state can deny water quality certification of a proposed
is required if the construction activities result in the dis- impact, under the premise that the state's water quality stan-
turbance of more than 1 acre of total land area. However, dards are not being met.
some jurisdictions may have more stringent requirements More information about wetlands and natural waters is
based on regional or local environmental concerns. For discussed later in this chapter. When considering a project
instance, in the Chesapeake Bay watershed, 2500 square that involves potential impacts to WOTUS or wetland areas,
feet ofland disturbance triggers the requirement for an ero- additional time and fees will likely be required for preparing
sion and sediment control permit. Construction activities permit application(s) to the Corps and/or the local state.
02 i@U4fi iiffll@i@IH
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensa- (FEMA). Currently, FEMA administers the NFIP primarily
tion, and Liability Act. Approved in 1980, the primary through two of its branches, the Federal Insurance Admin-
purpose of the Comprehensive Environmental Response, istration (FIA) and the Mitigation Directorate. The FIA is
Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) is to protect responsible for administering the insurance aspects of the
human health and the environment from the dangers of program, while the Mitigation Directorate is responsible
hazardous waste. CERCLA focuses on response to existing for administering the floodplain management aspects of the
environmental conditions of a property and the liability of program.
the responsible parties. CERCLA created a revolving fund, The NFIP is a community-based program. A commu-
commonly referred to as "superfund;' that is utilized by nity's participation in the NFIP is voluntary (although
EPA, state, and local governments to investigate and reme- some states require participation as part of a state-wide
diate hazardous waste sites that have been listed by the EPA floodplain management program). It is the responsibility
on the National Priorities List (NPL). One of the unique of each community to assess their flood risks and deter-
features of CERCLA is that governmental and private mine whether they would benefit from the flood insurance
parties who are not responsible for the investigation and and floodplain management assistance provided through
remediation of a property can perform the work using the the program. Over 20,000 communities participate in the
superfund and seek reimbursement from the responsible program nationwide.
parties. CERCLA covers all environmental media, includ- During the early years of the NFIP, to get as many com-
ing air, surface water, groundwater, soil, and sediment and munities in the program as quickly as possible, FEMA
can apply to any type of facility. If cleanup is conducted on- established the "emergency phase'' of the program, which
site under the CERCLA program, no federal, state, or local was designed to provide limited amounts of insurance cov-
permit is required. erage at less than actuarial rates. In general, no detailed
A CERCLA hazardous substance includes any substance floodplain studies were conducted for communities in the
that the EPA has designated for special considerations emergency program, and the communities are required to
under the CWA, Resource Conservation and Recovery Act adopt only limited floodplain management ordinances to
(RCRA), Clean Air Act (CAA), Toxic Substances Control control future use of its floodplains. Only about 1% of the
Act (TSCA), etc., and any substance that presents a substan- communities participating in the NFIP are in the emer-
tial danger to human health and the environment. Exclusions gency phase.
from CERCLA's hazardous substance list include petroleum, The remaining participating communities are in the "reg-
natural gas, or synthetic gas used for fuel. Due diligence and ular phase'' of the NFIP. These communities are generally
liability assessments fall under CERCLA regulations and provided detailed studies of their flood-prone areas and are
amendments, which are the most applicable regulations to required to adopt more comprehensive floodplain manage-
land development. This is generally only a concern for proj- ment ordinances in exchange for higher amounts of flood
ects that have potential environmental concerns and require insurance coverage.
remediation, such as brownfield sites or other redevelop- Role of Municipal Governments and Lenders in Floodplain
ment projects. Management Under the NFIP. When a community agrees
National Flood Insurance Program. Historically, the fed- to participate in the NFIP, it receives flood hazard maps
eral government responded to development in and around prepared by FEMA and its residents become eligible for
the floodplain by constructing flood-control projects (dams, flood insurance. In turn, the community agrees to adopt
levees, and seawalls) and providing emergency disaster relief and enforce minimum floodplain management regulations
funding to both communities and individuals. However, this within the Special Flood Hazard Area (SFHA) as depicted
approach did little to discourage unwise development, and on the flood hazard maps. The SFHA is defined as the land
in some cases, may have encouraged development in flood- area that would be inundated by a flood having a 1% chance
prone areas. In response to escalating flood-related losses of occurring in any given year; this flood is referred to as the
and the burgeoning cost to the taxpayer, in 1968, the U.S. "base'' or "100-year" flood.
Congress created the National Flood Insurance Program The minimum regulations that the community is required
(NFIP). The purpose of the NFIP is to encourage responsible to enforce depends on the type of flood hazards present in
development practices in flood-prone areas, and to protect the community and the level of detail with which the hazards
property owners through an insurance mechanism that is have been studied. At a minimum, a community must ensure
funded by those that are most at risk of flooding. structures are built above the 100-year, or base flood eleva-
The NFIP, first established in 1968 with the passage of the tion (BFE).
National Flood Insurance Act, was broadened and strength- Generally, obstructions such as buildings or other struc-
ened by the Flood Disaster Protection Act of 1973, as well as tures in riverine floodplains inhibit the flow of floodwa-
the National Flood Insurance Reform Act of 1994. The NFIP ters downstream and result in an increase of the upstream
was administered by the Department of Housing and Urban flood elevations. Therefore, for many waterways, FEMA
Development (HUD) until 1979, when it was absorbed by has identified a floodway. The floodway is composed of
the newly created Federal Emergency Management Agency the actual stream channel plus the portion of the overbank
 2.5 ■ ENVIRONMENTAL, GEOTECHNICAL, AND HISTORICAL CONSIDERATIONS 83

area that must be kept free from encroachment in order In addition to the building regulations that local munici-
to convey the 1% annual chance flood without increasing palities must enforce, mortgage lenders also have a role to
the BFE by more than a specified amount, or surcharge. play in floodplain management. Under the NFIP, residential
To ensure that development in the floodplain does not mortgages that are federally backed (which almost all are)
result in unacceptable increases in the BFE, as a condi- must have flood insurance if the property is located within
tion of participating in the NFIP, the community typically the SFHA. Accordingly, all lenders are required to determine
adopts the floodway as part of its ordinance and stipulates prior to approving a mortgage whether the property is in
no structures are built within it that increase flood eleva- a SFHA, and if so, require the borrower to purchase flood
tions. Figure 2.SA provides a graphic depiction of a flood- insurance as a condition of the loan.
way and floodway fringe zone. FEMA Flood Map Products. One of the primary tools in
Under the NFIP, the allowable increase, or surcharge, administering the NFIP are the flood hazard maps that iden-
within the floodway is 1 foot; however, many communities tify flood-prone areas. Because the NFIP was established as a
and states have adopted more stringent floodway surcharge community-based program, the maps were produced for indi-
limits. For example, New Jersey has established a maximum vidual communities. However, since the early 1990s, FEMA
surcharge limit of 0.2 foot, resulting in a floodway that is has been converting the maps to a county-wide format.
wider than that needed to convey the 1% annual chance FEMA has produced different types of flood hazard maps
flood with a 1.0 foot surcharge. Some conservative commu- over the history of the NFIP. During the early years in the
nities have even set a zero surcharge limit, effectively defin- program, FEMA produced flood hazard boundary maps
ing the entire floodplain as the floodway. (FHBMs), which show floodplain boundaries based upon
It is important to note that many municipalities have reg- approximate data and limited analyses. They were typically
ulations and/or permit requirements governing construction issued during the emergency phase of the NFIP, and gen-
in floodplains that go above and beyond the FEMA NFIP erally have limited information regarding the flood-prone
requirements. Therefore, it is important to become thor- areas. While there are still some communities with FHBMs,
oughly familiar with the local requirements at the outset of most have been replaced with flood insurance rate maps
any project that may impact the floodplain. (FIRMs).

100YEAR FLOOD PLAIN

FLOODWAY

STREAM
CHANNEL
FLOOD ELEVATION
WHEN CONFINED
WITHIN FLOODWAY

ENCROACHMENT .---+- ENCROACHMENT

SURCHARGE1

..,_-+-~ - -----1~c~.................~ ~ ~ ~~ ~~D ~ ~ --+-_,,,

-- - -------- B

AREA OF FLOOD PLAIN THAT

COULD BE USED FOR DEVELOPMENT
j FLOOD ELEVATION BEFORE
ENCROACHMENT ON FLOOD PLAIN
BY RAISING GROUND

Line A - B is the flood elevation before encroachment

Line C - D is the flood elevation after encroachment

1Surcharge not to exceed 1.0 foot (FEMA Requirement) or lesser

amount of specified by state.

FIG uRE 2. 5 A Floodway schematic showing floodway and a floodway fringe.

a4 i@U4fi iiffll@i@IH
Communities that are in the regular phase of the NFIP the National Flood Insurance Program and the Flood Insur-
are provided with FIRMs. FIRMs are generally based upon ance Rate Maps, refer to the Appendix in Chapter 7.4.
detailed studies of the flood-prone areas, and show more Environmental Regulations Considerations. From the
precise information regarding the flood-prone areas than perspective of the developer and the development team,
the FHBM. A sample of a FIRM is provided in Figure 2.5B. these environmental regulations impact real estate transac-
To identify the SFHA and other areas on the FIRMs, dif- tions, demolition work, restoration efforts, the development
ferent zone designations are used. Noncoastal areas within process, and overall construction of a project. Therefore,
the SFHA are designated as Zone A, AE, AO, AH, Al-A30, understanding the basis and objectives of environmental
or A99. Each of these zone designations represent a different issues and integrating appropriate actions in planning and
type or risk class of flooding associated with the 1% annual schedules of development projects can prevent unantici-
chance (100-year) flood. Similarly, for coastal areas, where pated delays and conflicts. Environmental issues must be
wave action is a concern, the SFHA is designated as V, VE, proactively addressed and dealt with, often with agencies,
or Vl-V30. Areas outside the SFHA include Zones B, C, D, procedures, and individuals outside the traditional develop-
and X. Because each zone designation represents different ment process. The earlier in the development process that
classes of risk, the insurance premium for a property is based environmental issues are identified, the better, since some of
upon the zone designation. these issues can involve liability or even affect the purchase
The floodway is typically shown on a community's FIRM. or development potential of a property. Other environmen-
However, for a period between the mid-1970s and mid- tal impacts may affect the design and scope of the project,
1980s, for some communities, FEMA did not show flood- affecting development efficiencies and appropriate use of
ways on the FIRMS, but generated separate maps, referred to resources.
as flood boundary and floodway maps (FBFMs), that show
only the floodways. As with the FHBMs, FEMA is in the 2.5.3. Natural Resources Overview and
process of phasing out these maps and replacing them with Preservation Efforts
updated FIRMs. As the built environment expands, it is imperative that land
Accompanying each FIRM is a report, referred to as the development activities do not compromise the long-term
flood insurance study (FIS) report, containing a large amount quality of our natural environment. The responsibility ofland
of supporting information and data such as technical details stewardship is shared among everyone. Bodies of water, wet-
on how the flood studies were performed, tables containing lands, buffer areas, forests, and other forms of open space are
modeling parameters and results, charts containing flood- a vital part of our economic future. Sustainability and green
way information, and graphs showing flood elevation pro- building rating programs, to be discussed later in this chapter,
files for each stream studied in detail. have brought increased attention to the value of open space,
In addition to producing hardcopy flood hazard maps, habitat, and native vegetation not only in an environmental
FEMA has been producing and distributing FIRM data in context, but in terms of human health and happiness.
digital format. Referred to as the digital FIRM (DFIRM) As such, these environmental features have become
database, it consists of spatial (GIS) data in several formats, increasingly regulated at the federal, state, and local levels
nonspatial data tables, metadata, and a digital copy of the FIS through laws, ordinances, and formal recommendations
report. The GIS data typically includes included in comprehensive plans-linking the natural and
• SFHA boundaries, floodway boundaries, and base built environments. While wetlands and natural waters are
flood elevations primarily regulated at the federal and state level; trees, land-
scape, and open space preservation regulations have become
• Transportation data and/or aerial photography commonplace in many localities. This section discusses
• Stream centerline and coastal shoreline data the applicable regulatory framework surrounding natural
resources and the considerations that should be included
• Model cross-sections (riverine analyses) and tran- during the due diligence of a project.
sects (coastal analyses) Beyond understanding the requirements, it is increasingly
• Political boundaries important for the land development team and all stakehold-
ers involved in a land development project to truly under-
• Benchmarks stand the value of the various functions natural resources
• FIRM panels perform. From aesthetics to security to pollution preven-
tion/remediation and climate control, natural resources are
FEMA technical standards for all of these products are a critical component ofland development projects that war-
compiled in "FEMA's Guidelines and Specification for Flood rant consideration throughout the design process. Therefore,
Hazard Mapping Partners:' FEMA's FIRMs and related map any individual who participates in the land development
products can be obtained from the FEMA Flood Map Ser- design process should understand and appreciate the impor-
vice Center online. For more information about updates to tant functions and values provided by natural resources in
 2.5 ■ ENVIRONMENTAL, GEOTECHNICAL, AND HISTORICAL CONSIDERATIONS 85

KALEF

ZONE X

w
!_,

IRCLE
PANEL 0038 D
J
FLOOD INSURANCE RATE MAP
LEGEND
~
CJ SPEC IAL FLOOD HAZARD AREAS SUBJECT TO INUNDATION
BY THE 1 'JE, ANNUAL CHANCE FLOOD EVENT
ZONf X
OTHER FLOOD AREAS

Areas o f 0.21)b annual chance Rood; areas of 1" annua l chance Rood
wilh ave,~ depths of less than 1 foot o, with drainage area! less than
1 square mile; and areas protected by I ~ fn;,m 1 " ~nnual chance
flood .

ZONt A No base flood eJevatlons d etermlned.

~ OTHER AREAS

ZONt Al 8ne Hood ~tions ck!termined. ZONI X Areas deteirmined to bi! outside lhe 0.2" annual CN.no:- floodpliln.
ZONt AH Flood d@pth!i of 1 to 3 feet (usua lly ii.lreas of pondlrig); base flood ZONI D Attas in whim Rood hazards att! undt:t~rmiMd~ but posslblf!.
elevations determined.
ZONt AO flood de-pth!I: of 1 to 3 feet (uwally d'ie@i Aow o n sloping tel"f'3inl; ~ COASTAL BARRIER RESOURCES SYSTEM (CBRS) AREAS
= ~ = ~ ~ r m i n e d . fDf'" al"eas of alluvial fa n flooding. .,,.elocities
~
~ OTHERWISE PROTECTED AREAS (OPAs)
ZOMM
~~ =~~by~t~~~~r=t J:~w:~s~~a:e~~
=;i~,!': ~:~~~~~~ ~ r n l ~~ :~~
gn!:ate..- flood evenL
rn: ! CBRS lteH 1nd OPAs aro nocm1ltv Joelted w ithin or 1dlaicent to Special Flood Hazttd Ateas.

Floodplain 8oundaty

Z.ONI Aft At@a to be ~ from 1 " annual chance Rood event by .;J; Federal
Floodway 8ouoda,y
flood protection syste:m under construct.ion; no baSiC flood clevaLlons Coastal 8.airr~r Boundary
dtitermined.
ZONI Y Coam:J flood .t~

·"""'"'"" dete<mined,
with velocity hazard (Wilve action ); no bB5e flood
.______....,I• Soundiiry dividing Speci1-l Flood H.u.ird Areas of d ifferent
8;ue Flood Elevallon:11 1 flood depttg or velocitie.

ZONE YE °"""11 - zone """' velocity haza<d lwa"" actk>nl; t,a,,, - e1w.>11on, -513- Base Flood Elevation llne and value; elev.itlo,1 In (eet9'
determined,
(E L 987) 9.ase Flood EID'Vation value where uniform within zone;
elev~tion in ( ~
FLOODWAY AREAS IN ZONE AE
•Referenced to th: Nation.ii Ceodetlc Ve,tial Datum of 1929

kept :free oi encroac:h.ment 50 th.at the

wb$1anlia.l inoe~ 4n flood Might$.
1"
The lfloodway I:! the chan~ ol a stream plus any adjacent Roodplarn areas that must be
annual chance nood ,can bl!! arried without
Bench mark ($ee @Xplanation in Note to Uie:1"5 5ed:ion of
thi<J; FIRM P41nel},

FIGURE 2.58 Sample flood insurance rate map.

as i@U4fi iiffll@i@IH
climate, air, and water quality preservation. Land develop- development projects are also focusing more on the environ-
ment consultants are uniquely positioned, given their tech- mental aspects of a site to restore and enhance waterways,
nical background and practical experience, to cultivate an and in some cases create new wetlands. Wetlands are a vital
appropriate balance between preservation and construction resource and can even help to repair the environment and
efforts. manage stormwater events.
The following sections discuss the importance of natural As defined by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, wetlands
waters, identifying wetlands, soil classifications, the value of are "those areas that are inundated or saturated by surface
open space and vegetation, and preservation efforts to pro- or ground water at a frequency and duration sufficient to
tect these natural resources. support, and that under normal circumstances do support,
Natural Waters and Wetlands. One of the primary con- a prevalence of vegetation typically adapted for life in satu-
straints to land development is the presence of natural rated soil conditions. Wetlands generally include swamps,
waters. Waters of the United States, including stream chan- marshes, bogs, and similar areas:'
nels, ponds, and lakes, are usually easy to identify. Flood- Wetlands represent a varied resource with many names,
plains have been effectively mapped all across the United usually associated with the prevalent vegetation. When wet-
States by FEMA. Wetlands, on the other hand, are harder lands share the same type of vegetation, they can take the
to identify and require more attention. Natural waters have same name. For example, forested wetlands can be called
historically been looked upon as being in conflict with devel- swamps and those dominated by grasses are marshes. No two
opment and property rights. However, coastal flooding and wetlands have identical plant species diversity, or the same
erosion, as well as water quality issues associated with drink- hydrologic and soil conditions. Generally, what all wetlands
ing water supplies, have increased public awareness to the have in common is soil saturation or inundation for extended
need to maintain and protect these critical resources. periods (i.e., wetland hydrology) and vegetation adapted to
More than 50% of the wetlands in the continental United these soil conditions (i.e., hydrophytic vegetation). The use
States have been destroyed in the last 200 years, according to of such familiar terms as marsh, bog, or swamp may mean
the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Between the mid-1950s different things in different regions of the country.
and mid-1970s, there was an increase in wetland losses per It is important to understand that while wetland areas are
year with a net loss of 9 million acres of wetland (U.S. EPA). generally described as swamps and bogs, a small site may still
Drainage of wetlands for agriculture was responsible for 85% have localized wetland areas of just a few hundred square feet.
of losses, with development causing approximately 13% of The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Wetlands Mapper is an
the losses. efficient way to evaluate the potential presence of wetlands.
Not only are these losses staggering, but many waterways The following sections discuss wetland functions and
throughout the United States are also heavily polluted. The wetland delineations.
Clean Water Act has helped to remediate and better con- Wetland Functions. After a long history of wetland
trol point source discharges and impacts from construc- destruction, wetlands are increasingly recognized as provid-
tion activities. NPS discharges continue to be a challenge to ing desirable functions to society. Wetlands provide many
manage. These sources include agricultural runoff (fertiliz- functions related to improving water quality, flood manage-
ers, herbicides, and other agricultural chemicals that wash ment, and providing wildlife habitat.
into the streams) and urban runoff (oil, grease, and other Water Quality. Wetlands are known to act as chemical sinks
toxic chemicals that end up in the rivers). More information or transformers that can improve water quality. They act as
about types of NPS pollutants are discussed in Chapter 5.5. "kidneys of the landscape" (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1986) by
It is no surprise that polluted waterways are bad for the envi- removing excess nutrients from rivers and streams.
ronment, including plants, animals, and humans as well. As water purifiers, wetlands act to reduce nutrients, chem-
Besides water quality, water quantity is another issue that ical wastes, and turbidity. Wetland plants remove nutrients,
land development can affect. such as phosphorus and nitrogen, from surface water and
Water quantity relates to the amount of water runoff pro- utilize them for growth. Removing the nutrients from sur-
duced in a storm event. In undeveloped land, during a storm face waters not only prevents algal blooms, but reduces the
event, water naturally permeates through the soil surface potential for fish kill by preventing the decreases in dissolved
into the ground and slowly reaches downstream waterways. oxygen levels caused by the decomposing algal masses. A
Urbanization decreases the amount of permeable surfaces (by wetland's ability to absorb nutrients varies between individ-
constructing impervious surfaces like asphalt and concrete), ual wetlands and wetland types. Furthermore, a wetland can
which increases the runoff. This runoff is not only too much be overloaded with nutrients and thus be unable to assimi-
for the waterways to handle, it is also moving more quickly late the entire nutrient load.
and can be heavily polluted. This can lead to erosion and The effective removal of nutrients has been demon-
dangerous flooding events. More information about water strated on numerous projects by allowing nutrient laden
quantity and quality concerns is discussed in Chapter 3.5. effluent (i.e., sewage or wastewater) to flow through wet-
Jurisdictions are commonly adopting preservation ordi- lands. Organic compounds are decomposed and nitrogen
nances to better protect local waterways. In addition, land is converted to its gaseous form and removed (Mitsch and
 2.5 ■ ENVIRONMENTAL, GEOTECHNICAL, AND HISTORICAL CONSIDERATIONS 87

Gosselink, 1986). Heavy metals adsorbed to sediments are Wetland Delineation Criteria and Methodology. The
allowed to settle out in the diffuse, low velocity environment methodology for determining the presence of a wetland is
of a wetland. As sediments fall out of the water column, tur- based upon three criteria: soils, vegetation, and hydrology. For
bidity is reduced allowing sunlight to penetrate to support an area to be identified as a jurisdictional wetland, the area
growth of submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV). must contain these three wetland parameters: hydric soils,
Water Quantity. Wetlands within a watershed can reduce hydrophytic vegetation, and wetland hydrology, or evidence
flooding through the detention of floodwaters during a thereof in disturbed areas. Wetlands are located somewhere
storm. The water is then slowly released afterward into along a "natural wetness continuum'' that exists on the land-
streams, reducing peak flows. Water being released from the scape. Locating the boundary between wetlands and uplands
wetlands can even recharge or discharge aquifers depending (non-wetland areas) on this continuum is the objective of
upon their topographical position on the landscape. There- wetland delineation manuals. The definition of what consti-
fore, a wetland may either replenish the aquifer or contribute tutes a jurisdictional wetland has proven controversial with
to base flow in streams. The relative ability of a wetland to there being many different versions of a single delineation
alter flood flows depends on several variables, including its manual available. Field indicators of the three-wetland crite-
size relative to the size of the watershed, its relationship to ria are provided in the various available delineation manuals
other wetlands in the watershed, and the amount of urban - and are discussed below. When field indicators of each of the
ization in the watershed. In many respects, wetlands serve as criteria are observed, the area is determined to be a wetland.
a natural form of stormwater management. Soils. Hydric soils are defined as "soils that formed under
Coastal wetlands provide similar benefits in terms of conditions of saturation, flooding, or ponding long enough
reducing the potential flood damages associated with tropical during the growing season to develop anaerobic conditions
storms, hurricanes, northeasters, and the like. The wetland in the upper part of the soil" (Federal Register, July 13, 1994).
vegetation dissipates wave energy, thus reducing potential Organic hydric soils are largely an accumulation of non-
wave heights and storm surge. Coastal wetlands, such as bar- decomposed, organic remains (peat). These soils are easily
rier islands, serve as a buffer to protect shoreline areas from recognized as hydric soil by a thick organic surface layer that
wave-induced erosion. When located along streams and is saturated for most of the year. Wetland identification in
bays, wetlands can buffer erosive forces and hold sediments, problem areas, such as sandy soils, may take slightly longer
thereby preventing loss of shoreline. to identify in the field and may require additional detail by
Fish and Wildlife Habitat. Wetlands are among the most the environmental specialist.
productive ecosystems in the world in terms of produc- Vegetation. Hydrophytic vegetation is defined as plant life
ing energy from the sun via photosynthesis and recycling growing in water or on a substrate that is at least periodi-
nutrients. They provide food and habitat for an array of cally deficient in oxygen as a result of excessive water con-
wildlife and are critical in the nesting, migration, and win- tent (Environmental Laboratory, 1987). Many plants have
tering of waterfowl. Although wetlands do not occupy a adapted to these conditions to create the great diversity of
high percentage of our total land area, wetlands are critical plants found in wetland environments. About 8000 plants
to the life history of over one-third of our nation's threat- species are included on the Fish & Wildlife Services' National
ened and endangered plant and animal species. Coastal Wetland Plant List: 2016.
wetlands provide spawning habitat, as well as nursery Hydrology. The hydrology of a wetland is the most impor-
and feeding areas, for much of our commercially impor- tant element that defines the wetland type and function.
tant fish and shellfish. Additionally, wetlands are critical Water that creates wetlands comes from several sources
feeding, resting, breeding and nesting areas for migratory including groundwater discharge, out-of-bank stream flow
waterfowl. (flooding), surface runoff of precipitation or snow melt,
As an example, consider the role of vegetation in an direct precipitation, or tidal flooding. The roles of ground-
estuary such as the Chesapeake Bay. Historically, vast water and surface water in creating wetlands are illustrated
numbers of waterfowl (primarily redhead and canvasback in Figure 2.SC. As expressed in the figure, wetlands are typi-
ducks) wintered in the freshwater areas of the bay, where cally located between the seldom flooded upland and peren-
wild celery beds were abundant. Declines in this vegeta- nial waters of creeks, rivers, and bays.
tion in the bay and its rivers have led to a decline in the The presence or absence of wetland hydrology is deter-
number of canvasbacks and redheads overwintering in mined using recorded data and field indicators. Recorded
the area. In addition, commercially important fish species hydrologic data, such as stream, lake, or tidal gauge records
such as striped bass, shad, and menhaden are dependent can provide information on the duration of flooding in areas
upon the bay's SAV for spawning, feeding, and nursery adjacent to the water body. In groundwater driven wetlands,
habitat. Though likely not the sole reason for their dimin- the soil survey of a locality can be useful in determining
ished numbers, as SAV declined in the bay, the commercial duration of soil saturation.
and sport fishery for striped bass was reduced to the point Wetland hydrology in the form of surface water or satu-
where all fishing for the species was banned for several rated soils is readily apparent during certain times of the year
years in the 1980s. in most wetlands. Evidence of this could be standing surface
88 i@U4fi iiffll@i@IH
UPLAND

UPLAND

Water table

Depresslonal Wetland Overflow Deepwater Overflow Seepage Wetland on Slope

Wetland Habitat Wetland
FIG uRE 2. 5 C Schematic diagram showing wetlands, deep-water habitats, and uplands on landscape. (Adapted from Tiner, 1984.)

water or muddy ground surface underfoot; however, during landmarks in areas of low relief also limits the accuracy
certain times of the year, primarily late spring to early fall of the preliminary study because sketching the wetland
or during drought events, when surface water is not evident, boundary in the field is an approximation and landmarks
wetland hydrology may not be as obvious. aid in placing the wetlands/uplands boundary correctly.
Field Delineation. In the field, wetlands professionals uti- All of these factors influence the confidence level of the
lize the approved U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Wetland preliminary wetlands investigation and necessitate a more
Delineation Manual to evaluate the three primary character- formal, detailed investigation for accurate delineation.
istics of a wetland. The current Corps delineation methodol- Sources of readily available information that provide pre-
ogy requires positive indicators of all three wetland criteria liminary wetland delineations are discussed later in this
(soils, hydrophytic vegetation, and hydrology) to delineate chapter.
an area as a wetland. The wetland-upland boundary is deter- A detailed wetland investigation offers the most accurate
mined where one or more of the criteria are not present. The delineation and measurement of the jurisdictional area on
only exception to this is the situation where one or more of the site. This level of effort is necessary when the confidence
level of the preliminary study is not sufficient or the exact
the criteria are not present due to a disturbance to the area.
location of the boundary and/ or total wetland acreage must
A common example of a disturbed condition is the situation
be accurately known for permitting purposes. A detailed
where hydrophytic vegetation is not present because of farm-
wetland boundary would need to be accurately known dur-
ing activities that have temporarily replaced the natural veg-
ing final design (Chapter 5) to ensure avoidance or minimi-
etation with planted crops or pasture.
zation of wetland impacts.
Wetland hydrology, generally the most difficult of the
If the preliminary investigation of a site shows that it
three criteria to verify in the field, is normally confirmed may contain wetlands, it would be prudent for an expe-
through the use of additional field indicators. Other than a rienced environmental specialist to conduct a detailed
direct indicator of water, evidence of hydrology can be sup- wetland delineation. Due to the variability of regional con-
ported by the presence of hydric soils. ditions, the environmental specialist should be familiar
A wetland delineation is usually completed in two with the region and have a rapport with the local regulatory
stages: the preliminary investigation, to determine whether authorities. The best strategy is to avoid wetlands and other
wetlands may exist and their approximate limits; and the WOTUS in regard to impacts from land development.
detailed investigation, where the jurisdictional area for Therefore, it is extremely important to identify these con-
preliminarily identified wetlands or WOTUS is accurately straints that might hinder a project early in due diligence
identified based on an enhanced level of data collection and stage. If the delineated wetland constitutes a majority of
field review. the site, and the development program cannot be achieved,
The accuracy of a preliminary wetlands investigation is then a new site may be required. More information about
lessened when the topographic relief is low and the wet- preliminary wetland identification for a project is discussed
land is not confined to distinct stream valleys. A lack of later in this chapter.
 2.5 ■ ENVIRONMENTAL, GEOTECHNICAL, AND HISTORICAL CONSIDERATIONS 89

Open Space and Vegetation. Open space and existing veg- • Reducing the glare and reflection characteristically
etation of a property is another important natural resource generated by the combination of buildings and/or
to evaluate. Open space preservation in many cases is not roadways and natural and/ or artificial light
limited to the preservation of individual trees, but rather,
• Acting as noise attenuators
generally applies to the preservation of existing trees and
other associated vegetation across a large area that is main- • Interacting with the particulate matter and gasses
tained in a natural state. Preservation in this manner and at a known to cause air pollution to significantly reduce
reasonable scale (i.e., in contiguous areas or connected in an the concentrations of these pollutants
open space or greenway corridor) maintains the values and
• Adding oxygen to the atmosphere
functions of the resource. Within the context of sustainable
design and green building rating programs, open space is • Recreational opportunities (i.e., gardening, ballfields,
prioritized to protect or restore habitat, promote biodiver- hiking trails)
sity, and expand opportunities for interacting positively with
• Educational opportunities
the environment.
The Values and Benefits. Understanding the significance • Nonpolluting transportation (i.e., bike trails)
of open space and tree preservation requires knowledge of
• Tourism
the values and benefits provided by landscape elements and
open space in general. Figure 2.5D illustrates the functional • Flood protection
uses of plant material, from which the following values and
benefits are derived: All of the architectural, aesthetic, climatological, and
engineering uses give value to trees that can be described
• Aesthetics in both economic and legal terms (Miller, 1988). Because of
these measurable assets, trees and open space contribute to
• Space definition and articulation
and enhance property values. The resulting sum of values
• Screening undesirable views equates to an improvement in the quality oflife for everyone.
This concept is emphasized by the green building rating pro-
• Complementing or softening architecture
grams, which is discussed later in this chapter, where credits
• Creating a sense of unity among inharmonious buildings are commonly awarded for habitat preservation or creation,
and open space optimization.
• Providing textural and pattern variety
With many values and benefits, open space on a site,
• Buffering incompatible land uses including trees and vegetation, is important to preserve. Open
space consisting of old fields is primarily made up of a mix of
• Attracting wildlife
perennial flowers, grasses, and what some would classify as
Trees affect the microclimate of an area by moderating the weeds. Many wildlife species rely on these old fields for for-
effects of sun, wind, temperature, and precipitation. Such aging and reproduction; in fact, many song bird species rely
climatological values and benefits include strictly on old fields as their primary habitat. Old field areas
are accustomed to some manipulation, such as annual bush
• Intercepting, filtering, or blocking unwanted solar hogging, grazing, or fire. Therefore, provided that these areas
radiation are not graded, and the seedbank is protected, old fields tend
to be more resilient than forested areas during construction
• Blocking undesirable wind by obstruction
activities. However, the long-term development plan for such
• Directing wind flow by deflection an area should recognize that some type of manipulation will
likely be necessary in the long term to maintain these areas
• Reducing wind velocities by filtration
as open fields.
• Moderating temperature changes (although this is When considering tree preservation, the root zone area is the
more directly a function of solar radiation interception) critical and limiting factor of success. Plants depend upon roots
for water and mineral uptake, storage of food reserves, and the
The values and benefits of trees and open space relative to synthesis of needed organic compounds and anchorage. Gen-
site development and engineering are equally as important. erally, tree roots are located in the upper 36 inches of the soil,
These include with the majority of the roots (85%) in the upper 18 inches.
Research has found that tree roots can extend far beyond a tree's
• Decreasing stormwater runoff directly through inter-
drip line (outermost extent of tree canopy), typically branching
ception of rainfall and water uptake through the root
out from the trunk a distance of 1 to 1.5 times the tree's height.
system, as well as filtering pollutants contained in
It is critical to protect the roots of a tree during construction.
runoff from the adjacent watershed
Protection efforts during construction is described in erosion
• Stabilization of soils and sediment control methods of Chapter 5.7.
go i@U4fi iiffll@i@IH
A. ARCHITECTURAL C. ESTHETIC
Space Articulations Privacy Control

Screening Obstruction Control

Sculpture
Pattern

8. ENGINEERING

Entramement Attracting Birds or Animals

Glare and Reflection Reduction

Acoustical Control

Bring Natural Elements into Uiban Surrounding

Air Conditioning
Erosion Control
Traffic Control

D. CLIMATE CONTROL

1. WIND CONTROL

Obstruction Filtration Rain Snow

Deflection Guidance Evaporation Dew& Frost

q,
2. SUN CONTROL 4. TEMPERATURE

Q-
Filtration Daily
Radiant Heal
Season
A
Air Temperature Alteration Ground Temperature Alteration

;!)
', ;,,'
/

Obstruction Radiation Seasonal Variations Annual Variations

FIG uRE 2. 5 D Functional uses of plant material which have measurable values and benefits. (From International Society of Arboriculture: Guide
to Plant Appraisal, 8th ed., 1992.)
 2.5 ■ ENVIRONMENTAL, GEOTECHNICAL, AND HISTORICAL CONSIDERATIONS 91

Local Preservation Efforts. All natural resources are con- Brooklyn, New York, is another example that has a view-
sidered valuable environmental assets to local communities, shed overlay. This overlay district can be seen in city zoning
and the incremental but steady loss of these resources has maps as a shaded area that is designated "SV-I:' "The Special
prompted many jurisdictions to enact legislation. Local reg- Scenic View District (SV) is intended to prevent obstruction
ulations have been adopted to preserve and protect natural of outstanding scenic views as seen from a public park, espla-
waterways, riparian corridors (vegetation growing along a nade or mapped public place. No buildings or structures are
body of water), forested areas, farmlands, and unique nat- allowed to penetrate a scenic view plane except by special
ural resources such as prairies, meadows, and deserts. In permit of the City Planning Commission. The Brooklyn
addition, increasingly poor water quality and urbanization, Heights Scenic View District (SV-1) extends over an area
has led communities to protect more than just the natural west of the Brooklyn Heights Promenade to protect the
resources, including entire watersheds and even viewsheds views of the Lower Manhattan skyline, Governors Island, the
as well. Statue of Liberty and the Brooklyn Bridge:'
Regulations to preserve and protect natural resources and Many of these preservation ordinances have been created
environmental features generally begin with the local com - to act as guides for responsible or appropriate land develop-
prehensive plan. Specific recommendations and guidelines ment activities. These ordinances and regulations are gener-
may be adopted, in line with the community's vision and ally not intended to prohibit development activity, merely to
goals, dedicated to these preservation efforts. This could be cultivate a balance between the natural and built environ-
included within an environmental element of the compre- ment that is beneficial to all those participating in the devel-
hensive plan, as described in Chapter 2.2, or in a separate opment process. Land development and preservation need
environmental plan. Fairfax County, Virginia, for example, not be mutually exclusive. In fact, open space preservation
has a Tree Action Plan that includes strategies for "conser- has been demonstrated to prevent flood damage, attract
vation and management of the county's tree resources:' This investment, revitalize cities, and boost tourism, along with
includes visions and goals for the urban forest, core recom - preserving the environment (Lerner and Poole, 1999).
mendations, and implementation strategies, similar to a com- Since communities differ in their natural environment,
prehensive plan. Through the recommendations of the Tree political structures, cultural traditions, and legal frame-
Action Plan, the county adopted a 30-year tree canopy goal to work, preservation ordinances vary between jurisdictions.
increase Fairfax County's tree cover to 45% by the year 2037. All jurisdictions do have similar goals of protecting natural
The jurisdiction may implement these recommenda- and cultural resources, views, and floodplains; so their ordi-
tions and environmental plans through the adoption of nances and regulations will be specific to the local commu-
preservation ordinances or other requirements in the local nity desires and economic needs.
zoning ordinance, subdivision ordinance, and/or a separate Regulations within preservation ordinances may also
environmental or landscape ordinance. Open space require- vary widely between jurisdictions. For instance, some
ments, landscaping requirements, and other regulations may localities are quite specific as to the percentage of existing
be found in dimensional standards within the zoning text, as vegetation that must be retained, and have designed meth-
described in Chapter 2.3, or Development Standards Man- odologies for determining the extent of existing vegetation
ual, as described in Chapter 2.4. to be targeted for retention. Other localities simply offer
Overlay districts, as described in Chapter 2.3, are com- general guidelines, requiring that all attempts possible be
monly included on zoning maps and in the zoning ordinance made to retain existing vegetation. Most preservation ordi-
to protect natural resources. San Antonio, Texas, for example, nances will establish the definitions, procedures, penalties,
has River Improvement Overlay (RIO) Districts. "Its purpose and appeals process specific to the individual locality for
is to establish regulations to protect, preserve and enhance preservation and protection. In some instances, preserva-
the San Antonio River and its improvements by establishing tion ordinances are developed to protect entire ecosystems,
design standards and guidelines for properties located near such as those areas that are known habitats of rare, threat-
the river. The San Antonio River is a unique and precious ened or endangered species, or watersheds that drain into a
natural, cultural and historic resource that provides a physi- public water supply.
cal connection through San Antonio by linking a variety of Since variation between preservation ordinances can be
neighborhoods, cultural sites, public parks and destinations:' great, and all ordinances are specifically reflective of the local
San Antonio's Unified Development Code includes a chapter policies, circumstances, and needs of a particular area, it is
for the zoning overlay districts that includes the RIO Dis- more critical here to understand the general premise for an
tricts. The text within outlines the purpose of the district, ordinance, rather than the details specific to many localities.
through the required provisions and regulations, to "prevent Specific preservation ordinances exist in a majority of the
the negative impacts caused by incompatible and insensitive towns, cities, and urbanized areas nationwide, and they may
development and promote new compatible development:' be separate or included as part of larger ordinances. It is the
The RIO Districts also "maintain the openness and natural responsibility of the site engineer and the development team
habitat of the river, access to its trails and provide safety for to be cognizant of the requirements particular to the juris-
its users" amongst other objectives. diction in which a specific project is located.
92 i@U4fi iiffll@i@IH
2.5.4. Environmental Due Diligence considerations. The web-based application draws envi-
With an understanding of environmental regulations and ronmental data dynamically from EPA Geographic Infor-
local preservation efforts, and an appreciation of natural mation System databases and web services and provides
resources, it is necessary to understand how to evaluate the immediate screening of environmental assessment indicators
environmental conditions of a site during the due diligence for a user-defined area of interest. These features contribute to
review of the site selection process. This section discusses a streamlined review process that potentially raises important
various environmental assessments that should be consid- environmental issues at the earliest stages of project devel-
ered when evaluating a site for development purposes. opment:' NEPAssist provides information on EPA facilities
When determining the development potential of a par- and jurisdictional content as well as natural waters, wetlands,
ticular piece of land, the land development team should first FEMA flood data, soils, critical habitats, land cover, and more.
It should be noted that these reviews at this stage are pre-
evaluate the land's opportunities and constraints, both of
liminary and for planning purposes only. They are intended
which may be influenced by environmental issues. There-
to help the design team identify any constraints inherent to
fore, a preliminary environmental review of a site should be
the site itself that may prohibit or substantially derail (either
completed in the early stages of the land development design
because of time or cost) a proposed development project.
process. This review is typically a two-step approach:
Early identification of environmental site conditions can
1. Perform a desktop review, or an office data review, significantly enhance programming and planning, as well as
to identify environmental considerations that may future design and construction efforts, and facilitate a real-
warrant closer field inspection. This review includes istic project schedule. Additional investigations will likely be
a cursory investigation and assessment of available required during final design (Chapter 5), depending on the
wetland, floodplains, soils, wildlife, hazardous mate- existing environmental features.
rial, and natural hazards data for the site. This will More information about wetland assessments, floodplain
be discussed within this section of this chapter. studies, soils investigations, wildlife habitat reviews, contam-
ination investigations, and natural hazard risk assessments is
2. Complete a site inspection, also known as a site visit introduced within this section.
or walkover, to confirm the information garnered Wetland Assessment. The wetland desktop review con-
in the desktop review and ensure that current con - sists of researching existing information concerning the site.
ditions (which may not be entirely or accurately As mentioned previously, wetlands have important func-
reflected in the desktop review) are identified and tions for the environment, and along with WOTUS, impacts
assessed. This is discussed in Chapter 3.1. should be avoided and/or minimized as much as possible
during development. Therefore, it is important to first iden-
These environmental assessments are an important com-
tify if any natural waters and/or wetlands exist on the site.
ponent of the due diligence process because some envi-
Typically, this process begins in the office as an evaluation of
ronmental factors such as existing wetlands, habitats, or available information. A desktop review will determine the
hazardous materials could significantly alter development likelihood of the presence of WOTUS or wetlands on the site.
potential and the overall development program. Addition- Examples of readily available information are discussed
ally, environmental conditions could adversely affect the cost below. This information provides a preliminary indication of
and schedule of a development project. These assessments potential presence of wetlands on a site. It should be noted
may be required when producing a feasibility study (to be that these resources are mass-produced at a small scale and
introduced in Chapter 3.1) to ensure the viability of a site. frequently are outdated or missing data. Therefore, a desktop
The discussions in the section are intended as an overview review of wetland data should not be considered sufficient to
to familiarize the development team with the typical envi- exclude the presence of wetlands or WOTUS on a site. Dur-
ronmental assessments related to the project. Each project is ing the site investigation, an additional preliminary wetland
unique, so additional assessments and more detailed reviews investigation may be required. If the preliminary informa-
may be required. tion suggests that a wetland is present on the site, then a
Additional attention will be required if the project consti- detailed wetland delineation will be required for final design.
tutes a state and/or federal action. State actions will require U.S. Geological Survey 7.5 Minute Topographic Series Maps.
compliance with the applicable state regulations. Any under- These maps, which are also known as topographic quad-
taking that receives federal funding, permitting, and/or approv- rangles, can be obtained directly from the U.S. Geological
als will require conformance with NEPA, CWA, CERCLA, as Survey (USGS). In addition, various websites also have topo-
well as other applicable federal laws. graphic maps available online. Typically, there is a fee asso-
More information about each of these federal programs ciated with downloading a map from these websites. These
can be found online. Some of them have interactive tools to maps can identify such features as marshes or lakes, ponds,
help perform necessary research. For NEPA, the EPA provides rivers, streams, and other water bodies that may be present
a NEPAssist tool that "facilitates the environmental review on the site. In addition, these maps can be used to deter-
process and project planning in relation to environmental mine drainage swales or low-lying areas that may exhibit
 2.5 ■ ENVIRONMENTAL, GEOTECHNICAL, AND HISTORICAL CONSIDERATIONS 93

wetland characteristics and should be evaluated during the A floodplain study may also be conducted to evaluate the
site inspection (to be introduced in Chapter 3.1). The largest effectiveness of channel improvements or modifications.
scale these maps are available in is 1:24,000. Even if a floodplain study is not necessary for design, it
Wetlands Mapping. Much of the U.S. has been mapped by is often a regulatory requirement. It is common for local or
the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) to produce the state governments to require that a floodplain study be per-
National Wetland Inventory (NWI). These maps are avail- formed and submitted in support of a site plan. Regulations
able online at the USFWS Wetland Mapper website. The often contain a provision that a floodplain study is required
NWI map is prepared from aerial photos and wetlands are for a reach of stream if the drainage area is greater than some
designated by the USFWS. If the NWI map indicates wet- minimum value (100 acres may be typical). It is common to
lands on the site, there is a high probability (more than 90%) require a floodplain study to ensure that new construction
that they are jurisdictional wetlands. State and local wetland does not increase the water surface elevation more than the
programs may have also prepared wetlands mapping that allowable surcharge above the base flood elevation.
includes the site area. If available, these maps can typically be Preliminary Investigation. The first step in any flood
found on the local county or state GIS webpage. study is to determine the limits of the stream to be studied.
Web Soil Surveys. The USDA, through the Natural The limits will be determined based on the desired results of
Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), provides soil infor- the study. If the reason for performing a floodplain study is
mation for most jurisdictions online via the Web Soil Survey. due to a regulatory requirement related to the land develop-
If there are hydric soil map units or any soil map units with ment project, the municipality may require the entire length
hydric soil inclusions indicated, then one could assume of stream through, and possibly beyond, the project limits to
that these areas are potential wetlands, and are areas which be studied. If the reason for performing the study is to deter-
should be field verified. Greater confidence in that determi- mine the floodplain boundary in a specific location, or to
nation would be obtained if the NWI map also showed wet- determine the necessity for channel improvements, etc., then
land in this area. If no hydric soils or hydric soil inclusions the limits of study must be determined such that the portion
are indicated in the study area, it will likely lack the required of the stream impacting the development is studied.
soil to meet the wetland criteria. However, the site should be Also, the desired precision of the results must be deter-
field-checked for verification purposes because soil condi- mined. This will determine the accuracy of the topographic
tions can change and development around a site can poten- data needed to map the floodplain, as well as the hydrologic
tially affect the site hydrology. and hydraulic methods used for the study. As expected,
Aerial Photographs Review. Aerial photographs can pro- higher accuracy generally comes at a higher price, since
vide information on vegetation and hydrology and should be more detailed hydrologic and hydraulic methods can cost
consulted as part of a wetland data review. There are many orders of magnitude more than simpler methods.
sources for aerial imagery, including commercial online The appropriate recurrence interval(s) must be deter-
sources. Another example is the USGS TerraServer USA mined in order to provide the level of risk or protection
webpage, which provides aerial photograph coverage for desired. The 100-year floodplain is the most common for
much of the nation. Other possible sources for aerial pho- analysis, because of regulatory requirements from local juris-
tographs are county or city mapping or planning offices, the dictions and from FEMA.
USDA, Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service Data Acquisition. Before beginning a floodplain study,
(ASCS), and NRCS offices located in each county. Numerous an information search should be conducted to determine
counties also have recent aerial photographs available on the if previous studies on the subject stream exist, or if other
county's GIS webpage. studies have been performed in close proximity that may
Many counties, especially those with growing popula- provide some of the data needed for the study. Some federal
tions, will regularly commission aerial photo surveys to agencies perform floodplain studies as an aid to identifying
update county land-use mapping. Color infrared (CIR) pho- flood prone areas. These agencies include the USGS, the U.S.
tography is the most useful when identifying wetland areas Army Corps of Engineers (Corps), and FEMA. In addition,
from the desktop with aerial photographs as it can highlight some local or state organizations may have drainage plans
differences in vegetation and soil moisture. or floodplain studies already established. Local zoning maps
Floodplain Study. A floodplain study graphically depicts may show existing floodplain limits. These limits could
an engineering estimate of the water surface elevation have been established from studies performed by the local
expected along a length of a stream for some specified design municipality, as part of another development project along
storm. Typically, floodplain studies are conducted as a design the stream, or as a study done by the USGS.
tool as well as a regulatory requirement. As a design tool, If a development project is near a previously or con-
they are often used to determine the limits of inundation, for currently developed site that is also affected by the subject
some specified recurrence interval, to be assured that new stream, a floodplain study may have been developed in con-
developments will lie beyond the floodplain. Similarly, they junction with the nearby development. These studies should
may be used to evaluate the changes in flood elevations due be identified and examined to determine if they may be used
to changes or additions to structures within the floodplain. outright, or if some pieces of information may be useful.
94 i@U4fi iiffll@i@IH
These reports and maps establishing the floodplain limits 2.5.5. Wildlife Habitat Review
should be studied to determine the underlying assumptions, It is important to review habitats that may be present on
such as the land use conditions for determining the runoff. the site. Habitat loss is the primary threat to most imperiled
This information will then be incorporated into the new species and critical habitat zones are essential to protect-
floodplain study or be used to justify the need for establish- ing threatened or endangered species. While the regulatory
ing new limits based on current conditions. The delineated aspect of critical habitat under the Endangered Species Act
floodplain limits on the maps may be graphically depicted does not apply directly to private and other nonfederal land-
on the project base map (to be introduced in Chapter 3.2). owners, large-scale development on private and state land
It may then be the responsibility of the site engineer to fur- typically requires a federal permit for either stormwater
ther define the limits through metes and bounds or other discharges (NPDES) or impacts to natural waters; thus, the
methods. If a new floodplain study is conducted, the new project becomes subject to critical habitat regulations. Fed-
limits are compared to the preliminary delineated limits. eral permitting agencies are required to coordinate with the
Any discrepancies must be justified with the public review USFWS to ensure that projects they authorize are not likely
agencies. to jeopardize the existence of the listed species or result in the
When performing a new study, a large amount of data is destruction or modification of their habitat that is declared
required. Much of this data may have already been created to be critical.
for other purposes and it is simply a matter of collecting it. As a result of this requirement, it is advisable to complete
Types of data that are typically collected include a review of any potential development site to determine if
there is a likelihood to impact a threatened or endangered
• Topographic data and aerial photographs for the
species or their habitat as a result of the land development
entire study area
process. This review can be accomplished by contacting
• Hydrologic data such as stream gage data, and, if either the USFWS or the state equivalent. Some states or
detailed hydrologic modeling is required, rainfall local jurisdictions have this information available online.
data, soils types, and land use coverages
• Plans/information for structures in the floodplain, 2.5.6. Contamination Investigation
such as bridges and culverts Contaminated sites may exist because of past or present
land use activities. Environmental regulations, as previ-
• Transportation and planimetric data layers to serve
ously described, require the assessment of the type and
as reference features on floodplain maps
extent of contamination potentially present at a site, as
• Supplemental field survey at critical cross sections well as the development of adequate remediation measures
• Photographs or other field verification of surface to address the contamination identified. Hazardous waste
conditions (used for hydrology computations) refers generally to discarded waste materials from institu-
tions, commercial establishments and residences that poses
Topographic and aerial photographic data is often available an unacceptable risk to human health and safety, property
from local and state agencies, the USGS, and land development values, and the environment. Typical sources of contamina-
project plans. Topographic mapping and aerial photographs tion include surface impoundments, landfills, spills, tanks,
should cover the area to be studied, with plenty of additional septic tanks, agriculture, urban runoff, deep well injection,
coverage beyond the actual floodplain limits. More informa- and illegal dumping.
tion about topographic maps is introduced in Chapter 3. Information about potential contamination affecting
Commonly, hydrologic data is obtained from the USGS, a site can be gathered from state and local environmental
although local and state agencies, particularly engineer- offices. In addition, the EPA has a website called Enforce-
ing departments, frequently maintain this type of data as ment and Compliance History Online (ECHO) which also
well. Bridge and culvert "as-built" plans can sometimes provides information related to compliance, violations, and
be obtained from state departments of transportation or enforcement actions. A comprehensive regulatory database
local public works departments. If not available from these review report can be purchased from several companies that
sources, it may be necessary to have survey crews collect this maintain updated regulatory databases. Should the database
information as part of their field work. review indicate possible sources or presence of contamina-
Last, many states and local communities have GIS depart- tion, it is important to properly prepare for the site investi-
ments where digital planimetric data can be obtained, such gation by taking the necessary safety precautions to protect
as transportation, parcel, and corporate limit data layers. field personnel.
Producing a new floodplain study will generally occur The regulatory database review and site investigation
with the final design of a project. This work may be com- provide a preliminary understanding of potential contami-
pleted by a floodplain specialist or other consultant. For nation presence at a given site and surrounding properties
more information about preparing a floodplain study, refer and help determine whether additional detailed investiga-
to Chapter 7.4. tions are warranted.
 2.5 ■ ENVIRONMENTAL, GEOTECHNICAL, AND HISTORICAL CONSIDERATIONS 95

2.5. 7. Natural Hazard Risk Assessment Central SoMa Area Plan proposes a development impact-fee
Several natural hazards could be associated with a project program (as described in Chapter 2.4) that will fund ecodis-
depending on the geographic location of the site. Possible trict projects. This will achieve the vision and goals of the
natural hazards include flooding, wildfires, landslides, earth- city and the local residents.
quakes, hurricanes, erosion, tornadoes, tsunamis, typhoons, The value of building green can be highlighted by finan-
droughts, volcanic eruptions, and other severe events related cial savings and benefits of new technologies. Incentives
specifically to the geology or climate of a particular site. from municipalities are continuing to spur the development
Additional information about these hazards can be found on of green buildings and the expansion of urban open spaces.
the FEMA website. Other jurisdictions, such as Montgomery County, Maryland,
Although natural hazards are relatively unpredictable, and Arlington County, Virginia, are developing regulations
risk assessment at the early stages of a project can result in to make green building certification a requirement for pro-
more informed and responsive site selection, planning, engi- posed developments.
neering, architectural and other design related decisions. Dallas, Texas, also has comprehensive green building
Specific design strategies can be utilized during the develop- standards for both new residential and commercial con-
ment process so as to attempt to mitigate natural hazards to struction. These standards are regulated by the City of Dallas
reduce the impacts of natural disasters at a given site. Simple Green Ordinance. "Dallas recognizes the fundamental link
measures such as two means of ingress/ egress from a devel- between the building code's intent of 'safeguarding the public
opment, reasonable shoreline setbacks for coastal develop- health, safety and general welfare: and preserving a safe and
ment, adequate communications infrastructure, appropriate healthy natural environment. Incorporating sustainability
material selections for buildings and infrastructure, and code through energy efficiency, water conservation and resource
compliant construction can greatly enhance the built envi- reuse and reduction translates into a stronger economy and
ronment's response to natural hazards and the protection of area growth:'
communities both in terms of population and property loss. As part of the green legislation being considered and
implemented by governing bodies, some are considering
2.5.8. Sustainability Practices issues closely related to climate change, such as reduction of
carbon emissions though thoughtful planning and site selec-
With an understanding of environmental regulations and tion, and through new technologies as they come into the
design considerations required, it is important to explore sus- marketplace.
tainability practices which are becoming more popular and
regulated in today's market. The "green building" movement 2.5.9. Green Building Rating Programs
has created a new industry. Cities as large as Chicago are As jurisdictions continue to adopt green building ordinances
embracing sustainability by developing green roof projects or to "strongly recommend" green building practices through
and implementing ordinances and special economic incen- their comprehensive plans, zoning ordinances, and other
tives that encourage public-private partnerships. Tax incre- regulatory language, it is often important for the site engi-
ment financing (TIF) districts, for example, utilize property neer to consider sustainability practices early in the design
taxes within a specific area to fund community improvement process. It may also be important to resolve or design open
projects and encourage development within that district. space and landscaping as a separate infrastructure compo-
Denver, Colorado, has a green roof requirement for all nent subject to the same level of increasing detail afforded to
projects that submit a site development plan for any new roads, utilities, and grading.
building with a gross floor area of 25,000 square feet or more Several organizations currently provide green building rat-
or a building addition that causes the building to become ing programs with design guidelines and third party evalua-
25,000 square feet or more, and any existing building over tion/ certification of designs in accordance with their respective
25,000 square feet that is seeking to do a roof replacement. criteria or rating system. These organizations include
The required coverage of available roof space is determined
by the gross floor area of the building. • United States Green Building Council (USGBC)-
The City of San Francisco, California, created the Cen- Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design
tral SoMa Eco-District to encourage innovative district-scale (LEED) Rating Systems
sustainable development projects. "An Eco-District calls for
• National Association of Homebuilders (NAHB)-
a new model of public-private partnership that emphasizes
Model Green Home Building Guidelines
district-scale organization between the City, utility providers
and community stakeholders and the rigorous application • Green Building Initiative (GBI)-Green Globes
of integrated sustainability performance metrics to guide
• National Institute of Building Sciences-Whole
investments in the areas of building development, infra-
Building Design Guide
structure and community action and program delivery:' This
ecodistrict compliments the Central SoMa Area Plan (also • Enterprise Community Partners-Green
known as a sector plan as described in Chapter 2.2). The Communities
9& i@U4fi iiffll@i@IH
• Building Research Establishment (BRE) Limited- a minimum amount of points or credits as prescribed in the
Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM) applicable rating system, in addition to all prerequisites. Addi-
tional levels of certification, such as silver, gold and platinum,
• Institute for Sustainable Infrastructure
(ISI)-Envision corresponding to increasing levels of sustainability or envi-
ronmentally friendly design, can be achieved by accumulating
Many of the green building rating systems include open credits above the minimum necessary for certification.
space preservation and restoration as a component part of Many projects now have one, if not more, LEED Accred-
the site development section. First and foremost, through ited Professional (LEED AP) as members of the design team
avoidance, the rating systems encourage selecting a site or to facilitate a more integrated design process including
placing site development outside of environmentally sensi- educating team members as to the credit requirements and
tive areas. documenting the design efforts in a manner conducive to
This combination of credits related to open space and nat- certifying the project.
ural resource preservation emphasizes the front-end impor- Knowing the established criteria, a determination
tance of decisions related to site selection and appropriate should be made by the design team, with input from the
consideration of environmental and natural resources from client/developer, as to the desired green building design
the start of the project throughout the design and develop- goals for the project. Care should then be taken during
ment process. These credits are intended to be attainable for preparation of the engineering feasibility study and envi-
any site whether rural, suburban, or urban. ronmental impact study to include evaluation of the char-
Selection of the appropriate design guidelines and rating acteristics of the site that do or do not comply with the
system is dependent upon the type of development proposed, criteria of the applicable rating system and the established
jurisdictional requirements, and developer priorities. The site goals (Table 2.SA).
engineer should be familiar with the various third party cer- By considering the applicable rating system criteria dur-
tifying entities and their rating systems or guidelines in order ing the initial stages of site planning, such as the due dili-
to advise clients appropriately for their specific application. gence stage, projects can more easily reach the desired green
The USGBC-LEED program is a common green build- building goals by simply selecting sites that meet all or some
ing rating system. The USGBC offers several different green of the existing location and condition criteria previously dis-
building rating systems covering nearly every market sector cussed. The design team will also have the opportunity early
of the land development industry. on to determine if some of the noncompliant characteristics
Each site and building is different and the green building of the selected site can be overcome by incorporating tech-
guidelines, in their various forms, seek to accommodate this niques for sustainable development into the project design,
uniqueness while still ultimately producing a sustainable proj- thereby gaining credits necessary for achieving the preferred
ect. To obtain LEED certification, a development must obtain level of certification.

TABLE 2. 5 A Integrating Sustainability into the Land Development Design Process

DESIGN PHASE ACTION

Feasibility & Site Analysis Establish Goals, Identify Constraints and Opportunities
Concept Design Think Big, Innovate and Develop Sustainable Design Strategies
Schematic Design Refine Goals, lmplementDesign Strategies, Build Baseline Models
Final Design Integrate and Detail Design Strategies in Construction Plans and Specifications
Plan Approval/Permitting Submitfor Certification, Revise as necessary
Construction Follow Through and Coordinate with contractor
Postconstruction Monitor and Maintain Sustainable Systems; Train/Educate Users
 2.5 ■ ENVIRONMENTAL, GEOTECHNICAL, AND HISTORICAL CONSIDERATIONS 97

POINCIANA PARKWAY
Case Study: In 2017, the Osceola County Expressway Authority (OCX) and the residents of Poinciana, Florida, cel-
ebrated the completion of the new, IO-mile-long Poinciana Parkway. The parkway is a limited-access toll road that
connects north-central Osceola County to Polk County, and enables the community of more than 50,000 to link to 1-4,
which runs west to Tampa, northeast through Orlando, and ultimately to Daytona Beach. The parkway has become part
of a vital roadway network for residents commuting to Orlando or visiting the Walt Disney World Resort, and will serve
as Poinciana's primary hurricane evacuation route while also improving emergency-response services to the community.

LIFE IN THE SMALL CITY

First developed in the 1960s, Poinciana lies south of Orlando in Osceola County. The community is located on an "island"
surrounded by Reedy Creek Swamp and other wetlands. Over the past 20 years, Poinciana has been among Florida's
fastest-growing areas, and the increased population had resulted in one of the worst small-city commutes in the nation.
The developer originally planned to construct a parkway in the 1990s, but the project was postponed due to a lack of
funding and a number of environmental challenges. In 2010, the Florida legislature created the OCX with the purpose of
developing a limited-access toll road network in Osceola County. The Poinciana Parkway would serve as the first critical
link in the regional network. OCX selected the design-build team of Dewberry and Jr. Davis Construction/United Infra-
structure Group-Poinciana Parkway LLC-to design and construct the parkway. The team divided the project into
four segments, which allowed the parkway to open in phases. This approach enabled OCX to generate revenue earlier by
collecting tolls on the completed segments as they opened.
The parkway extends from Cypress Parkway northwest to U.S. 17/92, with at-grade intersections at each terminus. The
alignment traverses the Poinciana development with grade-separated interchanges at Koa Street and Marigold Ave-
nue, both important collector roads providing access to the parkway. Construction included three bridge structures: a
62-span, 6169-ft-long low-level bridge through the Reedy Creek Mitigation Bank and two single-span roadway over-
passes. The final design allows for a future six-lane divided roadway, with the initial project constructing two lanes.
OCX had two main objectives that led to the decision to use the design-build delivery method. First, the authority
sought to complete the project as quickly as possible in order to alleviate traffic issues, improve access to the Poinciana
development, and begin to capture revenue from the tolls as soon as possible-helping to fund future projects and vali-
date the authority's long-termmaster plan. Second, OCX placed a priority on addressing environmental challenges in a
responsible manner, includingthe complicated crossing through the mitigation bank.
ga i@U4fi iiffll@i@IH

PROTECTING THE ECOSYSTEM

In 2013, shortly before design work began on the parkway, 3520 acres of Reedy Creek Swamp were reclaimed as a miti-
gation bank. The preserve is a rich and diverse natural habitat consisting of woods, low-lying wetlands, swamps and
marshes that provide a home to many species such as bears, panthers and alligators; a wide variety of fish and birds,
including a blue heron rookery; and native flora ranging from old-growth cypresses to butterfly orchids. Reedy Creek
also serves as one of the northernmost sources of water for the Everglades. The swamp is a popular destination for nature
lovers who enjoy the visitor center and the network of trails in the area.
Dewberry addressed many environmental concerns during the design, permitting and construction process for the
parkway. The team assessed a variety of aspects including the roadways, bridges, drainage, utilities and fiber networks to
determine the extent of impacts on the local ecosystem, including the swamp. While an earlier proposal had suggested
two 2000-ft-long bridges separated by a long earthen causeway through the swamp, Dewberry engineers proposed a
single 6169-ft-long bridge over the environmentally sensitive area, eliminating the earthen plug. This approach maxi-
mized hydraulic flows and expanded the wildlife corridor.
The bridge is arched to provide a minimum 8-ft and maximum 24-ft clearance over the swamp to allow wildlife to walk
or swim underneath. The arched profile facilitates the collection of stormwater runoff from the roadway into a scupper
system that discharges into stormwater treatment ponds at both ends, eliminating direct discharge into the sensitive
wetlands.
 2.5 ■ ENVIRONMENTAL, GEOTECHNICAL, AND HISTORICAL CONSIDERATIONS 99

The Jr. Davis Construction/United infrastructure team, with an extensive background in local projects and a strong
working knowledge of soil and drainage conditions in the area, also focused on minimizing environmental disturbances
during construction. One critical measure involved the use oflow-pressure segmented barges to facilitate access as the
bridge was constructed over the swamp. The barges served as material staging platforms, equipment work platforms, and
marsh mats for the areas of soft soils and inadequate flotation.
The use of the barges enabled the team to remove existing trees from the ground up, while preserving the natural vegeta-
tive root mat, which allowed for rapid regrowth and added stability to the work site. Rather than sinking into the root
mat and wet soil, the sectional barges floated when necessary, barely leaving a footprint behind.
The bridge was constructed using driven concrete piles with precast beams. The choice of precast allowed for longer,
nearly 100-ft spans, reducing the number of bents in the swamp. The spans were still short enough to allow for easy
delivery and were light enough to handle from the cranes set on the barges. The superstructure required 7700 cu yd
of concrete, with an additional 1000 cu yd for the substructure. The abutments and interior bents were constructed
with piles driven from the ground topped by cast-in-place concrete cap beams. The girders were Florida-I 45 beams at
45 inches deep and 99.25 feet long.
Numerous agencies and stakeholders were involved in the effort, with Dewberry coordinating with OCX as well as
the Florida Department of Transportation-Turnpike Enterprise, the Central Florida Expressway Authority, the Florida
Department of Transportation-District One, the Florida Department of Environmental Protection, the U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers, the South Florida Water Management District, Osceola County, Polk County, the Reedy Creek Mitigation
Bank and numerous utility companies. The first phase opened in April 2016 and the entire $68.8 million project was
completed in January 2017-3 months ahead of schedule.
Contribution by Kevin Knudsen, P.E.
Featured in the September 2017 issue ofRoad&Bridges Magazine
100 i@UH:U iirttl@i@IH
PART B-GEOTECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS subsurface investigation until the specific site details are final-
This part focuses on subsurface conditions of a site. The ized and the scope of the investigation refined.
geotechnical considerations can have a significant influence
2.5.1 o. Soils
on the cost to develop a site. The presence of poor soils or
shallow rock may make the site cost-prohibitive to develop. Decisions for the planning and design of a project depend
During the pre-design phase of a project it is likely that geo- highly on subsurface conditions at the site. Not only is geo-
technical information will come from public sources and will logic and soil information necessary for design, but informa-
be supplemented with site-specific information during later tion on what is contained below the surface affects various
phases of the project. project decisions as well. The subsurface investigation aids
Many public agencies require subsurface information the development team and helps the developer in making
before the project is approved. Early investigations can economic and financial decisions for the project. A descrip-
provide information to the development team on potential tion of geotechnical considerations is included in Part B of
issues. The extent of required information collected depends this subchapter. Knowledge of subsurface conditions, such as
on the nature of the subsurface conditions and the project. contaminated groundwater, presence of hazardous materials
Where foundation and subsurface conditions are relatively (natural or manufactured) and extremely poor soil and rock
straight forward, the information may be adequately covered conditions at the early planning stages can save the developer
by a short soils report. For complex projects with unusual time and money. For example, conditions may be so egre-
or difficult conditions (problem soils), the required informa- gious that the developer may elect to abandon the project at
tion may be quite extensive. Local ordinances will generally this site in favor of another where development costs may be
dictate the type of information needed. more predictable or feasible. Although performing the sub-
All investigations should begin by researching available surface exploration may be an investment up front (subsur-
information, followed by a thorough surface reconnaissance. face exploration costs can be around 0.5% to 1.0% of the total
Available information that may be helpful include published construction costs), the long-term savings often warrant such
geologic reports, NRCS county soil reports, stereo air photos an expense.
used for photogrammetric mapping, flood maps, hydrology From an engineering perspective, subsurface soils are
maps, information and experience at nearby sites, etc. Based the organic and inorganic materials of the earth's surface
on an assessment of this information, a subsurface investi- that are capable of being displaced by shovel or nominal
gation program can be planned to obtain adequate data for mechanical efforts and may provide the foundation and
analysis and design of the project. Specific objectives of the support of the proposed project. Soil is an integral part of
investigation normally include the design analysis and construction activities and is often
used as a foundation in its natural undisturbed state or as
• Location and depth of soil layers, bedrock and ground- a construction material for fill, backfill, and embankments.
water within the depths of significant stress increases The behavior of soil may vary depending on the situation.
expected under a proposed structure; as well as other Many structural failures have been attributed to not prop-
features that may affect the project, such as subsurface erly addressing subsurface conditions or predicting soil
cavities, hazardous waste, and contaminated soil behavior. The site engineer should be concerned with what
types of soils lie below the ground surface and their asso-
• Samples of all significant materials for visual exami- ciated properties and characteristics including strength,
nation and classification or laboratory testing if compressibility, permeability, grain size distribution, and
necessary moisture content.
• Field data to determine the density or compactness Besides those methods which describe and indicate soil
of all materials properties and parameters for engineering purposes, other
methods of describing, categorizing, and identifying soils
• Any other special requirements based on project based on the interests of other professions are available to
plans or subsurface conditions assist the engineer. The soil scientist (agronomist) is inter-
ested in the origin, distribution, and classification of soil for
Due to the inherent uncertainties of soil and rock behavior, the agricultural purposes. Geology is the study of the origin, his-
detail of the subsurface investigation is carried out to a level tory, and structure of the earth with a focus on rock and rock
that balances both design requirements and cost with risk. formations. While the geologist typically considers soil as the
The type of project may dictate the extent of the geotechnical weathering product of rocks, the agronomist's interest in soil
report and when it is initiated. For development projects such is obviously related to agriculture. Soils and their properties
as commercial and retail projects, the subsurface investiga- are often described by terms specific to these two disciplines,
tion is begun early in the planning phase. Whereas, residential and it is helpful if the engineer can relate their terms to engi-
development (lot and street layout) may lend itself to use of neering interests. The geotechnical engineer is looking at the
publicly available soil survey to provide sufficient prelimi- strength, compressibility, and permeability of the soils at the
nary information to begin the project and defer a thorough site in order to make assessments about the soils stability,
 2.5 ■ ENVIRONMENTAL, GEOTECHNICAL, AND HISTORICAL CONSIDERATIONS 101

settlement, and drainage characteristics, as related to the 100

proposed construction.
90 10
Strength and compressibility of the soils are the primary
characteristics that are important in foundations of struc-
tures (buildings, retaining walls, and headwalls). Permeabil-
ity and strength are soil characteristics that are important 30
when designing stormwater management facilities, engi-
neered slopes, and changing the topography at the site. The
strength characteristics of soils are important to predict slope
behavior and prevent slope failures. Erodability is another
soil characteristic that is important for evaluation of erosion
potential and determination of soil erosion control measures.
Buildings founded on weak soils can result in catastrophic
structural failures. Buildings founded on compressible soils
can experience excessive settlement resulting in expensive 90
repairs. The success of infiltration facilities, common in low
L-----'"---"-"'----_::,"-----"'-----"'--"'---'-'------'-'------'>l_----"100
impact development approaches to site design, hinges on the 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 1 0
permeability of underlying soil stratas. A thorough under-
PERCENT SAND
standing of soil properties-strength, compressibility, and
FIG uRE 2. 5 E Soil textural triangle.
permeability-will allow the land development engineer to
accurately assess the feasibility of various design options and
ultimately, to accurately design, detail, and specify site fea - separate the soil according to grain size. Although these tex-
tures. For more information about soil properties and these tural terms are commonly used by various organizations and
characteristics refer to Chapter 7.3. agencies, the size limits for each particle class vary. Using the
Geotechnical engineering is the branch of civil engi- size limits of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)
neering that involves the design and use of soil and rock in (Sand: 2.0 to 0.05 mm, silt: 0.05 to 0.002 mm, clay:
engineered construction; it is involved in all types of con- <0.002 mm), Figure 2.5E can be used to classify the soil once
struction in, on, or of the earth. With specific knowledge of the relative weight (in percent) of each constituent is known.
the soil properties of a site, the geotechnical engineer can Textural classification relates the physical properties of
design soil support and fill projects, while predicting their soils, particle size, shape, and soil composition. The particle
behavior comparable to other engineering materials such as size distribution method is most effective for categorizing
concrete or steel. While some projects may require careful cohesionless (i.e., coarse grained) soils whereas cohesive soil
consideration of rock and groundwater conditions, the geo- (e.g., clays) characteristics are best described by properties
technical engineer also needs to understand the geology, related to their plasticity.
hydrology, and local problem soils in the vicinity of the site. There are several standardized soil classification meth-
Typically the developer will hire a geotechnical engineer that odologies commonly in use today that take into account
has experience with similar developments, is familiar with both the particle size distribution and plasticity, including
the project region, and accustomed to the requirements of the unified soil classification (USC) system, the American
the permitting jurisdiction. Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
Prior to developing a site, the developer will need to be (AASHTO) System for roads, the Natural Resource Con-
familiar with conditions both above and below the surface of servation Service system, and others (Table 2.5B shows dif-
the site. Will it be necessary to cut or fill the site, or import a ferences in particle size limits for several selected agencies).
significant amount of soil to grade the site for the proposed Geotechnical engineers will typically use the USC classifi-
project? If the soils below the surface are not investigated sig- cation in describing soils for land development purposes.
nificantly and foundations designed properly, excessive and More information about the USC system is included in
damaging differential settlements may occur. Chapter 7.3.
Soil Classification. From an engineering perspective, the Although soil classification provides a description for
primary interest in soil is as a construction medium; that is, evaluating how the soil will likely behave, based on its
whether a soil will be effective as a foundation base, provide a engineering properties, this alone cannot be the sole crite-
stable embankment or cut slope, or serve as adequate backfill rion for measuring the soil's behavior. A detailed investiga-
material. The effectiveness of a soil for these purposes may tion of the soil, using subsurface exploration methods and
initially be determined by its classification using properties other detailed soil investigations and laboratory tests, as
such as particle size distribution and plasticity. appropriate, is needed to supplement the predicted behavior
Particle size distribution, that is the gradation of a soil sam - based on generalized classification. Specific laboratory and
ple, is a form of textural classification. In the textural sense soil field tests provide reasonable assurance of the anticipated
is classed as gravel, sand, silt and clay. These textural categories performance of the soil as a construction medium.
102 i@UH:U iirttl@i@IH
TAB LE 2 . 5 B Particle-Size Limits for Selected Agencies

American Society
Colloids Clay Silt Fine Sand Coarse Gravel
for Testing Materials
Sand

American Association
ai E-QJ
::,
QJ -
(/) QJ
of State Highway and Colloids Clay Silt Fine Sand Coarse QJ
C > -- ca > ~ > Boulders
·-
LL ca
-o ~ ~
Transportation Officials Sand ~ QJ ~
(!) '.:2 (!) u<!J
Soil Classification

U.S. Department
QJ
"<1l
C:
OJ
!!! QJ -
iI -g QJ -0 § -0 Cf)
0<1l "C:
(/) QJ
~ >
of Agriculture Clay Silt C C
·- ca
·- C
-o ca OJ u Fine ca ca Cobbles
~ ca LL (/) !!!
<1l 0 ~

Soil Classification QJ (/)

~(/) <1l ?:-Cf) Gravel u<!J
> u
0 OJ
>

Civil Aeronautics
Administration Clay Silt Fine Sand Coarse Sand Gravel
Soil Classification

Unified Soil Classification "

C:
<1l
(Corps of Engineers, Medium
Cf)
Fine Coarse
Fines (silt or clay) Fine Sand OJ Cobbles
Department of the Army, and Sand !!! Gravel Gravel
<1l
0
Bureau of Reclamation) u

0 0 0
f'- 0 -st O O 0 0
Sieve Size C\J(\J..- co -.:::t C\J

C\J C')-sf" <OC:00 000000 00000

o 00 oo.....: N Ct) -.::i- <Ocri...... C\J (")V co co

Particle Size, mm

(Reprinted with permission from Fang, Hsai-Yang, ed. 1991. Foundation Engineering Handbook, 2nd ed., New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.)

Types of Soil and Other Subsurface Materials. Gravels resulting in failure of the structure. Caution is necessary
and sands, silts and clays, bedrock, and limestone are intro- when excavating in sands and gravels as these materials are
duced within this section. cohesionless and their slopes are not stable. Numerous utility
Gravels and Sands. Gravels and sands are products of trenches have failed resulting in significant injury or death
weathered rock. Gravel ranges from a maximum size of to construction workers. High groundwater can particularly
3 inches (7.62 cm) to 0.2 inches (4.76 mm). Crushed stone, affect the stability of sandy subsoils during excavation creat-
bank-run gravel or pea gravel are just some of the names ing a running sand or a quick condition causing rapid flow
given to particular types of gravel, depending on origin and or collapse of the sand stratum.
gradation. If the gravel is dense and composed of sound rock Silts and Clays. Silts and clays are described as fine-grained
fragments, it can provide a good support for the building soils; both will pass through a very fine sieve (200 openings
foundation. However, if the rock fragments are weak, loose, per inch also known as a number 200 sieve). Both silts and
very rounded or overlie softer layers, they may not be suit- clays are classified by particle size and plasticity. Plasticity
able for foundations without ground improvement. and consistency are measured by ASTM D423 (liquid limit)
Sand materials are smaller than gravel ranging from 0.074 and D424 (plastic limits). The liquid limit (LL) and plastic
to 4.76 mm by the USC system. Sand can be described in limit (PL) are boundary soil moisture contents wherein the
three sizes: fine from 0.074 to 0.42 mm; medium from 0.42 soil begins to behave as a viscous liquid or a moldable plas-
to 2 mm; and coarse from 2 to 4.76 mm. Both gravel and tic material, respectively. When the clay's moisture content is
sand are described as cohesionless materials. Sands and grav- below the PL, the clay behaves like a brittle solid. When the
els are also described in relative density terms as very loose, moisture content is between the PL and LL, the clay behaves
medium dense, or very dense. Sands and gravels together like a moldable plastic material, and when it is above the LL
can make excellent foundation materials if sufficiently dense the clay behaves like a viscous liquid. Silts and clays can per-
or compact. However, loose or poorly compacted sands form satisfactorily or very poorly under foundation loads,
may yield excessive settlement. Depending on the situation, depending on their moisture contents. Therefore because of
sands by themselves may not be suitable for foundations, this sensitivity to moisture, when bearing foundations are
embankments, and dams. Where subject to scour, the sand planned on silts or clays, it is critical during construction to
may erode beneath the foundation or from an embankment, prevent these soils from becoming wet and absorbing too
 2.5 ■ ENVIRONMENTAL, GEOTECHNICAL, AND HISTORICAL CONSIDERATIONS 103

much moisture. Silts and clays are also described in consis- Limestone. Limestone and dolomite contain substantial
tency terms as being very soft, soft, firm, stiff, very stiff, or amounts of carbonate minerals (C0 3). Gypsum and anhy-
hard. Silt particle size is barely perceptible to the human eye; drite are salts composed of calcium sulfate (CaS0 4). All of
it is smaller, but still much coarser than clay. Clay is much these sedimentary minerals are highly soluble in water and,
finer that silt, with the primary method of determining the consequently, the presence and development of subsur-
difference between clay and silt conducted by timing settle- face cavities is a consideration, particularly where there is
ment of the particles in a column of water (hydrometer) in groundwater movement through joints and fractures in the
the laboratory. carbonate tock. Marl and chalk are other similar types of
Bedrock. Bedrock is solid material comprising unweath- materials typically found near shorelines.
ered rock typically lying beneath surface deposits of soil such The surface collapse of soil overlying a subsurface cavity
as sand, clay, or gravel. The three classes of rock based on is usually referred to as a sinkhole, particularly in limestone
geologic origin are igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. and dolomite terrain. Where sinkholes are abundant the
Igneous rocks are formed by solidification of molten mate- terrain is known as karst topography. Open solution voids
rial. They are generally uniform in structure and lack strati- in the bedrock allow the erosion of overlying soil into the
fication and cleavage planes. Examples of igneous rock are void by groundwater movement. This action, in turn, forms
granite, diorite, gabbro, basalt, and diabase. a soil cavity at the bedrock surface, which will continue to
Sedimentary rocks are products of weathering and dis- enlarge in soil above the bedrock surface until the soil can
integration of rock, then erosion and sedimentation, chiefly no longer support itself and it collapses, forming a sink-
by water. These rocks are formed by mechanical cementa- hole at the ground surface. These conditions emphasize the
tion, chemical precipitation, and pressure. Examples of importance of positive surface and ground water control in
sedimentary rock are sandstone, limestone, dolomite, shale, karst regions. An example of surface collapse and prepara-
and chert. Sedimentary rocks typically have rounded grains, tion of the bedrock surface for remedial measures is shown
stratifications, inclination of bedding planes, and abrupt in Figure 2.SF.
color changes between layers.
Metamorphic rock is formed by the alteration of igneous
or sedimentary rocks by heat and pressure. Typical meta -
morphic rock includes quartzite, marble, slate, gneiss, and
schist. Some features include the ease with which parallel
layers break into slabs. In general, harder and more sound
rock is less susceptible to scour or crushing.
Usually natural bedrock is regarded as the best bear-
ing material for structural foundations; however, there are
conditions, such as sinkholes, close joints and fractures,
weathering and soil-filled seams, which can present prob-
lems. Bridge foundation failures have occurred due to scour
of rock or rock-like materials. Building foundation failures
have occurred due to sinkholes. Slope failures have occurred
due to unfavorable orientation of clay filled joints within an
(a)
otherwise sound rock.
The ultimate bearing pressure of rocks can be taken con-
servatively as the average compression strength of uncon -
fined rock core samples. Commonly, the core samples
obtained during the subsurface investigation reveal that the
rock across the site has imperfections and fractures which
have a significant influence on rock behavior when external
loads are applied. The spacing of discontinuities is an indica-
tion of overall rock quality. The allowable bearing pressure of
rock varies depending on the quality of the rock and can be
arrived at by applying a factor of safety to the ultimate bearing
pressure appropriate to the quality of the rock. For example,
for a good quality rock with widely spaced joints and frac-
tures and no soil seams the factor of safety may be as low as
2 or 3. For poor quality rock with very close joints, but
no soil seams, the factor of safety may be as high as 10 or (b)
more. Rocks with soil seams or open joints require special FIG uRE 2. 5 F (a) Surface collapse, (b) preparing bedrock for reme-
considerations. dial measures.
104 i@UH:U iirttl@i@IH
problem soils are indigenous to selected areas of the country.
Floridan Aquifer System The site may contain several isolated pockets of such soils
or may be a major deposit area. Identification and location
of problem soils early in the design process alleviates costly
delays for redesign or unanticipated costs for additional
excavation and reinforced foundation design. Addition-
ally, provisions in local ordinances may require additional
explorations, testing, and special designs. In extreme cases,
the provisions may even preclude certain design elements
of the project.
Expansive clays, frost susceptible soils, metastable soils,
organic soils, dispersive clays, and normally consolidated
clays, overconsolidated clays, and underconsolidated clays
are introduced in this section.
FIG uRE 2. 5 G Example of the water cycle from a sink hole Expansive Clays. Certain clays undergo severe volume
through an aquifer to a spring. changes without any removal or application of external
loads. Such shrink and swell phenomena are the result of
changing moisture conditions. Soils that are most suscepti-
Sinkholes (Figure 2.SG) can occur where the rock below
ble to such moisture induced volume changes are commonly
the land surface is limestone, carbonate rock, or salt beds.
included in problem soils categories. Typically, these soils
These rocks can be naturally dissolved by groundwater cir- have a high plasticity index (PI is the mathematical differ-
culating through them. This process can dissolve the rock ence between liquid limit and plastic limit) and are predomi-
creating, voids, spaces, and caverns underground. The
nant in the south and southwest United States. Local names
overburden soil usually remains intact until the under-
for such soils are gumbo, adobe, black cotton, black jack,
ground spaces grow too large and the surrounding rock and others. Swelling of these soils can create high stresses on
weakens. If there is not enough support for the overbur- foundations, walls, and slabs, even to the extent of distress-
den above the spaces then a sudden dramatic failure of the ing and cracking basement walls and lifting light structures.
land surface can occur. These collapses can occur without Environmental factors greatly affect the behavior of expan-
warning and, in urban developed areas, can have signifi-
sive soils. Such factors as surrounding and underlying soils,
cant consequences. hydrology, slope angle and length, and vegetation can influ-
The most damage from sinkholes tends to occur in Flor-
ence the behavior of these expansive soils.
ida, Texas, Alabama, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, and
Damage to structures on expansive soils may not become
Pennsylvania. See Figure 2.SH. evident for years after construction is completed. Shrinking of
Problem Soils. Certain types of soils require special atten-
the soil during dry periods causes gaps to form under foot-
tion because of their poor or irregular performance char- ings and foundations thereby reducing the bearing support of
acteristics. The areal extent of such soils varies and specific the soil. This results in uneven structure settlement causing
cracks in the structure. When the soil becomes moist again,
the expanding soil causes the foundation to rebound to near
original position. After several cycles of shrink and swell,
the structure does not return to its full original position; the
building deteriorates further, and damage becomes apparent.
Conversely, damage can be caused by excessive heave of the
structure: if the foundation floor slabs are constructed on dry
expansive clay, that is, during drought, the clay may later take
on moisture during a wet period or as a result ofleakage from
a broken water or sewer line resulting in significant swelling.
Buildings do not have to be directly situated on expan-
sive soils to develop problems. Experience in Fairfax County,
Virginia, shows that some houses have settlement problems
with footings located on soils 3 feet above the expansive soil
D Evaporite Rocks - Salt and Gypsum strata (Figure 2.51).
[IT] Karst from Evaporite Rock Using expansive soils as backfill around basement walls is
D Karst from Carbonate Rock not a recommended practice. Buildup of excessive pressures
FIG uRE 2. 5 H Rock formation distribution in the United States against the wall is caused after the soil settles and moisture
(modified from Davies and Legrand, 1972). is absorbed (Figure 2.SJ). During dry periods, additional
 2.5 ■ ENVIRONMENTAL, GEOTECHNICAL, AND HISTORICAL CONSIDERATIONS 105

FIG uRE 2. 51 Expansive soils underlying stable soil.

soil particles fall into the cracks of the soil. When the soil
expands again, the added soil coupled with the volume
increase creates significant pressures on the wall. The high
pressures and cyclic stress loadings may eventually cause the
wall to fail. Besides being a disruption and financial burden
to the homeowner, the resulting wall movement can cause
damage to sewer, gas, and water pipes, and precipitate sec-
ondary damages from those failures.
As illustrated in Figure 2.SK, large trees in expansive soils
near buildings can exacerbate the damaging effects of shrink
and swell phenomena. During a dry period the tree's demand FIG uRE 2. 5 K Tree influence on expansive soils.
for water can cause localized shrinking of the soil. The
decrease in volume in a small area coupled with increased e Excavate expansive soils and replace with granular
volume elsewhere near the house creates a wavy, uneven
soil or other suitable material.
ground surface around the structure. Large elm, poplar, and
willow trees can contribute to such failure; however, small e Construct the foundation below the shrink-swell zone
diameter trees (e.g., less than 12 inches) and shallow roots or near the water table (which then requires other
result in significantly less failures. A recommendation is that special design considerations for foundation design).
trees be planted more than one-half their expected mature e Design the foundation so that the dead loads totally
height away from the foundation.
counteract the heave.
When construction cannot be avoided on expansive soils,
there are remedies that can mitigate damage potential, some e Use blankets of impervious soil adjacent to founda-
of which can be costly. Such remedies include (Brown, 1988): tions and grade the areas away from the foundations
to prevent surface water infiltration.
e Locate water and drainage lines to direct water
around and away from foundations.

Frost Susceptible Soils. Frost heave is a natural phenom-

enon and will occur wherever water in soil is exposed to sus-
Cycllcol Wetting And Drying Of
Cloy Bockflll Results In Swelllng tained freezing temperatures. When the water in the voids
Pressures That Moy Couse A Woll freezes, it expands about 10% which in itself does not cre-
To Deflect Inward And Eventually
High Shrink- ate frost heave problems. Soil heaving due to freezing occurs
Foll .
Swell Cloy In
Bockflll when saturated fine-grained soils, within the capillary zone,
above the water table form ice lenses or layers parallel to the
ground surface. Ground heaving increases as the ice lenses
accumulate and grow to thickness of several inches.
Frost heave is particularly damaging to pavement and
slabs due to the erratic distribution of the ice lenses, which
results in differential heaving and cracking. Figure 2.SL
FIGURE 2,5J Foundation wall damage from expansive soils. shows the damage caused by frost heave of a ground level
10& i@UH:U iirttl@i@IH
rise. Frost susceptible soils are typically nonuniform soils

,; l/,~,~
__ _
,
. ,· ~ containing more than 3% particles finer than 0.02 mm and
uniform soil if more than 10% is finer than 0.02 mm.
Prevention of frost heave in footings is most easily
achieved by following the recommendations of the local
building codes, for example, planning footings at depths

,
-1-=._,,
· '.
,. : -~,-;.=-7-
_~-.. ~,
'11
. .....
J=• --,', .. ,,,I
, '

i
',J . -
==_
'--:
1
'~
below the local frost line. Controlling heave in slabs, walls,
pavements, utilities, and other construction components can
be achieved by removing frost-susceptible soils throughout
the depth of frost penetration and replacing it with non-
1 frost-susceptible soils. Alternatively, for pavements and

' ' ·~J' 11 ~1 1' . .: ill1111!I

slabs a horizontal blanket of coarse-grained-free draining
sand, gravel, or crushed stone placed above the water level
' l·ij I'J I I I .1- • will break the capillary tension forces. Care should be taken

'•:~':· t~ -
11 when designing these blankets, as improper drainage or
1'\' I I I I inadequate thickness could aggravate rather than prevent
frost heave (Sowers, 1979, pg. 141). Figure 2.SN shows com-
I I mon frost penetration depths in the United States. Frost pen-
etration depth also effects most utility designs, specifically
water, sewer, and storm. Minimum cover over these pipes is
- I, typically greater than or equal to the frost penetration depth
to prevent freezing of the conveyed fluids.
Metastable Soils. Collapsing soils are those that decrease in

r volume when they become saturated or when subjected to

vibration after saturation. These are called metastable soils
and are associated with fine sand-silt-day materials deposited
along the base of mountains and along alluvial fan deposits
FIG uRE 2. 5 L Photo of frost heave damage to a concrete floor slab. in arid and semiarid regions. Similar to expansive soils, col-
lapsing soils are generally stable until the moisture content
changes. Additional moisture disrupts the clay and water
floor slab. Notice the deformed metal wall studs buckling bonding that maintains the soil structure in its metastable
from the upward displacement of the ground floor slab. The condition, collapsing the soil into a more compact and stable
formation of ice lenses is illustrated in Figure 2.SM (Sowers, condition often resulting in rapid and severe settlement.
1979, pg. 138). Loess, a soil found in sections of the Midwest and West-
Nonfrost susceptible soils are those that cannot readily ern United States, is the most common type of metastable
support the capillary rise of water and therefore prevent the soil. Compacted loess is a satisfactory foundation material
formation of ice lenses growth. These soils are typically "free for spread footings or mat foundations as long as the dry
draining soils" like clean coarse sands, gravel, and crushed unit weight is around 99 lb/ft3 or more. For shallow depos-
stone. its (3 to 6 feet deep), compaction is necessary for the full
Typically, silty soils and very fine sands are prone to depth of the deposit or above the permanent water table
objectionable frost heave because they facilitate capillary to ensure adequate performance. For loess with dry unit

-1s·c -1o·c -S"C -2"C o·c

- Ground surface
_ Scattered lenses
Soil
temperature
-----~ - --
Frost line
Soil unfrozen

-Ground water
Partial freezing- level of freezing
lenses forming temperature depression
FIG uRE 2. 5 M Formation of ice lenses.
 2.5 ■ ENVIRONMENTAL, GEOTECHNICAL, AND HISTORICAL CONSIDERATIONS 107

FI Gu RE 2 . 5 N Max frost penetration.

weights less than 99 lb/ft3 pile foundations driven to under- (flowing or static) despite being compacted. Such soils are
lying acceptable soil strata should be considered. known as dispersive clays and often contain montmorillonite
As previously mentioned, collapsing soils are typically or illite minerals. These dispersive clays are not uncommon
found in desert arid and semi-arid environments, alluvial and are typically found in floodplain deposits, slope wash,
valleys, and playas. Gypsum and anhydrite are often pres- lake beds, and loess.
ent in or around such soils. In general, these soils are very Normally Consolidated Clays, Overconsolidated Clays, and
moisture sensitive and exhibit greatly reduced strength when Underconsolidated Clays. A soil is normally consolidated if
wet. Differential settlement occurs if the soils are spread over the maximum pressure on an element of soil mass is equal
a wide area or the structure is partially founded on pockets to the present soil column pressure and the soil has fully
of metastable soils. consolidated under that pressure. That is, the compression
Organic Soils. Those soils that contain significant amounts state of the soil is due to the existing overburden weight.
of decayed and decaying vegetation matter are organic soils. Otherwise, if the soil mass compression behavior is due to
These soils have very little cohesive or friction strength and are pressures larger than the present overburden pressure, the
highly compressible, even under light loads. Aside from high soil is overconsolidated. Such overconsolidated clay strata
initial compression settlement, organic soils can be expected are common where significant removal of overburden has
to compress further over very long periods of time due to con- occurred over time, such as from the retreat of glaciers, long-
tinual decay of the organic constituent parts. Organic soils are term erosion, land movement, or lowering of the groundwa-
characteristic of estuarine, lacustrine, and floodplain areas. ter table. Underconsolidated soils are those soils that are still
Peat, a common organic soil, is fibrous, partially decom- consolidating under their own weight.
posed organic matter or a soil containing 80% or more Normally consolidated clays are subject to additional
fibrous organic matter. Peat soils are dark brown or black, long-term settlements under loads greater than the exist-
loose and extremely compressible. Muskeg is a type of peat ing overburden pressure. Such long-term settlements can be
indigenous to Northwest Canada and Alaska. reasonably estimated from tests performed on undisturbed
Dispersive Clays. Certain types of soils will go into suspen- samples (ASTM D2435). Under consolidated soils are soils
sion and become highly erodible in the presence of water that are still settling under the current overburden pressure.
100 i@UH:U iirttl@i@IH
2.5.11. Preliminary Investigation and subsurface conditions in the questionable areas can then
Soil survey reports are often available from the Natural be confirmed with supplemental data such as existing geo-
Resources Conservation Service (NRCS). These reports technical reports for nearby projects or geotechnical inves-
delineate and describe the soils of a locality generally within tigations at the site. Although the NRCS soils report should
the upper 6 feet. The very early NRCS soil reports were com- not be used as the sole source of subsurface conditions for
piled mainly for agricultural purposes by the USDA. Current the project, it may allow the design of the project to proceed
reports now contain additional information usable in land expediently.
planning and engineering design. This information can be This preliminary soils investigation should be completed
accessed through the USDA's NRCS website. The reports during the desktop review. A preliminary subsurface explo-
describe the pedological soil series found in the locality, pro- ration program is sometimes advantageous to gather suffi-
vide a map showing their location, and provide tables that cient data to perform preliminary calculations for size and
equate the soil series to engineering index properties. Other cost for foundations of major structures and to determine
tables provide data relating the soil series to wildlife habitat, if there are any subsurface conditions that will significantly
building site development, sanitary facilities, construction impact the project. The amount of data gathered in the
materials, water management, physical and chemical prop- field during a preliminary program depends on the extent
erties, and hydrologic characteristics. of existing data and the need for additional information for
The NRCS soil survey report is an invaluable docu- preliminary design purposes. Unanticipated field conditions
ment for any development project. The information can be may warrant extra test pits, bore holes, and additional soil
used throughout various stages of the development's design samples. As details of the proposed project develop during
process. As part of the preliminary investigation, the soils design, additional subsurface exploration may be required to
should be mapped onto a scaled work drawing of the site. An supplement the previously obtained data.
example of a soils map is shown in Figure 2.50. Soils or other Field exploration programs should be carefully planned
subsurface conditions that are anticipated to present prob- and laid out to obtain adequate data for design of the proj-
lems for the project (e.g., high water table, poor bearing sup- ect. While no set rules apply to methodically laying out
port, highly erodible silt) are identified on the map. These exploration points that cover all conceivable conditions,
questionable areas need to be flagged in the field. The soils sound judgment should supersede any generalized rules-
of-thumb exploration techniques. The number and loca-
tion of the exploration points depend on the prevailing soil
conditions, the variability of the soils, and proposed project
details. Highly variable soil conditions warrant an increase
in the number of exploration points to determine the areal
extent of the various soil conditions, particularly, problem
soils that may be encountered. The increased number of
exploration points, however, does not necessarily require
an increase in the number of tests for determination of the
soil's physical properties and parameters. The number of
different types of soil within the stressed zone influences
the number and types of laboratory tests performed. The
following guidelines may be helpful in establishing accept-
able boring locations:
• Buildings: A boring at each corner and one in the
middle as a minimum. For larger building groups the
objective might be to locate and space the borings to
establish subsurface cross sections in perpendicular
directions.
• Dams: The objective is to establish geologic profiles
across the valley at the longitudinal axis, at the
downstream and upstream toes, and at all major
hydraulic structures such as spillways, outlet works,
and large culverts/conduits. Borings within the
impoundment area itself may help identify the
suitability of excavated soils for the dam embank-
ment and the seepage/infiltration characteristics of
FIG uRE 2. 5 0 Example of a soil map. the area.
 2.5 ■ ENVIRONMENTAL, GEOTECHNICAL, AND HISTORICAL CONSIDERATIONS 109

• Roads: Borings are located to obtain data for four dif- o Borings for borrow areas provide data on the
ferent criteria: suitability of the soil to be used as fill material.
Depending on the size of the projected borrow
o Shallow borings along the alignment are spaced
area, a grid pattern with borings at 200- to 400-
to identify and verify areas of similar soils as
foot intervals may suffice.
anticipated from other data sources such as soil
maps and aerial photographs. Again it is emphasized that the actual location of the borings
o Borings are taken in the vicinity of major should depend on project details, anticipated site conditions,
structures such as bridge abutments, piers, and and what is actually encountered during the drilling. The
retaining walls. The number of borings for abut- preceding generalizations are only to provide initial guid-
ments or piers typically is one or two. Borings ance. Other guidelines are presented in Table 2.SC.
for retaining walls are placed to give longitudinal 2.5.12. Depth of Exploration
and transverse subsurface profiles.
The depth of test borings depends on two factors; first, the
o Borings are taken in cut areas to determine the magnitude and distribution of the imposed loading and sec-
difficulty of excavation and slope stability. These ond, the subsurface characteristics. Since the basic objectives
borings are more closely spaced and deeper than of any boring program are to determine a subsurface pro-
the roadway alignment borings. file and to identify engineering properties of the materials,

TA BLE 2 . 5 C Guidelines for Boring Layout

AREAS FOR INVESTIGATION BORING LAYOUT

New site of wide extent Space preliminary borings 200-500 ft apart so that area between any four borings includes
approximately 10% of total area. In detailed exploration, add borings to establish geological
sections at the most useful orientations.
Development of site on soft Space borings 100-200 ft at possible building locations. Add intermediate borings when
compressible strata building sites are determined.
Large structure with separate Space borings approximately 50 ft in both directions, including borings at possible exterior
closely spaced footings foundation walls at machinery or elevator pits, and to establish geologic sections at the most
useful orientations.
Low-load warehouse building Minimum of four borings at corners plus intermediate borings at interior foundations suf-
and large area ficient to define subsoil profile.
Isolated rigid foundation, Minimum of three borings around perimeter. Add interior borings depending on initial results.
2500-10,000 ft 2 in area
Isolated rigid foundation, less Minimum of two borings at opposite corners. Add more for erratic conditions.
than 2500 ft 2 in area
Major waterfront structures, If definite site is established, space borings generally not farther than 50 ft, adding interme-
such as dry docks diate borings at critical locations, such as deep pump-well, gate seat, tunnel, or culverts.
Long bulkhead or wharf wall Preliminary borings on line of wall at 200-ft spacing. Add intermediate borings to decrease
spacing to 50 ft. Place certain intermediate borings inboard and outboard of wall line to
determine materials in scour zone at toe and in active wedge behind wall.
Slope stability, deep cuts, high Provide three to five borings on line in the critical direction to provide geological section for
embankments analysis. Number of geological sections depends on extent of stability problem. For an active
slide, place at least one boring upslope of sliding area.
Dams and water retention Space preliminary borings approximately 200 ft over foundation area. Decrease spacing
structures on centerline to 100 ft by intermediate borings. Include borings at location of cutoff, critical
spots in abutment, spillway, and outlet works.
110 i@UH:U iirttl@i@IH
borings should extend to a depth that provides a reasonable • In residential areas where houses have relatively
comfort level for design analysis purposes. As in selecting the shallow foundations, the depth depends on the
location of borings, this is a judgment decision to be made by nature of the subsurface soils. Typically the depth
the geotechnical expert and the person designing the founda- of exploration will be 5 to 10 feet below the founda-
tion and structure. A suggested rule of thumb is "to carry bor- tion. In most cases borings will not be needed at
ings to such depth that the net increase in soil stress under the every dwelling location.
weight of the structure is less than 10% of the average load
• For other buildings with substantial loadings, the
of the structure, or less than 5% of the effective stress in the
depth of exploration beneath the footing extends 1.5
soil at that depth, whichever gives the lesser depth, unless
to 2 times the least dimension of the structure. In the
bedrock or dense soils known to lie on rock are encountered
case where the loading is carried on piles or caissons,
first"(American Society of Civil Engineers, 1976).
the exploration must extend a sufficient depth into a
The following is presented as a guide for determining
competent bearing stratum to carry the imposed load-
boring depths:
ing, and to be sure that underlying weaker material is
• Extend borings through any unsuitable and questionable not present.
material into firm stable soils that are capable of sustain-
• In borrow areas the depth of exploration extends to
ing the imposed loads without excessive settlement.
the depth required to provide the amount of suitable
• Borings should extend a sufficient depth into any material needed.
apparent rock to ensure the existence of bedrock
rather than a boulder. Other guidelines are presented in Table 2.5D.

• Explorations along roads are carried to depths of

±5 feet below subgrade in areas oflight cut and 2.5.13. Subsurface Investigation
fill where no adverse subsurface conditions exist. A more in-depth subsurface exploration will be neces-
In areas of deep cuts and large embankments the sary with the final design of a project and is performed by
depth of exploration depends on the topography geotechnical engineers. It is recommended that the devel-
and nature of the underlying soils. oper contract separately with the geotechnical engineer to

TAB LE 2 . 5 D Guidelines for Boring Depths

AREAS FOR INVESTIGATION BORING LAYOUT

Large structure with separate Extend to depth where increase in vertical stress for combined foundations is less than 10%
closely spaced footings of effective overburden stress. Generally, all borings should extend no less than 30 ft below
lowest part of foundation unless rock is encountered at shallower depth.
Isolated rigid foundations Extend to depth where vertical stress decreases to 10% of bearing pressure. Generally,
all borings should extend no less than 30 ft below lowest part of foundation unless rock is
encountered at shallower depth.
Long bulkhead or wharf wall Extend to depth below dredge line between ¾ and 1½ times unbalanced height of wall. Where
stratification indicates possible deep stability problem, selected borings should reach top of
hard stratum.
Slope stability Extend to an elevation below active or potential failure surface and into hard stratum, or to a
depth for which failure is unlikely because of geometry of cross section.
Deep cuts Extend to depth between ¾ and 1 times base width of narrow cuts. Where cut is above
groundwater in stable materials, depth of 4-8 ft below base may suffice. Where base is below
groundwater, determine extent of pervious strata below base.
High embankments Extend to depth between ½ and 1¼ times horizontal length of side slope in relatively homoge-
neous foundation. Where soft strata are encountered, borings should reach hard materials.
Dams and water retention Extend to depth of ½ base width of earth dams or 1-1 ½ times height of small concrete dams
structures in relatively homogeneous foundations. Borings may terminate after penetration of 10-20 ft in
hard and impervious stratum if continuity of this stratum is known from reconnaissance.
 2.5 ■ ENVIRONMENTAL, GEOTECHNICAL, AND HISTORICAL CONSIDERATIONS 111

perform the work. Depending on the contract arrangements 2.5.15. Geotechnical Proposal
between the developer and the site engineer, provisions may With the information in the prior (Geotechnical Planning)
be made so that the site engineer can contract directly with section, the geotechnical engineer can develop a detailed
the geotechnical engineer. On the other hand, the site engi- scope of work to investigate the site to determine the subsur-
neer may have geotechnical staff and resources capable of face conditions. If the investigation is conducted early enough
doing the subsurface analysis. Additionally, and unless they in the development stage of the project, significant cost sav-
possess the ability to do so within their firm, quite often the ings can be realized. Early investigation may indicate that the
geotechnical engineer subcontracts with another company development of the site-the proposed structures, founda-
to perform the drilling, test pits, and collection of samples, tions, and earth work-may be more costly than is feasible.
under the engineer's direction. The field investigation can include one or all of the fol-
lowing: test pits; soil/auger or wash borings with standard
2.5.14. Geotechnical Planning
penetration testing (SPT); cone penetrometer test (CPT);
Proper planning is one of the most important aspects of a and geophysical surveys. The geotechnical engineer's pro-
project. Many projects that have failed or had significant cost posal will typically include
overruns can be attributed to poor initial planning or insuf-
ficient coordination between the developer, design team, • Time frame to complete the investigation (field work,
and geotechnical engineer. Under preferable circumstances, laboratory testing, and report preparation)
a project should be developed as follows: • Number and estimated depths of test borings and/ or
test pits that will be performed
• Prior to the field investigation and relatively early
in the development process (concept and schematic • Type and number oflaboratory tests that can be
design phase), a meeting between the developer, site anticipated
engineer, other members of the design team, and • Estimated budget
the geotechnical engineer should be scheduled to
discuss relevant project information and establish It is important that the developer selects a geotechnical engi-
the scope for the field investigation. Talking points neer that is familiar with the geology, soils, and local prob-
in this meeting should include lems in the project area.
The more information that the geotechnical engineer can
o Size, shape, and exact location of the project.
obtain from the design team and from the field, the better the
o Review of a site plan showing existing topog- quality of the report and design recommendations that can
raphy versus proposed topography; existing be provided. The following sections provide more detailed
structures and roads versus proposed struc- information regarding the field investigation process.
tures and roads (including buildings, retaining
walls, headwalls, and bridges); and proposed 2.5.16. The Soils Report
stormwater management facilities. The plan The geotechnical consultant provides the site engineer with
should also show finished floor elevations of the geotechnical information in the form of a report. This
both the existing and proposed structures. A information impacts not only the preliminary design and lay-
preliminary or schematic plan is acceptable for out of the development, but also the final engineering design.
this purpose. Some of this information may be used in developing part of
the specifications, which will impact the contractor's approach
o Type of structure, number of floors, basements,
to construction and his bid estimates. Data included in the
structural loads (both wall and column loads),
report will be of specific use for different aspects of design
column spacing and settlement limits.
and construction. For example, the land development engi-
o Major infrastructure needs including roads, site neer is interested in permeability rates and groundwater ele-
drainage and stormwater management facilities vations in order to design SWM facilities, bearing capacity as
particularly if they are infiltration-based designs, it relates to appropriate pavement sections, and slope stability
water and sewer mains, and any on-site wastewa- angles for purposes of detailed grading plans. From a con-
ter treatment facilities. struction perspective, the earthwork contractor is concerned
about the difficulty of excavation, existence of bedrock, the
o Determination of any required tree or sensitive
"rippability" of the rock, suitability of excavated material for
ecosystem (wetlands, resource protection areas)
reuse, and the presence of groundwater. The foundation con-
preservation areas. Limits of clearing and grading
tractor is interested in confirming that the soil is capable of
should be noted and discussed so as to avoid field
providing suitable bearing support, or learning if there will be
investigation in restricted areas.
difficulty in driving piles or drilling shafts, as well as knowing
o Assessment of cut and fill requirements. their expected depths.
112 i@UH:U iirttl@i@IH
The geotechnical report is typically organized as follows, • Details of the analysis used for design evaluations
but depending on the nature of the project some of the listed
• Conclusions and detailed design and construction
topics may not be included:
recommendations for critical project components
• Scope and purpose of the investigation including footings and foundations, pavement sec-
tions, retaining walls if required or as a suggested
• General description of the proposed project to
design alternative, and construction recommenda-
include column and wall load, settlement limits,
tions for such requirements as dewatering and slope
infrastructure improvements, and building charac-
stabilization
teristics, such as finished floor elevations
• Plan showing the locations of borings and proposed
• Geologic conditions of the site that describe the
building layout
physiographic region, the geologic formations, and
predominant soils • Logs (results) of the borings (see Figure 2.5P), as well
as subsurface profiles
• Drainage characteristics and facilities
• Photographs of the site at the time of field
• Methods and details of exploration program
investigation
• Types and results oflaboratory tests performed on
the samples • Other recommendations regarding the foundation,
pavement, retaining wall, and construction consid-
• Description of site including topography, ground cover, erations (to be further discussed in Chapter 7.3)
structures (if present), and any unusual conditions
The information contained within a soils report is not a
• Details of subsurface conditions determined from the
guarantee of soil performance and is not intended to define
exploration and testing program
every aspect of the site's soil condition. The report is a sum-
• Groundwater characteristics and any seasonal or mary of collected data and recommendations by the profes-
tidal influence that may occur at the site sional engineer.
 2.5 ■ ENVIRONMENTAL, GEOTECHNICAL, AND HISTORICAL CONSIDERATIONS 113

kit Dewberry
A Dewberry Company
LOG OF BORING
BORING NO.

BT-1
8401 Arlington Boulevard SHEET
BORING COORDINATES:
Fairfax , Virginia 22031
(703\ 849-0100 NOTES: BT-1 at Center of Proposed Structure 1 OF 1
PROJECT: Delta City PROJECT NO.: EX GEOT Log1
SAMPLES TESTS
LOCATION: Detroit, USA
(!) w ,ft.
CLIENT: Omni Consumer Products
o..J
~
g:~ u.i
(!)-
cr::Cl. ADDITIONAL
O • w er:: w::i DATA/
!e::) er:: al ..J
REMARKS
w ~
~ ~
(ll ..J
DEPTH SOIL ELEV. 1[ ~§a al
:::; (ll
cr::(ll
Wf-
(FT.)
0.0
DESCRIPTION
_ M GRAVEL _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ fil!.5~<) (
Brown and Gray GRAVEL {GPS) with Some
Coarse SAND and Little Silt {Dirty Gravel),
(FT.)
100.0 Cl
~

i,· .- :·
[i:D".i
w
□

_
-x ~
(ll
g,o
al zcr::
12-23
13-8
N=36
::)
z
1
6
::i:
106
I=~
~::::;

2.0 Drv.
Stiff Brown and Gray CLAY (CH), Moist.
98.0 a · -D.
.S? ~
__
~ X 4-4
5-8
N=9
2 238 M.
22
No Groundwater encountered in
overburden during drilling. Water
introduced during coring activities.
4.0 96.0 __ Water measured at 3.4' at
DECOMPOSED ROCK that becomes IV 22-40 3 9.3 completion of drilling.
Greenish Brown Fine to Medium SAND 5 _::: V\ 51/2"
(SM) with Trace of Silt when sampled , Dry,
Diabase Rock fragments below 6.0 feet.
40-51/6" 4

-- 1:8 51/4" 5 Borehole caved at 8.5' at

completion of drilling.

10.0 90.0
X X 10 - - 51 /0" Auger refusal at 10.0'.
DIABASE BEDROCK- Moderately Hard lo X X
6
Hard, Gray Brown lo Gray, Moderately X X ROD= Coring took 15 minutes, Recovered
< X - 44% 2.2· (NX size).
Severely to Slightly Weathered with Close X X
X X
Joints of Subhorizontal Dip to Nearly X X -
X X
Vertical , Joints Stained . X X
X X
X X
REC = 44% X X
X X
X X
X X -
__:,5.0 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 85.Q ~
15- =
DIABASE BEDROCK- Hard to Very Hard , ~ : ROD= Coring took 21 minutes, Recovered
Dark Gray, Slightly to Very Slightly x x
- 50% 4.6' (NX size).
Weathered with Very Close to Close Joints ~ ~ -
of Subhorizontal to Steep Dip. Joints == -
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STARTED: 1/11/11 FINISHED: 1/11/11
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114 i@UH:U iirttl@i@IH

PROJECT SPIRIT-NEW FEDEX GROUND DISTRIBUTION HUB FACILITY

Location: Ocala, Florida
Client: FedEx Ground
Completion Date: Design-May 2013, Construction-February 2016
Case Study: Dewberry was selected to provide due diligence services, civil engineering/site design, surveying and
mapping, environmental, permitting, and construction administration services for a new FedEx Ground distribu-
tion hub facility on a 150-acre site in the northeast corner of the City of Ocala, Florida. The final construction
plans called for approximately 580,000 square foot (SF) facility with supporting infrastructure. The facility was
designed for an ultimate build-out of the center to approximately 780,000 SF of buildings and ancillary buildings
on 190 total acres.
FedEx Ground was interested in developing a regional distribution hub for the state of Florida. The specific site was
identified based on FedEx's internal parameters including distances to their offices and access to the interstate system.
The site also had to be able to support the future expansion anticipated for the proposed facility. However, the site
selected is located in an area that has predominantly karst soils, which allow the formation of sinkholes. FedEx requires
continuous operation; therefore, Dewberry not only addressed mitigation of the karst soil issues, but also designed the
site to prevent or minimize disruptions to site operations due to volatile soil conditions.
Working with the geotechnical subconsultant and the rest of the design team, a plan was developed to construct the
buildings and below ground gas tanks on a foundation design comprised of piles. The pile supported foundation is
typical of bridge design in Florida but is very rare as a building foundation type. The use of a pile foundation was
unique and greatly increases the life cycle of the facility by reducing issues that might negatively affect the operation
of the site.
To prevent sinkholes from occurring, the dry ponds were designed to "heal" the sinkholes with a bottom layer ofloose
sediment that carries the water into the sinkhole. This fills the sinkhole and minimizes the hole or preventing it from
occurring. The pond design with the extra loose sediment to help begin to fill sinkholes that occur in the ponds is a new
design that the Dewberry team developed.
 2.5 ■ ENVIRONMENTAL, GEOTECHNICAL, AND HISTORICAL CONSIDERATIONS 115

PART C-HISTORICAL CONSIDERATIONS Comparable efforts can be matched by works of many

Part C of this chapter focuses on the historical considerations other organized and individual endeavors nationwide. Res-
of a project-site conditions that should be evaluated based toration began in Sturbridge Village, Massachusetts in 1859;
on historic properties. This includes a review of historic in the historic district of El Pueblo de Los Angeles in 1920;
preservation regulations, definition of historic properties, Monticello, the home of President Thomas Jefferson in 1923
local preservation efforts, required due diligence, and evalu- (Figure 2.SQ); the historic core of Charleston, South Caro-
ating potential impacts. lina in 1930; and Colonial Williamsburg, Virginia in 1930.
Historic properties include both historic architectural and These are but a few examples.
archaeological resources. This may include buildings, objects, Key legislative actions by the United States Congress have
landscapes, viewsheds, or other artifacts of historical or cultural fostered the growth and importance of historic preservation.
significance. Land development by its nature is the creation of They include the Antiquities Act of 1906, which concentrated
"places:' each ofwhich has the opportunity to establish and rein- national attention on the protection of specific building and
force history. With this understanding, each developer bears the archeological sites, and was largely spurred by park and mon-
responsibility to respect the past and to plan for the future. ument building efforts starting after the Civil War. In 1949,
Preserving the artifacts of our history is a reasonable Congress chartered the establishment of the National Trust for
response from a culture that seeks a sense of continuity while Historic Preservation, a quasi-public organization created to
living amid constant physical change. Many people and bridge the gap between private citizen efforts and government
communities feel a decline in continuity as they witness the objectives to identify and preserve qualifying properties and
changes in the built environment. Steady and rapid change, sites of historic significance. Congress passed the Housing Act
be it building construction, increased vehicular traffic, of 1961, which included requirements for the Secretary and
and/or cultural integration, contribute to the psychological Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) to
need people feel to live with a "sense of place:' identify, assess, and aid in the protection of historic resources
The information in this section is organized to broaden the within the guidelines for urban renewal activities.
understanding of historic preservation within the framework Congress passed the National Historic Preservation Act of
of ongoing land development and societal change. In order to 1966 (NHPA), as amended, which became the principal federal
appreciate the importance of preserving our past, this section law dealing with historic preservation. The NHPA establishes
begins with an overview of the historic preservation movement a national policy of preserving, restoring, and maintaining
in our nation and early regulations. The sections that follow cultural resources. NHPA established the National Register of
provide a discussion of the basic steps involved in the evalua- Historic Places (National Register) and National Historic Land-
tion and impact assessments conducted for historic properties. marks, which protects historic sites. NHPA also encouraged state
and local preservation programs, including the designation of a
State Historic Preservation Officer (SHPO). The SHPO admin-
2.5.17. Historic Preservation Movement and Regulations isters the national historic preservation program at the state
One of the first records of the historic preservation movement level, reviews National Register nominations, maintains data on
is reputed to be Fairfax County, Virginia. It began in 1858, when historic properties that have been identified but not yet nomi-
the Mount Vernon Ladies Association succeeded in saving nated, and consults with federal agencies during Section 106
Mount Vernon, the plantation home of President George Wash- review. A key statutory provision of the NHPA is Section 106,
ington. Their efforts were enhanced when the Commonwealth which requires federal agencies to consider the effects of their
of Virginia passed legislation, empowering the association with undertakings on historic properties. This includes requirements
the duty to manage, maintain, and restore the property as a place of identifying historic properties, assessing adverse effect, and
of national importance for public education and enjoyment. resolving adverse effects. This requires coordination with the

FIG uRE 2. 5 Q Monticello, the home of Thomas Jefferson, Charlottesville, Virginia. (Photo Courtesy of Cody Pennetti.)
11& i@UH:U iirttl@i@IH
SHPO to ensure that the projects they authorize are not likely to For compliance with local and state regulations, review of
jeopardize existing cultural resources. the regulation text will be necessary in order to determine
Other regulations are included in Section 4(f) of the U.S. the definition. For federal undertakings, a historic property
Department of Transportation (USDOT) Act of 1966, which means a property listed in or eligible for inclusion in the
requires a review of transportation project's effect to historic National Register.
properties. Cultural assessments are also part of the formal Local Preservation Efforts. While federal regulations of
environmental analysis required under NEPA, as discussed historic preservation have been introduced, it is important
previously. New projects are evaluated based on potential to also recognize and understand local regulations that are
effects to historic architectural and archaeological resources; commonly encountered that preserve and protect historic
this includes assessing both positive and negative impacts to properties. Most historic preservation efforts at the local
the character, scale, or style of historic buildings and districts. level begin with the comprehensive plan. Specific historic
preservation recommendations and other guidelines may
2.5.18. Historic Properties and Preservation Efforts be adopted in accordance with the community's vision and
The consideration of potential impacts to historic proper- goals. This could be included within a historical or cul-
ties is an important factor in many land development proj- tural element of the comprehensive plan, as described in
ects. Generally, resources are categorized as either known or Chapter 2.2, or in a separate historic preservation plan.
potential historic properties. The jurisdiction may implement these recommenda-
Known Historic Properties. Known historic properties tions and historic preservation plans through the adoption
are those that are officially recognized and include resources of preservation requirements in the local zoning ordinance,
designated as National Historic Landmarks, properties listed subdivision ordinance, and/or a separate historic preserva-
in or determined eligible for listing in the National Regis- tion ordinances. These local ordinances may identify known
ter, properties listed in or determined eligible for listing in a historic properties, while others may describe the processes
State Register of Historic Places, and/or properties that are to identify and classify potential resources.
designated as local landmarks. As an example, consider Savannah, Georgia, in Chatham
In order to determine whether a property is eligible for County. Within the Chatham County-Savannah Compre-
inclusion in the National Register, the National Register Cri- hensive Plan is a chapter on quality oflife that includes a sub-
teria for Evaluation are applied, as follows: section on Historic and Cultural Resources. This element of
the comprehensive plan describes the dozens of historic dis-
The quality of significance in American history, archi- tricts that have been established that are either listed in the
tecture, archeology, engineering, and culture is present National Register or are a local historic district. It is common
in districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects that for municipalities to designate entire districts that contain a
possess integrity of location, design, setting, materials, group of buildings, properties, and/or site of historical sig-
workmanship, feeling, and association, and nificance. The Historic and Cultural Resources subsection of
the Chatham County-Savannah Comprehensive Plan states
A. That are associated with events that have made a that "the preservation and revitalization of these historic and
significant contribution to the broad patterns of cultural areas is a primary goal in Chatham CountY:'
our history Savannah zoning regulations include an overlay zone for
B. That are associated with the lives of persons sig- the Savannah Historic District, which covers the majority of
nificant in our past downtown Savannah and was designated as a National His-
toric Landmark in 1966. The purpose of the historic district,
C. That embody the distinctive characteristics of a as defined in the zoning regulations, is to "provide for the
type, period, or method of construction, or that preservation and protection of historic buildings, structures,
represent the work of a master, or that possess appurtenances and places that are of basic and vital impor-
high artistic values, or that represent a significant tance for the development and maintenance of the commu-
and distinguishable entity whose components nity's vacation-travel industry, its tourism, its culture, and for
may lack individual distinction the protection of property values because of their association
D. That have yielded, or may be likely to yield, infor- with history; their unique architectural details; or their being
mation important in prehistory or history a part of or related to a square, park, or area, the design or
general arrangement of which should be preserved and/or
Many state and local landmark laws adopt the National Reg- developed according to a fixed plan based on economic, cul-
ister criteria for evaluating and defining historic properties. tural, historical or architectural motives or purposes:'
Potential Historic Properties. Potential historic proper- Savannah zoning regulations also state that "the historic
ties are those that are not officially recognized, but based on district regulations are intended to preserve and protect his-
field inspections and background research, appear to satisfy toric or architecturally worthy buildings, structures, sites,
criteria for official designation. If a project requires review monuments, streetscapes, squares, and neighborhoods of the
of potential impacts to historic properties, it is important to historic district:' This includes specific regulations and require-
understand the criteria used to define a historic property. ments on visual compatibility factors and design standards that
 2.5 ■ ENVIRONMENTAL, GEOTECHNICAL, AND HISTORICAL CONSIDERATIONS 117

affect development within the overlay district. Conformance within the study area. This can be completed in the office by
is required by all projects to ensure that historic properties online searches of the National Historic Landmarks program,
are protected or other development is compatible with those State and National Registers, and properties that are designated
historic resources. In addition, the regulations state that "in all as local landmarks. Additional attention should be spent to
zoning districts within the boundaries of the historic district, review any locally designated historic properties. Many munic-
the regulations for both the zoning district and the historic dis- ipalities often list designated properties in their comprehensive
trict shall apply. Whenever there is conflict between the regula- plan and have other information including their historic pres-
tions of the zoning district and the regulations of the historic ervation laws on their local websites. To identify locally desig-
district, the regulations of the historic district shall apply:' nated historic properties, consultation may be necessary with
In addition to the standard review process and permits that the municipal historic preservation or planning department to
would be expected in a development project (as described in obtain information regarding local landmarks.
Chapter 2.4), the historic district overlay in Savannah requires Additionally, to identify known resources, it may be nec-
a Certificate of Appropriateness for all exterior changes, new essary to consult with the local SHPO. This often requires
construction, demolition, signage, etc. within the historic dis- coordination with the SHPO's office or website to research
trict boundaries visible from the public right of way. This is the records and determine if any historic properties are
another layer of regulation which the development team must located within the project study area. Information on both
consider in design development. historic architectural and archaeological resources can be
obtained from the SHPO. Consultation with SHPO can also
2.5.19. Historical Due Diligence indicate whether there are other state-operated repositories
An important factor that may be overlooked during the ini- for additional information on historic properties.
tial stages of a land development project is the consideration Potential Historic Properlies. To determine if potential
of potential impacts to historic properties. Just as sites are historic properties exist on a site, a site investigation may be
researched and evaluated for their potential to contain envi- required (to be further discussed in Chapter 3.1). An initial field
ronmentally sensitive areas, such as contamination and/or inspection can indicate whether any buildings or structures exist
wetlands, potential impacts to historic properties must also on the project site or within the study area. General information
be considered early in the planning process. about the project site's historic development, prior usage, and
The level of consideration will be dependent on the topographic features (such as its proximity to water) can help
undertaking and the regulatory climate. Questions to ask at determine its potential to contain archaeological resources. In
the beginning of the planning process include addition, visible land elements can be observed during the field
inspection to help indicate whether a site may contain archaeo-
• Does the proposed project require compliance with logically relevant areas. Foundations, ruins, walls, wells, pits/
any local historic preservation laws and/or regulations? dumps, and/or unusual vegetation formations are just a few
examples ofland elements that may indicate that a property war-
• Are there any local ordinances that deal with the rants further investigation. Typically, this level of effort must be
treatment of historic properties? completed by a trained architectural historian or archaeologist.
• Are there any locally designated historic resources on When potential resources are identified as part of a state
the project site or in close proximity to the project and/or federal undertaking, a survey is often conducted in
site that could potentially be impacted? order to document the property. Generally, an architectural
survey involves the completion of survey forms that record
After reviewing local laws, it must be determined if the proj- descriptive and historic information about the subject prop-
ect is a state and/or federal action. State actions will require erty. Many states have specific guidelines for the format of
compliance with the applicable state regulations. Any under- such a survey; consultation with the SHPO would be neces-
taking that receives federal funding, permitting, and/or sary to determine the level of documentation required. Upon
approvals will require review under NEPA, Section 106 of completion of the architectural survey, the survey forms and
the NHPA, as well as other applicable federal laws. possibly a summary report would be submitted to the SHPO
Once the determination has been made as to whether a for review. The SHPO would then comment on the property's
project will be subject to review under a local, state, or fed- eligibility for listing in the National Register. For local under-
eral regulation, the next step is to identify whether any his- takings, it is recommended to consult the local law in order to
toric properties (including both historic architectural and/or determine the appropriate level of survey and documentation
archaeological resources) are located within the project study that would be required. Again, this level of effort must be com-
area. This study area should extend beyond the project site pleted by a trained architectural historian or archaeologist.
to ensure that the project will not have a negative impact on
surrounding properties. Both a desktop review and site inves- 2.5.20. Impacts to Historic Properties
tigation research may be required in order to identify any If known or potential historic properties have been identi-
known or potential historical properties. fied on a site, the level of required regulatory review (i.e.,
Known Historic Properties. Each project should begin with federal, state, or local) will also guide any subsequent, formal
a desktop review to identify any known historic properties impact assessments. As part of an impact assessment, a full
110 i@UH:U iirttl@i@IH
understanding of the proposed project is required, as well as Many municipalities have specific laws or ordinances that
any alternatives developed during the project design. Although define the level of assessment that would be required at the
some land development projects may result in adverse impacts local level. Many states also have specific requirements that
to historic properties (such as physical destruction or visual must be followed for state actions.
intrusions), it is important to note that land development proj- In general, a proposed project is deemed to have an
ects can also produce positive impacts by remedying an exist- adverse effect if it would alter a historic property in a man-
ing condition that is detrimental to the historic property (e.g., ner that would diminish any of the characteristics of the
poor drainage, erosion, limited access, etc.). property that qualifies it for inclusion in the National Reg-
The goal of this section is to provide guidance for the ister. Adverse effects on historic properties include, but are
assessment of potential impacts when a historic property not limited to
may be affected by a proposed land development project.
Further, the basic tenets of preservation are discussed in • Physical destruction, alteration, or damage to all or
terms of site planning and design strategies that make use of part of the property
unique historic architectural or archaeological resources as • Removal of the property from its historic location
opportunities for project enhancement.
The next section reviews the required assessment, defines • Change of the character of the property's use or of
impacts, and explain strategies to treat impacts. physical features within the property's setting that
Impact Assessment. Many land development projects that contribute to its historic significance
are subject to environmental review require an assessment • Introduction of visual, atmospheric, or audible ele-
as to whether historic properties may be impacted by project ments that diminish the integrity of the property's
activities. The level of assessment will vary depending on the significant historic features
regulations being followed; the impact assessment may be an
independent report or may be part of a larger study, such as an • Neglect of a property which causes its deterioration
Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) within the NEPA pro-
cess, which is looking at potential impacts to several environ- The above definition of an adverse effect can be useful
mental disciplines. Generally, as part of an impact assessment, when trying to determine whether a proposed project may
an overview of the proposed project, including the project limits result in adverse impacts to historic properties.
and study area boundaries would be provided. The next step Avoidance, Minimization, and Mitigation. If historic
in the assessment would be to define existing conditions. This properties are identified on or near a proposed project
would include the identification of any historic properties that site, a primary goal of the design should be to minimize
are located within the study area. The impact assessment would any adverse impact to the historic property. If avoidance
then look at whether the proposed project would impact the is not feasible, then the next step is to minimize potential
identified historic properties located in the study area. If adverse impacts. Depending on the federal, state, or local regula-
impacts are anticipated, often consultation with the local com- tion being followed, consultation with the local munici-
munity and local officials, as well as any involved state and or pality and/or SHPO may also be required. If after careful
federal agencies would be required in order to resolve adverse consideration of all avoidance and minimization strategies
impacts and develop mitigation measures. it is found that a proposed project would adversely impact
A well-documented impact assessment is a time-consuming, a historic property, mitigation measures may need to be
detailed, fact-gathering process, which serves to clarify cultural, developed. Often, the finding of an adverse impact will not
material, architectural, landscape and physical characteristics of stop a project from moving forward, but will add additional
a site, district, person, or location. This effort is well worthwhile consultation and review time-all these factors can also
when it comes to public hearings and community meetings on lead to additional project costs and increased time for the
the land development project: preservation is an extremely per- project schedule.
sonal issue for many citizens and government officials. Proper There are many types of mitigation strategies that may
documentation is illustrative of a developer's commitment to be employed to resolve adverse impacts to historic proper-
the community, the established protocol, and to a high-qual- ties. At the federal and the state level, consultation usually
ity work product whether the resource is preserved, reused or results in a memorandum of agreement (MOA), which out-
removed. Generally, this work is performed by a trained archi- lines agreed-upon measures to avoid, minimize, or miti-
tectural historian or archaeologist. gate adverse effects. Some common examples of mitigation
Defining Impacts. When assessing potential impacts to include the following:
historic properties, both direct and indirect impacts are con- • Photographic documentation (i.e., photographs of his-
sidered. Direct physical impacts include demolition, altera- toric resources or archaeological findings documenting
tion, or damage from construction on nearby sites. Indirect, their current condition before project activities begin)
contextual impacts include the isolation of a property from
its surrounding environment or the introduction of visual, • Historic research (e.g., researching the significance
audible, or atmospheric elements that are out of character and background of properties within an appropriate
with a property or that alter its setting. historic context)
 2.5 ■ ENVIRONMENTAL, GEOTECHNICAL, AND HISTORICAL CONSIDERATIONS 119

• Salvage and or reuse of historic materials (e.g., Restoration: The act or process of accurately depict-
salvaging historic materials from properties slated for ing the form, features, and character of a property as it
demolition and reusing these materials on other his- appeared at a particular period of time by means of the
toric buildings or other aspects of the project design) removal of features from other periods in its history
and reconstruction of missing features from the resto-
• Context sensitive design (i.e., developing an approach
ration period. The limited and sensitive upgrading of
to planning and design based on active and early
mechanical, electrical, and plumbing systems and other
partnerships with communities)
code-required work to make properties functional is
• Adaptive reuse (i.e., adapting buildings for new uses appropriate within a restoration project.
while retaining their historic features)
Reconstruction: The act or process of depicting, by means
• Public outreach (e.g., open communication with the of new construction, the form, features, and detailing
public through announcements, public materials, of a nonsurviving site, landscape, building, structure, or
public meetings, etc.) object for the purpose of replicating its appearance at a
specific period of time and in its historic location.
• Public informational displays (e.g., display materials
housed at local libraries, community centers, or other
It is important to note that choosing the most appropri-
public space)
ate treatment requires careful decision making about a prop-
erty's relative importance in history, its physical condition,
Treatment of Historic Properties. The Secretary of the
the proposed use of the property as well as mandated code
Interior's Standards for the Treatment of Historic Properties
requirements that would need to be followed as part of the
(the Standards) provides guidance to property owners and
proposed project.
preservation professionals on how to protect historic prop-
Incorporation. Consideration of historic properties can
erties. Although adherence to the Standards may not be
contribute to successful design development and project
required to satisfy local or state regulations, they are impor-
marketing. In each case, the identification of unique land
tant principles in the preservation field and can provide valu-
features, artifacts, and historic architectural or archeologi-
able guidance regarding the treatment of historic properties
cal resources helped shape the land development project
for any land development project. Following the Standards
design response. Historic properties became a component
can help to avoid or minimize adverse impacts and can also
of the larger development program, or by virtue of associa-
be utilized to develop successful mitigation measures.
tion, became incorporated into a unique marketing tool, like
As summarized from the Standards, four treatment
name recognition. The process of identifying and assessing
approaches are recommended: preservation, rehabilita -
impacts to historic properties should challenge development
tion, restoration, and reconstruction. These approaches are
and design professionals to a higher level of design, market-
defined below in hierarchical order.
ing, and financial solutions.
Preservation: The act or process of applying measures
necessary to sustain the existing form, integrity, and REFERENCES
materials of an historic property. Work, including pre- American Society of Civil Engineers, Subsurface Investigation
liminary measures to protect and stabilize the property, for Design and Construction of Foundations of Buildings,
generally focuses upon the ongoing maintenance and 1976.
repair of historic materials and features rather than Brown, Thomas L. 1988. Site Engineering for Developers and Build-
extensive replacement and new construction. New ers. Washington, DC: National Association of Home Builders.
exterior additions are not within the scope of this treat- Environmental Laboratory. 1987. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
ment; however, the limited and sensitive upgrading of Wetlands Delineation Manual. Vicksburg, MS: U.S. Army Engi-
mechanical, electrical, and plumbing systems and other neer Waterways Experiment Station.
code-required work to make properties functional is Lerner, Steve, and William Poole. 1999. The Economic Benefits of
appropriate within a preservation project. Parks and Open Space. San Francisco, CA: Trust for Public Land.
Also see http://www.tpl.org.
Rehabilitation: The act or process of making possible a Mitsch, W.J., and J.G. Gosselink. 1986. Wetlands. New York: Van
compatible use for a property through repair, alterations, Nostrand Reinhold.
and additions while preserving those portions or features Sowers, George F. 1979. Introductory Soil Mechanics and Founda-
which convey its historical, cultural, or architectural values. tions: Geotechnical Engineering, 4th ed. New York: Macmillan.
120 i@UH:U iirttl@i@IH

PETER J. BIONDI ROUTE 206 BYPASS-CONTRACT A

Location: Hillsborough, New Jersey
Client: New Jersey Department of Transportation
Completion Date: October 2013
Case Study: Dewberry designed the Peter J. Biondi Route 206 Bypass for the New Jersey Department of Transportation.
The bypass allows drivers to circumvent the Township of Hillsborough, New Jersey, thus decreasing congestion, improv-
ing safety, and diverting traffic from the center of town. Preliminary and final design of 3 miles of a new limited access
bypass section of Route 206 included many engineering challenges, such as designing the roadway through environmen-
tally sensitive land, while securing the appropriate permits and approvals, and addressing underground pipes/utilities
and rights of way, and other obstacles.
A unique situation was encountered where the bypass crossed a railroad track. This railroad is in historic district. An
architectural treatment was required to satisfy State Historic Preservation Office requirements. Due to the historic nature
of the railroad property, special features were applied to the bridge fencing, abutment and retaining walls, including
simulated cut rock, vertical face parapets, balustrade detail and black iron period-style fencing to meet the requirements
and blend with the surrounding area.
 2.5 ■ ENVIRONMENTAL, GEOTECHNICAL, AND HISTORICAL CONSIDERATIONS 121

BELLMAWR PARK MUTUAL HOUSING HISTORIC DISTRICT

Case Study: The I-295/I-76/Route 42 interchange is one of the largest and most congested intersections in southern New
Jersey, carrying large volumes of commuter traffic destined to and from Philadelphia via the Walt Whitman Bridge. It is also
a connection via Route 42 and the Atlantic City Expressway to the shore areas for weekend trips. Presently, the I-295/I-76/
Route 42 interchange does not provide a direct connection for I-295 through traffic. The existing interchange requires
motorists to reduce speed in both directions ofI-295 so that they can safely negotiate ramps with 35 mph speed limits.
Dewberry is responsible for each phase of this $900-million direct connection from the initial preparation of environmen-
tal documents to completion of final design and through construction. The purpose of this project is to improve safety
and reduce traffic congestion at the interchange of I-295/I-76/Route 42 while providing a direct connection for I-295
through traffic. The project addresses quality-of-life issues as they relate to motorists, residents, and the environment.
The project was federally funded, so the I-295/I-76/Route 42 Direct Connection project advanced in compliance with the
National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) process, which required an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) in order to
determine a preferred alternative. Initially, a Purpose and Need Statement was agreed upon with stakeholders, and then an
extensive list of alternatives was developed. There were 26 build alternatives that were investigated and ultimately shortlisted to
five through an interactive process with the public and environmental agencies. These five build alternatives were then advanced
from an engineering standpoint to fine-tune the roadway alignments and profiles. Two of the alternatives included a new bridge
carrying 1-295 over 1-76/Route 42, two alternatives included a stacked roadway where 1-295 southbound was over the top of
1-295 northbound as it crossed over 1-76/Route 42, and the fifth alternative carried 1-295 below 1-76/Route 42 in a tunnel sec-
tion. Preliminary bridge and retaining wall limits, stormwater management needs, construction staging schemes, geotechnical
concerns, etc., were then evaluated for each of the alternatives. From these conceptual roadway designs, technical environmental
studies were performed. An alternative analysis was performed to select the preferred alternative, which will carry 1-295 over
I-76/Route 42 on a six-lane structure. In all, 13 bridges, two culverts, 16 retaining walls and noise walls are proposed.
During the NEPA process, a unique historic district was identified. In addition to NEPA, analyses were required pursuant to
Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act, among others. As a first step in the due diligence process for historic
resources, an architectural survey was conducted to identify any unknown historic properties. The Bellmawr Park Mutual
Housing Historic District was identified as part of this process. It is interesting to note that at first glance, the buildings that
are located within this historic district would not seem important-they are predominantly early 1940s ranch-style dwellings,
containing two to four attached units, with very simple designs and a lack of ornamentation. But, the detailed background
research revealed that the Bellmawr Park Mutual Housing complex was historically significant as a mutual housing develop-
ment. So, since the historic district was not significant for its architecture, it could have been overlooked if not for the process
of having trained professionals conduct the architectural survey and the associated background research.
The Bellmawr Park Mutual Housing Historic District was constructed in 1942 to house workers and their families
employed at the New York Shipbuilding Corporation. It is significant for its association with the development of
the mutual housing concept associated with World War II-era defense housing projects. It was designed by progressive-
minded architects and planners who promoted the use of European-inspired architectural styles and progressive
community planning ideas. The Bellmawr Park Mutual Housing Historic District is also important for its association
with innovative housing design and construction methods first utilized on a large-scale basis for World War II-era
defense housing and subsequently popularized for modern-era housing. The historic district is distinguished by its
unified building types that convey a cohesive form of mid-20th-century worker housing. Bellmawr Park still functions
today as originally conceived-as a mutual home ownership development comprised of 500 residential housing units.

Typical type A building, Beechwood Place, view northwest.

122 i@UH:U iirttl@i@IH

As part of the proposed roadway improvements, five buildings within the historic district needed to be demolished, thus
resulting in an adverse effect to the historic district. Extensive consultation with the local community and involved agen-
cies as well as the New Jersey Historic Preservation Office was conducted in order to develop measures to minimize and
mitigate the adverse effect to the historic district. A memorandum of agreement was prepared that stipulated the specific
mitigation measures that would be undertaken. These measures included photographic documentation of the buildings
slated for demolition so that there would be a permanent record of their appearance within the historic district. This
work was conducted pursuant to the requirements of the Historic American Buildings Survey, which defines standards
for archival documentation and photography. A registration form was also prepared to officially list the Bellmawr Park
Mutual Housing Historic District in the National Register of Historic Places. In addition, a conservation plan was devel-
oped to assist the Bellmawr Park Mutual Housing Corporation in the storage and long-term conservation of historic
documentation and archival materials. Finally, since five new buildings would be constructed within the historic district
to replace the buildings that would be demolished, a feasibility assessment was conducted in order to identify suitable
locations within the historic district for the replacement housing. A set of design guidelines was also developed for the
new housing units so they would be in-keeping with the character of the historic district.

Typical type C building, Carter Avenue, view southeast.

The I-295/I-76/Route 42 Direct Connection project began in the summer of 2000. The EIS was completed in 2008 and in
March 2009, FHWA officials gave final environmental approval for the project. In the summer of 2010, Dewberry submitted
Right-of-Way and preliminary design documents. Construction of an advanced ITS Contract is complete. Contracts 1, 2,
and 3 are under construction, with Final Design for Contract 4 underway. The estimated construction completion is 2021.

Beechwood Place streetscape, view northwest.

 2.5 ■ ENVIRONMENTAL, GEOTECHNICAL, AND HISTORICAL CONSIDERATIONS 123

LITTLE MUNCY CREEK PRATT TRUSS

Location: SR 2069 Moreland Township, Lycoming County, PA
Client: Pennsylvania Department of Transportation District 3-0
Completion Date: December 2015
The Pennsylvania Department of Transportation's (PennDOT) Engineering District 3-0 recently completed an unusual
bridge replacement project in the rural community of Moreland Township, Lycoming County, Pennsylvania. Known
locally as the Little Muncy Truss, the S.R. 2069, Section 001 bridge carries S.R. 2069 (Moreland Township Road) over
Little Muncy Creek, part of the Susquehanna River watershed. The bridge, originally built in 1904 by the Owego Bridge
Company of New York, is a contributing resource to the Smith/Wallis Gristmill Historic District within this predomi-
nantly agricultural community.
A valued resource
The Little Muncy Truss is considered a local landmark in the Moreland Township community. Surrounded by farmland, the
bridge lies along the western edge of the historic district, composed of 14 buildings that date as far back as the circa-1796 grist-
mill. The bridge is regularly used by residents, including farmers who rely on the structure for deliveries and crop transport.
The Little Muncy Truss is also notable for its rare structure type. The existing bridge was a single-lane, single-span,
113-foot-long steel Pratt truss, with the steel members held together by pins. A common construction approach in the
early 20th century, only two similar pin-connected Pratt truss bridges carry vehicular traffic in Pennsylvania today, mak-
ing the rehabilitation project unique and somewhat challenging.
Following extensive deterioration over the years, including section loss along the lower eyebar chords, the bridge's weight
limit had been downgraded to five tons. In replacing the structure, PennDOT sought to remove the bridge from the structur-
ally deficient list and increase the load capacity to 17 tons. This would accommodate use by township vehicles, school buses,
emergency vehicles, and large farm delivery trucks that had been prevented from using the truss for several years. PennDOT
also placed a priority on retaining the bridge's historic integrity, while minimizing long-term maintenance requirements.

INCREASING LOAD CAPACITY

PennDOT District 3-0 selected the consulting firm of Dewberry to design a six-panel, pin-connected truss, based on the
firm's prior experience with truss rehabilitations and replacements. Initially, the team planned to complete the design and
detailing using as-built plans, old fabrication drawings, and prior inspection notes. During a site visit to gather samples,
however, the team noticed that the skew angle of the truss did not match the as-built plans or shop drawings. The team
completed new documentation with the correct structural geometry in order to proceed with the reconstruction design.
The Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission was kept informed of the design process because of the bridge's
contribution to the historical district. The team investigated reuse of the existing members to retain as much of the origi-
nal bridge as possible, but as a result of the widespread deterioration, only the decorative lattice railing could be salvaged.
124 i@UH:U iirttl@i@IH

The replacement structure, which features a 110-foot single-span length and a 14-foot
clear roadway width, was designed to retain the original aesthetics while significantly
improving the load capacity. To increase the load ratings and as added safety precau-
tions, the design included catch plates, additional counters, higher strength steel, and
an increase to the size of critical members. These measures allowed all load postings
to be removed and the bridge to rate for PennDOT's design vehicles.

MINIMIZING DISRUPTION
With direct coordination between Dewberry's engineers and the fabricator, the
bridge was erected on site with no preassembly at the fabrication yard to verify
fit-up, an approach that reduced time and cost. The entire truss was assembled on
a staging area beside the bridge abutments and swung into place by a single crane,
drawing a crowd of local residents interested in the construction. Dewberry pro-
vided a plan of the minimal essential members to be installed to swing the bridge
safely into place while maintaining its structural integrity. Minimizing the pick
weight of the crane by only installing critical members allowed for a more eco-
nomical crane size, reducing both cost and environmental impact. This method
eliminated the need for an invasive causeway to be installed in the stream, which is
classified as both a Cold Water Fishery and a Migratory Fishes Stream.
The structure was designed to be above the 100-year floodplain and above the 1972
flood of record. The embankment was stabilized with large riprap to provide resilience to major flood events.
The new bridge retains the character of the historic structure, drawing appreciation from the many residents who care-
fully followed the design and construction process. With all posted load restrictions removed, the bridge is now able to
be used by emergency vehicles, school buses, and farm vehicles. The $1.5 million project received an "Excellent" quality
rating from PennDOT, earned an Achievement Award from the Association for Bridge Construction and Design, and is
a featured project for the PennDOT Connects initiative.

Contribution by Curtis D. Sanno, P.E.

Featured in the Road&Bridges Magazine
 CHAPTER 3

SITE ANALYSIS AND ENGINEERING

FUNDAMENTALS

Chapter 3.1 focuses on the site analysis of the project, the con- and understanding contour lines. Considerations for grad-
tinuation of the land development design process from the due ing, and how earthwork can influence the project design, are
diligence (see Chapter 2). The site analysis evaluates the physi- identified in this chapter. Fundamentals of grading provide
cal characteristics of site while due diligence phase focuses on a a foundation for design considerations for a site-grading is
regulatory assessment. Additionally, the engineering feasibility more of an art than a science.
study, site inspection, and reading a plan set will be introduced. Chapter 3.5 includes information related to hydrologic
Chapter 3.2 introduces the surveying and preparation of analysis and different methodologies used for determin-
base maps, which are used as the foundation of design work. ing stormwater runoff for a site. The runoff computations
Prior to design work, a site diagram is often developed to are used when designing stormwater management systems,
show the spatial relationship of proposed site features-this which are introduced in this chapter (detailed descriptions of
process is introduced. Sources of data used in a base map are different systems are identified in Appendix 7.2). Procedures
identified in this chapter as well. for preliminary sizing of stormwater systems are identified to
Chapter 3.3 introduces roadway design fundamentals, help with early design efforts.
starting with functional classifications of roadways. The Chapter 3.6 is separated into Part A, B, C, and D to refer-
different parts of roadways are introduced so a designer ence storm drainage, sanitary sewer, water distribution, and
can understand which road systems are appropriate for the dry utility systems, respectively. This chapter identifies the
design of a site. Considerations for road use, street patterns, different materials and components that are used for utility
parking requirements, and other transportation systems for systems, as well as context for checking capacity and demand
a site are introduced as well. of utility systems. Design fundamentals of each utility system
Chapter 3.4 provides information on grading strategies, are introduced, which inform early design decisions of the
beginning with an introduction to reading a topographic map utility networks.

>
PRE-DESIGN DESIGN POST-DESIGN

>
~ - - - - - ~

CHAPTER2 CHAPTER3
.
CHAPTER4
•·- .
CHAPTER 5 CHAPTER 6
Due Dilligence Site Analysis Conceptual & Final Design Permits &
Schematic Design Construction

FIG uRE 3. 1 A The land development design process.

125
 CHAPTER 3.1

FEASIBILITY STUDY,
SITE INSPECTION AND
PLAN SHEET COMPREHENSION

3.1.1. Introduction information uncovered. At the end of the site analysis, a

A project often begins with the development team asking, developer should be able to choose whether site is viable for
"What is the highest and best use of this site?" This initial the program proposed. A developer will likely continue to
question requires an investigation into the information review the viability of the proposed development program
identified in Chapter 2 related to the parcel zoning, com- through all design phases, but the site analysis is the first
prehensive plans, and other applicable site regulations. The step in moving a project forward.
experienced site engineer must also recognize the unspoken Chapter 3 includes information related to all aspects of
parts of those questions that are perhaps more indicative of site engineering and items to consider during the site analy-
the level of investigation and commitment required: "Can I sis phase of work, but an expert understanding of site engi-
make a profit?;' "Is the expense and effort worth the return?;• neering is required to perform a site analysis. The content
"Can I complete the development in a reasonable amount of from all other chapters within this book will inform the site
time?;' "Will people buy what we have to offer in a predict- analysis. Much of the content introduced in Chapter 3 can
able period of time?;' "Can I make a valuable contribution to be used to determine if there are easily identifiable "deal
the community and my reputation?" Answering these ques- breakers" (or red flags) for the site. Poor traffic access, lack
tions requires extensive evaluation of all the components, of utilities, difficult terrain, poor soils, zoning challenges,
participants, and dynamics of land development that affect and other conditions should be evaluated early in the proj-
the project and property. ect. Some deal breakers can be identified during site analysis
The site analysis phase of a project is generally a pre- but require a more detailed understanding of planning and
design effort associated with the due diligence phase. The engineering issues that may arise. Historic knowledge and
site analysis provides context for the requirements of site regional context can also provide valuable insight into the
design. This will apply the contents of Chapter 2, includ- development opportunities for a site. The development team
ing the local zoning documents and environmental regula- has a lot to consider during the site analysis phase, often
tions, to a specific project site to understand the limitations with very little information available. This phase is also chal-
and development potential. In addition, the site will be lenging (especially for technical professionals) because the
further analyzed to determine if and how the property can deliverables lack finite solutions and decisions must be made
be developed with an emphasis on physical characteristics from the available information.
(terrain, infrastructure, soils, etc.). The information gath- One of the products of the site analysis phase is a feasi-
ered during this phase of work is critical because all future bility study. The feasibility study documents all information
design and development decisions will be based on the gathered during the site analysis and due diligence phases

126
 3.1 ■ FEASIBILITY STUDY, SITE INSPECTION AND PLAN SHEET COMPREHENSION 127

of work and should also identify any gaps in information or In a competitive market where vacant land is in short
assumptions that have been made. The study will likely be supply, decisions must be made in a relatively brief period
referenced in later phases of the project as a basis of design. of time. Otherwise, the land may be lost to another buyer,
Another product of the site analysis is the base map and potentially a competitor. In periods of tight money supply
subsequent site diagram. The site diagram uses the base maps and slow economic growth, the decision to purchase must
(identified in Chapter 3.2) to illustrate the constraints and be well reasoned. The developer must be assured that the
opportunities that are identified during site analysis. The investment will provide economic return. This is particularly
diagram is a graphic depiction of the project's site conditions true if rising land prices have not abated, despite weakness in
but is roughly developed such that is still considered a pre- the real estate market. The developer must base the commit-
design effort. ment of resources to purchase land on a determination that
After the site analysis is complete, the conceptual the land will have future value and use.
designs can be produced with additional detail added dur- Land development is a risky business. To help abate
ing the schematic design phase (both to be discussed in that risk, an engineering feasibility study is often required
Chapter 4). Finally, after approval of the design (by the fairly early in the development process in order to identify
developer or preliminary approval by the jurisdiction), the problems likely to be encountered during planning, design,
final engineering design can commence (to be discussed in government review, and construction, as well as to more
Chapter 5). This entire process from the site analysis, into resolutely determine potential uses for the land. It is this
the conceptual and schematic design, and eventually into engineering feasibility study that aids a developer in answer-
final engineering design is a cohesive effort but is an itera- ing their basic questions and minimizing the risk incurred
tive process. Initial assumptions and preliminary designs in purchasing land with the intent to develop or redevelop.
will be refined throughout this process. It is important to Such questions include
understand that generally the design process is not linear,
and initial concept plans never make it to construction in • What are the physical characteristics of the site?
their entirety. Are they conducive to the type ofland development
Chapter 3 introduces the content necessary to perform envisioned?
a site analysis, including the fundamentals of all aspects of • What regulations are applied?
site engineering. This level of introduction should enable
• What are the costs involved in providing infrastruc-
the site engineer to identify existing site features, and pro-
ture to the envisioned development?
duce the feasibility study and site diagram. This can also
allow the site engineer to produce the conceptual designs • What is the timing of the design and approval
as well as early schematic designs (both to be introduced in processes?
Chapter 4). More detailed information regarding informa-
An engineering feasibility study is ideally commissioned
tion topics (that may be required for schematic designs) will
and completed before the land is purchased. This study can
be introduced with final design in Chapter 5.
take place either before negotiations with a landowner or
This text presents the design process required in a site
during a purchase contract option period. If the study sug-
analysis and final design in a typical sequential order, by
gests that an unfavorable price has been asked for the prop-
first focusing on larger site features and then looking at
erty, the developer has an opportunity to reject the purchase
more detailed site elements. Understanding the whole pro-
or renegotiate the price. Meanwhile, the land is protected
cess helps to produce the best design for a site. Therefore, an
from purchase by other buyers. Failing to perform a thor-
iteration of designs may be required as the design process
ough investigation can lead to costly mistakes and, in some
is learned and conflicts are identified between different site
cases, expensive lawsuits. At their first meeting, the site engi-
elements. With time, the designer can improve their work
neer should advise the developer of the importance of per-
by having greater experience with the process.
forming an engineering feasibility study as part of the scope
of services.
3.1.2. Engineering Feasibility Study To perform such studies, one must understand the utility,
Land development is highly regulated at all levels of gov- value, and potential use of a tract of land. These are based
ernment. The developer may spend considerable amounts on a number of underlying principles concerning physical
of money to demonstrate that the development program and economic characteristics common to all land. Physical
and the design comply with those regulations. This must be characteristics of land include its immobility; that is, it has a
done without any guarantees that construction will ever be fixed location and cannot be moved to avoid or take advan-
authorized or profit realized. In addition, because the design, tage of other locational factors. In addition, from the govern-
processing, and construction period can take several years, ment's standpoint, its fixed location makes it easy to regulate,
even a well-conceived project may find no buyers. Economic tax, and attach. Land is unique, with no two properties being
and demographic forces often change while the development identical in size, shape, elevation, view, or access to natural
program remains essentially the same. and man-made resources. Notwithstanding certain natural
120 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ
forces that cause erosion, inundation, or landslide, land is inde- the area's real estate market and can visualize project layout.
structible. This reflects a stable investment. Economic charac- Many are familiar with local attitudes and the political moti-
teristics include its scarcity, with no more land being created vation of area leaders, but some developers may be unfamil-
and unused land in increasingly short supply. Land exists in iar with the locality or with development in general. Most
a discrete quantity. The nature of improvements affects not developers engage the development team during the land
only the value of the land but that of adjoining land as well. acquisition (option) phase because of the need to assemble
Land represents a permanence of investment. While certain information prepared by unbiased professionals. Even if it
improvements can be destroyed, the public infrastructure usu- was feasible to employ a large full-time staff of development
ally remains that the investment is characterized as long term specialists, their judgment might be considered prejudicial
and stable. Perhaps most important are the public's area prefer- in negotiations with property owners. In addition, the site
ences to location, which result in similar structures being val- engineer brings the benefit of the experience gained in work-
ued differently in alternative locations (Fillmore et al., 1988). ing with many clients and projects. This cumulative knowl-
The value of land is affected by government regula- edge about the process is valuable to even the sophisticated
tions that control its development and use. These laws in developer.
many ways supersede and restrict the rights associated with In cases where rezoning is inevitable, there will be politi-
land ownership while protecting the public health, safety, cal and legal issues that will have to be addressed; an attorney
and welfare. Development potential may be severely con- familiar with zoning should be retained for these purposes
strained by environmental factors. As a consequence, site (refer to Chapter 2.3 for more information on zoning). The
development may not provide sufficient yield to return a site engineer may act as technical advisor to the attorney
profit. The cost of securing development approval or com- and developer; however, the engineer should refrain from
plying with local, state, and federal regulations may be so offering legal advice. It is important to note, though, that the
severe as to detract from the land's value as a development development team will become involved with the interpreta-
site. Changes in development regulations may also affect tion and application of zoning ordinances and comprehen-
parcel value. sive plans. These interpretations are usually as important as
Physical constraints and opportunities of the site need the laws themselves and become central to evaluation of the
to be identified and quantified to assist the developer in development for approval.
evaluation of the property. In addition to these inherent Often, the site engineer performs this analysis and pre-
characteristics are those that affect its physical adaptability pares the feasibility study in coordination with other mem-
to certain uses. For example, consider two parcels of water- bers of the design team as necessary. It is important for all
front property: one flat and the other steep. The likelihood members of the design team, whether they are involved in
that the latter can be used for maritime purposes is limited. the production of the feasibility study or not, to understand
In addition, practical limitations on the mobility of people, the investigation process and the study results.
automobiles, machinery, and equipment affect convenience An example of a preliminary engineering feasibility study
and ease of certain uses, especially when coupled with cli- appears in the appendix in Chapter 7.6. Refer to this report
matic differences. Roads, parking areas, and service drives to understand the scope and process and information con-
must be designed to accommodate these limitations. For tained within the engineering feasibility study as described
instance, if a road must be built on steeply sloped land, it in the following sections.
may not be easily negotiated by an automobile. In climates Scope and Process of the Study. The engineering feasibil-
where snow and ice are a factor, such a road may be ren- ity study should evaluate the physical, environmental, regu-
dered impassible for days or weeks at a time. The slope of latory, and/ or other constraints that must be overcome or
sidewalks and trails must accommodate human capabilities. accommodated in constructing the intended use. This study
Long, steeply sloped walkways and stairways from streets is usually produced by the design team for the developer and
and parking areas can be a hindrance to occupants as well their business team. The results of this study often affect the
as a market deterrent. In many instances, the law requires purchase price of a property, which is frequently based on
that access by people with disabilities must be considered. presumed development potential. Incorrect assumptions
Graded slopes must safely accommodate maintenance about development potential frequently prove to be in error
equipment, such as mowers. While site grading during con- because of physical, locational, or external characteristics not
struction attempts to eliminate practical conflicts, existing properly considered.
topography and local ordinances sometimes make exten- The feasibility study is important in providing legal pro-
sive regrading economically infeasible. The purpose of the tection to the prospective owner or developer. As discussed
engineering feasibility study is to establish a framework for in the preceding chapters (Chapter 2.5), the undetected
making such determinations. presence of wetlands, endangered species habitat, hazard-
Land developers who routinely operate in most com- ous waste, or other environmental concerns could subject
munities are likely to be familiar with the land development the owner to expensive cleanup operations or litigation
process and expectations. The developer often is sensitive to under federal laws. The engineering feasibility study is often
 3.1 ■ FEASIBILITY STUDY, SITE INSPECTION AND PLAN SHEET COMPREHENSION 129

performed concurrently with the previously described envi- Such sites may now be candidates for development if the
ronmental studies and usually references or even includes higher development costs are compensated for by greater
them as a component part or appendix. yield and current market prices.
The developer will use information from these stud- The intent of the study is to identify development con-
ies to procure loans and begin the project's "go, no-go" straints, or "red flags;' along with options to minimize
decision-making process. For this reason, the feasibility or alleviate those constraints. The study does not always
study should be completed before the actual purchase of specify preferred solutions. Those will be addressed later,
the land. The developer should insist on having a study if and when the developer moves forward with the pur-
period established as a contingency clause in the purchase chase and development of the tract. Some site constraints,
contract. The purchase of the land may hinge on the infor- when recognized early in the process, can be accommo-
mation in the study as well as other contingencies. Time dated by the plans and used advantageously in a variety of
and money are the major concerns of the developer. The ways-most commonly as site amenities or for marketing
study is performed with developer's funds. If the developer and branding purposes. For example, a wetland could be
elects not to purchase the land, this is the money that will perceived as a major constraint, or it could be incorporated
not be recouped from the project. For this reason, it is to into the development as a unique amenity with footbridges.
the developer's benefit to incur as little expense as possible Whereas the reviewing agencies were initially opposed to
at this early stage. Some purchases may be contingent on developments that impinged on the wetland area, incorpo-
whether a rezoning or other entitlement application (such rating it as an amenity could help convince the locality to
as special exception, variance, or subdivision) is approved, approve the project.
as described in Chapter 2. Others may hinge on whether a The study approach varies with the developer's intentions,
minimum number of "buildable" lots can be obtained, preconceptions, and circumstances related to the property,
which will be described with yield studies in Chapter 4. It defined in the development program. If the developer knows
should be emphasized that, where there is a clear intent to exactly what land use will be constructed and the zoning is
rezone a parcel, land purchase contracts under consider- compatible with that use, the feasibility study will analyze
ation by the developer should include zoning contingency the site in accordance with that use and zoning. If the use is
clauses such that if approval is not granted by the govern- uncertain, the study will identify land use options based on
ing body, the developer is released from the obligations of the potential of the land. The potential of the land consid-
the contract. ers the ultimate density (derived from existing and master
Because the seller wants to obtain maximum price for planned zoning designation) in context to the existing and
their land and sell it in a reasonable amount of time, the planned infrastructure and public facilities.
study period specified in the contract may only be on the The developer may wish to consider several options and
order of weeks or months. The buyer may be able to negoti- multiples sites; the development team may need to perform
ate a longer time period within which to conduct the analysis. several feasibility studies if there is a significant variation in
Normally, however, the buyer must be willing to compensate land use permitted by the possible zoning. Each will have
the seller for extraordinary periods of time. A higher pur- unique elements-location, topography, zoning, access,
chase offering may be needed to extend the buyer's purchase and/or infrastructure systems-that separate it from other
option period. Because of the financial risk, the client needs sites. In this scenario, a site selection study should be per-
accurate information in short period of time. The decision to formed to evaluate the sites based on similar metrics to
exercise a purchase option will be based on the information determine which site is best suited for the development pro-
in the feasibility study. gram (to be discussed in Chapter 4.1).
Most experienced developers will know the lowest Frequently, the client will require a cost estimate for the
value of a cost per unit that renders the project uneco- construction of certain items in the study, such as utilities,
nomical. In practice, the developer may study several road, and other infrastructure improvements. Additionally,
alternative uses based on the information compiled dur- unusual or extraordinary costs will be identified and esti-
ing the assessment period. This helps determine what uses mated. This will help in assessing the economic feasibility
are economically feasible or whether the land develop- of the site. These preliminary cost estimates are discussed in
ment project can be profitable. Depending on the skill of Chapter 4.
the design team, a seemingly poor site may be rendered The feasibility study must be well organized and is usu-
profitable. In some heavily developed areas, there may ally supported by maps, photographs, and other graphics. It
be few options among alternative tracts of land-forc- is often, but not always, presented in report form, although
ing land developers and design teams to more carefully annotated base and topographic maps may suffice, depend-
consider less desirable sites. Some sites are ignored dur- ing on the client and the complexity of the project. Any
ing earlier stages of a community's urbanization because biases or opinions by the author should be included only
of undesirable characteristics, but in time the surround- at the request of the client and stated as such. The docu-
ing area may develop and make the site more valuable. ment will serve as evidence should any discrepancies arise
130 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ
or if lawsuits are filed as a result of claims for incorrect property boundaries, architectural style, or build-
information. ing material?
Required Information. The engineering feasibility study
• Is any portion of the tract, such as a lot around an
requires a comprehensive collection of all information that
existing dwelling, to be reserved for the existing
could affect the site and its development. For purposes of this
owner?
section, the research and analysis associated with an engi-
neering feasibility study are categorized into three types of • Is the property or a portion thereof restricted
information: from development through local, state, or fed-
eral programs such as Farmland Preservation,
I. Legal condition of the site such as easements, land Green Acres, or Open Space Preservation or
rights, and other property encumbrances other Transferable Development Rights (TDR)
2. Regulatory concerns of the site such as applicable program?
master plans, zoning, ordinance requirements, pos- Although federal programs do exist, many of the cur-
sible citizen opposition, and governmental review rent preservation programs are managed by local or state
considerations agencies. Typically, the preserving agency places a deed
3. Physical condition of the site such as topography, restriction on the property limiting its use to specific
soils, utilities, drainage, and external influences cre- activities such as agricultural (as in the case of Farmland
ated by neighboring properties and uses Preservation) or active/passive recreation (Green Acres
or Open Space Preservation). Depending on the man-
Such items have a significant impact on how the land is dates of the preservation program, the deed restriction
developed and how successful the project will be. may run for a limited duration or in perpetuity and is
Legal. Title investigation must be performed by an attor- binding to future owners of the property.
ney or title insurance company for the developer to ensure
that the landowner holds a fee estate in the subject property. Prior recorded plats, including government takings,
The following title and other property information should be boundary adjustments, and subdivision plats.
reviewed to determine the legal constraints and opportuni- • If there is an existing subdivision plat of record,
ties of the site: what is its status?
Land ownership records, including property description • Can it be used advantageously; can the lots be
(using metes and bounds or government survey method). developed and sold?
• Do these records match the scope of the project? • What are the developer's responsibilities concern-
ing platted public improvements, such as streets
• Will land be excluded from the project and do
and storm drainage?
subdivision regulations allow such exclusion?
• Is the property contiguous or are there por- • What other requirements would apply?
tions of the property separated by rights-of-way Identify local procedures for street, ROW, or easement
(ROW) or other properties? vacation and abandonment.
Chain of title traced back to the creation of the tract Records of easements appurtenant (usually providing
boundaries or the adoption oflocal subdivision regula- access to or through the property or adjoining proper-
tions, whichever is earlier. A title company usually per- ties) and in gross (usually energy or communications
forms a title search to ensure, and ultimately insure, that transmission lines) showing purpose and holder of the
the chain of title has not been broken. The purpose of easement.
the land design team's analysis is to determine the appli-
cability oflocal development regulations. • What rights are accorded the holder and what
limitations are placed on the developer's use of
• Has the subject parcel been legally subdivided the easement?
from its parent tract (i.e., with government
approval if such approval was required at the • Can easements be abandoned or relocated?
time the parent tract was split)? • Are there potential instances of adverse posses-
Deed conditions, restrictions, or covenants that could sion or prescriptive easements on the property?
affect future use and enjoyment of the property. Refer to Chapter 2.1 for more detailed definitions of the
• Is the proposed use prohibited by deed? aforementioned legal terms to define a property.

• What private deed restrictions are imposed on Regulatory. Regulatory information must be included in
the final land use, such as lot size, setback from an engineering feasibility analysis in order to identify the
 3.1 ■ FEASIBILITY STUDY, SITE INSPECTION AND PLAN SHEET COMPREHENSION 131

appropriate processes to allow the proposed development. Grandfathered or vested rights that may be jeopardized by
These processes will influence the timing, cost, and extent of the proposed development.
community and public involvement in the development pro-
• Will the project be exposed to requirements far
cess. The following aspects-planning, zoning, and related
beyond those needed for the additional construc-
development information-of an engineering feasibility
tion or expanded use?
study will aid the developer in the assessment of the regula-
tory aspects of a proposed project. Development history of the property, including records
of previous submissions for rezoning, special exception,
Relevant comprehensive plan, zoning maps, and texts: These subdivision, or building permits.
include growth management ordinances, such as adequate
public facilities ordinances, impact fees, and other construc- The likelihood of citizen opposition, and delays associated
tion limitations such as annual building permit caps. These with the development process. The experience of the
also include information on miscellaneous fees, such as land design team is particularly valuable here. Famil-
filing and processing, recreation, drainage, and others. iarity with local issues and past encounters with civic
groups can help the development team prepare for future
• When must fees be paid, improvements installed? conflicts.
Current property zoning, proposed zoning, including uses Subdivision and other ordinance regulations specific to
permitted by right and those requiring special exception. the site, such as lighting or signing ordinances, tree or
Describe the purpose of the zoning district. historic preservation, or planting ordinances.
• Do zoning boundaries divide the subject • Can private streets be utilized?
property?
• Will there be any assessment by any local or state
• What is the relationship of zoning district bound-
agency for road construction?
aries to the subject property?
• Are there requirements for adjoining property
Requirements for zoning overlay or special districts: Exam- owners to contribute to the cost of constructing
ples of such districts include highway corridor, historic,
streets to service their properties?
transit area, central business district, transfer of develop-
ment rights, resource protection, conservation, or other Requirements for 'green" building design: In general
management areas allowing "credits" for increases in the terms, green building refers to site development and
permitted base density of development. building design that promotes energy and resource
conservation and produces a healthy and productive
Comprehensive plan recommendations for the site, for
environment (internal and external to the building)
example, density or allowable land use.
for people to work and live. Many federal, state, and
• Does the current comprehensive plan show any local jurisdictions have adopted certain (accredited)
roadway improvements that will impact the site? third-party green building certification as a mandated
standard or require a project design to demonstrate the
Pertinent requirements of the zoning ordinance: These
ability to attain a specific level of certification. Several
include maximum density or floor area ratio, minimum
third-party review agencies currently exist, each with
or average lot size, setbacks (from project boundar-
differing evaluation criteria. Determination as to what
ies, property lines, lot lines, ROW, railroads, highways,
guidelines, if any, will apply to the proposed develop-
waterfront, etc.), building height and bulk requirements,
ment based on the regulatory climate and owner/
maximum lot coverage and open space requirements,
developer preference should be made in the early stages
off-street parking and loading, screening buffering and
of engineering feasibility. Further discussion of typical
landscaping requirements.
elements of green building design and items to consider
• Is ROW of future roadways used for density credit? during the engineering feasibility is presented at the con -
clusion of this chapter.
Proposed or pending changes in comprehensive plans
or development regulations likely to be adopted within Refer to Chapter 2 for more information on the afore-
the project's lifespan. mentioned regulations identified during the due diligence
stage.
• What significant impacts will these changes have
on the property's use or yield? Physical. Research and review of the site's physical attri-
• Will the change increase the time it takes to butes and constraints includes the site location, access, topog-
secure construction authorization, or expose the raphy, drainage, vegetation, soils, and utilities. The following
project to additional public hearings or govern- information must be assembled and reviewed to determine
ment agencies' review? the physical constraints and opportunities of the site:
132 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ
Location Access
• Configuration and site area from tax maps • Presence oflandlocked parcels and other proper-
and tax records. Is this mapping, site area, and ties adjoining the subject property. These may
ownership information consistent with the title require extensions of roads and utilities as part of
information? a development plan (Figure 3.lB).
• Existing structures, paved or developed areas, • Public road frontage and property access infor-
fences, and walls. Are all improvements con- mation. Who is responsible for maintenance and
tained within the site boundaries? repairs of frontage and access roads? Is the proper-
ty's frontage on a public road sufficient for gaining
• Adjacent properties, including information on
proper access to the future development? If there
ownership, zoning, land uses, and their proximity
is no frontage, are access ROW to public roads of
to property boundaries.
sufficiently short length and adequate width to
• Encroachments from structures on adjoining accommodate local street requirements. These
properties, including existing access ways that standards include width, grade, drainage, and
may lead to claims of adverse possession or pre- maximum cul-de-sac length. Is there sufficient
scriptive easements. room for construction equipment to maneuver?

I
L- ---
_/I
POTENTIAL POINTS OF
ACCESS TO PUBLIC ROW
EASEMENTS/ROW ACQUISITIONS
l WILL BE NECESSARY
?
J
~

'?~ '/_/
~ .

/
~ L -~ (
~
/4 -2-,2, N ·~
. B-6D -- \ ~
ACCESS TO THE SITE IS PROHIBITED
ALONG THE LIMITED ACCESS HIGHWAY
',,, j c.-vi

3 ..................... - {

A-468

FIG uRE 3. 1 B Landlocked parcel, due to property lines, that could necessitate extension of public infrastructure by the developer.
 3.1 ■ FEASIBILITY STUDY, SITE INSPECTION AND PLAN SHEET COMPREHENSION 133

If not, can additional land or access be acquired? • Downstream problems with drainage; known
Will there be adequate sight distance at proposed complaints.
entrances, as well as vertical and horizontal road
• Requirements for non-point pollution control
curves? Is there sufficient frontage to provide
and "best management practices" (BMPs) during
proper spacing between road entrances?
construction and subsequent to final develop-
• Existing roads, both adjacent and across from sub- ment, including performance requirements for
ject property, and road conditions. Include ROW stormwater quantity, quality, and groundwater
width, pavement width, site distance at hills and recharge.
curves, sidewalks, curb and gutter, and drainage
• Stormwater management facility design con-
swale information. Indicate conditions that may
straints, including review of apparent seasonal
hamper flexibility in site design. For example,
high groundwater elevations. Will the existing
requirements for minimum spacing between inter-
groundwater table dictate the use of retention
sections on the abutting roadway may limit poten-
basins (wet ponds) with permanent pools of
tial entry points to the development. Large trees
water or significant amounts of imported fill to
at the edge of pavement may prevent widening or
maintain dry detention basins?
draw public opposition. Will any existing streets or
ROW require abandonment or vacation? • Evaluation of adequate outfall, including pres-
ence and/ or provision of necessary easements
• Will existing and proposed highways in the vicin-
for access and maintenance, current physical
ity of the site generate highway noise that should
condition and ownership of existing structures,
be mitigated?
or potential site improvements necessary for
Topography new outfall.
• In performing a topographic analysis, identify • Location, size, depth, and condition of existing
streams, swales, ridges, and similar landforms pipes.
and features. Identify steep slopes, where grad-
• Overland relief constraints from downstream
ing may be expensive or prohibited (greater than
properties and potential overland relief con-
15 and 25%), excessively flat areas (less than 2%)
straints of the subject site to upstream properties.
where storm and sanitary sewer drainage may be
difficult or expensive to achieve. Show incremen - • Location of wetlands and other sensitive environ -
tal breakdown of intermediate slopes to assist in mental areas (from National Wetlands Inventory
plan layout. maps or other available mapping).

Storm drainage Vegetation

• Drainage basin and watershed within which the • The location oflarge (species) trees, areas of tree
property is located; unique restrictions or condi- cover, including a review of the quality and type
tions applicable to development. of existing trees should be determined.
• Description of on-site drainage patterns. Geotechnical
• Location or plans for regional stormwa- • Soils information, including types and charac-
ter management facilities; timing of public teristics, bearing strength, stability, shrink/swell
improvements. potential, perched groundwater table, estimated
seasonal high water table, presence of naturally
• Existing floodplains from local jurisdiction,
occurring asbestos, radon potential or existence
United States Geological Survey (USGS), or Fed-
of residual pesticides from historical agricultural
eral Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)
uses, and suitability with regard to building foun-
reports.
dations, stormwater management facilities, cul-
• Potential for floodplain when stream is present. verts, utility trenching, and erodibility.
Small streams and swales not flowing continu-
• Consider soil percolation characteristics; do
ously throughout the year may still need to be
soils indicate the need for extensive earth move-
analyzed for their flood capacity and status as
ment and placement of engineered foundations
jurisdictional waters.
on compacted fills? Where soils of questionable
• Probable locations and sizes of culvert and out- suitability are identified, the site engineer should
fall improvements due to increased runoff from recommend that further investigation and testing
development. be performed by a geologist or other expert.
134 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ
Sanitary sewer • On-site well information, including depth to
water table, groundwater quantity, water quality,
• Agency with ownership and approval authority.
impact on project density, proximity to dwellings
• Sewershed in which the property lies; available and septic systems, and other ordinance require-
capacity, projected demand, local restrictions ments. Test wells may be required.
concerning sewer allocation.
Other public or private utilities and services
• Location, size, depth of, and distance to existing
lines. • Service options for energy and communications
utilities, such as electric, gas (natural or liquid
• The age and condition of existing lines in order propane), cable, telephone, and fiberoptic. Are
to evaluate whether current materials are com- there competing companies serving the same
patible at connection points and whether the type area? If so, are rate structures and builder incen-
of pipe will be structurally adequate for proposed tives comparable?
uses over the line.
• Current and projected levels of service. Are
• If not on site or adjacent, the distance to appro- improvements budgeted, is timing compatible
priate connections, means of access, and need for with project? Can timing be advanced?
easements.
• Responsibility for design, upgrade, and
• Responsibility for extension and improvements connection.
and current timing of public improvements;
potential for reimbursement from public or pri- • Consideration for required easements. Who will
vate funds, such as other developers. obtain?

• Gravity versus pumped versus on-site package • Connection fees, when must they be paid?
treatment plant. • Electric, telephone, and cable underground-
• Interference of system construction with other ing requirements, on-site, adjacent, and off-site
utilities/features. responsibilities and contributions.

• Pro-rata shares/assessment fees. • Information regarding the provision of trash

removal and recycling (curb side pickup), street
• On-site disposal issues, including treatment cleaning, snow plowing, and similar services.
method, soil suitability, drainfield and lot size Are services public or private? Are there alter-
restrictions, impact on project density/lot size, native providers? If trash removal is public, is
comprehensive plan and ordinance consider- it available to condominiums and commercial
ations, and depth to water table. Spot percolation operations? What is the availability of private
tests may be required. contractors for these services?
Water distribution • Location, proximity, and planned improve-
• Agency with ownership and approval authority. ments of elementary and secondary schools,
means of access (pedestrian, school bus, and
• Size, location, depth of, and distance to existing public transit). Do sidewalks or trails exist
water mains, means of access, and need for ease- between site and schools? Will interior side-
ments. Are offsite easements required to extend walks be required in the development? Are
service? there school impact fees?
• Water quality, quantity, pressure, and necessary • Requirements and responsibility for installation
corrective measures. and maintenance of streetlights.
• Responsibility for extensions and improvements, Other aspects of the site such as the following should be
associated fees; timing of public improvements. investigated
• Requirements for fire hydrants; water supply and • Availability, proximity, and planned improve-
distribution requirements for fire flow. ments of emergency services, such as police, fire,
• The age and condition of existing lines in order and rescue.
to evaluate whether current materials are com- • Aircraft flight patterns and noise contours.
patible at connection points and whether the type
of pipe will be structurally adequate for proposed • Unusual on-site and adjacent features, such as
uses over the line. cemeteries, railroads, historic properties.
 3.1 ■ FEASIBILITY STUDY, SITE INSPECTION AND PLAN SHEET COMPREHENSION 135

• Natural hazard (i.e., earthquake or flooding) contain recent studies or more current information than
potential, prevailing weather patterns, and solar available from other sources.
exposure that could affect project design. Copies of local plans, regulations, and ordinances are
available from these agencies. The community's comprehen-
• Research into previous uses, needed to determine
sive plan may list local, state, and federal sources for infor-
possible underground structures or contaminat-
mation upon which the plan is based. The transportation
ing conditions.
agency may have recent studies of existing traffic counts,
Chapters 3.2 through 3.6 provide more information on capacities, and level of service for the road network near the
the aforementioned physical information of a property that project.
will be identified during the site analysis. A local historic preservation agency or society may have
Sources of Information. The design team must become compiled a register of historic properties or sites, including
familiar with information resources and the local sources of archeological information. The local economic development
that information. These simplify the investigation of prop- authority or chamber of commerce provides useful market
erty conditions and local regulations and eliminate much of area information. The local utility companies will provide
the need for original research and testing. Throughout the distribution maps of the service areas.
pre-design stage, sources must be documented with particu- Many federal agencies provide maps of various utility
lar care, whether the source is available public documents or to the development team. In addition to USGS and FEMA,
conversations with public officials. This is especially impor- these include United States Fish and Wildlife Service, Army
tant in preparing the final report document, where the site Corps of Engineers, Environmental Protection Agency, and
engineer's opinion must be separated from others' opinions Natural Resource Conservation Service.
or established facts. Most of the aforementioned local, state, and federal agen-
Of particular value are existing public records. These cies provide data electronically, either for free or for a small
include published tax maps of the community, which depict fee. A good portion of the available information can be
property boundaries, land area, and landowners, along with accessed directly from the internet via the agency's website
references to recorded subdivision plats and deeds. An office and downloaded for use in reports and design documents.
ofland records, court clerk, or similar agency maintains cop- Other independent sites may provide a compilation of data
ies of deeds, subdivision plats, and similar records relating to such as ordinances, tax maps, zoning maps, aerial maps, or
property ownership. other information contained in geographic information sys-
The local planning, public works, building, or trans- tems (GIS). However, care should be exercised when utilizing
portation department often maintains aerial photos of the data obtained via the internet as the available information
community, taken at various intervals. These provide both may not be current. Care should be taken to review the fre-
historic reference and indications of recent or current use. quency at which any online source updates its information,
These photographs often are printed in conjunction with tax and a simple call to the local agency for data verification is
maps of the community. recommended. The "desktop'' review is a critical component
Some communities provide topographic maps of the of the feasibility study: information obtained in this manner
community based on aerial photography. Otherwise, these can help streamline the site visit and records review, allowing
are available from private sources or can be commissioned consultants to focus on acquiring specific missing data and
for each project. In addition, the USGS quadrangle maps confirming collected data.
are useful for identifying site topography, natural and Once all information is retrieved and compiled, the land
man-made features, perennial and intermittent streams, design team prepares base maps of the subject property at
and other items of interest to the site engineer. In many a level of detail and accuracy commensurate with the time
communities, the agency publishes soil maps and related and budget (the process of creating a base map is provided
information. in Chapter 3.2).
Recent building and development plans, permits, and
application materials often are kept on file in various
agencies, either in their original files with all supporting 3.1.3. Site Inspection
documents or digital medium. Most are available for pub- A site inspection, also known as a field investigation, site
lic inspection. These provide records of previous studies visit or walkover, is often required when completing an engi-
that might apply to the subject property. Along with public neering feasibility study. Much of the information garnered
records of construction plans and as-built documents for during the desktop review is outdated, reflecting only prop-
public facilities, these records are useful for information erty conditions at a specific date in the past. Physical condi-
relating to underground utilities. These files often provide tions change constantly through the action of both man and
useful information concerning the experiences of previous nature, and maps may not accurately represent the actual
developers. The site engineer's own in-house records of its field conditions. In addition, contours and other informa-
previous and ongoing projects near the development may tion normally shown on aerial topographic maps may be
13& i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ
unclear. The ground may have been obscured by foliage or On the base map, note and verify those areas that are
snow cover, depending on the season of the year, time of important to the development of the site, either as problems
day, or other conditions at the time the area was flown. A or opportunities. Outline the apparent boundaries between
site shown as wooded may, in fact, have subsequently been different topographical and geological conditions, such as
cleared and graded. Illegal dumping or similar activity may between improved and unimproved areas, stable and unsta-
have taken place. Adjacent properties may have undergone ble slope areas, wetlands and dry ground, wooded areas and
development since the maps were last produced. Certain open fields. Visualize property boundaries, particularly in
features, such as wetlands and small streams, may not read- locations where topography or other circumstances appear
ily be evident and often require field analysis to verify their to create difficulties during development. Depending on the
location. relationship between the site boundaries and topography,
For these reasons, it is imperative that a field inspection construction in these areas may necessitate the acquisition of
be performed as part of the engineering feasibility study. easements for drainage or equipment access across adjoin-
The visit is necessary both to verify and build upon infor- ing properties. Retaining walls may be necessary at property
mation collected elsewhere. The person visiting the site is boundaries if significant grade changes are required.
looking for obvious contradictions with recorded informa- Areas of interest that should be recorded on base maps
tion, as well as evidence that implies conditions not pre- during the field reconnaissance are described below:
viously known. Of importance are conditions that may
render the land unusable or impose extreme costs in the • Streams, swales, washes, and evidence of confined
development. running water and intermittent streams, such as
Prior to visiting the site, the field personnel assembles and unusual patterns of fallen leaves, vegetation and
prepares information in advance. In addition to the base map stones, soil erosion, uprooted or undercut trees, and
(to be introduced in Chapter 3.2), a clipboard, writing paper, areas cleared ofleaves.
tape measures, scales, waterproof pens and markers, and a • Floodplains, often evidenced by high water marks on
digital camera should be among the equipment brought to shrubs, tree trunks, and low-hanging branches.
the site.
It is imperative that the field visit team make arrange- • Ponds, lakes, and other impoundments, again, trying
ments with the developer, the owner, and any residents of to identify the limit of impoundment.
the site prior to the site visit. Agents of the developer may • Marshes, swamps, wetlands, bogs, wet and soggy
not necessarily have right of entry if not spelled out in the areas, noting types of vegetation, areas of matted
purchase contract. Unexpected visits may be unwelcome leaves, or unusual soil coloration that may suggest
by occupants, who may not even be aware that the prop- frequent or periodic inundation. If it is confirmed
erty is being sold. The field team should also verify with during the site inspection that potential jurisdictional
the developer and owner that no known environmental areas are located onsite, a formal wetland delineation
hazards exist on-site to adequately prepare and protect would be required by an environmental specialist.
field personnel.
• Ridges and obvious drainage divides with nearby
The team should be appropriately dressed for the visit,
running or ponding water at lower elevations, indi-
anticipating the weather, brambles and dense brush, mud,
cating high water table, springs, and springheads.
standing water, poison ivy, insects, snakes and other wild-
life, and any predetermined environmental conditions. One • Potential stormwater outfall points and conditions of
of the purposes of the field inspection is to determine the the outfall, including any visible erosion, continuous
site's response to rain and runoff. Therefore, it is advisable flow within a channel, etc.
to schedule at least one visit to the site during or soon after
• Evidence of pollution or sedimentation in running
storms or spring thaws. The field team can observe ponding,
and standing water, from on-site or off-site uses.
running water, and other surface conditions that otherwise
may not be visible. • Condition of stream valleys, banks, and shorelines.
Site Inspection Process. Upon arriving at the site, the
• Areas and types of vegetation, boundaries of wooded
team should drive the boundaries of the site, noting land-
areas, and stands of trees that might serve as buffers
marks such as fences, hills, swales, and curves in the road-
against adjoining properties, protected species, large
way that have previously been recorded on the base map.
trees and other specimen trees, or mature ornamen-
These will serve as points of reference while walking the
tal landscape materials that may be preserved, either
site and make it easier to record information about the visit.
in place or transplanted for subsequent reuse in the
A systematic walking tour of the site should be planned,
development.
taking care to include critical natural and man-made fea-
tures that were previously noted in the office review of site • Presence of fish and wildlife and evidence of animal
information. habitats, such as beaver dams, and eagle aeries that
 3.1 ■ FEASIBILITY STUDY, SITE INSPECTION AND PLAN SHEET COMPREHENSION 137

must be considered and protected or that may even • Interesting views within and from the site, areas that
preclude development of the property. might be cleared to enhance views and views from
adjoining properties onto and over the site.
• Cliffs and other unusual landforms indigenous to
certain areas of the country, such as coastal and • Character, condition and use of adjacent property,
Great Lakes dunes, sinkholes. and proximity of neighbors and site improvements.
Record evidence of access easements, encroachment
• Areas of steep slopes, noting vegetative cover.
of fences, and structures.
• Evidence and sources of erosion and slope instability,
• Current construction activities on or near the site.
such as leaning trees, poles, fences, broken pavement
at top of slope, softness at toe of slope, sharp vertical • Evidence of noise, smoke, dust, odors, light intrusion,
drops suggesting landslides, and other signs of previ- or other activities from sources within the site or
ous slope movement; exposed soil colors. nearby uses, such as from nearby industry, highways,
railroad crossings, racetracks, hospitals, fire and
• Locations where, based on visual inspection and soil
rescue stations, schools, commercial areas, airports,
map data, additional subsurface explorations (e.g.,
landfills, sewer lines, or sewage treatment plants.
auger boring, test pits) will be necessary.
These could affect the site's value or market appeal.
• Rock outcroppings, which may create problems in Prevailing winds should be considered, evaluating
site excavation for roads, utility trenching, well and their impact.
septic system suitability and foundations. Consider
• Noise walls, landscape barriers, or special construc-
their possible use as aesthetic features and points of
tion techniques and materials may be employed to
interest to enhance the development's market appeal.
mitigate potential nuisance.
It may be possible to stockpile stone and rock for
subsequent use in erosion and sediment control or • Evidence of significant trash, debris, chemical or oil
for landscape material. dumping, burial, and storage.
• Evidence of strong prevailing winds, such as dis- • Evidence of unusual odors may suggest natural
torted plant and tree growth. decay, sensitive environmental features, or ground
contamination.
• Location, use and structural condition of buildings,
paved areas, abandoned wells, and other man-made • Sight distances at curves and hills adjacent to the
features on the site, whether or not they are to be property and probable entrances.
preserved; evidence of flood damage, earth settle-
• Traffic congestion on adjoining roads and nearby
ment, and movement in walls and foundations.
intersections.
• Outbuildings and storage areas noting any hazardous
• Condition of surrounding roads and pavement,
materials signs (pesticides, herbicides, paints, sol-
including paving and shoulder stability and widths,
vents are often stored in these locations)
roadside swales, curbs and gutters, location of nearby
• Existing pilings and retaining walls. and opposing driveways.
• On waterfront property, piers, moorings, and other • Existing utilities including electric, water, gas, sewer,
marine uses, access points to the edge of water. Observe stormwater, water wells, septic systems.
conditions and uses of adjoining and opposing shore-
• Condition, size, and location of culverts, outfall
lines, maritime activity, and information concerning
channels, and any existing drainage pipes and
water quality, depth, and bottom configuration.
swales.
• Evidence of cemeteries, gravesites, burial grounds,
• Locations of overhead utility and power transmission
archaeological and historic sites, battlefields, old
lines.
foundations, and other unusual or unexpected exist-
ing or prior land uses on site that could limit devel- • Underground and aboveground storage tanks (vent
opment potential, incite community opposition, or pipes and fill ports are indicators of underground
delay project approval. storage tanks).
• Evidence of trespass and community use of the • Manholes, standpipes, vent pipes, signs, and other
property, such as footpaths, dirt bike trails, picnic evidence of underground tanks, sewers, and trans-
areas, and sports fields, which may be an indica- mission pipes. Isolated areas with poor vegetation,
tion of potential community opposition to the in contrast to its surroundings, may be indicative of
development. subsurface materials.
130 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ
Depending on size and scope of the project, several important views and significant features. A series of pan-
individuals may be required to walk the site. In addition, it oramic shots taken from the property boundaries is use-
may be necessary to revisit the site with other professionals ful for setting points of reference. Including people or
whose expertise is indicated by the findings or local require- other items of known size helps establish height, depth,
ments. Further analysis may be required where preliminary and width of features being photographed. As in all pho-
investigations show the presence of unusual soils or wet- tography, lighting and shadows are important to adding
land areas. Additional site visits will be needed if the project dimension. Photographs serve as valuable reminders when
moves beyond the feasibility study. Therefore, as thorough the site inspection is studied back in the office. In addi-
an inventory as possible at this phase will simplify later work. tion, photographs assist other members of the develop-
However, this must be balanced with efforts to control costs ment team who were not present in the field. Videos from
at this phase. These costs must be controlled because of the the site visit also provide a useful reference, allowing for
possibility of project abandonment. more interactive commentary about site features. It also
During the site visit, extensive photographs should be provides a clear record of site conditions prior to develop-
taken. The location and direction of each photo should ment. This is useful for comparison to conditions during
be noted on the base map for reference in the office; the and after construction iflegal or procedural conflicts arise.
GPS receiver in most digital cameras can also be used to Figure 3.IC shows how site photographs can be referenced
document location. These should include photographs of to the property.

A-468

8-620

~I
I Refuse Site
_ Refuse Site
-;- Refuse Site
1 • Food and Beverage Containers, Wrap
2 • Plastic Trash Cans, Styrofoam Cooler
3 - Food and Beverage Cans, Wrappers
~ Refuse Site 4 • Plastic Bags, Plastic Containers
..._ Refuse Site 5 • Plastic Container
/ Refuse Site 6 • Plastic Containers
' Refuse Site 7 • Bricks, Limbs, and Lumber
'?f Refuse Site 8 • Wooden Cart
~ Refuse Site 9 • Rusted Metal Farm Equipment
~II Refuse Site 10 • Wooden Fencing, Limbs
~xex:,. "''\•_...,.,,"' , ·.1 s ,,.-,,:;,,, - ~ ,_
FIG uRE 3. 1 C Site photographs cross-referenced with their location on a map often help others assess potential constraints or liabilities. (a) Refuse
site #5, (b) Refuse site #7, and (c) Refuse site #9.
 3.1 ■ FEASIBILITY STUDY, SITE INSPECTION AND PLAN SHEET COMPREHENSION 139

yield studies and beginning the design process should the

project advance to that phase. More information about base
maps is described in Chapter 3.2.
A site investigation report is helpful for documenting site
conditions. The report is often developed on a site plan sheet
with photographs referenced to different locations on the
project site. A formal report may be requested by the devel-
oper to document existing conditions and evaluate condi-
tion of the site. Photographs and notes are often referenced
throughout the project design phases to provide a different
perspective than what is shown on a topographic survey.

3.1.5. Reading a Plan Sheet

(a) As the engineering feasibility study and base maps are pro-
duced during site analysis, the site engineer must be familiar
with plan sheets. It is important to understand and be able to
read a plan sheet.
A typical site plan sheet depicts the site layout with an
orthogonal view looking down on the site, which is an unfa-
miliar perspective and can be difficult to understand. The
land development plan sheets will also show infrastructure
elements that are not visible in the built environment such
as underground utilities, which may further obfuscate the
plan sheets. To differentiate between various infrastructure
systems, most plans use symbols and different line styles, but
there is no universal format and plan sheets from different
engineering firms can look dramatically different.
Some organizations, such as the United States National
(b) CAD Standards (NCS), provide guidance to design profes-
sionals for plan organization and styles to promote consis-
tency in plan production within the industry. Unfortunately,
many design firms and other infrastructure groups may
develop their own set of styles and symbols, so it is necessary
to study the format used with each plan set.
Symbols. The symbols used on a plan sheet are meant to
depict an infrastructure component, such as a fire hydrant or
a street light. Symbols may be scaled to represent the physical
dimension of the infrastructure, or they are shown larger for
legibility. If a symbol does not represent the actual size of the
physical feature, the designer should be careful to consider
the actual dimensions during the design.
While there are some common symbols within the indus-
try, there is no universal system and each plan set should
(c) include a legend for the symbols used with the plan set. The
FIGURE 3.1 C (Continued) designer should be familiar with the symbology used for a
given project. In most cases, annotations are still appropriate
for labeling features on a site plan. Different line types are also
used on plan sheets and represent fences, streams, curbs, and
3.1.4. Site Analysis Mapping and Report other linear features. Standard patterns, or hatches, are used
Data from the site visit must be compared to other recorded to identify different material types on a site, such as sidewalks
data. Any inconsistencies should be resolved to verify true and planting areas.
field conditions. Of particular importance are discrepancies When possible, it's best to represent infrastructure fea-
in property boundaries and topography. The site engineer tures as accurately. It's important to always consider the rela-
should transfer information to a clean base map, which will tionship between symbols on a plan sheet and the physical
be used to report results of the study to the developer. In feature. In many cases, a symbol is provided for legibility
addition, the map becomes an important tool in performing and does not represent the physical dimensions of a feature.
140 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ
For example, a valve within a water supply system may only to be shown at the right level of detail. Annotations on a
be several inches in diameter and, when scaled on a plan plan sheet should be clear and concise. When presenting
sheet, would only appear as an illegible dot-in this case, a designs to various stakeholders, such as the developer or
symbol is used at a scale larger than the physical feature, so community, the plans may require edits to make it easier
it is legible (refer to Figure 3,lD for example symbols in a for nontechnical groups to understand what's being pro-
legend). posed. The ability to communicate ideas through graphics
Plan Sheet Layout. Each plan sheet should always have the is a skill.
following information: Plan Sheet Views. There are several views that are stan-
dard within a plan set. Most plan sets will include sheets that
1. Drawing and project title have plan view, profile views, and section views (Figure 3.lF
2. Date of publish or issuance provides a conceptual representation of these views). A sin-
gle sheet may only show a plan view or could show multiple
3. Authors, which usually includes information on the views of the infrastructure. Examples of sheet formatting and
drafter, reviewer, and approver layouts are provided throughout Chapter 5.
4. Firm or designer contact information Plan. The plan view is an orthogonal view looking down
at a site. A single project may require multiple plan views
5. North arrow, on plan sheets that represent different infrastructure elements, such as one
6. Graphic scale for utilities and one for grading. Projects that have a large
geographic area may require multiple viewports of the proj-
Plan sheets may have a different format when presented ect, where each viewport focuses on a different area of the
as either an exhibit or a formal construction document. It site. When multiple viewports are required, it is necessary
is important to have a clear description of the project title to have matchlines that identify how each sheet connects
and the date the plans are published (or issued for review or to another. A key plan showing the entire site with each
construction). Providing the author information allows for sheet is often helpful (Figure 3.lG). When organizing the
accountability, as does the firm name and contact informa - sheets, it is important to try and maintain a constant view-
tion. A north arrow on the plan sheet provides a reference ing direction and to consider the best place to break a sheet.
for orientation and should include an annotation to reference For example, a sheet should limit the amount of negative
the project datum (refer to Chapter 3.2 for more information space (large empty areas) and elements such as a build-
on geographic datum). All plan sheets should be plotted to ing or an intersection should be contained within a single
scale, such that 1 inch on paper is equivalent to a physical sheet, when possible.
distance-common scales are 5, 10, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, 60, Profile. A profile view, or longitudinal cross section, is a
100, and larger values for vicinity maps. When depicting a plane that is cut along a road or utility alignment. The exist-
profile view with an exaggerated vertical scale, it is necessary ing ground and proposed ground are depicted in the profile
to show both the horizontal and the vertical scales. The scale view with pipe networks shown or vertical road geometry
should be depicted with a graphic bar that helps to reference shown. For a road project, it is common to see both road
the scale when sheets are plotted on different paper sizes and utility information shown in a single profile because the
(Figure 3.lE). A sheet that does not have a plan view, such utility network will generally follow the road alignment. Pro-
as a sheet with only notes, narratives, or details, may exclude files are shown with both stations and elevations in a grid
the north arrow and scale. format. The stations are provided for linear referencing or
While plan sheets are often referred to as blueprints, measurement.
the nomenclature is antiquated, and most plans are either Stations are written as follows:
delivered digitally or printed to a large format printer (also
referred to as a plotter). Most printers can manage paper at • A station of 5000 feet is represented as 50 + 00.
least 36 inches wide, which allows for common prints of arch • A location that is 25 feet beyond 50 + 00 is written as
D, 24- x 36-inch paper size. The plan sheets are often printed 50 +25.
as grayscale, and legibility can be challenging because of the
amount of information that is shown. It's important for the • A location that is 100 feet beyond 50 + 00 is written
plan sheet to be organized and stylized to ensure legibility. as 51 +00.
It's possible that a design is correct, but if it's difficult to • A location that is 125 feet beyond 50 + 00 is written
comprehend, it may cause unnecessary errors and delays in as 51 +25.
construction.
The design team should take care to provide the right A road profile will begin with the starting station of the
information in the right format for each plan sheet. Choos- alignment and continue until the end of the roadway. The
ing the proper scale for a plan sheet allows the information starting station is generally recommended to be 10 + 00 as
 LEGEND
ADDITIONAL LEGEND INFORMA T/ON PROVIDED ON APPLICABLE SHEETS

EXISTING INTERMEDIATE CONTOUR

EXISTING CONTOUR INDEX
PROPOSED CONTOUR
---- ---- -86---- ---- ---
- - - - - - -200- - - - - -
----86----
LIMITS OF CLEARING & GRADING

EXISTING SPOT ELEVATIONS

-
PROPOSED SPOT ELEVATION
EXISTING EDGE OF PAVEMENT - - ~~ - -
EXISTING TREE LINE
PROP. E.P.
PROPOSED EDGE OF PAVEMENT
PROPOSED HEADER CURB EXISTING TREE W/TRUNK DIAMETER

EXISTING CURB EXISTING TREE W/DRIPLINE

PROPOSED CURB & GUTTER
CG-6
PROPOSED CG-6 PROPOSED TREE

----
CG-6 TRANSITION CG-6R
TRANSITION FROM CG-6 TO CG-6R
FLOW LINE OF SWALE
EXISTING WATERLINE W/TEE Lw--w--
FENCE LINE
PROPOSED WATERLINE W/TEE Lw-----
EXISTING UTILITY POLE
EXISTING TELEPHONE LINE --T--T--
PROPOSED TELEPHONE LINE ----T---- PROPOSED UTILITY POLE
n......., EX. 15" RCP
EXISTING STORM SEWER - - t _ _ J - -SD- - EXISTING FIRE HYDRANT

PROPOSED STORM SEWER ~- 15~='2 PROPOSED FIRE HYDRANT

EXISTING WATER VALVE -W-

EXISTING SANITARY SEWER -SS-------0----SS-----
@ PROPOSED WATER VALVE -W-
PROPOSED SANITARY SEWER ~
EXISTING ELECTRIC SERVICE --E--E-- WATER METER (SINGLE & DOUBLE)

PROPOSED ELECTRIC SERVICE --E------ STREET SIGN (SEE SIGNAGE PLAN)

EXISTING GAS LINE --G-------
PARKING INDICATOR
PROPOSED GAS LINE --G------ INDICATES THE NUMBER OF PARKING SPACES

PROPERTY LINE TEST PIT

EASEMENT LINE
EXISTING STREET LIGHT
CENTER LINE 10+00 11+00
-~~-..L~-~-
PROPOSED STREET LIGHT

...
~ FIG uRE 3. 1 D Example of a legend.
EX. TRAFFIC SIGNAL (APPROX. LOCATIONS)
142 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iii 1 ,i\MilidtJ
PLAN SHEET SCALE
SCALE IN FEET
1" = 10'

~
L1 INCH_J

ENGINEER'S SCALE
1" = 10'

10
1 2 3
-- -
£Z zz 1z oz 61 81
oz FIGURE 3.16 Exampleofakeyplan.
f---------i
0.5" = 10'

1" = 20' A vertical exaggeration is usually applied to a profile

view because of the scale of infrastructure elements. A
f I Gu RE 3. 1 E Example of scales.
common exaggeration is 2, 5, or 10. This exaggeration
makes it easier to depict the vertical design of infrastruc-
ture on a profile view. For example, a profile with a hori-
opposed to 00 + 00 in case information needs to be shown at zontal scale of 50 could have a vertical exaggeration of
a location before the start of the road (negative stations are 10, which creates a vertical scale of 5 within the profile
unconventional). For utility profiles, each segment of a util- view. Figure 3.IH provides a comparison between the
ity will have a separate profile view. actual vertical scale at a (1: 1) and an exaggerated vertical
scale (10:1).
Section. A section view, or cross section, is a plane that is
cut perpendicular to a linear feature. Section views are gen-
erally shown for roadways and stormwater channels. Some

1::1
+ -: -.:;:-_:::_-_•-=-....-=-· · ~----~-~
_··· · _ ====~-
--'-~ ~!:":!:'
1 l
100 200 300
(a) Profile with no exaggerated vertical scale
(1:1 Scale)

100 200 300

(b) Profile with exaggerated vertical scale
(10 :1 Scale)
FIG u RE 3. 1 F Plan, profile, and section views concepts. FIG u RE 3. 1 H Example of a vertical exaggeration.
 3.1 ■ FEASIBILITY STUDY, SITE INSPECTION AND PLAN SHEET COMPREHENSION 143

--- --- ---

... -----
.
----- -----
--- ------ --- - ----- - -

FIG uRE 3. 11 Example of a section view.

road projects require section views to be shown at a given with a section view is that the stationing will be relative to the
increment, such as every 50 feet along a roadway, to depict centerline of the roadway or channel, such that there are neg-
how the roadway varies along the alignment. For a natural ative and positive stations (or offsets) shown from the center.
channel, a section is used to show different varying chan- Figure 3.ll provides an example section from a roadway.
nel geometry and often identifies the water surface elevation
with each section. REFERENCE
The format of a section view is like a profile view-the Fillmore W. Galaty, Wellington J. Allaway, and Robert C. Kyle,
section is depicted in a grid format with stations and eleva- Modern Real Estate Practice, 11th ed, Real Estate Education
tions, often with a vertical exaggeration. The one difference Company, Chicago, 1988, p. 21.
 CHAPTER 3.2

BASE MAP AND SITE DIAGRAM

3.2.1. Introduction from field survey and on-site investigations, the initial base map
Good information begets good design. A base map, as may be compiled from readily available information such as GIS
defined herein, is a graphic representation of the existing data, desktop investigations, or record drawings.
site conditions and development constraints. Base maps are A land development project may span across hundreds of
an essential part of the site analysis because they are used to acres, but subcentimeter accuracy is required for design and
depict a collection of relevant information applicable to the construction. For this reason, the source of data shown on a base
site. This information will come from various sources such map should be identified and any uncertainty in the data should
as field survey, zoning maps, geographic information system be clearly noted. A property line from a GIS source may be
(GIS) databases, environmental assessments, and geotechni- acceptable for concept design and site analysis, but if the infor-
cal studies. When the information is compiled, it provides a mation is not accurate (and GIS data usually is not accurate), it
comprehensive view of the site opportunities and constraints. will create problems during final design and construction.
The base map provides a foundation for which design deci- The uncertainty of data used for the base map should be
sions are made. The information shown on a base map will clearly communicated across all members of the development
allow the design team to make programmatic decisions for the team and other stakeholders. The possibility of future changes
project at early stages that carry forward through final design. (based on information collected in later design phases) should
If information is not shown in the base map, such as a flood- be acknowledged. The accuracy of a property line location
plain, the design team could end up with significant rework that could change the building location, setbacks, landscape buf-
takes time and money to address. Additionally, if the informa- fer, parking areas, and other site features that can change the
tion is inaccurate, such as the location of the property lines, development program. Design contingencies should be used, as
there will likely be significant consequences during final design. appropriate, to consider inaccurate base map information.
The base map should include survey information for the The types of content shown on a base map during sche-
site's physical features, topography, site boundary to identify matic design are often identical to those that will be shown
the property lines, existing easements, and zoning informa- on the base map during final engineering; the difference is in
tion. The base map should also include natural site amenities the level of detail. Whereas final engineering documents are
and site constraints such as areas of vegetation, streams, ponds, certified by professionals to document the source and accu-
wetlands, soil conditions, and floodplains. Jurisdictional infor- racy of information, the preliminary engineering documents
mation such as zoning maps and comprehensive plans should are prepared with just enough information to meet early site
also be referenced into the base map to determine the impact of analysis and planning goals. This chapter provides informa-
future infrastructure. A complete list of information that should tion on how to prepare a base map that will serve as a source
be included in a base map is provided later in this chapter. of planning and design phases of a project.
In some cases, the base map is prepared incrementally. Incre- The base mapping documents for a land development
mental development of the base map is common when a devel- project should always be geographically referenced; each
oper wants to limit the initial investment during a study period; map will have a horizontal and vertical geodetic datum. A
if the first base map identifies that the site is completely encum- geodetic datum is a coordinate system used for identifying
bered by wetlands, the developer may look for another oppor- a specific location on the surface of the earth, that is, for
tunity. While the best source of base map information will come calculating the coordinates of points on the earth. North

144
 3.2 ■ BASE MAP AND SITE DIAGRAM 145

American Datum of 1983 (NAD83) values are examples of In the early design phases of a project, the base map may
a geodetic datum. The coordinate system provides a rela- comprise only information that is published through easily
tion between geographic information from various sources accessible sources, and in later phases of design, it may include
allowing for a single map to show all information. information gathered by the engineering and survey team.
A base map is established with an identified horizontal Base maps are often separated into a series to clarify differ-
and vertical datum. As other mapping information is com- ent development conditions. A base map showing topography
piled, such as a floodplain map or historic preservation map, of the site can be used to identify rough grades and earthwork of
the coordinate systems can be used to reference the informa- the site. A base map of utilities can identify possible utility con-
tion into a single map based on location information. nection points or show major utilities that should be considered
Purpose and Content of a Base Map. A base map is a during early design phases. The design team can depict zoning
graphic depiction of the project property with relevant infor- setbacks on a base map to show the true limitations of develop-
mation that may influence the design. As noted in Chapter 2, ment. All the information on the various base maps helps the
there are restrictions on how land can be developed based on development team design the project with a clear understand-
environmental, historic, topographic, or other conditions of ing of all relevant information. In all cases, the source and date
the project site. For example, if a floodplain exists within the of the information should be documented for reference.
project site, the development team must understand the limi- See Figure 3.2A, for an example of a base map that shows
tations of development within, or adjacent to, the floodplain. site features and environmental conditions.

LEGEND
RPA - Resource Proptection Area
UST - Underground Storage Tank
AST - Aboveground Storage Tank
P/L - Property Line
PMT - Pole Mounted Transformer

~
\ \
! FARM
PROPERTY

--
RESIDENTIAL
AREA

DATE TITLE SHEET NO.

Dewberry
'
15 JUN 2006 3707 CROSSTIMBER DRNE
PROJ. NO.
06-92780
PROJECT
SHABAN REALTY, INC.
1
FIGURE 3.2A Exampleofabasemap.
14& i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ
3.2.2. Sample Base Map Content e. Communication (overhead or underground)
The base map deliverable may contain one or more different f. Gas
maps, depending on the complexity of the site. The following 5. Zoning and regulatory: This information is not visible
list provides a reference to the main components of a base map like the physical site features, but these site characteris-
but is not intended to be inclusive of all relevant information. tics will govern the allowable development for the site,
as noted in Chapter 2.3. The type and number of zoning
1. Site descriptions: This content provides information
and regulatory areas can be different across jurisdictions.
relevant to the location and ownership of the site as
a. Zoning classification
well as adjacent parcels. The land use, types of road,
b. Comprehensive plan classification
and owner information will be referenced through-
c. Special study areas
out the duration of the project.
d. Floodplains
a. Site owner
e. Airport areas
b. Site address, coordinate location, datum
f. Conservation areas
c. Major roads, intersections
g. School districts
d. Site area (based on tax map records)
h. Census tracts
2. Legal: The graphic depiction of the property defines i. Political districts
the physical space of the development. In addition 6. Environmental and historic: Some initial studies can
to the property line, it is important to understand be performed to identify environmental and historic
the location of existing easements and rights-of-way, site conditions. This work is often required during
which can carry significant development rights and transfer of land.
restrictions. a. Wetlands
a. Property boundaries b. Water features (ponds, streams, etc.)
b. Lot lines c. Stream buffers
c. Public and private easements d. Historic features and viewsheds
d. Right-of-way
After compiling the information, the development team
3. Physical features: The physical information of the site should evaluate the information and identify site constraints
is important even if the project will remove all exist- and opportunities. The effort spent on the development of a
ing features. The condition of soil within the site can base map should focus on potential red flags first. If there is
change structural requirements, and existing build- an indication of a possible red flag on the site (such as a flood-
ings and infrastructure may have specific demolition plain occupying a large area of the site) the first information
requirements. Off-site physical features can also collected should be floodplain maps. The team can save time
influence the proposed site design based on connec- and money by prioritizing potential issues that may encourage
tion or separation requirements. abandoning the site.
a. Topography
b. Soil classifications 3.2.3. Data Formats
c. Buildings
d. Fences and walls When compiling a base map, it is important to understand the
e. Roads (including classification and speed limits) format types of data that can be utilized. Preliminary infor-
f. Driveways and parking spaces (or structures) mation will usually come from multiple sources with differ-
ent data formats. Therefore, it is important that the source of
g. Transit centers, bus stops
h. Sidewalks, trails information should be documented with notes related to the
i. Streams, ponds, lakes, rivers
confidence of the information. For example, if the base map
is compiled from computer-aided design and drafting (CAD)
j. Parks
information produced for record drawings (field survey after
4. Utilities: Information will come from the local construction has been completed), the confidence level would
jurisdiction and utility providers. Sources vary, and be high. Conversely, if information is sketched into the draw-
accuracy will vary (sewer systems are often easy to ing based on information shown on hand-drawn design docu-
identify from visible structures, whereas a waterline ments, the confidence would be much lower. For utilities, the
may change direct and depth without any indica- quality of information is generally represented with a nota-
tions from the surface). When possible, the base tion of A, B, C, and D. The designation of "X.' is the highest
map should show location, size of utility, and other level and indicates the utility was field located and surveyed,
physical characteristics like inverts and elevations. whereas "D'' means that the information could have come just
a. Storm drains, stormwater management systems from a verbal representation or assumption.
b. Sanitary sewer, septic systems, pumps This section is important because failure to understand
c. Water distribution, wells, hydrants the different types of data could cause the wrong data to be
d. Power (overhead or underground) requested. If the wrong data is requested, or not enough data is
 3.2 ■ BASE MAP AND SITE DIAGRAM 147

requested, it may require additional expenses to correct mis- CAD drawings (and to some extent, PDFs) are a form of
communication. The types of data to be discussed within this vector data, as are survey data with points having 2D or 3D
section are raster data and vector data, descriptive data and coordinates, and lines having distances and bearings.
map annotations, planimetric maps and topographic maps, Merged raster/vector data is now common with modern
digital elevation models, contours, and digital orthophotos. GISs. Raster images are more understandable to humans,
Raster Data and Vector Data. Raster data consists of pixels but attributed vector data is more intelligible to computers.
or grid cells of uniform resolution. Digital images are raster The merger of raster and vector data (normally the overlay
data, as are maps or engineer drawings scanned at 500 or 1000 of vector data on top of raster images) allows the best of both
dots per inch (dpi), for example. A pixel (picture element) is worlds. The raster data normally serves as a base map for
the smallest indivisible element of a digital image. One pixel overlay of vector GIS data.
of a LANDSAT satellite multispectral image equates to a 30- Descriptive Data and Map Annotations. Descriptive data
by 30-meter square area on the ground; 1 pixel of a standard more fully describes the geospatial data. Annotations are pro-
USGS digital orthophoto quarter quad (DOQQ) covers a 1 x vided on maps to label the features shown, and some labels can
I-meter square area, and 1 pixel of a high-resolution digital be automatically created from information stored in a database
orthophoto typically produced specifically for a land devel- (such as a GIS database). Attributes describe the various point,
opment project might cover a 6 x 6-inch area on the ground. line, and area features, such as length, diameter, manufacturer,
Such images are referred to as having 30-meter, I-meter, model, serial number, material composition, burial depth, and
or 6-inch pixel resolution, respectively. However, users can installation data of a utility feature. Design software, such as
typically see features that are much smaller than the pixel CAD and GIS applications, can interpret this data to display
resolution; for example, road paint stripes, 4 inches wide, annotations or graphically scale an attribute. For example, a
can often be seen on DOQQs with I-meter pixel resolution. line representing a pipe can vary in width based on the pipe
The resolution of scanned documents is referred to in terms diameter attribute. Often, feature attribute codes are used to
of dpi. Raster images can be displayed on the computer at describe diverse feature types. Alphanumeric textual data or
different scales, to the point where pixel breakdown occurs, attributes are often stored in relational databases, and selected
and individual pixels are visible, but zooming in does not items from the database may be displayed on maps. Descrip-
improve the accuracy of such raster data. tive databases can be managed separately from geospatial data;
Somewhat different from a pixel, a raster grid cell is one for example, a tax assessor's database may be linked to a coun-
element of a more detailed image or surface, simplified for ty's parcel maps but maintained separately and confidentially
cost and convenience using user-defined grid-spacing crite- from spatial databases available to the public.
ria. Square grids are commonly defined to reduce the com - Annotations are map symbols or alphanumeric labels
puter file storage requirements for large geospatial datasets. such as route numbers, elevations, or names of towns, streets,
For example, whereas it might be desirable to utilize digital rivers, or mountains placed on maps. On digital maps, anno-
orthophotos with 6-inch pixel resolution as base maps, larger tations are normally key entered, then stored with coordi-
grid cells of 1, 10, 50 meters, and larger are often preferred to nates for the beginning, center, or ending of the annotation
display soil types, geology, vegetation classification, land use/ and/or with other rules for placement and orientation, text
land cover, and natural features that do not need to be pre- fonts, and special characters and symbols of various sizes.
cisely depicted. Similarly with elevation data, whereas it might Planimetric Maps and Topographic Maps. Planimet-
be necessary to collect light detection and ranging (LiDAR) ric maps display the horizontal positions of natural and
data at 4 points per square meter (common when collecting man-made features and boundary lines. Planimetric data
data in vegetated areas), the file sizes are very large for record- is displayed in two dimensions only. If maps do not display
ing millions/billions of points, and the analysis/display soft- elevation data with contour lines or an alternative method,
ware is more expensive. File sizes are much smaller when they are planimetric maps. In a computer, planimetric data is
using a digital elevation model (DEM) grid spacing of 1 meter treated as 2D files having x-y coordinates. Digital orthopho-
(are larger) for which x-y coordinates do not need to be indi- tos are a form of planimetric map where no elevation data is
vidually stored and only the average z value is stored for each presented. Planimetric maps and planimetric data normally
square grid cell. Instead of complex horizontal coordinates, form the base maps for overlay of other data required for a
grid cells are tracked by sequential rows and columns. land development project.
Vector data consists of 2D (x-y) or 3D (x-y-z) coordi- When people refer to planimetrics, they normally mean
nates defining the locations of point, line, and area features. planimetric data that can be seen and mapped horizontally,
Related terms include nodes, vertices, shape points, arcs, typically from stereo photogrammetry described later. Plani-
degenerate lines, line strings, line chains, edges, polygons, metrics include hydrographic features (e.g., rivers, lakes, and
and other terms that have their own definitions. Vector data shorelines), transportation features (e.g., road/highway edge
may be displayed on a computer with different colors, line of pavement, bridges, railroad tracks, and airport runways
styles (solid, dashed, dotted, etc.), line weights (thicknesses), and taxiways), man-made features (e.g., building footprints,
and symbols. Vector lines and curves are normally smooth, transmission lines, fire hydrants), and other features that
while grid cell raster data have a stair-step appearance, espe- can be seen from aerial photography. The term planimetrics
cially when zoomed-in to view the raster data at a large scale. does not normally include boundary lines and underground
140 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ
utilities that cannot be mapped with stereo aerial photogra- of the technologies used to acquire the data and postspacing
phy, even though they can be surveyed and georeferenced on criteria selected by the operator.
planimetric maps. Similarly, a plan view shows the horizon- More information about topographic surveys is discussed
tal location of features as though looking straight down from later in this chapter.
infinity (an overhead orthogonal view). Digital Elevation Models. Digital elevation models (DEMs)
Topographic maps, on the other hand, display both the have at least three different meanings to different users. For
horizontal positions of natural and man-made features and some, DEM is a generic term for digital topographic and/or
boundary lines as well as elevation data (normally contour bathymetric data in all its various forms. For the U.S. Geo-
lines). In a digital file, topographic data may be represented logical Survey (USGS), a DEM is a standard form of eleva-
with 3D objects having x-y-z coordinates for individual points tion dataset at regularly spaced intervals in x and y directions
or lines. Topographic data and topographic surveys normally georeferenced in Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
end at the edge of water bodies, but they often include the ele- coordinates (with uniform 30- or IO-meter grid spacing)
vation the water surface-when referencing the water surface or geographic coordinates (with uniform I-arc-second or
elevation, it is important to identify that the information for 1/3-arc-second grid spacing); some data is now available in
the surface below the water may be unknown. This is impor- 1/9-arc-second, approximately 3-meter spacing at the equa-
tant when infrastructure (such as a bridge or utility) crosses tor. For others, a DEM has z values at regularly spaced inter-
a body of water. If information below the water surface is vals in x and y directions, but with alternative specifications,
required, a bathymetric survey may be performed. such as narrower grid spacing and state plane coordinates.
Both planimetric data and topographic data are produced DEMs always imply elevation of the terrain (bare-earth
by combining field surveying, photogrammetric mapping, z values) devoid of vegetation and man-made features, as
and/or remote sensing. Topographic data is also produced opposed to digital surface models (DSMs) that include the
by new remote sensing technologies, especially LiDAR, for elevations of treetops, rooftops, towers, and other features
which the intensity images approximate an orthophoto image raised above the terrain. In Europe, DEMs are considered to
and for which lidargrammetry can be used to generate 2D or be synonymous with digital terrain models (DTMs), but in the
3D breaklines. Whether produced from photogrammetry or United States DTMs include irregularly spaced mass points
lidargrammetry, breaklines are linear features that describe a and/or breaklines where the slope changes, thereby depicting
change in the smoothness or continuity of a surface. The two the true shape of the terrain more accurately than a gridded
most common forms ofbreaklines are as follows: DEM. For more information on this subject, see Digital Eleva-
tion Model Technologies and Applications: The DEM User's
• A soft breakline ensures that known z values along a Manual, published in 2007 by the American Society for Pho-
linear feature are maintained (e.g., elevations along a togrammetry and Remote Sensing (ASPRS). DEMs, DTMs,
pipeline, road centerline, or drainage ditch) and that and DSMs are efficiently used for computer analysis and dis-
linear features and polygon edges are maintained in a play of the topographic surface.
triangulated irregular network (TIN) surface model, by Contours. Contours are lines of equal elevation. Contours
enforcing the breaklines as TIN edges. They are gener- are shown on topographic maps. They are intended exclu-
ally synonymous with 3D breaklines because they are sively for human interpretation and have little if any value
depicted with series of x-y-z coordinates. Somewhat for computer analyses of the terrain (contours should not
rounded ridges (road crowns) or the trough of a drain be used to create DTMs). Contours have traditionally been
may be collected using soft breaklines. produced by stereo photogrammetric compilation, where the
• A hard breakline defines interruptions in surface operator can see the breaklines (where the slope changes) and
smoothness, for example, to define streams, shore- can manually shape the contour lines so that they are aes-
lines, dams, ridges, building footprints, and other thetically pleasing. When manually compiling maps using
locations with abrupt surface changes. Although some photogrammetry, the compiler also shapes contours (accord-
hard breaklines are 3D breaklines, they are often 2D ing to established rules) where they cross streams and roads.
breaklines because features such as shorelines and When contours are generated automatically from DEMs,
building footprints are normally depicted with series they are not as aesthetically pleasing. A DEM has no way of
of x-y coordinates only, often digitized from digital knowing where a breakline exists between DEM points and,
orthophotos that include no elevation data. therefore, cannot automatically shape the contours to depict
streams, roads, retaining walls, and so on, correctly. Break-
Mass points are irregularly spaced points, each with x-y lines are added to correct for this limitation.
location coordinates and z value, typically (but not always) More information about contours is provided in Chapter 3.5.
used to form a TIN. When generated manually (by a photo- Digital Orthophotos. A digital orthophoto has the image
grammetrist, for example) mass points are ideally chosen to qualities of an aerial photograph but the metric proper-
depict the most significant variations in the slope or aspect of ties of a map. A digital orthophoto is a digital image from
TIN triangles. However, when generated automatically (e.g., a perspective photo or image, corrected by an orthorectifi-
by photogrammetric automated image correlation, LiDAR) cation process so as to remove tilt displacement (caused by
mass point spacing and pattern depend on the characteristics the roll, pitch, and yaw of the aircraft in flight) and relief
 3.2 ■ BASE MAP AND SITE DIAGRAM 149

displacement (caused by the perspective view of the aerial order to define elevations relative to a vertical datum and ori-
photograph, which causes taller objects to appear larger and gin where the elevation (z value) is zero. These 3D coordi-
closer than they really are to the camera). Digital images are nates may be obtained from ground surveying (as described
produced either by acquiring the aerial images with a digital in detail in Chapter 5.2) or aerial surveying and mapping, to
camera or by scanning aerial film. Processes for removing include photogrammetry and LiDAR. These 3D coordinates
tilt displacement and relief displacement are explained in the could also be obtained from various forms of GIS.
section on photogrammetry later in this chapter. Global positions system (GPS) measures heights above a
global mathematical surface model called an ellipsoid. In the
3.2.4. Datums United States, the ellipsoid of choice currently is the World
When compiling a base map, it is important to understand the Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84). The current version of the
different kinds of geodetic datum references that may be seen. global geoid used in the United States is GEOID12B. For GPS
Preliminary information will usually have different datum ref- operations, an elevation or orthometric height is the distance
erences, or coordinate systems, so it is necessary to understand from the GEO ID to the point of interest on the ground.
the reference requirements of planning documents before the The types of data to be discussed within this section are
project design begins. As multiple sources of information and horizontal control system coordinate data; vertical control
data are compiled, the datum provide a reference for any nec- data; global positioning system; NGS ellipsoid models; and
essary translations (movement of data). The datum allow for geoid models and orthometric heights.
different sources of information to be correlated so that all Horizontal Control System Coordinate Datums. The hori-
information is represented in the right location. North Ameri- zontal coordinate systems establish survey control for agen-
can Datum of 1983 (NAD83) is an example of a geodetic cies. These are usually selected from one of the National
datum. Within a given datum, two numeric values represent a Geodetic Survey (NGS) State Plane Coordinate System
geographic point, like an x and y value of a graph. The datum geodetic map projections (1927 or 1983) or NGS Universal
are also used during construction to identify property lines Transverse Mercator Zones. There is one or more specific
and proposed infrastructure improvements. coordinate systems designed for each state, which has sub-
All planning documents, base maps, design documents, sequently been incorporated into state law as the approved
and site plans should include a reference to the horizontal and state coordinate system by the state legislature.
the vertical datum of the project. Spatial data deals with loca- The most current version of the national horizontal
tion, shapes, and the relationships among features (topology). datum is the NAD 83, with adjustments based on National
Site drawings, survey drawings, and architectural drawings are Spatial Reference System (currently NSRS 2011). The pre-
examples of spatial data normally compiled with CAD tech- vious horizontal datum was NAD 27, which used different
nology. Accuracies are typically depicted in relative terms-for conventions and measurements and also included very dif-
example, boundary surveys relative to survey corners for which ferent coordinate values.
the geographic coordinates may be unknown in an absolute A point on a site is referenced by the easting and northing
sense. Pairs of x-y coordinates may be referenced to an arbi- value. Similar to how a point on a grid is defined by the X and
trary origin, and accuracies are typically relative-for example, Y values, the easting and northing is a numeric definition for
estimated as n parts per million of the distance surveyed from the location of the point-based the State Plane Coordinate
one point to the next. The curvature of the earth is often a neg- System. These values define a specific point on a site that can
ligible factor, and the rules of plane geometry typically apply. be referenced back to the design documents.
Geospatial data refers to spatial data for which geographic Vertical Control Datums. The vertical datum is frequently
coordinates are known in an absolute sense, that is, the spa- defined as one of the NGS national (engineering and map-
tial dataset is georeferenced to true ground coordinates. The ping focus versus tidal) vertical datums. Sometimes it is the
curvature of the earth is important, and the rules of spheri- older 1929 National Geodetic Vertical Datum (NGVD29), but
cal geometry typically apply. Positioning is relative to geodetic increasingly it is the 1988 North American Vertical Datum
data, using control surveys having geodetic network accu - (NAVD88). These vertical datums are designed to span the
racy, rather than local accuracy relative to an arbitrary origin. entire continent with a uniform vertical datum suitable for map-
Geospatial data is georeferenced as 2D or 3D coordinates of ping and infrastructure design. It's necessary to understand and
points on, above, or below a mathematical model of the earth identify the vertical datum used on a project as not all jurisdic-
(ellipsoid). Horizontal positions may be expressed in terms of tions use the same datum. The elevation value that's identified
geographic coordinates, that is, longitude east or west of the for a feature will be different if the vertical datums are different
Greenwich Meridian and latitude north or south of the equator. (and the difference is not constant across the continent).
For land development general planning purposes, horizon- It is critical for the design team to understand that these
tal positions are normally expressed as 2D rectangular coor- datums usually do not match local sea level on the coasts of
dinate pairs, that is, easting (x) and northing (y) coordinates the seas, bays, and the Great Lakes. Corrections based on ties
relative to a horizontal datum and coordinate system origin of the engineering datum to local water height monitoring
(where x and y coordinates are zero) normally defined by the stations must be made for coastal design work. In addition,
State Plane Coordinate System (SPCS). For detailed planning the design team should be aware that it is not uncommon to
purposes, a z value is added to each x-y coordinate pair in find agency-specific assumed vertical datums, especially in
150 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ

older coastal cities, that are not a part of the national datum The older 1927 datum contains many distortions and there
definitions. is not a precise, known relationship, between the 1927 and 1983
Vertical datum shifts, which can propagate with global datums. Free software developed by NGS and the U.S. Corps of
navigation satellite system (GNSS)-based survey control, are Engineers such as CORPSCON can perform mapping accuracy
an important source of error in development projects. This is transformations between the two systems, but the transforma-
especially true when tying two different projects together or tion accuracies are not suitable for precise surveys.
when a subsequent project phase is started years later. Project Geoid Models and Orthometric Heights. From the practi-
vertical datum errors are often economically catastrophic for cal perspective of project survey requirements, the elevations
a development project and must be guarded against continu- used in the project are equivalent to what the NGS terms the
ally by the project surveyors. Projects with multiple datums orthometric height. Classical differential leveling is carried out
are best served by including a nomograph (diagram) on the in the local gravity field. GPS uses a national gravity model
project plan set. called the geoid model, which closely models the variation in
Global Positioning System. Most jurisdictions have cre- local gravity fields across the entire continent. This model cor-
ated specifications for the accuracy of ties to GPS, and responds closely to the national engineering datum NAVD88.
almost all land development projects will make use of GIS GNSS locates a position on the WGS84 ellipsoid, which
horizontal and vertical control, particularly in metropolitan is a mathematical model of the earth and then uses the
areas. Land development surveyors will most likely encoun- geoid model assigned in the processing software along with
ter this standard and specification if they are involved in the the height of the GNSS receiver antenna to develop a best
establishment of geodetic control for the creation of a GIS. estimate of orthometric height (elevation) at the position
The Federal Geodetic Control Subcommittee (FGCS) measured. There can be significant differences between the
has developed the Geometric Geodetic Accuracy Standards GNSS elevation derived from its two models of the shape and
and Specifications for Using GPS Relative Positioning Tech- gravity of the earth and the differentially leveled elevation
niques. It created new survey categories, including AA, A, measured on-site.
and B order. The corresponding relative position accura- Land surveyors working on a development project should
cies for the new orders are 1:100,000,000, 1:10,000,000, and expect to have to comply with local agency survey horizon-
1:1,000,000. The traditional first, second, and third orders tal coordinate and vertical datum requirements. If these do
are now included in the C group in the FGCS document (as not exist, surveyors will use GNSS equipment and methods
Cl, C2-I and C2-II, and C3), with the corresponding accu- to establish appropriate modern NAD83 State Plane coordi-
racies being 1:100,000, 1:50,000 (or 1:20,000), and 1:10,000. nates and NAVD88 elevations for the project.
Using first-order points as an example, network accuracy
in NAD 27 was approximately 10 m, while local accuracy 3.2.5. Accuracy Requirements
was 1 part in 100,000. With NAD 83, network accuracy was As information is compiled for base maps, it's important to
reduced to 1 m, while local accuracy remained the same. But document the source as well as the accuracy of the informa-
with the addition of GPS into the High Accuracy Reference tion shown. Absent of a reference to potential inaccuracies, the
Networks (HARN), the network accuracy improved to a tenth information presented by a design professional is often consid-
of a meter, and local accuracy for B-order marks improved to ered accurate. Some sources of information will not have any
1 part in a million, while A-order marks improved to 1 in guarantee or reference to accuracy requirements, but informa-
10 million. Finally, with continuously operating reference tion prepared by a surveyor should follow standard accuracy
station, both network and local accuracies have improved to requirements. According to the National Mediator Accredita-
1 cm. Both standards are relative accuracy measures. tion System (NMAS) (Bureau of the Budget, 1947), horizontal
Ellipsoidal/orthometric heights are also included in the and vertical accuracy of maps are defined as follows:
new standards. The difference between horizontal control,
discussed previously, and vertical control is that horizontal • For maps produced at a scale of 1:20,000 and larger
accuracy is expressed as 2D (x, y) circular error, vertical con- (which includes most land development projects),
trol accuracy is expressed as 1D (z) linear error, and both "not more than 10 percent of the points tested shall be
are expressed at a 95 percent confidence level. Additionally, in error by more than 1/30 inch, measured on the pub-
these standards meet the needs of GIS users. lication scale .... These limits of accuracy shall apply
NGS Ellipsoid Models. There are two NGS ellipsoids used in all cases to positions of well-defined points only.
for the latitude and longitude determinations of the national 'Well defined' points are those that are easily visible
control networks. The 1927 datum is based on the 1866 or recoverable on the ground, such as the following:
Clarke Ellipsoid, which is a surface fit (mean sea level), con- monuments or markers, such as bench marks, prop-
tinental geoid model. The 1983 datum is based on the GRS80 erty boundary monuments, intersections of roads,
global fit (earth centric) ellipsoid, which at the time of its railroads, etc.; corners of large buildings or structures
formation was very nearly equal to the WGS84 ellipsoid. All (or center points of small buildings), etc. In general
GNSS measurements in the United States are made in the what is 'well defined' will also be determined by what
WGS84 definition. is plottable on the scale of the map within 1/100 inch:'
 3.2 ■ BASE MAP AND SITE DIAGRAM 151

Circular Map Accuracy Standard (CMAS) equals 3.2.6. Typical Surveys

1130th of an inch; at ground scale, the CMAS equals The typical surveys encountered on a land development project
1130th of an inch divided by the map scale. For are boundary and topographic surveys. These are necessary to
example, DOQQs compiled at 1 in= 1000 feet have start a project and are an important aspect of defining the base
a CMAS of 1130th of an inch on the map or 33.3 feet map. The developer may be reluctant to invest in actual survey
on the ground. work during the site analysis phase, but survey information (as
• "Vertical accuracy, as applied to contour maps on all opposed to GIS or other public information) is accurate, certified,
publication scales, shall be such that not more than and significantly more detailed. There is a significant amount of
10 percent of the elevations tested shall be in error information that can only be obtained through survey work and
more than one-half the contour interval. In checking ordering a site survey is the only way to ensure the information is
elevations taken from the map, the apparent verti- current and certified by a professional. More information about
cal error may be decreased by assuming a horizontal detailed surveys is discussed in chapter 5.2, but the survey types
displacement within the permissible horizontal error and basic survey process are introduced in this chapter.
for a map of that scale:' For example, the Vertical Boundary Survey. A boundary survey is a process to iden-
Map Accuracy Standard (VMAS) equals one-half the tify the property lines, true property corners, and easements
contour interval on the map, or 1.0 foot in ground within a tract of land. In the land development process, the
elevation if the contour interval is 2 feet. determination of tract location and geometry is extremely
important. All future work related to development hinges on
Both the CMAS and the VMAS are standards at the 90 per-
the initial survey work. Should an error occur in the survey,
cent confidence level, but these NMAS errors do not neces-
it will most likely manifest itself in later stages of the devel-
sarily follow a normal distribution-that is, there are no limits
opment process. It is conceivable that errors in the initial
to the size of the errors that exceed the CMAS or VMAS. The
survey could lead to improper location of streets and other
NMAS is now obsolete for use with digital geospatial data.
improvements and to incorrectly placed interior boundary
ALTA/NSPS Standard. For commercial property, another
lines. Errors such as these could bring on project delays, pos-
standard exists. Because there is such wide variation in the
sible project shutdown, and redesign which inevitably cost
standard of surveying between different locales, clients need
both time and money. The results of poor judgment associ-
assurance about the degree of accuracy of the survey work.
ated with boundary line location can be severe: clients lose
Members of the American Land Title Association (ALTA),
confidence and can even pull or rescind work as a result.
in cooperation with the National Society of Professional
When the development involves one or more loans, the
Surveyors (NSPS), realized that no national standard existed
to judge the accuracy of land title surveys. So, in 1962, the lender typically requires certain assurances to be confident
ALTA/NSPS Minimum Standard Detail Requirements for that its investment is as risk-free as possible. One of the tools
Land Title Surveys were developed. Some state boards of to minimize risk is the ALTA/NSPS Land Title Survey. This
registration have incorporated the ALTA/NSPS Standards type of survey is defined by a set of standards adopted and
into the accuracy requirements of their minimum stan- periodically revised by the ALTA and the NSPS.
dards, and land development surveyors should check their The Minimum Standard Detail Requirements for ALTA/
local and state requirements to see whether this condition NSPS Land Title Surveys outline the responsibilities of the
exists and applies to their projects. surveyor in conducting a survey that will be used by the title
The ALTA/NSPS standard has undergone many updates company and lender in conjunction with the closing of a
after starting in 1962. The original rationale behind these commercial loan on real property. The standards also outline
standards was that the title insurance industry needed to be the responsibility of the client or his or her representative
held responsible for the legal aspects of accuracy standards, with respect to providing complete sets of documents from
while the surveying community would be responsible for the the title research and as may otherwise be required by the
surveying and accuracy aspects. The title industry has gen- surveyor to conduct a proper and complete survey. In addi-
erally not concerned itself with the accuracy portion of the tion, the optional items allow the client or lender to request
standards but instead has relied on NSPS to develop them. additional information from the surveyor related to certain
With the 2016 changes, ALTA and NSPS separated the sur- specific issues such as availability of utilities.
vey accuracy specifications from the rest of the standards to The ALTA/NSPS Minimum Standards call for the sur-
allow for the adoption of necessary updates without having veyor to resolve the boundary of the property in addition to
to revise and readopt the entire document. providing comprehensive documentation of any facts on the
In the most recent version of the ALTA/NSPS Standards, ground or in the provided records that may be evidence of
the organizations have reverted to a positional accuracy otherwise unknown or undisclosed title problems. Such facts
standard. This new standard allows surveyors to employ might include, for example, gaps or overlaps with adjoin-
appropriate procedures and equipment if a maximum allow- ers, and potential encroachments and uses of the property
able amount of positional uncertainty in any corner location by others. The disclosure of these facts allows the title com-
is not exceeded. pany, lender, and buyer to weigh the associated risks and to
152 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ

NO.
1
2
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811.00'
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oe••2·1a·
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CURVE TAIII.E

178.11'
187.11'
113.11'
TM
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178.81'
167.68'
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I
VICINITY MAP

KENNETII M. TIIOMPSON
AND
VAUGHN BECKER
13.41SS9 AC.

KENNETH~ THOMPSON

LEGEND

FENCE
UTILITY POLE • LINE
GUY WIRE
IRON PIPE FOUND
IP"ION PIPE SET
,.,_
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.
IOUNOAAY SURVEY
OF THE PROPERTIES OF
NOTES: KENNETII M. TIIOMPSON
AND
1, THE Pf':OPlATV OWNEATEO ON TMIS PlATISLOCATE.OOHASSESS..eHT MAP30-1 @ 236
32 ANO IS ZONED Fl•1, VAUGHN BECKER
2, A Tm.£ REl'OAT WAS NANISHED IY LAWVER$ TI1U INS\MANC't COAPOAATION. CASl NO. OAANESVILI..E 01$ffllCT
Fl301511 , DAT!D MARCH 31. 1113 f'THOMPSONlANOCASENO. F9J03283, OATEDJlA.Y 12,

~ ill_
FAIAFAX COUNTY. VIRGINIA
1H3 IBECKDI). ICAU: 1' • 100' MAY, 111•
DEWBEIIIIY & DAVIS
~
3. 'OtEPAOPfRTY SHOWNH!IIEON WAS ACOUlflt:08YKENNETHM. THOMPSONINO.B. 3062 fl'G.
435 ANO IY VAUGHN BECKER IN 0 .1. '279 PG. 575. o 60 100 ARCHITECTS • ENGINEERS • Pl,ANNEAS • SURVEYORS
8401 AALINOTON BLVD., FAIRFAX, VA

FIGURE 3.28 Example of a boundary plat. (Reprinted by permission of Uniwest Construction, Inc.)

negotiate or formulate appropriate resolutions to any issues Two types of easements, namely express and implied,
that might have been found during the survey. An example can lead to land disputes. The law provides for express ease-
of a boundary plat is shown in Figure 3.2B. ments. The law also recognizes that easements may exist or
Easements. An easement is an area of a parcel that grants be created that are not express. These are implied and pre-
certain rights to an entity for a specific purpose but does not scriptive easements (refer to Chapter 2.1 for more informa-
include ownership rights (as introduced in Chapter 2.1). tion on easement types).
An underground sewer pipe may have an easement It is important that the project surveyor identify whether
that allows the utility provider to access the site and main- any easements exist at the time the boundary survey is being
tain the pipe system. Many land and title features may be conducted, since they may interfere with later development
located within easements. In addition, easements are often plans. For example, an easement may exist for a utility sys-
associated with infrastructure systems; these include, but tem that prohibits development of a new structure within
are not limited to, easements for streets, wells, drainfields, the easement; some easements, such as electric transmission
stormwater runoff, storm and sanitary sewers, gas lines, lines, can be over a hundred feet wide. Therefore, locating
and power lines. Easements do not have to be associated existing easements is an important part of any survey. Various
with a physical infrastructure feature-an easement may easements, such as storm, sanitary, ingress/egress, and public
exist to provide access across a site, reserve an area of land access are shown in the subdivision plat in Figure 3.2C.
for future roadways, allow temporary construction activi- Topographic Survey. While the boundary survey is the
ties by others, or provide other rights. Easements are usu- delineation of property lines and easements, topographic
ally recorded in the local courthouse and referenced in the survey is the delineation of physical features. A topographic
plans with a deed book and page number (often identified survey usually includes planimetric features, but Figure 3.2D
as DB/PG). provides a graphic representation for how the information
 3.2 ■ BASE MAP AND SITE DIAGRAM 153

I
I

CT '/(,

- .,, ·
.
;,,

~
';
~ '-
If:
~_y'f

FIGURE 3.2C Example of easements on a subdivision plat with easements.

Topographic Map Plan imetric Map

FIGURE 3.2D Example of a (a) topographic map and (b) planimetric (zoning) map.
154 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ
might vary between a topographic and planimetric map.
Although the topographic features of a property may have
some significance to project feasibility and site analysis, their
primary importance is initially realized in the early design
and engineering phase. The horizontal and vertical positions
of natural and man-made features play a critical role in deter-
mining how a site will be engineered to suit the intended use
of the property. Consideration must also be given to the way
these features relate to those lying on adjoining properties
and within street rights-of-way or easements. Determining
how utility services can be provided to the proposed develop-
ment is among the first preliminary design tasks undertaken. FIGURE 3. 2 E Example of LiDAR data.
Topographic information for areas well outside of the proj-
ect site boundaries is often needed to make preliminary deci-
sions regarding design considerations such as storm drainage terrestrial LiDAR survey of a roadway and adjacent areas.
patterns. When this is the case, the use of smaller-scale topo- The visible features (buildings, road signs, utility poles) are
graphic maps, such as those available from the USGS with a comprised of various points.
scale of 1 inch= 2000 feet or from local GIS data, is appropri- Because the topographic map is an integral part of the design
ate. As the design process begins to focus more on intricate process, omission of valuable information in a topographic sur-
details, smaller-scale (e.g., 1 inch = 50 feet) maps are needed vey can lead to costly problems. Detailed description about
to ensure that site engineering is as balanced as possible with how survey work is performed is provided in Chapter 5.2.
regard to earthmoving and the use of utilities.
The size and relative detail of a site often determine the 3.2. 7. Survey Process
surveying methods employed. For large areas, aerial pho- A site survey, whether from terrestrial or aerial methods, is
tography and photogrammetry are economical means of required to accurately locate topographic, planimetric, and
providing detailed maps, as is LiDAR. These surveys have subsurface utility features on the site. Field (terrestrial survey)
become increasingly more accurate with improved tech- methods are necessary in land development when detailed
nology, but they always need to be field verified. Moreover, location of surface and subsurface utilities is required. For
there may be site features that will need additional detail large sites (often above 20 acres), an aerial survey may be
such as areas obscured by tree cover. Field methods employ- performed to collect topographic and planimetric features
ing electronic survey systems may be used on other sites to (subsurface utilities would still require field work). There are
create quality maps in a timely fashion. For small sites, other several different methods and tools for gathering the survey
methods-such as radial conventional or RTK GPS (real- data, as identified in Chapter 5.2.
time kinematic global positioning system) surveys-may General Procedures. Land development applications often
prove more cost-effective. require a series of maps showing different data and they are
The information collected for a topographic survey focuses drawn at different scales. Normally, the site engineer will
on elevations at points around a site. When the elevations are specify a scale or contour interval and coverage required for
field measured, the points selected are determined by the sur- the mapping, as well as the final product required. When
veyor based on what information is required to accurately define defining the scope of work for survey, the preliminary design
the site topography. The critical elevations include locations information should be referenced. Both horizontal and verti-
around a building, utility structures, channel sections, vegeta- cal control datums are required.
tion, and other site features. In undeveloped parts of a site, such Research of Boundary Survey. Research for boundary
as a large field or forested area, the elevations points are collected surveys begins by gathering property descriptions, tax
on a grid. These elevations are then used to generate contour maps, roadway plans, zoning maps, easements, and other
maps for the site, which provides a more legible way to interpret related information. Gathering of this information begins
the topography (see Chapter 3.4 for more information). when the developer enters negotiations for the future
With remote sensing processes, like LiDAR, the system development of a tract of land. An important depository
collects all visible information (often millions of points). of research information is the local courthouse. Local util-
The collected points are often referred to as a point cloud, ity companies often can provide valuable maps and infor-
which provides a detailed geospatial definition of all visible mation. State and federal agencies maintain valuable land
points. The surveyor (or technician) will identify critical information. Title insurance companies can play a role
elevations within the model to create the necessary con- in providing deeds, easements, other record title infor-
tour map. In this case, the field time is significantly reduced mation, and previous surveys of the subject property or
but so much data is collected from the LiDAR system that adjoining properties; however, title insurance companies
it requires time to determine what information should be often do not research far enough back in time to return to
shown in the plan. Figure 3.2E depicts the point cloud from the original survey.
 3.2 ■ BASE MAP AND SITE DIAGRAM 155

Existing maps or plats of the land provide visual support in the registry of deeds, county recorder's office, or clerk of the
for reaching conclusions that ultimately result in re-creating court. This office of public record varies from state to state.
boundary locations. Maps may be found during the search All states allow for the recording of deeds when the trans-
ofland records and from the evidence found during the field fer of real property takes place, and almost all such transfers
survey. Plotting individual deeds, patents, and grants pro- by deed are recorded. These recordation statutes provide a
vides pieces of a jigsaw puzzle. When the pieces of the puzzle means of giving notice of ownership of the estates disclosed in
fit together and form a logical composite map, this may pro- the recorded instrument. Unrecorded deeds or other instru-
vide some clues to successfully interpret land ownership and ments are generally valid only between the immediate parties.
boundary location. These recordation statutes are not applicable in cases of title
Two of the primary systems that form the basis of land acquired by unwritten means such as adverse possession.
descriptions in the United States are the metes-and-bounds Intentions as to boundary location must be obtained
system and the Public Land Survey (PLS) System (later called from the information at the time the lines and corners were
the General Land Office, or GLO System). There are other created. Comparison of the deeds of the subject tract should
systems that have historically been used in different areas be made with those of the adjoining property to determine
within the United States; therefore, surveyors should famil- whether conflicting calls exist.
iarize themselves with the system that applies to the project. The type or method of physical record keeping var-
These systems have an impact on interpretation of evidence ies across jurisdictions. Many continue to maintain their
gathered in the research process. records as they have for 200 or more years, in transfer books,
Research of Land Records. The actual process of con- grantee/grantor index books, and deed record books, while
ducting research varies widely across different regions of many others have converted modern forms of recordkeep-
the United States. The project surveyor must seek out all ing. With GIS, many more jurisdictions will have records in
information from public and private records that may be of a digital format, which is often available online.
benefit in performing the survey. Ideally this information is The actual process of checking the title begins with the
gathered and evaluated prior to commencement of the field- name of the present owner in the grantee index. The grantor
work. If not, additional trips to the field will be required as of this conveyance was the grantee of the previous conveyance.
new pieces of evidence from the records dictate further field Looking each previous conveyance up in this manner results
investigation. in the development of a chain of title for the property. Using
Research information comes from a variety of sources. this chain, a person familiar with reading and interpreting title
Typically, a visit to the local jurisdiction assessor and/or documents can determine whether each person in the chain
auditor (the name and function of county offices differ in took title to the property in a regular manner without defect.
various parts of the country) will help in the search for the The grantor's name, the type of instrument, and the book and
record descriptions of the subject property and its adjoiners. page of the actual recorded document involved in the trans-
Most tax maps are geographically inaccurate, but they are action is listed with each entry. In some instances, a brief
useful in identifying the juxtaposition of subject and adjoin- description and location of the property are included. A copy
ing properties, roads, streets, and other features. of a partial page from a typical grantee index book is shown in
Once the names and property transfer dates are determined, Figure 3.2F. A grantor book is identical except that the index is
a copy of the actual transfer document can normally be found on the name of the grantor rather than the grantee.

GRANTEE General Index To Real Estate Conveyances - Forsyth County, N.C.

d"To locate Names, Open at SURNAME INITIAL TAB and Refer Made By The Cott Index Company, Columbus, Ohio
To Buff Sub-Index Sheet For Page Reference Sold By Observer Printing House, Charlotte, N.C .

DATE KIND OF RECORDED BRIEF DESCRIPTION,

OF
INST.
GRANTEES INSTRUMENT LOCATION, ETC.

GIVEN NAMES GIVEN NAMES GIVEN NAMES

GRANTOR Book Page
SUIINAMES ABC0£FGH IJKLMNO l'ORSTUVWXYZ

1987 Gilder J. Roger James M . & Margret Lipsitt Deed 974 107 George D. Lester Property

1987 DO J. Roger Larry S. & Judy Smith Deed 976 426 Block 1 8, Lot 7-Greenhills

1988 DO Frank L. Mark N . & Sally Johnson Deed 981 331 Thomas Morrison Tract

1988 DO J. R. Robert L. Martin & Wife Paula Lease 984 274 Easement

1988 DO Frank L. P. L. Bandcroff Deed 985 67 Harris 13 Tract

1988 DO Frank L. Kenneth & Mary Spillman D of T 987 493 Lot 41, Block 3-College Park

FIG u RE 3 . 2 F Example of a grantee index book.

15& i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ
Visible evidence of potential encroachments of any kind Early land grants were often described using differ-
must be located and the history of the encroachment docu- ing lengths of chains and varying sizes of acres. The best
mented if possible, An encroachment may be defined as a example of this is given by the variation in the acre in dif-
trespass or the commencement of a gradual taking of posses- ferent parts of England. In Devonshire and Somersetshire,
sion or rights of another. Encroachments may take the form the acre was 160 perches of 15 feet, or 36,000 square feet. In
of walls, fences, buildings, or other structures representing Cornwall, the perches were 18 feet and yielded 51,840 square
occupation or possession, which extend onto another's title feet. In Lancashire, the perches were 21 feet and the acre was
rights. Encroachments may lead to claims of unwritten rights 70,560 square feet. When the early settlers of this United States
such as adverse possession or acquiescence when the party began to survey the land, they often used the measure with
whose land is encroached upon allows the encroachment to which they were familiar. Today, an acre is 43,560 square feet.
go unchallenged. Such an implied consent may cause loss of Courts throughout the United States, particularly in the
title through certain doctrines. western states, have found that many of the original govern-
Often land contemplated for development comprises sev- ment surveys of parts of the public lands were imprecise. The
eral smaller tracts, which are joined together to form a larger, reasons for these inaccuracies included low land value, dif-
more developable tract (consolidation). In such a situation, ficulties encountered during the surveys, and, in some cases,
it is important for the surveyor to confirm the contiguity of outright fraud. This phenomenon is also true for those early
the parcels involved or to identify the existence of any gaps surveys of the original grants in this country.
between the parcels. This is critical because the record title to Project Control. The first step in planning for the topo-
such a gap may lie in the hands of some former owner rather graphic survey of a land development project is the com-
than in the hands of the owner of the parcels being surveyed. pletion of well-planned horizontal and vertical control
Gaps can be as troublesome as encroachments if not identi- networks. These networks must be geometrically strong and
fied and quantified before development begins. well monumented.
Boundary Discrepancies. The project surveyor must Data must be gathered and compiled in such a way that it
check for consistency of identifying calls for monuments by can be used for preliminary and final design. Electronic and
adjoining documents with those of the subject property. Any robotic total stations, GNSS in all its many configurations,
differences should be noted and reconciled if possible. and electronic data collectors are common instruments for
Discrepancies in metes-and-bounds descriptions are field-run surveys. Photogrammetry, which uses aerial pho-
often the result of variation in magnetic north between the tographs combined with ground control points to generate
time the legal description was constructed and the present topographic maps, has become the preferred method for sur-
reference to north, as well as the instruments used to per- veying large sites.
form the survey. Variation in distances can also exist. Both The photogrammetric survey method is not appropriate
human error and improvements in technology are factors in for determining boundary lines, although it may serve in an
discrepancies between calls in different documents. evidentiary capacity, allowing a broad overview of an area
Frequently the surveyor must search the records for a not available at ground level. Small sites, particularly those
longer time than required for title purposes. There are two with extensive features, are still commonly surveyed using
reasons for this extended search. As previously discussed, field methods. Both the field survey data and the photogram-
when senior rights are involved in the determination of metric survey data can be compiled into digital topographic
ownership, such a search may be mandated. The second sit- maps to serve as the base layer for design files.
uation is required because bearings are often copied from The number and location of the control points depends
older deeds. The origin of the bearing would be the date of on the nature of the project and on the surveying method
the survey that produced the bearing. The date of the ori- used. As a matter of convenience during the design and
gin of the bearing must be known so corrections for mag- construction phases of the project, control points should be
netic declination can be properly made. This is necessary in interspersed throughout the site. It may be cost effective to
the proper preparation of the composite map. Reference to use traverse points located in the boundary determination
direction in different documents having various dates can as horizontal control stations for the topographic survey.
be adjusted to a common north system of reference. This Establishing control points as part of the boundary traverse
common reference could be true north, State Plane Coor- loop and cross-ties through the middle of the site provide
dinate Grid North, or some other local system that might a network convenient for use throughout the design and
be prescribed. construction phases of the project. To do this, adequate fore-
Differences in distances can result from a failure to con- thought on traverse location is needed at the time when the
vert units used in original surveys to those of the adjoining traverse is being set for the boundary determination.
property or those in use at present. Reconstructing an old Traverse Survey. The traverse may be conducted using
survey is not a simple matter. The surveyor must be familiar conventional equipment and procedures, such as measur-
with the units of measurement used at the time the original ing angles and distances with a total station or theodolite
survey was made. Often these measurements had more than and an electronic distance-measuring (EDM) device, or the
one interpretation. surveyor may employ the use of global positioning system
 3.2 ■ BASE MAP AND SITE DIAGRAM 157

(GPS) receivers to establish locations using satellites. Fre-

quently a combination of procedures and equipment is used. 8=----
------
~I.I - - -
Approx . 90' ~ L Point on
Traverse Line
- ~ , - - -------8
Distance
Available personnel, terrain, site features, vegetation, and -- ... --......... eosured <t' :

traffic often dictate the most logical equipment and proce-

dures to employ.
No matter what procedures and equipment are used, the
------
Disi;;;.,~~------ i

---- ---~ - -
' ---
~ Offset
Distance _... ..--- --
---

lines and points on the traverse should be located on the sub-

ject property when at all possible to prevent the need to work
off-site. Traverse stations on the survey should be placed at
the most advantageous locations and frequencies, consider-
/C~ . ,,.
FIG uRE 3. 2 H A boundary point is tied to the traverse using a mini-
ing they will subsequently be used to locate features on the mum of two references. Shown here is (a) a measured angle and distance
directly to the point and (b) measured distance to POL (point on line) and
property and possibly for other functions later in the devel- offset distance to the point.
opment process. These uses include topographical surveys,
construction stakeout work, and control surveys for the
development. If points are destroyed, the configuration of
the initial traverse should allow for easy replacement.
The traverse control points serve as the basis for locating Field crews must be sure that the information to be in
visible, found, or described corners, fences, tree lines, and relation to the boundary traverse is properly tied to the sur-
other features relevant to the title, lines, and corners in addi- vey traverse line using methods that afford redundancy in
tion to those improvements called for in the state or ALTA/ measurement to better ensure the integrity of the data. This
NSPS standards or as may be required by the client. is particularly important when locating markers and monu-
Cross-ties between nonadjacent points of the traverse ments, which are integral to the resolution of the boundary.
should be made as frequently as is practical. This affords See Figure 3.2H for an example of points to be tied to the
checks on the survey work and allows for better survey traverse.
adjustment of results. These cross-ties also provide addi- Locating Features and Improvements. When physical
tional stations for control and stakeout in later stages of features are located with a survey they are depicted and often
development. Survey markers set on this traverse, such as annotated, as referenced in Figure 3.21, for abbreviations
rebar, pipes, or concrete monuments, should be of a length used in data collectors. Found iron pipes, concrete markers,
and diameter to be secure after installation or as required by stakes, and other objects used to mark corners and points on
state minimum standards. Alternative objects such as "PK" line are evidence and must be located. The locations of tree
nails or scribe marks can be used when they are more suit- lines, old fence lines, walls, ditches, and other features on or
able for the conditions. near the division lines must be determined and described
All traverse stations should be referenced for ease of in detail, including the material from which objects are
future recovery. A minimum of three references is desirable. made and the condition of the objects. Photographs of the
The references should be accurately described and recorded evidence for future reference are helpful. Such photographs
in the field notes. See the illustration in Figure 3.2G for an can provide excellent supportive evidence should the survey
example. result in litigation. Points found during the survey and called
for in the deed should be used as traverse stations when they
are accessible.
Existing streets may have an impact on the boundary
line determination and later development. The locations
of pavement, right-of-way lines, and centerlines should be
recorded in the field notes. When no pavement exists, the
traveled way should be located. Access roads on or across
property, whether in use or not, should be located and
shown. Such roads might be used for access to surrounding
property and as such might be included in an easement.
Cuts or embankments, tree lines, or fencerows, which
j j might indicate long-abandoned roads, should be located
and shown.
Coordinating Field and Office Procedures. Before field
work begins, office procedures begin with a meeting between
the site engineer, field party chief and the surveyor of the
8 Traverse Station
computing department. A lack of communication between
Q Tree or Other "Permanent" Object Used for Reference
these two will usually result in error, frustration, and inef-
FIG uRE 3. 2 G Methods to reference traverse stations (transverse ties). ficiency. Most topographic surveys are done in concert with
15a iiih3iiili ►irti· i/Oihti\ii,■ ;@iliiiii 1 / 1 ih/i,i-V: 1 i/idtJ
01 - Horizontal Control II - Centerlines 33 - Electric
TRV CL. Centerline Road ELE
PXP - Panel Point ···-----····-----·---·--------·-··--··-····-------------
35 - Building
BLD

OS - Property/Boundary 17 - Pavement 37 - Utilities Misc

IPF EP. Edge of Pavement UTL
EIP Existing Iron Pipe EPL EP Left OU. Overhead U1ili1y
EIR Existing Rod/Rebar/Pin GDR EPR EP Right PD. Telephone l'cdcsial
EPT Existing Pinch Top uu. Underground Utililv
EIO Other (Describe) 18 - Curb CTV Cable TV
MKT Marked Tree TC. Top of Curb MCP Utility Marker l'ost
N Nonh TCL Top of Curb Left UMN Utility Manhole
s South TCR Top Curb Right VLT Utility Vauh
E East BC. Back of Curb (Top) ---·----------
w West FC. Face of Curb (Flow) 42 - Miscellaneous
MON Existing Cone. Mon. MIS
NIP New Iron Pipe 19 - Concrete MB. Mail Box
PK. P.k. Nail CON RS. Road Sign
RW Right of Way Mon. CCP Comer Concrete Pad GL. Ground Light
STN Stone EC. Edge of Concrete
SW. Edge of Sidewalk

07 - Grade Elevations 20 - Shoulder 44 - Wetlands

SPT SHL WET
GR. Ground Spot Shot ·-·-·---·-·-····
GRP Pavement Spot Shot 21 - Parking Stripes/Paint Lines 58 - Break
GRC Concrete Spot Shot PRK BRK
GRG Gravel Spot Shot TB. Top of Bank
22 - Utility Poles BB. Botton of Bank
UPL ------·-·····--
GP. Guy Pole 60 - Walls
GW. Guy Wire WAL
LP. Light Pole CW. Centerline Wall
PP. Power Pole EW. Edge of Wall
SP. Service Pole
TP. Telephone Pole

08 - Stream/Pond/River 23 - Water 61 - Test Pit

TP.
STR Stream WAT
DL. Ditch Line HYD Fire Hydrant .............
WL. Edge of Water MW. Monitoring Well 62 - Unimproved
PIV Post Indicator Valve UNI
WL. Waterline PAT Trail or Path
WE. Well EG. Edge of Gravel
WM. Water Meter DT. Edge of Dirt
WV. Water Valve

09 - Vegetation 26 - Storm 63
FR.
-
Railroad
Frog
VEG STM
OB Ornamental Bush BXC Box Culvert PS. Point of Switch
OT Ornamental Tree CMP Corrug. Metal Pipe RR. Railroad
HOO Hedge CPP Corrug. Plastic Pipe IR Inside of Rail
WDL Woodline DIP Ductile Iron Pipe CL Centerline of Rail
DIG Drop Inlet-Curb Grt. ····-···--------
TR Tree DIS Drop Inlet-Curb Std. Desc. Format for Point
A (Cherry), Size (In.) RCP Reinf. Cone. Pipe
B (Beech), Size (In>) SDM Storm Drain Manhole LL-PPPDS .
C (Cedar), etc ... TCP Terra Cotta Pipe --Sub Desc.
D (Cottonwood) VIG Tard Inlet-Grate --Draw Code
E (Elm) VIS Yard Inlet-Std. --- 2 or 3 Char
F (Ash) N (Tupelo) I (Invert), Size (In.) Point Descriptor
G (Locust) p (Pine) T (Top), Size (In.) -- ,-, Oas Character
H (Hickory) Q (Oak) - 2 Digit Layer Code
J (Burch) R (Dogwood) 29 - Sanitary
K (Sasafrass) s (Sycamore) SAN Use a • ." (Period) as a Place lloldcr When
L (Sweet Gum) T (Poplar) co. Cleanout There Is Only 2 Chars in the Point l>cscriptur
M (Maple) z (Misc.) SSM Sanitary Sewer Manhole and in Place of the Draw Code When Thcr~ Is
None.

10 - Fence 32 - GAS Draw Codes (7th Position)

FEN Fence GAS L - Line
GDR Guard Rail GL. Gas Line C - Curve
GPP Guard Pipe Post GM. Gas Meter z - End Draw Sequence
GV. Gas Valve y - Close into Initial Point

FIGURE 3.21 Codes and abbreviations used for data collectors.

 3.2 ■ BASE MAP AND SITE DIAGRAM 159

other field tasks such as boundary survey or soil borings. In Having set up these known natural and man-made
most instances, knowledge of foregoing survey operations control lines, the technician initiates a computer network
will reside within the files of the computing department. of similar breaklines, connecting all other miscellaneous
The survey party chief, in collaboration with the com- points within the file that are intended for topographic com-
puting department personnel, must establish a data format. pilation. The technician protects the integrity of the input
Each point located in the field must be uniquely identified as data by making use of elevation, numeric, or proximity fil-
to horizontal location, vertical elevation, and physical char- ters to eliminate the use of extraneous data points within the
acter. Depending on data collector and computer software coordinate file. No network line will cross another. Network
flexibility and compatibility, some or all these values may lines are constructed in such a manner that they form a
be catalogued within the data collector for delivery to the continuous pattern of triangular sections whose vertices are
computer. Point numbers, subject-specific or layer-specific composed of field points. The maximum allowable length
numeric codes, and physical descriptions and notations are of the network lines (selected by the technician) dictates the
often used. In most instances, a standard set of codes and accuracy of the topography. The density of field observa-
descriptive abbreviations alleviate problems with interpret- tions, however, limits the length of the network lines. The
ing field data. computer cannot create a network in areas where data col-
Before entering the field, the computing department may lection is insufficient to accommodate a given line length.
download existing traverse control and other pertinent coor- No contours are obtainable in such an area. The technician
dinate data into the data collector. Whether or not such coor- must then decide if more field data is necessary or if a longer
dinate data is available or used within the data collector, the network line is acceptable.
computer must be able to assign a unique identity to each When the entire network is complete, and all errors have
3D collection point. Most coordinate geometry software uses been dealt with, the technician has a good network file, or
point number identification. TIN (triangulated irregular network) file from which con-
The survey party chief should review the project with tours of a given interval may be derived. Having selected an
the computing department surveyor to set survey priorities. interval and scale suitable for end users, the computer cre-
What datum will be used? What accuracy and precision are ates (by interpolation) the location of all points within the
acceptable under the scope of services? What will the hori- network for each contour. Contours are then created within
zontal scale and contour interval be? Will extra observations the triangular network sections by graphical depiction on the
be needed to demonstrate minute vertical detail (i.e., top of screen. The topographic survey map is then ready for plot-
curb, inlet grates, pond risers and pipe inverts, manhole rims ting. The TIN file should be kept inviolate; it can be used
and inverts, slab elevations, height of buildings)? Is the proj- again and again to generate additional topographical maps of
ect devoid of detail or is it covered with buildings and roads? varying contour intervals, as well as centerline profiles, grad-
If there are numerous structures, have they been located pre- ing scenarios, and earth takeoffs.
viously or will a location survey be part of the task? How
will the data be collected to develop contours along the face 3.2.8. Site Diagram
of buildings, walls, curblines, critical section ditches, and The site diagram is often considered a pre-design effort that
streams? What will the topographic data be used for? Can focuses on the spatial relationship of different parts of the
the data be collected in a random pattern, minimum grid existing site (the diagram may also be referred to as a bubble
interval, or stationed baseline/offset cross section? All these plan). This diagram usually compliments the feasibility study
considerations can have immense impact on the suitability of and is prepared as the base map content is collected during
the finished topographic map. the site analysis phase. The site diagram highlights the con-
Once all field data is collected, all points defining breaks straints and opportunities identified on the site. The site dia-
in the lay of the land must be connected within the digital gram can provide the most value to the design team when
model. If an adequate coding system has been devised, the survey information is used but in early phases the informa-
connection of these points will automatically occur through tion may be collected from various sources with low confi-
the software. These lines that connect the points are referred dence in accuracy.
to as breaklines. All contours are interpolated along these Site constraints should be noted and labeled, using shad-
lines. A contour of a given value will naturally break in a ing, heavy outline, and other techniques to identify areas of
certain direction as it runs between the interpolated points the site that are totally unusable or usable with significant
of equal elevation. Examples of breaklines include top or corrections. These include floodplain areas, unstable or
bottom of bank; top or bottom of curb; building/wall faces; erodible soils, or soils of poor bearing capacity, steep slopes,
edge of pavement; centerline of stream, ditch, or road; or wetlands, and other environmentally sensitive areas that
any continuous linear or curvilinear break in the elevation local state and federal regulations accord special treatment.
of the land. Every line segment will have two corresponding Area measurements of these encumbrances are recorded on
coordinates defining the location and elevation of the ends of both the map and in tabular form in a report.
the lines. Using interpolation, the computer can easily locate The site diagram should indicate those facilities and
where any given contour elevation falls. improvements that will be necessary, because of function,
1so i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ
industry practice, or government regulation, to develop the Once the area of encumbrances is subtracted from the
site. These include probable vehicular access points, along gross area, the resulting area is the buildable area. The build-
with an assessment of improvements to public roads that will able area may be a preliminary first step of design, because it
be needed to facilitate safe, convenient access. will be the starting point of conceptual designs (to be intro-
Along with these site constraints, the map should reflect duced in Chapter 4.1).
significant site opportunities. These should stress references To define the buildable area, it is important to start with
to the recommendations and guidance of the community's the environmental and historic areas that were previously
comprehensive plan, an indication of the issues that the described in Chapter 2.5. Floodplains, wetlands, problem
development program must resolve. The map should suggest soils, preservation areas, and historic features should be
potential amenities that could facilitate development and avoided. These are the first undevelopable and unbuildable
enhance project marketing. Important views, stands of trees areas of a site. The site analysis will further identify addi-
at property boundaries, and similar characteristics should be tional constraints that may need to be avoided including
highlighted. steep slopes. As these are added to the base map, the site dia-
Site data is also compiled in a report form in addition to gram will form and the usable buildable area will be defined.
the site diagram graphic. The report must be well organized It is important to complete this during pre-design to ensure
to present each category of information studied by the site the site is satisfactory for development. If the site analysis
engineer. Sources of information should be clearly stated, finds too many constraints (not enough buildable area),
including public officials who have been interviewed during a new site may need to be chosen. While it is undesirable
the feasibility study. The site engineer should attach copies of and costly, it may be possible to use site area encumbered by
the comprehensive plan or zoning ordinance language that unbuildable areas, but the process and conditions should be
have unique and direct bearing on the project. The site engi- carefully evaluated.
neer should identify items for which administrative waivers A water feature, such as an existing stream, is likely an
appear appropriate and likely to be granted. unbuildable area. By subtracting the water features from
Limitations on the reliability and scope of the informa- the property, as undevelopable parts of the site, it is possi-
tion should be noted. Any opinions of the site engineer ble to identify what part of the property is developable (the
included in the report should be clearly identified as such. In buildable area). If a stream flows through a 5-acre prop-
addition, the report's findings should be qualified as being erty, and 2 acres are defined as stream and wetlands, only 3
preliminary only, withholding any guarantees about poten- acres are potentially developable. This analysis can quickly
tial problems that could not have been identified because change the perceived value of the site and the development
of the scope or depth of study. The report will be used by program.
the developer to determine future actions concerning the Environmental/Historic Content. Environmental and his-
property. torical features of a site that were identified during the pre-
The report should clearly identify qualifications to its liminary investigation should be the first content included
conclusions. Sources and timeliness of information, limita- on the base map. As discussed in Chapter 2.5, identifying
tions imposed by time and resources, and lack of applicabil- environmental and historic constraints is an important step
ity to subsequent projects should be firmly established. The in the site selection process. Red flags, including impedi-
report will likely serve as a reference document in further ments to the site or undevelopable areas, could prove too
negotiations with the landowner and lender. If the developer costly or too limiting to develop upon.
concludes that development is feasible, the documentation is Finding the best way to avoid impacts, minimize dam-
useful for those engaged to perform subsequent analysis and ages, or mitigate impacts is crucial to the success of a project.
design. In addition, the report serves as documentation of The environment will be an important aspect of the entire
the consultant's findings, useful in case of subsequent claims design process and through the construction as well. It is
of error or omission. critical to understand how to protect the natural resources
Buildable Area. The content identified on the site dia- and the local environment when beginning to design a proj-
gram will help to identify the buildable area of a site. The ect. Design considerations for wetland and then open space
buildable area is simply the net site area suitable for devel- and vegetation is discussed below.
opment. Undevelopable and unbuildable land is subtracted Wetlands. Once on-site wetlands and other bodies of
from the gross (total) land area of the site. Undevelop- water have been accurately mapped, they can be overlaid on
able land refers to site area that is prohibited from being a site plan. This will help to determine the buildable area
developed based on jurisdictional regulations, which could on the site (avoiding wetlands), or identify where wetlands
include floodways, floodplains, wetlands, conservation may be impacted. In order to obtain permits to impact wet-
areas, and historic features. Unbuildable land may include lands, the project must demonstrate a process of avoidance,
portions of a site characterized by physical characteristics minimization, and ultimately mitigation for impacts that are
that make construction impractical, which includes prob- unavoidable. All reasoning for not avoiding or minimizing
lem soils and steep slopes. must be backed up with defensible justification, including
 3.2 ■ BASE MAP AND SITE DIAGRAM 161

costs. Costs detrimental to the development (i.e., lost build- be overlaid on a site plan to determine the buildable area of
able area) must be balanced with costs of mitigation and a site. Together with the overlay of the wetlands and other
the consequences of the impacts. If wetlands and waters are bodies of water, this site plan will be a good indication of the
present on-site, the final delineation may reduce the num- development potential of the property. This in turn will influ-
ber ofbuildable lots or area originally envisioned. ence the placement of roads, buildings, parking lots, utili-
Wetland mitigation costs vary from region to region and ties, and other development program features integrated into
are normally a product of the cost of the land. The mon- the conceptual design of the site, which will be discussed in
etary value for mitigation can be hundreds of thousands of Chapter 4. The objective is to place site improvements where
dollars per acre, and hundreds of dollars per foot. It should there will be a minimal impact on the desirable vegetation tar-
also be noted that if the project impacts a forested wetland, geted for preservation. Note that land disturbance adjacent to
mitigation is normally required at a 2:1 ratio. If a project preserved areas can still impact the natural environment. For
is expected to impact a high-quality stream, as determined example, trees have a critical root zone that extends beyond
by the environmental professional utilizing the approved the tree trunk-when impacted (even with minor land dis-
stream assessment methodology for the physiographic turbance) the tree may eventually die. Proper tree preserva-
region, the mitigation credit ratio could also be higher tion should be provided when establishing limits of work.
than 1:1. Overall costs should be considered; for example, a For open space and tree preservation to be successful,
stream crossing utilizing culvert directly impacts the stream it must be integrated into the early planning stages of land
and requires mitigation. A pre-cast concrete bridge will development. It is nearly an impossible task to address these
likely have a higher material cost but does not impact the types of preservation issues later in the site design stages
stream directly and could then be a less expensive option while still achieving the optimum balance between the built
when factoring in the mitigation cost associated with the and natural environments. Making the most of natural ame-
stream impact from the culvert. Additionally, the bridge nities is contingent upon early consideration of these spaces.
option reduces the permit requirements and prevents dis- Retro-fitted open space and tree preservation has a greater
turbance of natural features. chance of failure and can create unwanted liabilities and
For most projects, the best strategy is avoidance. In the costs. Properly planned and implemented open space and
initial site planning effort, it is best to consider layouts where tree preservation can enhance the aesthetic, natural, and eco-
development occurs in the uplands, while wetlands and nomic environments for all.
stream valley corridors are avoided. Example. Figures 3.2J through 3.2R show a base map,
Open Space and Vegetation. Preservation is best accom- series of site diagrams, and a composite map of constraints
plished during the early planning or feasibility phase of site and opportunities that may be produced for a project during
development, as part of the site inventory and analysis. A the site analysis stage of the land development design pro-
review of the existing site conditions from the feasibility cess. Identifying this information on a map is critical to accu-
analysis and field investigation provides an overview of the rately reflect the site conditions. More information about the
limits of the existing vegetation, the site topography (refer content on these maps was introduced in Chapter 2 or will
to Chapter 3.4), soils locations and descriptions, open fields, be introduced throughout Chapter 3. These site diagrams
existing buildings, and other existing and/or natural fea- will help the developer to make a decision regarding the site
tures. These living and nonliving factors influence the spe- selection. This is also important to have when design efforts
cies and quality of vegetation indigenous to the site. A review begin. The site diagram is the starting point for conceptual
of recent aerial photography of the site affords not only an designs (to be introduced in Chapter 4.2).
overview of the site but allows a characterization of existing Another example of a series of site diagram graphics is
vegetative patterns on site as well. included with the preliminary engineering feasibility study
The appropriate analysis of this collected data identifies in the appendix, Chapter 7.6.
and prioritizes the quality of the existing vegetation and its
placement in the landscape. The prioritization of the existing REFERENCE
vegetation in turn helps to define the buildable area of the Bureau of the Budget. 1947. National Map Accuracy Standards.
property. Areas that should be preserved and avoided should Washington, DC: Office of Management and Budget.
FIGURE 3, 2 J Example of a base map.
FIGURE 3.2K Site diagra m: area classifications.
...
:

,,,,..- - .... __ ,,,.,-,,

·---:-.---· .
-----------

FIGURE 3. 2 L Site diagram: zoning .

 (

.. __ ...

----------

\,'·
)

u :

... FIGURE 3.2M Site diagram·. resource protect1·on areas.

m
...
=
SOILS
□ HYDRIC SOIL

.: :
\\:
__ / ,''

,•C~'.c,§i}f.t·•··.
·\,sc ....

'(
...
_ - -.~:-.:_:

FIGURE 3.2N Site diagram: soils map.

 SLOPE

--
c::::::::J
,;,,,,w,,
0% - 5%
5"' - 10%
10% - 15%
15%- 20%
OVER 20%

. .-: ::·) ·':')__·>

...., \: .>

FIGURE 3, 2 0 Site diagram: steep slopes.

....
=
DRAINAGE
RIDGE LNS
DIRECTION Of
100 YEAR FL MAJOR DRAINAGE
(X)O PLAl'I (
Al-0 SURVEY 8 FROM FEMA MAPS
y OTHERS)
.. ; .·.

/~---:/7 __//.

--
D_.....,.__,,
.

~-.,,_ \

FIGURE 3. 2 P .... Site diagram·. dra1nage

. patterns.
 (

UTILITIES

EXISTING WATER LINE

EXISTING SEWER
PROPOSED SEWER

,' ~ TA CO-.
u ~::
,., .r •.
) \"\ ~--··c
.-:-.- :_)

... FIGURE 3,2Q Site diagram: utilities .

=
.......
Cl

LEGEND
OPPORTUNITIES
CONSTIIA!NTS

0=
A» + POT£NTIAL ENTAY ROAD CONNECTION TO u.s. ROUTE 360.
a8 =
= ~ ~ FLOODPLAINIRPA CROSSING OF PROPOSED ENTRY ROAD.

= ac »_,.
<:::>
OPPORTUNITY TO SELECTIVEL y LANDSCAPE/BUFFER EX ISTING
ENTAY SEQUENCE FROM PHASE I -ASHBROOK .

RC + POTENTIAL TO REORGANIZE AND DISPERSE LOCATION OF

REQUIRED RECREATION FACILITIES.

PLANNING AND ENGINEERING SENSITIVITY TO ACREAGE

DRAINING TO OFF SITE LOCATIONS .

OPPORTUNITY TO MAXIMIZE ON INTERNALLY FOCUSING

;r,
ACREAGE. TERRAIN A ND VEGETATION AESTHETIC ASSETS . :
.
~.\
... ,...
;
DIRECT UNOBSTRUCTED V IEWS TO PHASE 1 · ASHBROOK.
_t '\_~ . . .
:'\._,,./ .
OPPORTUNITY TO ADD SELECTIVE TREE STANDS NEAR LAKE
EDGE TO ENHANCE A ND FILTER VIEWS ACROSS LAKE.

CHAOTIC HARO EDGE DF EXISTING DEVELOPMENT.

-I+ POTENTIAL APA/WETLAND/FLOODPLAIN ZONE . LOSS OF

USEABLE LAND. VALUABLE DEVELOPMENT BUFFER

( / :\ __'.i ····

(
- - -<~. .
,,/ ;,

_,

''

__ ,'

FIGURE 3.2R Site diagram composite map.

 CHAPTER 3.3

TRANSPORTATION FUNDAMENTALS

3.3.1. Introduction The components of the road cross section are discussed
Transportation systems, such as roads, must be identified in this chapter when identifying the typical roadway char-
and analyzed when considering a project site. This is criti- acteristics. The road alignment and profile are introduced in
cal to ensure that the access into the site is feasible and to Chapter 5.3.
understand local transportation requirements (as defined in
the local comprehensive plan and development ordinances 3.3.2. Functional Classifications of Roadways
as discussed in Chapter 2). New transportation systems will
Several different classification systems exist for grouping
also often establish the pattern for the site layout---grids of
highways and streets. These systems are used to establish a
streets are common for urban areas, whereas meandering
common base according to an interest, function, or opera-
streets are common for suburban communities. The design
tion of the road. The classification is used by municipalities
of the streets, both in size and alignment, can establish the
to establish access and design criteria of the roadway. With
character of the site. Narrow streets with sidewalks and
a land development project, the classification of the road-
street trees will enhance the aesthetics of a neighborhood,
way can determine whether a turn lane is required into the
whereas wide multilane roads may be appropriate for an
site, if a traffic signal can be installed, how far the entrance
industrial development.
needs to be spaced from another entrance, and the permis-
This chapter begins by introducing typical roadway
sible movements in and out of the site. Access to a site will
characteristics that are important for an initial site analysis.
greatly influence the desirability of the site and success of the
These characteristics are also the basis of design that will be
development.
encountered as site design progresses. The second half of this
The AASHTO (American Association of State Highway
chapter focuses on preliminary engineering design concepts
and Transportation Officials) handbook A Policy on Geo-
that will shape the road design for a project. These design
metric Design of Highways and Streets includes a detailed
concepts will be encountered and utilized during schematic
discussion of functional highway systems (the text is often
design (Chapter 4). The final design of roadways is then
referenced as the Green Book). AASHTO describes a typi-
described in Chapter 5.3.
cal trip as including the following six stages of travel move-
When discussing a road, it is important to be familiar with
ment or service to facilitate vehicular movement:
the road geometry. The geometry of a roadway is generally
defined in three parts: a cross section, alignment, and profile.
1. Main movement
A roadway cross section refers to a detailed cut of a roadway
that's taken perpendicular to the direction of travel and rep- 2. Transition
resents the typical elements of the roadway. The road align-
3. Distribution
ment represents the horizontal geometry of the roadway,
including curves and tangents. The profile represents the ver- 4. Collection
tical geometry of the roadway along the alignment. Together,
5. Access
the profile and alignment define a three-dimensional poly-
line and the cross section is applied along this polyline. 6. Termination

171
112 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ

The roadway functions and traffic volumes are directly Principal Arterial. A principal arterial is often referred to
related to the movement hierarchy served. Figure 3.3A illus- as a freeway-roads with controlled access interchanges and
trates the hierarchy of movement and depicts the use of high mobility across major population areas. The principal
roadways within a typical trip. In many land development arterials provide service to major centers of activity and are
projects most of the planning and design focus on the roads the corridors that accommodate the highest traffic volume.
pertaining to the latter parts of the travel, that is, terminal A high proportion of the rural or urban area travel occurs on
access, collection, and occasionally distribution. the principal arterial system. In the urbanized areas it is these
The highway and street network provide travel mobility streets that provide linkage to the rural arterial roadways.
and access to property. At one end of the functional category The principal arterial system is composed of several types of
are the high-access, low-mobility local roads and streets. roadways with full control of access, such as interstate high-
The other extreme is the high-mobility, low-access arterial ways and other freeways, and other principal arterial streets
highways such as freeways. By reducing the access and inter- with partial or no control of access.
sections to a highway, the mobility (design speed, geometry, Minor Arterial. Next in the hierarchy of the functional
travel time) can be improved. Between these two extremes system is the minor arterial street system, which is often
of highways and local roads are collection and distribution referred to as a highway. These distributor streets provide
roads, which link the two functional extremes. greater access to adjoining land than that afforded by the
Functional classification is divided into rural and urban principal arterial system. Traffic movement, as compared to
systems, which possess different vehicle and traffic charac- the principal arterial system, is greatly impeded. Minor arte-
teristics. The systems differ in travel patterns, the density rial streets provide travel between communities and possible
of the streets and highways within the network, and the connections to collector roads. Typically, such roads provide
type of land served by the network. As might be inferred, the boundaries of identifiable neighborhoods. Their inter-
the population density sets the distinction. Comparatively section spacing relates to the density of the developed area.
dense areas, as designated by state or local officials, with Spacing ranges from ½ to 3 miles. In fully developed areas,
populations of 5000 or more people are considered urban. the spacing normally does not exceed 1 mile.
Population is used to further divide this category into two Collector. The collector street system provides for land
subcategories: urbanized areas, those with populations of access and traffic flow in all land use areas. These streets link
50,000 and above, and small urban areas defined by a popu- the local street system with the principal and minor arte-
lation between 5000 and 50,000. As shown in the AASHTO rial street systems. Collector streets through predominantly
handbook, the urban functional system divides streets residential areas serve as the main access to the development
into principal arterial, minor arterial, collector, and local from the arterial or another collector. The residential collec-
functions. tor street has average daily traffic (ADT) counts of 1000 to
3000 vehicles per day (VPD). Single-family dwelling units
may have direct access on these roads where traffic volumes
are on the lower end of this range. As the collector street
traffic volumes approach 3000 VPD, access to single-family
units becomes undesirable; however, access to small public
and local commercial/retail facilities would still be consid-
ered appropriate.
Local Street. Lowest in the hierarchy is the local street
system. The main function of the local street is access to
the land adjoining the roadway and linkage to streets men-
tioned previously that are higher in the order within the
l functional system. Although collector streets are the main
routes that provide access to the development, local streets
provide access to the properties within the development. In
residential areas, the volume of local streets is usually less
than 1000 VPD.
Figure 3.3B schematically shows the functional classifica-
tion of streets and the interconnection of the street hierarchy.
A summary of the characteristics of the AASHTO classifica-
tion appears in Table 3.3A.
Jurisdictional Classifications. Ultimately for land devel-
l opment projects, street classification for new roads will fall
into the domain of the local controlling body. Some jurisdic-
FIG uRE 3. 3 A Hierarchy of movement. tions may provide additional classifications of roadways and
 3.3 ■ TRANSPORTATION FUNDAMENTALS 173

__J ~ LJLJULJLJULJLJUULJI
economy, efficiency, safety, and viability lead to functionally
well-designed streets.
Public and Private Roads. The road systems throughout
a region may be public or private. A public road is oper-
ated and maintained by a public agency-typically the state,
county, city, or town department of transportation (DOT).
A private road is owned, operated, and maintained by a pri-
vate entity, such as a land owner or the operator of a retail
center. A private road may be open to the public through
express or implied agreements.
Public Streets. A public roadway is operated and main-
tained by a public agency and resides in a parcel of land
referred to as a right-of-way, which is owned by a public
agency (public roadways may also exist within easements).
In some cases, the land may be owned by a local authority,
such as the county, but the maintenance is performed by
state DOT. After a road is constructed, and inspected for
design and construction conformance, the DOT will accept
Legend the roadway into their operation and maintenance system.
When public roads are constructed by a private developer,
Arterial street Collector street
the roads must be accepted into the public roadway system.
Commercial area Local street
After acceptance, the developer is no longer responsible for
FIG uRE 3. 3 B Suburban street network. (From A Policy on Geometric the roadway. To be accepted into the public system, the design
Design of Highways and Streets, 2004, by the American Association of State
and construction of the road must follow specific require-
Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C. Used with permission).
ments that are established by the governing agency-these
roads have little flexibility in unique designs and materials.
A public agency will usually identify whether a road should
assign design requirements related to bike lanes, sidewalks, be included in the public roadway system based on location
and parking requirements. Description and definition of the and use of the road.
street categories are usually found in local subdivision ordi- Private Streets. A private street is constructed, operated,
nances and standards. In all likelihood the categories will be and maintained by a private entity, but the roadway may be
defined according to function and in part by anticipated traf- open to the public through an easement or agreement. The
fic volumes. Regardless of the basis for grouping, classifica- design and operation of the road is often important for the
tion should follow a pattern similar to those outlined in this local jurisdiction and therefore should follow jurisdictional
section. design and operation requirements. Private roads may have
Placing priority on function when designing local access less stringent design requirements, lower speeds (less than
streets requires that the designer consider many related fac- 25 mph), nonstandard signage, upgraded hardscape, or other
tors apart from ADT. Land development projects are only functional differences from a public roadway. Private roads
pieces in the regional development scheme. Design of streets are often clearly labeled as private roads and are seen in resi-
within a project should, therefore, conform to the overall dential developments, a college campus, industrial parks, or
street system for the entire neighborhood. Such factors as commercial areas.

TAB LE 3 . 3 A Summary of Characteristics of the Functional System

STREET LOS*/OPERATING
CLASSIFICATION SERVICE AREA RELATIVE VOLUME SPEED ACCESS CONTROL

Principle arterial Through movements; major activity centers High High Full to partial
Minor arterial Lesser activity centers High to medium High to moderate Some limitation
Collector Regional and some local land access Medium to low Moderate to low None
Local Neighborhood land access Low Low None
'Level of service-a qualitative measure of the operating conditions.
114 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iii 1 ,i\MilidtJ
3.3.3. Roadway Components It is possible for a project to require several typical cross
The components of a road include pavement, travel lanes, sections. One project may include construction of the turn
shoulders, medians, side slopes, curb and gutters, drainage lane on a highway, an internal boulevard street, and neigh-
ditches (median and side ditches), sidewalks, and right-of- borhood streets, which would each have a different cross
way widths. The cross section represents a template for the section. Several examples of variations in cross-sectional ele-
roadway that's associated with the road alignment, which is ments are indicated in Figure 3.3C, while an example of a
usually identified in the typical section. typical section drawing that might be included in a site plan
The specific elements included in the design of any road is shown in Figure 3.3D.
depend on the function and the jurisdictional requirements Travel Lanes. The local ordinances and traffic studies typi-
of the road, or may depend on the developer's requirements cally specify the minimum number of lanes and their widths
for private road networks. Whether a road is public or pri- for a street, which is a function of the anticipated traffic vol-
vate, there are minimum operational standards for travel lanes ume and functional classification. The lane width is mea-
(vehicle, pedestrian, bike). These standards identify minimum sured from the edge of the travel for the road, which may
and maximum lane widths and grades, as well as lateral rela- be an edge of pavement at the gutter or a lane marking. A
tionships between elements, such as landscaping adjacent to standard vehicular lane width is 12 feet, which provides driv-
a vehicular lane. These standards are different based on the ers with a sense of comfort as they travel adjacent to other
roadway classifications and operational requirements. Lower vehicles, especially at high speeds (45 mph and more). A
speed roads may allow for narrower lanes, while highway lanes reduced lane width is often appropriate on lower speed and
that are meant for trucks will require large lane widths. These lower volume local streets, and may be 10 or 11 feet in width.
cross-sectional elements and their dimensions are identified The lesser width reduces driver comfort, but may encour-
on a detail drawing called the typical cross section. age adherence to following lower speed limits and promote

I .
3: : 3:
ci I ci
e::: 1 Border Roadwav Border i e:::
Traveled Way
i
: ~
Q)
C Traffic
~
~n~ !~
~I £ i >-
=f i Sidewalk.w I Sidewalki ~
b!:_ _ _.""=====~=====r=========~r:..=..::7,l
l I Residential Commerical j f
..c: : ::E
12!' I-~
'a::
I Bo,do, I Trn,•l•d ... ••dloo ... Trn,•l•d • -~•,d•[I
l~idewal~ • Way Way I
, ....J!. ,...:It ~ .J!. Sidewalk:
~ l • T . 1
r-----1
Median
(Reduced)
Roadway I Roadway

I Left-
Parking Traffic Turn Traffic
rl-L=a=n=e~l====L=a:r:n=e=s==='.~ f-"-'L=--'an--=--=e--i--l------'-'-La-°'-n-'--'e-'-'se..__-----<r-7

J. Traveled Way • I I. Traveled Way • I i

!
i
Roadwa Roadwa i
Traveled Way
!Curb~ Curb
:Offset Offset
!
~
i

FIG uRE 3. 3 C Cross-sectional elements-nomenclature for urban streets.

 3.3 ■ TRANSPORTATION FUNDAMENTALS 175

C/L ROAOWAY
;!' 51 ' R/W 51 ' R/W ;!'
«1-- - -- - - - - " - ' - " ' - " - - -- - - -- --+-- - - - - -- -
27-' C
~L--'
E•~• ~AO
_ A_O_W_AY--- - -----1«
a.'. 27" CLEAR ROADWAY 1 ""'"
~: 25' 28" RAISEb ME'OIAN 25'
G. E.EII. 0A0WAY W.8 , ROA.OWAY
i -~ 10,!_'- +2~·_.!,12~' ~LA~N~E --,-~ ='---fl------!.1•::._•_ _ f-__!1:4e,_
' - --fi--_,.,
12c..
' l: ::
A::.:;
NE::.......-,-....:..:
12"-'' L:::A:,:NE,__f'2't'- --'1"'-0'_ -+---1 ~~CH

1/◄ "i'f"f.
• IJ◄ "/F'T , 1/4 ".tFT.

D G D

Normal Section

C/1. ROADWAY
:!'1-I_ _ _ _ __ _...!Rl!!!...V
1W ~ A~•~1•s~- -- -- - - + l -- - - - -- --"
R 1W""-'v'-"A="'='s~---- - ----1I~
a:: : 2" 25' 28" RAISEO MEDIAN 25' 2' 10' a,:
j-----!.'!.--t-4-- - ~,...-
n.""•o~A""rm
= Av, --- - + - --'-"--'=""-'=""-- -+-- -ww'ii
.1:"i
. Riiioj;iAoiiiwiiAYY- -t=,, ~ ~...,o
\2' L.ANe 1:r LANE i 14' 14' 12· ~E 12· LANE ,_3~·....~~--__ , ....::.._...;~CM
p
~flOFS.f , AA OF S.E,
RATE OF S, E.

D /4. B C G

~ Su releV111ed Section _ _
Legend _ __ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ __ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ __ _ _ _ _ __ __

@ s· CURO.
@ ~~5u~:~t~-~~~~~~;lE ~~Ai-~COURSE STO. MC- 1

® STO. MS- 2 RAISED GRASS MeDtAN,

@ r SASE COURSE BITIJMINOlJS CONCRETE TYPE B--3.
@ 2" TOPSOIL.
© a- CEMENT STA81LIU O AGGREGATE MATE.RIAL NO, 21A. STABILIZEO
WITH 4 PERCENT HYDRAULIC CEMENT ev WEIGHT. CUAE WITH LIOU1C ® PROFILE GRADE LINE.
BITUMINOUS MATERIAL RC•.250. MC-?0, OR RC-70 ,I.T TI-lE RATE Of 0 .20
GAL/ SQ .VO , AND COVER wrn-,
15 L8S.,SO.YO. OF Flt.ilE AGGREGATE, Q) CONCRETE SlDEWA\.IC . FAIRFAX COUNTY STANOAAO
GRADING 8, OR AGGREGATE NO , 8 . TYPE VI.

@ STD, CG·8 C0M8lNAT10N 6• CUA.6 ANO GUTTER, © STANDARD U0•3 , SIDEWALK UNDl:fl.OAAtN
• CG· OR ,

FIGURE 3.30 Typical section.

traffic calming. A turn lane is typically set to the same width Other Lane Categories. In addition to standard vehicular
of the through lanes. lanes, there are other road features to consider. Street park-
A "normal crown'' section has a high point in the middle ing, bike lanes, and bus lanes are all common elements of a
(usually at the centerline) with the pavement cross slopes street. On-street parking is usually limited to parallel parking
extending toward the outer edges of the pavement. In most spaces. A parallel parking space is typically 8 feet in width,
conditions the cross slopes are uniform across the total width measured from the edge of travel to the face of a curb, but has
of one direction of the pavement. However, for multilane been implemented with a 7-foot width as well.
roads, the cross slope remains uniform across a lane width, An on-road bike lane may be either shared with a vehic-
and any changes in the cross slope should occur at the edges ular lane or be marked separately. If the bike travel is shared
of a travel lane. For instance, a left-turn lane may cut into with vehicular traffic there might be a shared lane that's a
the center median of the road and would maintain the cross total of 14 feet wide. If the bike lane is adjacent to the vehic-
slope of the adjacent lanes. ular lane it's usually located on the right side of travel, adja-
For many local and collector streets, lanes on a normal cent to the curb or on-street parking. When the bike lane is
crown section are typically sloped at 1% to 2%, toward the separate it's typically 4 feet wide when there's a buffer (e.g.,
outer edge of pavement. This cross slope is sufficient to direct an additional 2 feet from a gutter) or 5 feet for cases when
stormwater runoff into the gutters or to the side ditches it passes between a through lane and a right-turn lane. In
and yet does not cause any significant driver discomfort some jurisdictions, like the City of Portland, the bike lane is
because of the slight tilt of the vehicle. Cross slopes change as wide as 6 feet with a 2-foot shy zone on each side.
when superelevation requirements are incorporated into the Bus lanes and bus stops should be coordinated with the
design. Superelevation, the design of banking the roadway public transportation authorities. In some areas, like New
beyond the typical cross slope, is more common with high- York City, a dedicated bus lane exists within the streets and
ways than land development roadways. is an inherent part of the road network. Other areas may just
11& i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ
include a bus stop adjacent to a normal travel lane or could agency to accommodate the specific conditions. Each juris-
have an area for the bus to pull off from the roadway. diction has minimum spacing requirements. This spacing
Medians. Medians are used to increase the separation dis- is subject to the traffic volume on the through street, traffic
tance between opposing traffic and, in some cases, to provide volume making the turning movement, whether the turn-
refuge for pedestrians. In urban and suburban areas, medi- ing movements are signalized and the design speed of the
ans may be raised, concrete malls or painted areas, approxi- through street. The design engineer must assess the impact
mately 4 to 16 feet wide. Wider median strips are typically of the median breaks on the level of service (LOS) of the
grass strips with a ditch. In rural areas and high-speed roads, through street. A high number of median breaks and cross-
medians can be 30 feet and wider. Medians are typically not overs can significantly reduce the LOS on a given street,
used on local streets and are only occasionally used on col- especially during peak hours.
lector streets. Their use is mostly in commercial areas, where The minimum spacing of median breaks can be viewed
the traffic volumes are much higher and turning movements as the sum of the dimensions of median features that are
are more frequent and complex. required between two intersections. These elements include
The minimum width of a median (typically 4 feet) is often setback of the median noses to allow for proper turning
governed by a width necessary for road sign placement and radius at the intersections, length of each of the required
appropriate clearance of the signs. At this width, the median left-turn lanes (especially when the median is narrow, elimi-
is generally completely concrete to prevent the need for nating the possibility of overlap between opposing left-turn
maintenance and mowing. Larger medians can be grass and lanes), and length of the median transition between the left-
planted with trees. When a median exists between oppos- turn lanes. Figure 3.3E illustrates the typical median geom-
ing lanes of traffic, it is often set to be 16 or 28 feet wide, etry between two intersections and how it can dictate the
which allows for one or two 12-foot turn lanes to extend into minimum spacing between intersections/median breaks. In
the median while still maintaining a 4- foot median at the some cases, where a median width is approximately 28 feet or
intersection. A separation of 1 foot is usually recommended greater, the required left-turn lanes may be configured such
between a median and an adjacent lane, so that the edge of that they overlap each other for some distance, thus allowing
travel is designated by a yellow pavement marking set 1 foot a reduction in the overall intersection spacing.
from the median edge. In any event, the minimum spacing dictated by the median
Design considerations include the spacing of median features discussed above must be compared to the local stan-
breaks. Median breaks allow traffic turning and crossover dard for intersection/median break spacing. The greater of
movements into and out of entrances, essentially provid- the two should then be used to govern design.
ing more accessibility. Median breaks are also necessary for On commercial and retail projects, there will be a desire
most intersecting streets. Guidelines for spacing between to have numerous median breaks to allow for land access.
median breaks are provided by the governing public agency. However, local conditions and the reviewing agency may
These guidelines may only prescribe minimum distances for restrict the number of openings, which can affect the layout
ordinary conditions and may be modified by the reviewing design of the project. The site engineer needs to verify with

Median Break Spacing

Left Turn Lane Transition

Median

=
Transition Left Turn Lane

FIG uRE 3. 3 E Median break spacing.

 3.3 ■ TRANSPORTATION FUNDAMENTALS 177

L L
FIG uRE 3. 3 F Common types of curb and gutter.

the review agencies the location of the median breaks early to move outside the travel lanes without required additional
in the planning stage. road width.
Another situation occasionally overlooked is when a site Curb and Gutter. In most urban areas curb or combina-
has frontage on an existing road with a median. In develop- tion curb and gutter streets are preferred. Curbs are not
ing the site, a median break might be anticipated to promote typical on principal arterials or high-speed arterials. Their
site access, but the governing agency will have authority as purpose is to facilitate drainage, separate traffic lanes from
to whether a median break is permissible. Again, the site pedestrian walkways, contribute to the aesthetic appearance,
engineer should verify such requirements with the reviewing and reduce maintenance. Several different types of curbs are
agency early in the planning stage. often utilized depending on the locality and design speeds.
Turn Lanes. Dedicated turn lanes may be required on a Figure 3.3F shows various types of curbs. A common curb
highway for vehicles entering a site or located within the site and gutter width is 2.5 feet, to accommodate a 2-foot gutter
to accommodate internal traffic circulation. The turn lane is and a 6-inch curb width.
comprised of the taper and the storage bay. The taper often Barrier curbs, with a vertical height of 6 to 8 inches, are
varies from a minimum ofabout 100 feet to a length determine typically used for low-design speed roads. Roads with high-
by the lane transition equation, as noted in Equation (3.3A). design speeds utilize mountable curbs with 3 or 4 inches in
The traffic study for the site will determine if a turn lane height. A barrier curb protects the adjacent off street areas,
is warranted for a site and would designate the required such as sidewalks, from vehicles while also delineating edge
length of a turn bay based on storage requirements. The of travel and providing drainage conveyance. The mount-
width of the turn lane is often required to match the width able curb is often used in urban areas to allow for emer-
of the main travel lane. Based on timing or available storage gency vehicles to access an area, but most passenger vehicles
length, there may be a requirement for multiple turn lanes would still be challenged to cross over a mountable curb. The
(dual left turns, dual right turns, etc.). In general, higher mountable curbs are also used for high-speed roads because
volume highways will often warrant a turn lane into a site, a barrier curb may cause an unpredictable impact trajectory,
whereas a small local road may not require a turn lane for especially when located adjacent to a guardrail, bridge, or
traffic entering a site. other roadside obstruction.
A gutter is often incorporated into the curb, and may range
For 40 mph or less from 1 to 2 feet in width. The cross slope of a gutter is typically
larger than a road cross slope to provide additional drainage
L= s2w7 60 capacity. Gutter cross slopes are typically set to 1:12, or 8.33%
as compared to the 1:48, or 2.08%, typical road cross slope.
For 45 mph or greater Sidewalks and utility Strips. Sidewalks may be located
L= Wx S (3.3A) adjacent to the curb in retail and residential areas, or a buffer
may be provided between the curb and the sidewalk. When
where L = length of transition
the sidewalk is located adjacent to a curb the sidewalk width
S = design speed
W= width of offset on each side
is measured from the back of curb. A typical buffer width is
3 feet to accommodate utilities (like a fire hydrant) and traf-
Source: 2011 AASHTO Green Book, Page 3-134, fic signs, or 6 feet or more so that landscaping can be accom-
Equations 3-37 and 3-38. modated. The minimum width of a sidewalk is often 5 feet,
which follows accessibility requirements of the Americans
Continuous two-way median left-turn lanes are often with Disabilities Act (ADA}--and is comfortable width for
used for lower speed arterial highways. The median of the pedestrian travel. In retail areas, the sidewalk may need to be
roadway effectively acts as a turn lane for traffic in both wider to accommodate concentrated volumes of pedestrian
directions to make a left turn. There are inherent dangers traffic and provide enough clearance from site furnishings
in this condition, but the intent is to allow turning vehicles such as benches, trash receptacles, and vegetation.
110 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ

Cross slopes for sidewalks and the adjacent utility or planting the rollover between the outside edge of pavement and
areas are set at 2%, which is in compliance with ADA. The 2% the beginning of the shoulder, that is, the algebraic differ-
cross slope is directed to the street (curb and gutter) and pro- ence between the pavement cross slope and the shoulder
vides a comfortable walking surface while promoting drainage. cross slope. For additional information on the treatment
Sidewalk surfaces are commonly concrete or asphalt but may of shoulder cross slopes in superelevated sections, see the
also be constructed of porous pavement--either open grid, 1 AASHTO Green Book.
gravel, or pervious concrete--subject to the prevailing design Side slopes are used for connecting the road section to
conditions including soils, climate, ownership/maintenance natural ground. The slope gradient depends on the angle of
responsibility, and accessibility criteria. Material selection for repose of the soil and the available right-of-way width. In
sidewalks (and trails) is increasingly important especially for many cases, the slopes are constructed at a 3H:1V or 2H:1V
projects utilizing a low-impact or sustainable design approach. ratio. However, flatter slopes are generally desirable if they
Shoulders, Side Slopes, and Ditches. In some low-density can be provided within the available right-of-way. The type
residential areas and in most rural areas, shoulders, rather of mowing equipment also factors into determining the
than curbs, are normally used. Shoulders are 6 feet or wider maximum side slope grades. Drainage ditches at the toe of
and typically gravel. Highways will often have wider shoul- the slope control surface water from the pavement in exca-
ders and are generally paved with asphalt. vated areas or through an adjacent property in embankment
The cross slope of the shoulder is typically steeper than areas. Figure 3.3G depicts a conceptual plan and section of a
the cross slope of the normal street section. Typical cross roadway with an adjacent ditch.
slopes are two to three times greater than normal pave- Right-of-Way Widths. Right-of-way needs only be wide
ment cross slope, on the order of 4% to 6%. Where roads enough to accommodate the pavement and other facilities
are superelevated, shoulder cross slopes are dictated by that are operated and maintained by the local DOT. The
right-of-way is important to show because it identifies if all
10pen-grid pavement is generally considered to be 50% impervious or less with veg- the road improvements are accommodated within an exist-
etation in the open areas. ing right-of-way or ifland acquisition is required. The width

PLAN
VIEW

THRC
TRAVEL

SECTION
VIEW II-
l l l l

FIG uRE 3. 3 G Plan and section of shoulders, side slopes, and ditches.
 3.3 ■ TRANSPORTATION FUNDAMENTALS 179

of the right-of-way may be prescribed by the type of road, design, stakeout, and construction. It can be the centerline
such as a subdivision street with a SO-foot right-of-way, or of the road, edge of pavement, top of curb, or any other
may be set just beyond the sidewalk (usually about 1 foot designated point as long as the horizontal and vertical rela-
beyond the sidewalk). A newer development may have a tionship between the selected point and other elements of
consistent right-of-way width, but older road networks often the typical section are known. For a new roadway, the PGL
have variable width right-of-way, which can make new road is usually set at the centerline of the road, whereas a road
construction a challenge. widening project may set the PGL along the existing edge
Profile Grade Line. One important element identified on of pavement. The PGL provide reference to the alignment
the typical section drawings is the profile grade line (PGL) and profile geometry.
or theoretical grade line (TGL), an arbitrarily selected Example Road Sections. The roadway components are
reference point showing the proposed street elevations. used differently based on the project requirements. An exam-
While the PGL appears as a line in the profile view, in the ple of a few different road sections for various road types
typical section the PGL appears as a point (labeled as P in (urban, suburban, and rural) are shown in Figures 3.3H, 3.31,
Figure 3.3D). The PGL is selected for the convenience of and 3.3J in both a conceptual and illustrative context.

.-----..

SIDEWALK TRAVEL LANE CENTER TRAVEL LANE SIDEWALK

PARKING TURN LANE

12' 2.5' 6' 4' 11' 12' 11' 6' 6' 2.5' 12'

87'

R/W RJW
B
FIG uRE 3. 3 H Example of roadway components in an urban section, shown as (a) a two lane section with on-street parking and (b) a two lane with a
center turn lane section.
100 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ

....,,..........
11_, ,-1•
~

~~~J

11 11
i
A

I I
UTILITY I I TURN
BIKE PATH TRAVEL TRAVEL TRAVEL TRAVEL UTILITY SIDE
STRJP I I LANE LANE LANE LANE LANE STRIP WALK
I I
10' 6' 12.sJ 9.5' .5' 12' 12' 12' 12' 2.5 6' s· 12'

104'

R/W MV
B
FIG uRE 3. 31 Example of roadway components in a suburban section shown as (a) a four lane road with bike lanes and a median for turn lanes and
(b) a four lane section within a subdivision.

3.3.4. Intersection Types the LOS of the intersection. Design features that affect the
Intersections are points where two or more streets join or design of at-grade intersections include the following:
cross. The three basic categories of intersections in use are
1. Adequate intersection sight distances
at-grade, grade-separated, and interchange. At-grade inter-
sections are used for joining local, collector, and many minor 2. Angle of approach
arterial streets, whereas the latter two types are more gen-
3. Matching pavement grades on approaches
erally used on high-speed highways or arterials. Except for
certain unusual situations, the number of legs at any one 4. Width of the intersection
intersection should not exceed four.
5. Radius of curvature of the curb returns
Intersections affect the overall performance of the inter-
secting roads. A measure of the operational performance 6. Need for auxiliary lanes (e.g., turn lanes) or
includes the speed of movement through the intersection. channelization
The movement speed determines the capacity and thus
7. Intersection control
affects the suitability of a street to function as intended.
In other words, the LOS of a street is greatly affected by 8. Need for traffic-calming measures
 3.3 ■ TRANSPORTATION FUNDAMENTALS 181

/ ,. /
.,._ P: -~ ../
a.~1.,;.1.n
r .

10' 10' 10' 13' 13' 13' 1T

TRAVEL TRAVEL TRAVEL TRAVEL

MEDIAN
CLEAR ZONE LANE LANE LANE LANE CLEAR ZONE

30' 12' 1 2' 28' 1 2' 1 2' 30'

136'

RJW

B
FIG uRE 3. 3 J Example of roadway components in a rural section shown as (a) two lane road with shoulder and (b) a four lane section with roadside
ditches and a planted median.

Physical elements, traffic, human factors, and economics approach that is not stop-controlled. The "T" intersection
encompass items for consideration in the design process of has the least number of conflict points of any of the various
at-grade intersections. For local streets in residential areas, types of intersections and therefore provides a high level of
the major design considerations are adequate corner sight safety. Figure 3.3K illustrates some of the basic "T" intersec-
distances, matching street grades, and minimum radius of the tion variations.
curb returns. The complexities of intersection design increase The intersection shown in Figure 3.3K(a) is the most com-
as the traffic, bicycle, and pedestrian volumes increase, and mon in residential land developments where minor or local
the potential rate of conflicts (pedestrian-vehicle, pedestrian- roads are prevalent and may be used when minor roads inter-
bicycle, vehicle-bicycle, and vehicle-vehicle) increases. sect important highways with an intersection angle less than
The three basic types of at-grade intersection are the "T" 30° from normal. At locations with higher speeds and turning
intersection, the four-leg intersection, and the multileg inter- volumes, which increase the potential for rear-end collisions
section. Each type has numerous variations. The "T" inter- between through vehicles and turning vehicles, an additional
section and four-leg intersection are the most prevalent in the area of surfacing or flaring should be provided, as shown in
lower-category streets. In addition, the use of roundabouts, Figure 3.3K(b). In cases where left-turn volume from the
which can accommodate all at-grade intersection configu- through road onto the minor road is sufficiently high but does
rations, is a common alternative to traditional intersections. not require a separate left-turn lane, a bypass lane may be pro-
"T11 Intersections. The "T" intersection, or three-leg vided. This provides the space needed for through vehicles to
intersection, consists of three approaches, often with one maneuver around the left-turning vehicles, which must slow
102 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ

- - - - -A~- - - - -
-L
Single-Lane Approaches

- A-

- - - - - - - - - - ---..,A;..,
,--------~
- - - - - - - --
- _j
---
Right-Tum Lane and Bypass Lane

- B-

>',)
------------- - - - - - - :::::,,,..

Designated Lanes for Each Movement

- C-
f I Gu RE 3. 3 K Types of "T" intersections. (From A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets,
2011, by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C. Used with
permission.)

down before making their turns. Figure 3.3K(c) shows the such as collectors with minor arterials. Such intersections
addition of auxiliary lanes on each side of the through high- frequently are necessary at the fringe of large development
way approaching the intersection. This type of intersection is projects in high-density areas. Figure 3.31 illustrates some
suitable for locations where turn volumes onto the minor road of the basic configurations and various levels of the four-leg
are high, from both directions of the through road. An inter- intersection.
section of this type will generally be signalized. The unchannelized intersection shown in Figure 3.3L(a)
Four-Leg Intersections. The four-leg intersection may is used mainly at locations where minor or local roads cross,
or may not have an automatic right-of-way assignment. although it can also be used where a minor road crosses a
Depending on the design volume of traffic at the intersec- major arterial or collector road. In these cases, the turning
tion, control can be as simple as yield/stop at the lesser cat- volumes are usually low and the roads intersect at an angle
egory street to signal control with auxiliary lanes and islands that is not greater than 30° from normal.
to channel the turning movements. Variations of the latter When turning movements are more frequent, a flared
situation typically occur at intersections of major roads, intersection with additional capacity for through and
 3.3 ■ TRANSPORTATION FUNDAMENTALS 183

II
--A-- --B-- --c--
Uncho.nneli zed, Plo. ln Uncho.nnellzed, Flo.red Uncho.nnelized, Flo.red nnd Mo.rked

--D-- --E-- --F--

f I Gu RE 3. 3 L General types of four-leg intersections. (From A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2004, by the American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C. Used with permission.)

turning movements, such as those in Figure 3.3L(b), can Complete solutions and variations for various circumstances
be provided. The layout shown in Figure 3.3L(c) shows are numerous.
a flared intersection with a marked pavement area that Multileg Intersections. Multileg intersections (those
divides traffic approaching the intersection and is suit- with five or more approaches) should be avoided wherever
able for a two-lane highway that is not a minor crossroad, practical in land development. At locations where multi-
where speeds are high, intersections are infrequent, and leg intersections are used, it may be satisfactory to have all
the left-turning movements from the highway may create intersection legs intersect at a common paved area, where
a conflict. volumes are light and stop control is used. At other than
Figure 3.3L(d) shows a channelized four-leg intersection minor intersections, traffic operational efficiency can often
with right-turning roadways in all four quadrants. This con- be improved by reconfiguration that removes some conflict-
figuration is suitable in developments where turning volumes ing movements from the major intersection. Such reconfigu-
are high. The channelized islands may provide for pedes- rations are accomplished by realigning one or more of the
trian refuge; however, this configuration may be criticized intersecting legs and combining some of the traffic move-
for encouraging a free-flow condition for turning move- ments at adjacent subsidiary intersections, or in some cases
ments that challenges pedestrian safety. The configuration by converting one or more legs to one-way operation away
presented in Figure 3.3L(b) and (c), where additional lanes from the intersection. The distances between the newly
are provided for left-turning movements, can be adopted for formed intersections should be such that they can operate
channelized intersections as well. independently.
Figure 3.3L(e) demonstrates a simple intersection with Angle of Approach. Right-angle intersections provide a
divisional islands on the crossroads. This configuration better view of traffic and better turning movements than
accommodates a large range of traffic volumes. roads intersecting at acute angles. A recommended practice
The layout shown in Figure 3.31(.f) is suitable for a two- is to limit the angle of approach of the intersecting road to
lane highway that is not a minor crossroad and that carries 60° (relative to the through street). In those situations involv-
moderate volumes at high speeds or operates near capacity. ing intersections of legs at acute angles, the engineer should
104 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ
nature of these designs limits most accidents that do occur
------7~ to sideswipe accidents.
I ,,/ / // One major concern regarding traffic circles is their

1/ //
so·
accessibility to larger vehicles. As the neighborhood traffic
/
/
/ circle is generally implemented within approximately the
/
/ same right-of-way as a standard intersection, the construc-
/
/ tion of the central circle can greatly inhibit the maneu-
1/
verability of trucks or buses, which might not be able to
negotiate the tight radius around the circle. One solution
is to include a "truck apron" around the inner circle. This
is a paved outer ring with a mountable curb that allows
FIG uRE 3. 3M Realignment of intersecting road to obtain 90° the larger vehicles to more easily negotiate the tight radius.
configuration. The mountable curb, which can easily be negotiated by
larger vehicles, helps to prevent smaller vehicles from tak-
ing advantage of the apron to travel through the intersec-
tion at a higher speed.
consider slight changes to provide a configuration closer to There are a number of resources available to assist in
the desired 90° alignment. the design of roundabouts. In the absence of local or state
Figure 3.3M shows how an approach street with an acute
angle of approach can be modified to obtain a 90° intersec-
tion. On local roads, such an alignment is acceptable. On
higher category streets, this type of alignment should be used
cautiously. Although this type of alignment may improve vis-
ibility and turning movements, there are disadvantages to it.
Traffic control devices are obscured, and vehicles approach-
ing the intersection through the short radius curve tend to
encroach into the opposite lane, creating a traffic hazard for
vehicles turning from the main road.
Within a relatively large project, adjusting lot lines and
street configurations can achieve proper alignment of inter-
sections. For those projects that must access near or at an
existing intersection, local agencies may require extensive
modifications of the intersection to accommodate the addi-
tional volume of traffic. This can be costly and should be
identified early in the project planning.
Roundabouts and Traffic Circles. The last intersection
identified in this chapter is a roundabout and neighborhood
traffic circle, or mini-roundabout (Figure 3.3N). These two
roundabout configurations are shown in Figure 3.3N. The
primary difference between the roundabout and the neigh-
borhood traffic circle is scale: roundabouts are designed for
somewhat higher traffic volumes and speeds than traffic
circles, and consequently require additional land to con-
struct. However, both operate on the same principles: traf-
fic within the roundabout or circle has the right-of-way,
with entering traffic controlled by yield signs. By forcing all
vehicles to travel counterclockwise around the central cir-
cle, these measures force vehicles to reduce speed through
the intersection. Roundabouts and traffic circles have been
found to be highly effective at reducing the number of
intersection accidents. In addition, accidents that do occur
tend to be less severe than those for signalized or stop-con- TYPICAL MINI-ROUNDABOUT
trolled intersections. This is primarily because the design of De>igned for 15·20 mph

roundabouts and traffic circles greatly reduces the possibil- FIG uRE 3. 3 N Roundabout and mini-roundabout (neighborhood
ity of head-on and right-angle collisions. The circulating traffic circle).
 3.3 ■ TRANSPORTATION FUNDAMENTALS 185

guidelines, the reader is directed to FHWA (Federal High- Access management is a reference to the controlling sys-
way Administration) publication no. FHWA-RD-00-067, tems that are in place at the entrance into a site. The access
Roundabouts: An Informational Guide. management of a site may govern the location of the site's
driveway along the road, the need for turn lanes, or the
3.3.5. Site Access and Intersection Design requirement for channelizing devices at the site entrance.
A site's transportation accessibility is one of the critical ele- Channelizing devices may include a raised island at the
ments for the desirability of a site. A commercial develop- entrance or modifications to a highway median to prevent
ment will seek high visibility and proximity to multiple specific turn movements.
points of access from high traffic areas, while a rural resi- The local DOT will often control the site access based
dential development will seek a secluded site that discour- on the road classification, design speed, distance between
ages through traffic. The accessibility is important in the other intersections, and traffic characteristics of a site. The
context of vehicular traffic as well as pedestrian or bicycle DOT is concerned about preserving the mobility of the pri-
traffic. Most land development projects will only use at- mary roadways to keep traffic moving. This mobility is often
grade intersections, such as a signalized intersection or accomplished by limiting the number of entrances and inter-
stop-controlled intersection. Grade-separated intersec- sections. In contrast, a local jurisdiction and developer are
tions with ramps and flyovers are typically only provided on often interested in providing urban corridors that facilitate
major highway systems. access to development areas. In all cases, safety is a focus and
Access Management. Traffic circulation and ease of site access management is often prescribed to limit the number
access often determine a development's consumer appeal. Retail of potential for traffic accidents. Figure 3.30 depicts the
centers are often interested in corner sites, which allow for conflict points in relation to the regions of an intersection.
increased visibility and more opportunities for access from arte- Compare the number of potential conflicts on the left, with
rial and collector roadways. In contrast, a suburban residential access points A and B and an unrestricted access condition,
development may be interested in discouraging traffic through to the condition on the right with controlled access from
the neighborhood and might prefer a single point of access from point C. While ease of access is reduced, the potential for
a minor collector roadway. Urban areas with a mix of uses ben- conflicts and crashes is also reduced for the condition shown
efit from multiple access points and internal road networks. on the right. This is especially critical when access points are

B II C

• - -.;;:-7"'

. fL . ...
_4t,ii) : .
~g--
-(10 ..-'•·...•· .................................. ...,_......_____.

•
FIG uRE 3. 3 0 Areas of an intersection and conflict points.
10& i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ
located in close proximity to all other movements that occur entrances. Signalized intersections should be spaced fur-
near an interection. ther apart than unsignalized intersections. Partial access
Access locations are often controlled by the distance from entrances (e.g., right in and right out only) can be located
other intersections and access locations. Most jurisdictions closer together than full access points. The higher the speed
will set minimum distances between driveways, minor inter- limit of the roadway, the larger the distance between the
sections, and major intersections. The length of turn lanes, intersections. For example, the Virginia DOT (VDOT)
intersection queueing, acceleration, and deceleration areas requires 660 feet between driveways along a 30 mph road,
represent the functional area of an intersection and should be but 1,320 feet between driveways on a 50 mph roadway
kept clear of site access points (Figure 3.30). As vehicles enter (Urban Minor Arterial Classification). On local streets in
and exit a site, the movements introduce conflict points and residential areas, the recommended minimum spacing is
increase the opportunities for accidents. The DOT will review generally less at 125 feet. On collector streets, spacing should
the type of access that can be provided for the site based on the be increased to 250 feet. Table 3.3B provides some examples
characteristics of the highway and site. If entrance spacing or of intersection spacing requirements based on speeds and
proximity to an intersection is a concern, it's possible the DOT roadway classifications as indicated by VDOT.
will restrict turning movements in and out of the site. In commercial areas, it is common for one site to have
It's important to identify all access requirements dur- numerous entrances from the main highway into the
ing the early stages of design. The need for turn lanes, the office and retail establishment. The volume of traffic and
location of the site entrance, and the restrictions on turn- the numerous turning movements require these entrances
ing movements will have a large impact on site design and to be treated as intersections. Residential driveways, how-
desirability. In some cases, the requirement for turn lanes ever, are not considered intersections because of the low
for a new site entrance may require land from adjacent sites, volume and few consecutive turning movements. Recom-
which could be challenged by the adjacent property owners. mended spacing of minor commercial entrances is around
Intersection Spacing. The intersection control, highway 200 feet, depending on the traffic on the serving road and
speed, roadway classification, and access type all influence the anticipated traffic through each entrance. Spacing may
the spacing requirements of intersections and driveway be reduced if the turning movements into and out of the

TABLE 3. 3 B Minimum Spacing Standards for Commercial Entrances, Intersections,

and Crossovers, VDOT Road Design Manual
MINIMUM SPACING STANDARDS FOR COMMERCIAL ENTRANCES, INTERSECTIONS, AND CROSSOVERS

CENTERLINE TO CENTERLINE SPACING IN FEET

HIGHWAY UNSIGNALIZED PARTIAL ACCESS

FUNCTIONAL LEGAL SPEED SIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS/CROSSOVERS & ONE OR Two WAY
CLASSIFICATION LIMIT (MPH) INTERSECTIONS/CROSSOVERS FULL ACCESS ENTRANCES ENTRANCES

Urban ~ 30 mph 880 660 270

Minor 35 to 45 mph 1,050 660 305
Arterial :::: 50 mph 1,320 1,050 425
DIVIDED UNDIVIDED DIVIDED UNDIVIDED

Urban ~ 30 mph 660 425 440 200 155

Collector 35 to 45 mph 660 425 440 305 250
:::: 50 mph 1,050 495 660 425 360
Rural ~ 30 mph 1,050 880 270
Minor 35 to 45 mph 1,320 1,050 360
Arterial :::: 50 mph 1,760 1,320 495
DIVIDED UNDIVIDED DIVIDED UNDIVIDED

Rural ~ 30 mph 880 570 660 305 200

Collector 35 to 45 mph 1,050 570 660 425 305
:::: 50 mph 1,320 645 1,050 570 425
 3.3 ■ TRANSPORTATION FUNDAMENTALS 187

entrances are limited to the direction of flow of traffic, in along the highway to permit the driver to anticipate and avoid
other words, right-in and right-out movements. potential collisions. To enhance traffic operations, intersection
Intersection spacing is always a matter for consideration sight distances that exceed stopping sight distances are desir-
in maintaining safe streets and avoiding traffic queuing. Full able along the major road. Intersection sight distance for an at-
access conditions are often desired by new developments, grade intersection is subject to the type of traffic control at the
but uncontrolled access points introduce potential vehicle intersection or, where no traffic control devices are present, by
and pedestrian conflicts. Many traffic projections use pre- the rules of the road. At an intersection where no traffic con-
scribed values for estimating the volume of traffic expected trol devices are present, a basic rule of the road would require
at each entrance. These volumes, in conjunction with high- the vehicle on the left to yield to the vehicle on the right if they
way characteristics, are used to determine turn length and arrive at approximately the same time.
queuing requirements. Local knowledge of traffic patterns or Clear sight triangles are specified areas along intersection
attraction of the new development can further inform the approach legs and across their included corners that should
design recommendations. be kept clear of obstructions that might block a driver's view
Intersection Sight Distance. Another controlling factor of potential conflicts. The dimensions of the legs of the sight
for intersection location and design is sight distance. Sight triangles depend on the design speeds of the intersecting
distance is provided at intersections to let drivers identify the roadways and the type of traffic control used at the intersec-
presence of potentially conflicting vehicles and to be able to tion. These dimensions are based on observed driver behav-
stop or adjust their speed, as appropriate, to avoid intersection ior and are documented in NCHRP Report 383, Intersection
collision. The driver of a vehicle approaching an intersection Sight Distance. Two types of clear sight triangles are con-
should have an unobstructed view of the entire intersection, sidered in intersection design: approach sight triangles and
including any traffic control devices, and sufficient lengths departure sight triangles, as illustrated in Figure 3.3P.

II . rn j l II ,+I a - - - -

l I
/
I I ~ngle-

Decision Point
Approaching Sight Triangle for Viewing Traffic Approaching Sight Triangle for Viewing Traffic
(a) Approaching the Minor Road from the Left Approach ing the Minor Road from the Right

11 11 I

l f
l '\ ngle
(IE
_/ i '-
II I II I
Departure Sight Triangle for Viewing Traffic Departure Sight Triangle for Viewing Traffic
(b) Approaching the Minor Road from the Left Approaching the Minor Road from the Right

FIG uRE 3. 3 P Intersection sight triangles. (a) Approach sight triangles (uncontrolled or yield controlled),
(b) departure sight triangles (stop controlled). (Modified from A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and
Streets, 2011, by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C.
Used with permission.)
188 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ

Figure 3.3P(a) shows typical clear sight triangles to the intersecting road or crossing it, can be safely done without
left and to the right for a vehicle approaching an uncon- colliding with oncoming traffic, and then proceed.
trolled or yield-controlled intersection, The vertex of the The ability to ensure proper sight distance will often gov-
sight triangle on a minor-road approach (or an uncontrolled ern whether a site entrance can be placed at a given location
approach) represents the decision point for the minor road along a roadway. Vertical or horizontal obstructions can
driver, where braking to stop should begin if another vehicle prohibit visibility and a site access point would therefore not
is present on an intersecting approach. The distance from be allowed. Many jurisdictions will require a sight distance
the major road, along the minor road, is illustrated by the easement to ensure the line of sight is kept clear of vegeta-
dimension a in Figure 3.3P(a). The geometry of a clear sight tion, signs, site furnishings, parked cars, or other obstruc-
triangle is such that when the driver of a vehicle without the tions. If the line of sight crosses an adjacent property, the
right-of-way sees a vehicle that has the right-of-way on an developer may be required to obtain a sight distance ease-
intersecting approach, the driver of that potentially conflict- ment from the adjacent owner. A conceptual graphic of
ing vehicle can also see the first vehicle. Being the distance b intersection sight distance for two different site entrances
away from the intersection, the driver of the vehicle with is depicted in Figure 3.3Q. For Site 1, the sight distance is
the right-of-way should be able to slow, stop, or avoid other obstructed by a building and the angle of the sight lines are
vehicles, if it becomes necessary. undesirable. In Site 2, the road geometry and site location
Figure 3.3P(b) illustrates departure sight triangles neces- allow the line of sight to exist within the roadway and avoids
sary for a stopped driver on a minor road approach to enter horizontal obstructions.
or cross the major road. The driver on the minor road must have an unobstructed
For many land development projects, the most typical view for a sufficient distance to ensure that movement
type of traffic control is the stop control. The vehicle on through the intersection can be safely accomplished. This
the minor street is required to completely stop, ensure that sufficient sight distance depends on the speed of the oncom-
movement through the intersection, either entering the ing vehicles and some nominal perception-reaction time

,
SITE 1 SITE2

FIG uRE 3 .3 Q Sight distance for site analysis.

 3.3 ■ TRANSPORTATION FUNDAMENTALS 189

representative of most drivers as well as the physical condi- Both sets of data are clearly provided in table format in
tions of the intersection. For left turns, the number of lanes the AASHTO Green Book. The same publication also pre-
in a roadway will govern the length of the sight distance. As scribes the height of eye and the height of object at 3.5 feet;
a vehicle makes a left turn they must cross all lanes of traf- therefore, nothing in the line of sight, such as fences and
fic, and a median, before reaching the receiving lane--this vegetation, should be higher than this value.
condition increases the time of the turning movement that Curb Return Radius. The curb return is the arc of the curb
requires more time. Additionally, steep grades at an inter- that joins two roadways. The ability of a vehicle to turn safely
section should be considered when calculating the timing and effectively depends on such factors as type of vehicle,
required to make a turning movement-larger vehicles may pavement width, curb return radius, speed through the turn,
require more time to traverse steep grades. longitudinal and transverse pavement slope, and skew angle
The three types of movements for the stopped vehicle, the of the intersection. Ideally, as the vehicle makes a turning
corresponding sight triangles, and the values of the related movement, it remains within the limits of the designated
sight distances are explained in detail in the AASHTO lane. On local streets, for which the design vehicle is pre-
Green Book. These three basic cases are briefly identified dominantly small, and the design speeds and traffic volumes
here, while the detailed explanation of these and other cases are low, whether the vehicle stays within the confines of the
(intersection with no control, intersections with yield control designated travel lane is of minor consequence. The radius of
on the minor road, intersections with traffic signal control, curvature of the curb return affects the width of the entrance
intersections with all-way stop control) can be found in the of the street. Since pedestrian safety is paramount in resi-
AASHTO Green Book. dential areas and speeding is discouraged, short radius curb
returns are more desirable.
Crossing maneuver from the minor road: The vehicle In commercial and industrial developments, pavement
can proceed through the intersection, continuing widths and curb returns are matched to accommodate larger
along the minor street (four-legged intersections vehicles and reduce (or eliminate) the need for the vehicle
only). This requires that the vehicle clear traffic to encroach into other lanes during the turning movement.
approaching from either direction of the major street However, as the curb return radius increases, the entrance
and also vehicles turning left from the opposite direc- width increases, and consequently lane designations through
tion on the minor street. the intersection are obscured. Additionally, pedestrians are
forced to traverse larger pavement areas, which is a safety
Left turn from the minor road: The stopped vehicle can
concern. The need for channelization by islands or spe-
turn left onto the major street, which again requires
cial pavement markings to delineate the travel lanes then
clearing traffic from both directions.
becomes a consideration.
Right turn from the minor road: The stopped vehicle can According to the ASCE!NAHBIULI's Residential Street
turn right, which requires clearing traffic coming from Design (3rd ed., 2001), the recommended range for curb
the driver's left. return radii is 10 to 15 feet at local-local street intersections,
15 to 20 feet at local-collector intersections, and 15 to 25 feet
The vertex (decision point) of the departure sight triangle at collector-collector intersections. However, most jurisdic-
on the minor road and the corresponding assumed loca- tions prescribe minimum radius of curvature for the curb
tion of the driver's eye should be 14.5 feet from the edge of returns. The engineer should use discretion in setting these
the major road traveled way (note the edge of traveled way radii. In some cases, the sidewalk adjacent to a curb return
may be different from the edge of pavement). According to may have a thick section (increased from 4 to 7 inches) to
AASHTO, this assumed vertical location of the driver's eye is accommodate the occasional overrun of a large vehicle. The
3.5 feet above the roadway surface, and the object to be seen curvature is based on the largest type of vehicle that will
is 3.5 feet above the surface of the intersecting road. In addi- frequently use the street, pedestrian safety, and the cost for
tion to AASHTO, the reader is referred to local highway design maintenance of the right-of-way and the loss of usable land
criteria to establish the intersection sight distances. Without for development.
the benefit of a specific method, a reasonable rule of thumb In some cases the curb return radius does not need to
applicable to local-local and local-collector intersections is to match the vehicle turning radius--when a road section
allow 10 feet of distance for every 1 mph of design speed. For includes a bike lane or on-street parking the effective turn-
example, an intersection where the design speed of the major ing radius is larger than the curb return (Figure 3.3R). In
street is 35 mph requires a sight distance of 350 feet. this case, the vehicle path should be simulated to verify
The preceding discussions on sight distance for at- adequate clearance. Software can simulate vehicle turning
grade intersections assume that grades on approach legs movements assist in checking these provisions. An example
are almost level. When the grade along the intersection of one template is shown in Figure 3.3S. Other templates
approach exceeds 3%, the leg of the clear sight triangle along for the vehicles listed in Table 3.3C are provided in the
the approach should be modified by multiplying the calcu- AASHTO manual. The minimum turning radii values for
lated sight distance by the appropriate adjustment factor. 20 different vehicle types are listed in Table 3.3C.
190 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ

10.06 m 33 ft Trailer
.37 m 7.77 m
(4 .5 ft)1 (25 .5 ft)

,.,.
0

0 1m
5 ft
I
10 ft
I
2.5m
scale

0.91 rr
(3 ft]

12.20 m [40 ft] ~eelbase

13.87 m[45.5 ft]or reater

* Typical tire size and space between

tires applies to all trailers.

Path of left
front wheel
' ' ' ', \
'

'\ \

\ \
\ \

\\
I

rear wheel
0 5 ft 10 ft
~
O 2.5m
scale

• Assumed steering angle is 20.4 °

• Assumed tractor/trailer angle is 46 °
• CTR = Centerline turning
radius at front axle

2.44m
1--J
(8.0 ft]

FIG uRE 3. 3 R Minimum turning path for WB-40 design vehicle. (From A Policy on
Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2011, by the American Association of State High-
way and Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C. Used with permission.)
 3.3 ■ TRANSPORTATION FUNDAMENTALS 191

( (I 11 J ( (I II]
(..___ __
]I I)) CII U)

:=25'
~ffective)

FIG uRE 3. 3 S
__I
Effective turning radius for streets with bike lanes.

Channelization. Wide street entrances at intersections, AASHTO recommends the island area to be not less than
such as those generated by large curb return radii or 50 square feet as an absolute minimum and preferably
skewed intersecting streets, create large areas of pavement 100 square feet in size. Triangular islands should be 12 feet
that confuse drivers and promote irregular vehicle move- long on a side, not including the rounding at the corners.
ments. To mitigate these conditional hazards, painted Raised curb islands are set 2 to 4 feet from the edge of pave-
pavement markings or raised islands are installed to direct ment of the through street on low-speed roads. The setback
the traffic flow (Figure 3.3T). Raised islands also serve as increases with increasing design speed on the through street.
pedestrian refuge points, separate opposing traffic, and Curb Ramps. Curb ramps (or curb-cut ramps) are
serve as attractive aesthetic focal areas for the develop- required by ADA at most intersections and all crosswalk
ment when landscaped. In the latter case, however, the locations. According to the ADA, curb-cut ramps shall
landscaping must not impede sight distances nor obstruct be a minimum 3 feet wide and the slope shall not exceed
the driver's view of pedestrians. 8.33% (1V:12H). If located along a curb and gutter sec-
The size, configuration, and method of channeliza- tion, the gutter slope should be minimized to prevent a
tion are very site specific. Factors to consider include large grade change across the gutter and into the ramp--a
the volume of traffic, the type of intersection control, the gutter is usually set to 5% maximum adjacent to a curb. A
geometry of the intersecting streets, and, most important, detectable warning surface such as truncated domes must
the requirements and standards of the approving public also be provided for 2 feet longitudinally and for the full
agencies. width of the ramp for individuals with vision impairments.
The islands must be large enough to be visible to driv- Most states and municipalities provide standards detailing
ers for each turning movement affected by the island. curb ramp dimensions and intersection locations. Issues
192 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ

TABLE 3. 3 C Minimum Turning Radii of Design Vehicles

DESIGN CITY CONVENTIONAL I.ARGE2
VEHICLE PASSENGER SINGLE-UNIT INTERCITY Bus TRANSIT SCHOOL Bus SCHOOL Bus ARTICULATED INTERMEDIATE INTERMEDIATE
TYPE CAR TRUCK (MOTOR COACH) Bus (65 PASS,) (84 PASS,) Bus SEMITRAILER SEMITRAILER

SYMBOL p SU BUS-4O BUS-45 CITY-BUS S-BUS36 S-BUS4O A-BUS WB-4O WB-5O

Minimum 24 42 45 45 42.0 38.9 39.4 39.8 40 45

Design
Turning
Radius (ft)
Centerline 1 21 38 40.8 40.8 37.8 34.9 35.4 35.5 36 41
Turning
Radius
(CTR) (ft)
Minimum 14.4 28.3 27.6 25.5 24.5 23.8 25.4 21.3 19.3 17.0
Inside
Radius (ft)
TURNPIKE MOTOR fARM 3
DESIGN "DOUBLE TRIPLE DOUBLE CAR ANO CAR ANO HOME TRACTOR
VEHICLE INTERSTATE BOTTOM" SEMITRAILER/ SEMITRAILER/ MOTOR CAMPER BOAT ANO BOAT w/ONE
TYPE SEMITRAILER COMBINATION TRAILERS TRAILER HOME TRAILER TRAILER TRAILER WAGON

WB-65**
SYMBOL WB-62* OR WB-67 WB-67D WB-1OOT WB-1O9D* MH PIT P/B MH/B TR/W

Minimum 45 45 45 45 60 40 33 24 50 18
Design
Turning
Radius (ft)
Centerline 1 41 41 41 41 56 36 30 21 46 14
Turning
Radius
(CTR) (ft)
Minimum 7.9 4.4 19.3 9.9 14.9 25.9 17.4 8.0 35.1 10.5
Inside
Radius (ft)
"Design vehicle with 48-ft trailer as adopted in 1982 Surface Transportation Assistance Act (STAA) .
.. Design vehicle with 53-ft trailer as grandfathered in with 1982 Surface Transportation Assistance Act (STAA).
1The turning radius assumed by a designer when investigating possible turning paths and is set at the centerline of the front axle of a vehicle. If the minimum turning path is

assumed, the CTR approximately equals the minimum design turning radius minus one-half the front width of the vehicle.
2School buses are manufactured from 42- to 84-passenger sizes. This corresponds to wheelbase lengths of 11.0 to 20.0 ft, respectively. For these different sizes, the minimum

design turning radii vary from 28.8 to 39.4 ft and the minimum inside radii vary from 14.0 to 25.4 ft.
3Turning radius is for 150-200 hp tractor with one 18.5-ft-long wagon attached to hitch point. Front wheel drive is disengaged and without brakes being applied.

(From A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2004, by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C. Used by permission.)
 3.3 ■ TRANSPORTATION FUNDAMENTALS 193

Through ~
traffic , ,
lanes I I
:t :t ~R•
6Om [2. ft)
I I
0.6 m C2 ftl-1----1---...!
Offset I I R•0.6 m [2 ft]
I I

0.6 m [2 ft)__:_:_]--~- - - -
Offset -------
..-

~ Pointed Stripes

ThrouQh
traffic'\
lanes I I INTERMEDIATE
I I

m---
to 1.5 m [2 to 5 ft]

o.& to 1.0
c2 to 3 ftJ 0.6 to 1.0 m
Offset [2 to 3 ftl Offset
~ - Curb & Gutter
0.6 to 1 m--_-_~ _ _ _ _ _ R•l.2 to 2 m on opprooch
[2 to 3 ft] ..,_ Offset
Offset - - - - - - - C4 to 6 ftl

Through~
LARGE
---
traffic I, I R•0.6 to 1 m
lanes
I I C2 to 3 ftl
I I
I I I
R•0.6 to 1.5 m C2 to 5 ft]

O. 6 to 1 • O m I I
:t :t: , 1I
R•0.6 to 1.0 m [2 to 3 ftl
o. 6 to 1.0 m
C2 to 3 ft l I I 1 [2 to 3 ftl Offset
Offset I I •~~?Z:>72~~~
~ - Curb & Gutter
0.6 to 1 m _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ R• 1. 2 to 2 m on approach
C2 to 3 ftl ..,_ C4 to 6 ftl
Offset - - - - - - - - -Offset
~) TRIANGULAR CURBED ISLAND ON URBAN STREETS
FIG uRE 3. 3 T Detail of corner island. (a) Details of corner island designs for turning road-
ways (urban location), (b) details of corner island designs for turning roadways (rural cross section
on approach).
194 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ

Crossroad ~
SMALL
I I :
II 't• R•0.3 m Cl ftl
:•: ~ ~ R•0.6mt2ftl
I I
I I

Shoulder-----~- _ _ _ _ Moinl ine

Offset .._ Hiohwoy

Note:
Layout shown also could apply to loroe
islands without cur-bs.

~ Shoulder

Crossr-oad ~

I I I INTERMEDIATE
I I I

~ R•0.3 to 0.5 m
Throuoh-{1
Traffic Lone :i: t ~
CI to I. 5 ft l

I I 0.6 to 1. O m
I I [2 to 3 ftl Offset
' ' mm-rn'?T,~·· '-..,,.,..,.,..,..,,.,...,..,,...,,.,..,,.
~b~':,_ ~ S h o u l d e r
Shoulder _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Mainline
Offset .._ Hiohwoy

Crossroad-....,_
LARGE
I' I R•0,3 to 0.5 m
I I c1 to 1. 5 ft J
I I
I I
:i:t
I I 0.6 to 1.0 m
I I • •• ~ [ 2 to 3 ftl Offset
' I
,:1/.:,~·:·:.·.:-._"'::'m' Shoulder
_ _ _ _ _•.;_ _ _ _ _ _ Main I ine
..,_ Highway

~) TRIANGULAR CURBED ISLAND WITH SHOULDERS

FIGURE 3.3T (Continued)

for consideration in the placement and design of curb-cut • No obstructions, such as parked cars, should be
ramps include the following: within the path of a curb ramp.
• Visibility of the pedestrians should be considered.
• "T" intersections should not include a curb ramp
unless there is a painted crosswalk or traffic device Typical curb-cut ramp types, and curb-cut ramp details with
(stop sign or signal). recommended dimensions are shown in Figures 3.3U and
3.3V, respectively.
• Low points should be avoided to prevent drainage
ponding. 3.3.6. Design Criteria
• Traffic islands provided for pedestrian refuge should While the design of streets should follow the standards and
include curb ramps. guidance established by the well-known transportation
 3.3 ■ TRANSPORTATION FUNDAMENTALS 195

90" Ramps 45· Ramps

FIG uRE 3. 3 U Curb-cut ramp types. (Source: FHWA. Designing Sidewalks and Trails for Access,
Part I. Federal Highway Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation. Washington, D.C., 1999.)

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Variable 3'-0" Variable

I , J~jr A 1g::
or
Slope

Back Edge_____,,,/ A
of Sidewalk
ELEVATION VIEW OF b & c

ldewalk
Width
Slope
~12,1

(e) Cone. Sidewalk

SECTION A-A
(f)
FIG uRE 3. 3 V Curb-cut ramp details. (From A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2004, by the Ameri-
can Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC. Used with permission.)
19& i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ
agencies and organizations (e.g., FHWA or a DOT), addi- are constructed, they are then accepted as part of the local
tional considerations are provided for the design of streets or state street network system and the costs of repair and
in a lower speed environment typically associated with maintenance become the responsibility of public agencies.
land development projects. Traffic calming measures and Maintenance costs, in most cases, are funded through local
bicycle facilities are a few concepts that designers need and state taxes. Higher-order roads on the other hand are
to consider and introduce into their land development typically constructed with state and federal funds and main-
street designs with the intent of creating a safer roadway tained with state funds.
environment. It is imperative for the streets to be designed and built
Most of the design guidance for high-speed, high-volume according to the governing criteria. Failure to do so often
highways has been established by organizations such as results in additional design and construction costs in order
AASHTO, Institute of Transportation Engineers (ITE), and to have the street accepted into public roadway system. Non-
FHWA. Design guidance for low-speed roads is typically standard design may also cloud liability in accident cases.
established by local municipal or state agencies by adapting Instead of public streets, some developers choose to provide
the criteria from highway requirements. However, the popu- private streets. These streets are not turned over to the local
lar AASHTO design manual, A Policy on Geometric Design or state street network system. In these cases, the cost burden
of Highways and Streets has incorporated discussions and for repair and maintenance will then be the responsibility of
provided design guidance regarding local roads and streets the collective private owners.
in both urban and rural settings. Many local agencies have The design capacity, that is, the traffic volume that can
adopted the AASHTO manual entirely or with modifications be supported by a street, depends on factors such as width,
to reflect regional philosophies and conditions. AASHTO horizontal curvature, vertical curvature, longitudinal street
guidance represents the consensus of state transportation grades, superelevation, roadside obstructions, intersec-
agencies, the FHWA, representatives of the American Pub- tions, and traffic control measures. These criteria are usu-
lic Works Association, the National Association of County ally specified as minimums for development streets and are
Engineers, and others. They provide a consistent basis for determined by the need for fire access and whether on-street
street design with appropriate variations for climates, ter- parking is permitted. For collectors and arterials, it is neces-
rain, and economic factors. sary to design the street for the traffic volumes it is expected
The FHWA publishes the Manual on Uniform Traffic to maintain at some future date. These traffic volumes are
Control Devices (MUTCD). This manual has been officially determined during the initial traffic studies conducted dur-
adopted by most states and has become an important legal ing the preliminary design phases. Traffic data, such as ADT
document because it ensures that traffic control devices and peak-hour traffic volumes, are essential to establish the
such as signs, pavement markings, traffic signals, and other geometric design features of the street.
devices would be uniformly and consistently applied. Local Vehicle Characteristics. Roads are designed to accom-
jurisdictions, in most instances, are required by state law modate the characteristics of the vehicles using it. There is
to conform to the MUTCD. A local jurisdiction may have a wider range of vehicle types using arterial roads as com-
a supplemental document for local traffic control require- pared to vehicle types using local streets. In addition, the
ments. Use of this standard applies to both the selections of frequency of occurrence of specific vehicle types is higher
appropriate traffic control devices and for the design and on arterial roads. For example, a large truck (e.g., moving
application of pavement markings and signs. van) is only occasionally found on residential streets, but
High-speed, high-volume highway design is mostly large trucks are common on arterial streets. Therefore, for
governed by vehicle and driver characteristics. Local street economic reasons, streets higher in the functional hierarchy
design is governed by the same criteria but also considers must be geometrically and structurally designed to accom-
operation and nonvehicular use. More emphasis is placed modate larger vehicles. In comparison, the design require-
on pedestrian safety, local service, land accessibility, and the ments for local streets may not have to be as stringent. For
preference by residents for a pleasant environment. example, lanes for local streets may not be as wide as for
The safety of pedestrians and bicyclists is a major con- arterials, curve radii may be shorter, and grades steeper.
sideration in the planning and design of roadways. This is Local requirements for pavement structure and operating
particularly important in urban environments where their room for fire apparatus often provide more than adequate
interaction with vehicular traffic is high. Both AASHTO design for other similar vehicles.
and ITE have published manuals that provide guidance for The largest vehicle type that is most likely to use the
the development of safe pedestrian and bicycle facilities. In roadway with regular frequency is selected as the design
addition, the Americans with Disabilities Act Accessibility vehicle. The physical and operating characteristics of the
Guidelines (ADAAG) must be followed during the design design vehicle are then used to establish critical geometric
process especially in public street applications. and structural design features of the road. Local streets, like
In many localities, the actual construction and the cost any roadway, must accommodate the predominant vehicles
of construction of the street network of a development proj- using this type of functional street. The predominant vehicle
ect is the responsibility of the developer. Once the streets on local streets is the private passenger car, including small,
 3.3 ■ TRANSPORTATION FUNDAMENTALS 197

medium, and large size cars, vans, and pickup trucks. In are complex in that the driver, although proceeding slowly,
high-density developments (e.g., mixed-used developments, must contend with numerous vehicle and pedestrian move-
office parks), typically the travel way is not publicly owned ments occurring nearly simultaneously. Pedestrian move-
and maintained. Consequently, design criteria for minimum ments along and randomly crossing travel ways, vehicles
widths and radius of curvature are even less than those pre- entering and exiting parking spaces, as well as the move-
scribed for local public streets. However, the design engineer ment and turns of the normal traffic, all contribute to park-
must consider the use of these streets by emergency vehicles, ing area hazards.
moving vans, trash trucks, school buses, and other large Planning for the pedestrian is a high priority in the design
vehicles. Typical dimensions and minimum turning paths of roadways at the local level. Pedestrian safety provisions
for a variety of these design vehicle types can be found in the included in roadway planning are sidewalks, crosswalks,
AASHTO Green Book. curb cuts, and ramps for the physically disabled. Another
Driver Characteristics. The characteristics of vehicles such provision is special walkways for pedestrian freeway
and drivers using the roadway directly affect the geometric crossings. Traffic control features aid both pedestrian traffic
design. Driver behavior and response to various situations and vehicular traffic.
fluctuate based on conditions. Behavior and response for the Sidewalks should provide a continuous path to service
same situation and condition vary for the same driver at dif- areas such as community centers, schools, parks, and shop-
ferent times due to physical condition and mental attitudes. ping areas. Most ordinances require sidewalks on at least one
Likewise, the performance of vehicles varies due to size, side of the street. In some residential areas, the ordinance
weight, power, mechanical condition, and the driver. Road may require a paved trail in lieu of or in addition to the con-
design must account for some minimum standard of driver ventional sidewalk.
behavior and vehicle performance. Conventional sidewalks typically are adjacent and paral-
Individuals vary, and therefore as an added measure of lel to streets and travel ways, whereas paved trails meander
safety designers must account for below-average driver along natural pedestrian circulation routes. Another provi-
characteristics, with the presumption that a high majority sion is the need for landing and staging areas at bus stops.
of drivers will have these minimum threshold characteris- Unfortunately, bus routes through new residential develop-
tics. Driver's fundamental characteristics include perception, ments are rarely established prior to completion of the devel-
identification, emotion, and volition (PIEV). opment. Providing landings and pedestrian circulation to
Perception includes seeing and observing objects. Iden- these locations, when possible, adds to the appeal and safety
tification consists of comprehending an encountered object of the land development project.
and its surrounding elements. Emotion involves judgment One of the most dangerous maneuvers for pedestrians is
and the process of decision making, leading to responsive to cross a wide street at an unsignalized intersection. One
actions. Volition or reaction is the driver's will to react to option to increase pedestrian safety is to locate bulb-outs at
or execute the actions decided during the emotion process. corners as shown in Figure 3.3W This not only reduces the
The total time elapsed through the PIEV process is referred pedestrian crossing distance but also creates an illusion of
to as the PIEV time, or more commonly the perception- a narrower street to drivers, who instinctively reduce their
reaction time. speed. Additional traffic calming measures are discussed in
PIEV time varies with the complexity of individual Chapter 5.4.
situations. Factors such as the use of drugs and alcohol, Bicyclists. Many existing roads were not designed to
fatigue, and physical impairments cause increases in PIEV accommodate an ever increasing number of bicyclists shar-
time. Studies conducted in laboratory situations deter- ing the road. However, in areas of new construction, where
mined PIEV time as lying in a range from 0.5 to 7.0 sec- a significant number of bicyclists are expected, provisions
onds. Highway agencies typically use PIEV times of 2.5 should be made by the designer.
seconds for stopping distance and 2.0 seconds for deter- Ideally bicycle routes should be located outside the paved
mination of adequate sight distance at intersections. The roadway section when sufficient right-of-way is available.
latter is shortened because the driver anticipates a pos- This additional space is not always available or may be occu-
sible reaction at intersections. Similarly, familiarity with pied by sidewalks and utility strips. As a result, bicycle facili-
common signs and traffic markings reduced PIEV time ties can generally be designed as one or a combination of the
because perception identification and emotion occur following types:
almost instantaneously.
Pedestrians. Pedestrian safety is a concern on any road- Type !--off-street path: These bikeways should be used
way where a combination of vehicular traffic and people on high-volume, high-speed roadways provided right-
occurs. Pedestrian density substantially increases in the of-way space is available. They can be designed wide
lower classifications of streets in both residential and com- enough to accommodate both bicyclists and pedestrians
mercial areas. In residential areas there is an added empha- (10 feet or more). Provisions such as low curbs or plant-
sis on child safety. Not to be overlooked are the safety ing strips should be considered to separate these two
concerns of pedestrians in parking areas. Parking areas modes of transportation.
190 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ

...

□
FIG uRE 3. 3 W Bulb-outs (Source: FHWA. Designing Sidewalks and Trails for Access, Part I. Federal Highway Administration,
U.S. Department of Transportation. Washington, D.C., 1999).

Type II-bicycle lane: These bikeways are on-street cases to provide continuity to other Type I and/or Type II
striped routes. They can be located adjacent to curb lines bikeways in the area.
or adjacent to parking lanes. In either case a narrow
painted buffer should be considered to separate the bicy- When on-street bicycle lanes and/or off-street bicycle paths
cle lane from the adjacent travel lane. These bikeways are present in the land development, the design of the inter-
can be installed where sufficient street width is available sections in the development should be modified to reflect
or can be provided without restricting vehicular traffic. the presence of these facilities.
Figure 3.3X shows a typical Type II bicycle lane with sug- The following measures can be introduced:
gested pavement markings.
• Special sight distance considerations
Type III-bicycle route: The least desirable bikeway of the
• Wider roadways to accommodate on-street bicycle lanes
three is the on-street signed route. They are to be used
where there is insufficient curb-to-curb width to accom- • Special lane markings to channelize and separate
modate the striped Type II bicycle lane and in some bicycles from right-turning vehicles
 3.3 ■ TRANSPORTATION FUNDAMENTALS 199

WHITE
STOP LINE
TYP CURB
in
PARKING

i
I
X

5' TYP
4" WHITE TYP CURB
10' TYP

FIGURE 3.3X Type II bicycle lane.

• Provisions for left-turn bicycle movements topography, noise levels, accident potential, and other fac-
• Special traffic signal designs (such as conveniently tors. To accommodate access and circulation demands, street
located push buttons at actuated signals or even sepa- networks have evolved into grid and/or curvilinear patterns
rate signal indications for bicyclists) that fit certain situations and lend themselves to particular
solutions.
The subject of bicycle facilities is further explained Many mixed-use and retail establishments are designed
in the AASHTO Guide for the Development of Bicycle to promote walking and biking, which can create conflicts
Facilities. with motorized vehicles.
The safety of all modes of transportation should be con-
3.3.7. Site Design sidered with the design of a site. Pedestrian circulation should
Traffic circulation and ease of access often determine a be evaluated when providing sidewalks and street cross-
land development's consumer appeal. In purely residential ings should be prominent and accessible. The convenience
developments, the recommended practice is to discour- of street crossings and the safety of pedestrians should be
age cut-through traffic, by limiting the number of access balanced-inconvenient crossing locations may discourage
points to the arterials or collectors or by designing the the use of formal crosswalks, while too many crossing loca-
internal streets in short, narrow, curvilinear, and discon- tions introduce additional conflicts.
tinuous patterns. Although multiple access points might Grid Patterns. The grid pattern is a series of parallel streets
encourage through traffic, they do provide for less conges- intersecting at right angles creating rectangular blocks. The
tion because of more dispersion of the traffic from within grid is best suited for use in high-density areas with widely
the residential development. In mixed-use developments distributed traffic flows. Grid systems provide easily recog-
and commercial/retail projects, the access and circula- nizable orientation for users. Their simplicity in providing
tion pattern is more complex. Circulation and access are access is a definite advantage. The grid system simplifies
important to facilitate the traffic flow through the com- surveying and construction while also creating efficient and
mercial and retail sections. However, the commercial and uniform building sites.
retail traffic should not be directed through residential Grid street systems dictate the topography by forcing
areas. Proper planning of the development necessitates a specific grading design in order to obtain buildable lots.
that the residential section be located apart from the busi- Therefore, they are best suited for generally flat areas. Impos-
ness areas to reduce the high traffic volume's impact. As ing a grid system on rolling terrain in most cases requires
previously mentioned, through traffic can be discouraged extensive grading. Other drawbacks to this type of system
by street geometry and configuration, but this strategy is are the monotony of the layout and the lack of differentiation
most effective if the minor arterials have adequate capac- of function between individual streets within the system.
ity and provide a good LOS. The system also invites through traffic. These drawbacks
Internal Street Networks. Street circulation is site oriented can be overcome with creative design and by variations from
to a degree. Where and how the streets are oriented depend the typical grid. Figure 3.3Y illustrates the simple grid pat-
on the interrelationships of various aspects such as lot layout, tern and modifications such as using secondary loop roads
200 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ

J..J Ll..1.l.LJ....LLIJ LL:J.l.:LLi.1..1.J U create a sense of neighborhood on a small scale by collecting

the lots into small groupings through the use of smaller ele-
·-·1'·Tr:t1.rr.·:r..1·•·..·.·17··r:.rrrr.·r'1·•·. [r·
• ments of street patterns such as cul-de-sacs, loop courts, and
~1:;:if;4·-++·FS:H H:8A·++·:PS:H ~+
){iitifii/( /{) }))!) })· ·? short streets (Figure 3.32). Such a pattern's drawback is the
confusion created that may result when attempting to tra-
-.=.=rrrr-rrT)=.-- -•-rrr:1:J-0=\f fil<t:.J-
r-:-!~t:1·-t.t:-ht:H H~:':1.-t.t:·.t;.t!~
1:::: verse the area. Extensive curvilinear patterns are not recom-
mended for commercial and industrial developments.
·.·1 _i-i_ LJ _i- Lt: -: U -i_ LI -1-l:J-:- ·-· Circulation and access may be considered from two dif-
....1::J.F.l:J:J:.f::f.-....•. 171_-_f:}:;1:J:.TJ.-.· [!< ferent scales as they apply to the development's proposed
H---F:Ht.t:-f:-:1:--+1 r-:-!tf➔ t...t.:.•t.::tH 8.r public street system, and as they apply to a specific land
·:[:JTLF-1Tr: ·.-r.:.LLLJ_l·LI·.· -:-
77.:
parcel. In both situations, circulation and access are con-
r-t7·.T rr TT f""l rr•TT 17 TT--17 r=f
i··· ··t· r·1···i··i·r-·f·i···11 -··i· r··f · i···i·· ·1···i-· i· -11 r··1 strained by the existing street network, adjacent prop-
erty, and the intended type of land use for the proposed
A Typical Grid Pattern development.
Frequently, providing for adequate circulation and access
requires improvements to existing infrastructure elements
beyond the limits of the site, and these are often financed by
the developer. Turn lanes added to the existing street or sig-
-.:,j nalization of an intersection to improve capacity and safety
--~ .........
--i-:l ~ are examples of such required off-site improvements. Nec-
-:8 f:- essary considerations for circulation and access include the
:=81~~1 L following:
=] ~ • Will the intersection of the proposed street adversely
b-
f.- affect existing intersections?
• Is there adequate horizontal and vertical sight dis-
fu- tance at the new access point?
:~!::,~-;.~::.~';.~;'..'!-:: ~~~;;;;!.:~~
• Will turn lanes be required?
Modified Grid 1
• Will any intersections require signal control?

JU.,.~:-~._-i::_~:_.:l_L_!::1_.J,_,i::::::1.,.~-i::::_.1._lJ l
j -:-: :< ITl.T:T'I 'l'._17]:<vr_ IC''F'.'l T f-TT -- ~

.·.· .:.L1:.J:LL1:-:.L:tf.JX.h ..T:LLr-T····· l~

4j r.:-:l:-:::H-:++·Ff.:f:-:f:-8·':f.::i·fi.++.FH-.-.l::::1 Cul-de-sac Off-set Cul-de-sac

1R-:-n·::r r-~rT f:-~-::;-.T: rr:r-rr-:-1-n r

Modified Grid 2
FIG uRE 3. 3 Y Grid pattern and variations. (J. DeChiara and
L. Koppelman: Time Saving Standards for Site Planning, 1984, McGraw-Hill.
Reproduced with permission of McGraw-Hill.) /
to provide a more attractive environment while discouraging
nonlocal through traffic.
Curvilinear Patterns. Many medium to large projects
develop a curvilinear type of street pattern. Such a pattern ~
discourages "cut-through'' traffic, optimizes land use, and Loop road
T-type turnaround
minimizes cut and fill grading operations during construc- FIG uRE 3. 3 Z Smaller elements of street patterns. (J. DeChiara and
tion by taking advantage of the existing topography for streets L. Koppelman: Time Saving Standards for Site Planning, 1984, McGraw-Hill.
and, also, lot orientations and configurations. Such patterns Reproduced with permission of McGraw-Hill.)
 3.3 ■ TRANSPORTATION FUNDAMENTALS 201

• Will any streets within the development be required Other variations or shapes of cul-de-sacs may be pro-
to terminate at a particular point on the boundary vided to permit vehicles to turn around by backing only
to allow for access to adjacent properties for future once. Several types [Figure 3.3AA(f-i)] may also be suitable
development? for alleys, which provide access to the side or rear of indi-
vidual land parcels.
Considerations for access to a particular parcel such as For practical reasons, cul-de-sacs should be relatively
entrances (driveways) into commercial/retail sites should level. Pavement grades across the cul-de-sac should ensure
address: adequate drainage over the pavement and yet allow a vehi-
• Is the driveway length (i.e., throat length) adequate to cle to access adjacent land. A vehicle should be able to turn
allow for vehicle queuing into and out of the parcel? around without negotiating steep grades. Maximum pave-
ment grades across the cul-de-sac of 3% to 4% are recom-
• Is the driveway entrance too close to other driveway mended. The street grade entering the cul-de-sac should be
entrances or to an intersection that causes conflicts between 3% and 5%. To ensure proper design, the edge of
in turning movements? pavement or top of curb around the perimeter of the cul-de-
• If there is a median in the driveway, is it visible by the sac should be profiled. Spot elevations around the cul-de-sac
vehicles turning into the entrance? based on the resulting profile aid the contractor in construc-
tion. For more information on grading, see Chapter 3.4.
• Are the profile and cross section of the drive- The lengths of the vertical curves and tangent grades
way adequate and compatible with the roadway should be selected to provide a relatively flat area around
conditions? most of the perimeter of the cul-de-sac. This would allow
for smoother driveway connections. Site conditions and
Circulation within the parcel should also be considered: drainage considerations are key factors in determining the
• Is a loop road or perimeter road appropriate? lengths, locations, and tangent grades of curves.
Parking. For most land development projects, the avail-
• Does the parking area need to be partitioned or ability of vehicular parking is a critical characteristic of
somehow sectioned to facilitate traffic flow? the site. It's often difficult to accommodate parking within
• Are the landscaped islands adequately sized (e.g., a site-each parking space (including drive aisles) will
radius and widths) and located for visibility and take up about 300 square feet of land area. As a compari-
circulation? son, a shopping center may require four parking spaces for
every 1000 square feet of shopping space (or one space per
Cul-de-Sacs and Turnarounds. The cul-de-sac is a popu- 250 square feet), this means the parking area will often
lar street type for use on local streets. Cul-de-sac streets are occupy more space than the actual building area. In an office
open at one end and provide a turning area at the closed end. building, most employees likely work in a space smaller than
Although the circular cul-de-sac and its variations may be where they park their car.
the most widely used, other types of turning areas include There are generally three different parking classifica-
"T" and "Y;' among others. Some of these are depicted in tions: surface parking, garage parking, and street parking. A
Figure 3.3AA. The "T" and "Y" type require more incon- surface parking is at-grade and usually provided as a large
venient backing movements by the user but in low volume parking lot that can vary in geometry to fit the shape of the
situations conserve land and allow increased flexibility in the site. A parking garage is more expensive (20 to 30 times) to
land planning process. The type chosen for a particular situ- construct than surface parking spaces, but a parking garage
ation depends on the primary type of vehicle being serviced occupies less real estate and is therefore suitable for dense
by the turning area, traffic volume, and, most importantly, development areas (Figure 3.3BB shows a surface parking lot
the standards accepted by the approving agency. and a parking garage). A standalone parking garage (one not
Because they are open only at one end, cul-de-sacs are lim- attached to a building) usually has an efficient layout such as
ited to an ADT volume of about 200 VPD. If it is assumed that a rectangle that maximizes the number of parking spaces. If
a single-family residence generates 10 trips per day, then 20 the parking garage is below a building, the shape conforms to
residences will generate an ADT of 200 vehicles. Lot widths the building, which may not be an efficient layout but occu-
range from about 65 feet for small lots to 100 feet for moder- pies less land area. Street parking is provided with spaces
ately sized lots. Based on these assumptions, the maximum parallel or angled to a roadway and is common in dense
length of a cul-de-sac street is generally 650 to 1000 feet. development areas where parking lots or parking garages
The recommended radius for an all-paved cul-de-sac is are financially prohibitive. Within a development, such as a
45 feet. Most passenger vehicles require a minimum radius town center, on-street parking can provide convenient park-
of 30 feet to turn around. Small trucks and fire equipment ing adjacent to storefronts (Figure 3.3BB).
can turn around with one or two backing movements on In addition to passenger vehicle parking, many juris-
40-foot-radius cul-de-sacs. However, this presumes no vehi- dictions require parking for delivery vehicles. The parking
cles are parked within the turnaround area. spaces reserved for delivery spaces will generally be larger
202 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ
Path of P Vehicle w

\ I 1 r
! l
(a) (b)

/
\ l I
l

(c) (d) (e)

l
! \
! l J
'
..ILJ,.,)-JL ~ ~
L-Type T-Type Y-Type Branch
(f) (g) (h) (i)

FIG uRE 3. 3 AA Types of cul-de-sacs and dead-end streets. (From A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways
and Streets, 2004, by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C. Used with
permission.)
 3.3 ■ TRANSPORTATION FUNDAMENTALS 203

FIG uRE 3. 3 BB Example of surface parking and a parking garage.

(e.g., 15 x 25 feet), but the required number of spaces is sig- developments may prefer reduced parking areas because
nificantly less with only a few throughout the development. parking is used primarily by an individual just twice a day.
Retail tenants may have their own requirement for delivery Requirements. The required number of vehicle parking
trucks while a school will likely establish their own require- spaces is usually dependent on the use of the site and size of
ments for parking buses. Bicycle parking may be required in the development based on the local ordinance. Many park-
some regions and is usually separated into short term (bike ing requirements are based on the area of the building, the
racks) and long term (internal bike storage rooms). number of employees, or the number of homes. Many retail
The common dimension of perpendicular parking space or office tenants will also have their own requirements for
is 9 feet wide by 18 feet deep, but this can vary by 1 or 2 feet parking, which may exceed the requirements of a local juris-
in each direction based on local requirements. For context of diction. A hospital may be interested in additional handicap
scale, a small car is around 6 feet wide by 16 feet long--the (ADA accessible) parking spaces or a grocer might request
parking space dimension considers ingress and egress from more parking than the code requires. A lender or investor
the vehicle. Some retail tenants prefer larger parking spaces may also have their own requirements for parking based on
to accommodate shoppers that are loading goods. Office how they evaluate a project's marketability.
204 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ

In some cases, a developer may be interested in reducing that occupy parking spaces to provide room for vegetation).
the amount of parking for a site to reduce construction costs Parking visibility and setback is a common concern and there
or encourage alternative modes of transportation. If the site are often requirements for screening of parking areas. These
is located near a rail station, bus stop, or a bike trail network, requirements should be considered during early planning
the site could function with less vehicle parking. In mixed- stages as they can affect the available space for parking.
use development it's likely that the peak demand for park- Layout Options. There are three configurations for pas-
ing alternates between residential uses and office uses, which senger vehicle parking spaces: perpendicular, parallel, and
allows parking areas to be shared. angled. The angled spaces can vary as 45° or 60° parking
When providing parking areas, it's necessary to also pro- spaces. Perpendicular spaces are the most common for park-
vide parking in compliance with ADA. The minimum num- ing lots and garages, whereas parallel parking spaces are
ber of ADA spaces required is dependent on the number of common for on-street parking. Angled parking can usually
total parking spaces provided (Table 3.3D). The location of allow for more spaces (compared to perpendicular), but the
ADA spaces should be as close to the primary entrance of the angled spaces limit how parking is accessed through a park-
building as possible. When providing ADA parking spaces ing lot and is better suited for lots that encourage directional
within a garage, the spaces can be split between levels but movement (e.g., a fast food restaurant).
should then be located near an elevator. If all ADA spaces are Each jurisdiction will identify the geometric requirements
provided within a parking garage it may be necessary to ver- for parking spaces, which is usually identified in the zoning
ify that the parking garage has adequate floor-to-floor clear- ordinance or design standards manual. A perpendicular space
ance to accommodate a large ADA van--this often requires is usually 9 feet wide by 18 feet deep with a 24-foot-wide drive
additional height over standard parking decks. aisle. Parallel spaces are narrower but longer at 8 feet wide
Many jurisdictions also have zoning requirements for by 22 feet long with a drive aisle of 16 feet for one-way or 20
site parking. Landscaping is often required within parking feet for two-way streets. Angled parking spaces require a larger
lots and is provided through parking islands (curbed areas depth dimension than perpendicular, but the drive aisle can be
reduced because the angled parking space requires less space
to maneuver. If the parking drive aisles serve as primary routes
TABLE 3. 3 D Minimum Number of Accessible through the site, it's important to consider requirements for
Parking Spaces (From Americans with Disabilities emergency vehicles, which often have minimum widths of 20
Act, 201 Oby U.S. Department of Justice) to 26 feet. Table 3.3E provides a sample of parking stall dimen-
sions based on parking space alignment.
TOTAL NUMBER OF (COLUMN A) MININUM NUMBER
The optimum parking layout should consider the site use
PARKING SPACES MINIMUM NUMBER OF VAN-ACCESSIBLE
while also maximizing the efficiency of the parking spaces.
PROVIDED IN OF ACCESSIBLE PARKING SPACES
Parking should be convenient to the users while also providing
PARKING FACILITY PARKING SPACES (1 OF SIX a safe configuration for pedestrians. A layout should reduce
(PER FACILITY) (CAR AND VAN) ACCESSIBLE SPACES) the number of dead ends for parking bays and should reduce
the number of drive aisle intersections. If queuing is expected
1-25 1 1
within the site (e.g., highway access, fast food drive through
26-50 2 1 lanes, loading areas, etc.), parking should be provided where it
doesn't impede other prominent site movements.
51-75 3 1 Parking Planning Considerations. Parking generally
76-100 4 1 occupies large areas of a site and becomes an important mea-
sure of site's appeal, but parking demand can easily diminish
101-150 5 1 because of other transportation improvements. New public
transportation, autonomous vehicles, and ride share services
151-200 6 1 can reduce the need for parking on a site. When designing a
201-300 7 2 site, it's worth considering how to future-proof the site so that
parking areas could be redeveloped for higher value uses.
301-400 8 2
401-500 9 2 TAB LE 3 . 3 E Parking Space Dimension Table
500-1000 2% of total parking 1/6 of Column A* PARKING AISLE WIDTH AISLE WIDTH
provided in each lot ANGLE WIDTH DEPTH (ONE-WAY) (TWO-WAY)
or structure
45° 9 19 16 18
1001 and over 20 plus 1 for each 1/6 of Column A*
100 over 1000 60° 9 20 17 19
goo 9 18 24 24
'one out of every 6 accessible spaces
 3.3 ■ TRANSPORTATION FUNDAMENTALS 205

CARLISLE ROAD DIET

Location: Carlisle
Completion Date: 2011
Case Study: Carlisle's downtown, located in Cumberland County, Pennsylvania, was plagued by excessive vehicle speeds
and long crosswalks. The downtown's four-lane streets created an auto-dominance that was challenging for both pedes-
trians and bicyclists alike. The Borough desired to recreate the thriving, walkable downtown it once had. Dewberry was
selected to design traffic pattern changes that would calm traffic, enhance Carlisle's small town feeling, increase safety,
reduce noise and air pollution, and promote walking and bicycling.
Consistent with these goals, Dewberry designed a road diet conversion of High and Hanover Streets from four to three
vehicular lanes with a dedicated bike lane in each direction. The bike lanes provide an added benefit of making parallel
parking easier and making entering and exiting one's vehicle safer. Dedicated left-turn lanes were proposed at each sig-
nalized intersection in the downtown along High and Hanover Streets to improve traffic flow. In order to accommodate
the highly variable traffic volumes through Carlisle, significant upgrades to the existing uncoordinated traffic signal
system were recommended including an adaptive signal system, emergency vehicle preemption, and audible countdown
signals to better serve pedestrians.
20& i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ

The Carlisle Road Diet project features the cutting edge of traffic signal technology. With the first full-scale imple-
mentation of the InSync® Adaptive Signal System in Pennsylvania, traffic in downtown Carlisle will keep moving at a
steadier, calmer pace. An Encom® wireless communication system keeps all 21 intersections synchronized. Pedestrians
benefit from leading pedestrian intervals and audible countdown signals, while Carlisle's first responders are guided
through town via the new emergency vehicle preemption system. Curb extensions were also constructed to shorten the
pedestrian crossing distance and, in addition, truck mitigation signing was installed to reduce the number of trucks in
the downtown. On this project, pedestrians and bicyclists were the primary focus along with safety and traffic calming.
A significant challenge was the need to overcome initial public resistance to the road diet concept. Through many
public meetings, question and answer sessions, and finally the completion of construction, the Carlisle community has
accepted the changes and many now speak highly of the end results. One of the main reasons for the success of this
project was the cohesion and excellent working relationships among the owner, designer, and stakeholders. Everyone
had a strong sense of ownership in the project that was critical to keep the project moving forward and ensure that the
Borough of Carlisle's needs and expectations were exceeded.
 CHAPTER 3.4

GRADING FUNDAMENTALS

3.4.1. Introduction A contour is a graphic line connecting points of equal eleva-

Grading is configuring the surface of the land by remov- tion and is formed by the intersection of a horizontal plane
ing or adding earthen material to shape the land to best with the ground surface. Contour lines provide a legible
suit the development program. It is accomplished with description of a site's topographic condition. A topographic
both large machines, such as bulldozers, hydraulic break- map depicts the contours of a site, which provides a refer-
ers, and dump trucks down to people, rakes and shovels, ence to the ground shape. A topographic survey of a site is
and constitutes a major component of the function and prepared by collecting elevation points throughout the site
success of a land development project. and contour lines are interpolated from these points-in this
During site analysis it is important to examine the exist- way, a contour map is not a perfect depiction of all details for
ing topography of a site. The preliminary information a site but a visual reference (Figure 3.4A).
gathered for the feasibility study and base map will usu- The vertical distance between successive contour lines
ally include a topographic map of the site (as discussed is the contour interval. Most topographic maps, especially
in Chapter 3.2). This is an important indication of devel- those associated with a land development project, have a
opment potential. It is important to know how to read a constant contour interval. For instance, a 2-foot contour map
topographic map and to understand the implications of the means that the plan shows contour lines that indicate a 2-foot
existing topography. change in elevation. At every 10-foot change in elevation, the
This fundamental information will be crucial to be able to contour line may have a bold or different style to represent
interpret existing conditions and understanding the grading a major interval as compared to the minor 2-foot contour
process. In addition, it is important to know how these con- intervals. The contour interval provides a reference to the
tours relate to drainage patterns and drainage divides. This resolution of the data collected, where smaller intervals (such
will be important to consider not only when grading, but as 1 foot) mean that more information has been collected
also the impacts for stormwater management, which is dis- (refer to mapping accuracy information in Chapter 3.2).
cussed in Chapter 3.5. Next, this chapter discusses an over- When a topographic survey is requested, the contour inter-
view of grading and earthwork calculations. This process is vals will set the accuracy requirements. When a contour map
vital to apply during the site analysis to ensure that a piece of is referenced into a design document, the contour intervals
property can be developed efficiently and successfully. should not deviate from how the map was prepared-any
additional interpolation that adds contour lines would imply
3.4.2. Topographic Maps accuracy that's not available.
As introduced in Chapter 3.2, topographic maps display both State and local agencies, through ordinance and design
the horizontal positions of natural and man-made features standards as described in Chapter 2, often require specific
and boundary lines as well as elevation data (depicted as spot contour intervals for drawings submitted for review. While
elevations and contour lines). These maps can come from a large-scale topographic maps, with 5- to 10-foot contour
variety of sources, including field survey, aerial survey, remote intervals, are suitable for feasibility studies, smaller scale
sensing, and geographic information system (GIS) databases. maps, with 1- and 2-foot contour intervals, are used for final
Contour lines are a method for graphically depicting design and detailed studies. As discussed in Chapter 3.2,
three-dimensional information on two-dimensional media. contour maps that are developed from a jurisdiction's GIS

207
208 1a1umllill l'1i"n•!i! !lt~tl·!ll I~ll~lilllillill ; 111,1 !1 111111 !H
1 1 1

I I I / V / I
x2ea.!l X286~ )(284!.!. )(284~ ><284~ x&se.!l / ><286~ / x2114!.!. )(284~ 2 14

I I
I I
I
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....._ / ---
>< 287§,! x 285!r 211411 )(283?1 X283a
I I
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I
)(2851- x2t4E-
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'\ \ x283a
......
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)(~~,
/
x2ea?1 x2es!! ><283!! ><282~ ><282E
I ><282~ \ j x2e2E
~ 2e3E. \
I >< 285¥ \ \
\

\
\
\
\
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\
\ \ \
I
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l /
/
>< 288!! x2eeil ><284~ ><282!! ><281!! x288,!! \ x~eeil \ ><:t,4~ I ><2827 - >< 281!!
/

~ \
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/
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l
;,,;287~ )(285!! x284!! ;,,;282~ ;,,;281!! I
x2114!! ><282~ >< 281!!
)( ~ ~ / 28s!! /
I I
I
FIGURE 3.4A A spot elevation map without contours and with contours.

data will likely have a larger contour interval as compared to or abrupt changes in ground relief. This smoothness is carried
project survey. over to the concept of contour lines.
Characteristics of Contour Lines. The depiction of con- Contour lines indicate distinct elevations through a
tour lines should follow established rules that are used when site but only provide information at set contour intervals.
interpreting the topographic information. The following are The actual ground between contour lines may deviate as
the main characteristics of contour lines: much as the contour interval space-the area between
10-foot contour intervals could change nearly 10 feet
I. All contour lines eventually close on themselves if from the assumed smoothed ground line, as schemati-
traced in their entirety: Any apparent break in a cally shown in Figure 3.4B. When determining an ele-
contour line is due to the limitations of the map. vation between contour lines, the ground is assumed
Contour lines that extend beyond the limits of the straight unless additional information (such as a spot
subject area terminate at the map edge. elevation) is provided.
2. Contour lines cannot cross or overlap: This would Contour Line Patterns for Natural Surfaces. Many natu-
imply that two elevations occur at a single point. ral ground features can be identified based on the patterns
The exception is a vertical face, where contour lines of contour lines. The identification of these natural surfaces
will overlap on a two-dimensional plane, or an over- can identify potential areas of concern (depressions without
hang where contour lines will cross to represent dif- drainage) or suitable building locations.
ferent planes. Hills and Depressions. A series of contours that close on
themselves within the mapped area indicate either a local-
3. Spacing of contours indicates the general steepness ized hill or localized depression. Figure 3.4C(a) shows a hill
of the ground: Closely spaced contours indicate and Figure 3.4C(b) shows a depression. In Figure 3.4C(a)
steep slopes. As the ground slope becomes flatter, the elevations shown on the contour lines increase up to
the distance between the contours increases. Con- the summit. Conversely, in Figure 3.4C(b) the elevations
tour lines that are spaced further apart represent a decrease toward the bottom of the depression.
mild slope. Valleys and Ridges. Valleys and ridges are indicated by
4. A contour line cannot split, nor can several lines join contour lines configured in V-shapes. To distinguish the
to form one line. ridge from a valley, notice the direction of the apex of the V.
On ridges, the V points down ridge (i.e., downhill), while the
In general, irregularly spaced contour lines designate V points upstream (i.e., uphill) in valleys.
rough, rugged landforms; while parallel, equally spaced con- Overhangs. Technically, contour lines never cross. How-
tour lines indicate a smooth, uniform slope. On a relatively ever, in the case of an overhanging cliff or cave, where con-
large scale, the natural ground line is considered smooth and tour lines may appear to cross, the contour lines represent
continuous. Relatively few ground features show sharp jagged different planes.
 3.4 ■ GRADING FUNDAMENTALS 209

IRREGULARITIES IN NATURAL GROUND

cl_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _l
40

30

20

40-
/
__/ /
/
_/
DEVIATION DEPENDS ON
CONTOUR INTERVAL AND
MAP SCALE

FIG uRE 3. 4 B Irregularities in natural ground.

Contour Line Patterns for Constructed Surfaces. For an with possible wingwalls, piers, earth floor, etc. At the face of
existing constructed surface, such as a bridge, wall, build- a bridge the contours may appear to cross as two separate
ing, or channel, the depiction of a contour line will appear ground surfaces are being presented. Figure 3.4D illustrates
irregular. The contour line will appear to break at the con- this concept.
structed surface as it then begins to follow along the face of Retaining Walls. Although it is physically impossible
the surface. for several contours to join and form a single contour line,
Culverts or Bridges. At the end of a culvert or bridge there retaining and exterior building walls can appear in plan view
are, for all practical purposes, two land surfaces to consider. to do just this. For a vertical slope (wall) the space between
One is at the level of the invert of the structure (at the bottom) the contour lines disappears. Consider the face of a wall as
and the other is the "at grade" (above the structure). Typi- a series of contour lines stacked one on top of another as
cally, the ground will slope up and away from a culvert open- shown in Figure 3.4E.
ing and contours will be parallel and rather close together. A In tracing the contour line around a wall, the contour line
bridge will have a much more complex facial configuration intersects the wall at the contact elevation, that is, where the
210 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ

(a)

tDEPRESSION

(b)

FIG uRE 3. 4 C Contour patterns: hill, ridges, depressions, valleys.

·· ·370
···368
··:566

FIG uRE 3. 4 D Contour patterns for culverts and bridges.

ground meets the wall, and then continues along the face of of I-inch horizontal for every 8-inch vertical is common for
the wall. The contour line leaves the wall where the wall inter- gravity retaining walls.
sects the ground at that elevation. Many earthen retaining Exterior Walls of Buildings. Exterior walls of buildings
walls do not have a vertical face and instead have a steep slope, serve as earth retaining walls, as well as structural support.
or batter, along the face of the wall. The batter of the wall Similar to the conventional retaining wall, the contour
should be accurately considered in a grading plan because the line enters the wall where the ground surface intersects
wall height will govern the projection of the wall face. A batter the wall at the prescribed elevation, shown as points A,
 3.4 ■ GRADING FUNDAMENTALS 211

/
/

/
SCHEMATIC

RETAINING WALL

SIDEWALK

FACE OF CURB=-::_;;:,

EDGE OF PAVEMENT==.,:,

--~-

PLAN
FIG uRE 3. 4 E Schematic and plan view of retaining wall.

B, and C in Figure 3.4F. The contour line then follows the Direction of flow in the other channel sections is evident
exposed face of the building wall until it reaches the point from inspection of the contour elevations.
where the ground surface is the same elevation; shown as Another indication of the depth of the channel is how far
points A', B', and C' in the plan view of Figure 3.4F. Since upstream the contour line runs. The spacing of the contour
a contour line is continuous, if it enters the wall, it must lines along the sides of the channel is an indication of the
exit the wall. steepness of the bank. Figure 3.4H shows a 2- x 4-foot-deep
Conveyance Channels. Four frequently used conveyance V-ditch with the same longitudinal slopes and the same top
channel sections are trapezoidal, V-ditch, rectangular, and widths, w. The contour lines extend farther upstream for the
semicircular. In the plan view of Figure 3.4G, each of the 4-foot-deep channel as compared to the 2-foot-deep chan-
channels is 2 feet deep. The depth of the channel is evident nel. Because the top widths are the same, the 4-foot-deep
by comparing the elevation at the top of bank, with the eleva- channel has steeper side slopes, evidenced by the contour
tion at the bottom of the channel. On each type of channel line spacing on the sides of the channel.
section, point A, the top of bank, has an elevation of 6 feet. Streets. Two types of streets commonly used in develop-
A line drawn perpendicular to the flow line, through the ment projects are the crown street with curb and gutter, and
top of bank, intersects the flow line at elevation 4 feet, rep- the crown street with shoulder and ditch. Figure 3.41 shows
resenting the elevation of the channel invert. Hence, the the contour line pattern for a curb and gutter street sec-
depth is 2 feet. The V-ditch section shows the V-apex point- tion with longitudinal slope S. For a normal crown section
ing upstream-a quick indication of the direction of flow. street, the elevation decreases on a line perpendicular to the
212 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ
centerline due to the cross slope of the pavement. From the
prescribed elevation on the centerline (point A) the contour
line follows a straight line path that leads uphill until it meets
a point at the edge of gutter (point B) equal in elevation to
the centerline elevation.
The break in the contour at the edge of the gutter (point B)
results if the cross slope in the gutter pan differs from the cross
slope of the street. From the edge of the gutter, the contour line
continues uphill to the point on the flow line with the same
elevation (point C). The contour line then follows the face of
the curb downhill to the point on the top of the curb with the
same elevation (point D). The contour line intersects the out-
side edge of the sidewalk at the prescribed elevation. Typically,
sidewalks are sloped toward the street. This is apparent from
the contour line's downhill direction (points D to E) across the
sidewalk. A similar trace of the contour line is shown in the
shoulder/ditch type of street of Figure 3.4J.
Typically, surface drainage on the pavement flows toward
40 40 the curb and gutter (or ditch).
+ Berms and Ponds. Just as natural hills and depressions dis-
42 play contours that close in on themselves, berms and ponds
42 C C'
also have concentric contours. However, man-made features
8 BLDG FF = 47.Q. 8' 44 of this nature are typically less irregular, and the contours
44
tend to be evenly spaced and/ or parallel.
A'
A
Spot Elevations. Often, contour lines alone cannot provide
46
46 sufficient grading information to detail the existing ground
conditions. As a result, the level of precision needed to con-
struct the proposed features detailed on land development
46 46 plans is not afforded by contours alone. Therefore, spot eleva-
FIG uRE 3. 4 F Schematic and plan view of exterior building. tions are used to identify specific elevations at precise locations.

T2'
_L I
SECTION VIEW

08 A A
A
A A
06

02
04

V-SECTION SEMI-CIRCULAR
RECTANGULAR TRAPEZOIDAL
CHANNEL CHANNEL

PLAN VIEW

FIG uRE 3. 4 G Contour line pattern for conveyance channels.

 3.4 ■ GRADING FUNDAMENTALS 213

~-~~
4' DEEP-STEEP SIDE SLOPE V-DITCH
/
/

~ ,o----+--

4' DEEP-STEEP SIDE SLOPE

TRAPEZOIDAL CHANNEL

2' DEEP V-DITCH WITH GRADUAL

SIDE SLOPES
N "<t" tO 00 0
0 0 0 0

~)]~)- FIG uRE 3. 4 J Contour line pattern for shoulder.

2' DEEP TRAPEZOIDAL CHANNEL

WITH GRADED SIDE SLOPE
FIG uRE 3. 4 H Example of 2- x 4-foot-deep channels.
A spot elevation is usually indicated in the plan view
by a "+" or "x" symbol with the elevation written next to
it. Spot elevations identify discontinuous or abrupt grade
breaks in the ground surface, where straight-line interpola-
tion between contours does not give the intended elevation.
Therefore, spot elevations are used when the uncertainties
associated with scaling distances and interpolating between
contours cannot be tolerated.
Typically, spot elevations are used for

• Precise information regarding utility structures

(such as storm inlets)
• Changes in slope that occur between contour
intervals
• Identification of high and low points in the grading
scheme
• Description of retaining walls, that is, top and bot-
A
tom of wall elevations
• Elevations at building entrances and corners

The house-grading plan of Figure 3.4K illustrates the lib-

eral use of spot elevations. Abbreviations are written next to
the spot elevation when the elevation pertains to a specific
feature, for instance top of curb (TC), TC = 105.5. Selected
FIG uRE 3. 41 Contour line pattern for curb and gutter. abbreviations are given in Table 3.4A.
214 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iii 1 ,i\MilidtJ

y League Court

FAIRFAX COUNTY

FIG uRE 3. 4 K House grading plan.

3.4.3. Drainage Patterns which direction the water flows and the low point can then be
A good way to visualize how a site is graded, and to better identified. By picking multiple points, it will be easier to see
understand the contour lines, is to consider the drainage of how the entire site drains and understand the existing grades
the site. Water flows downhill following a path that is perpen- of the site. In addition, the path of a single drop of water can be
dicular to the contour lines. By considering a single drop of traced uphill to find the high point on the site.
water falling onto the site, the drainage pattern can be identi- Drainage Areas. Drainage areas, or catchment basins, are
fied by tracing the path of the water downhill. This will show the delineated boundary of drainage in a site. At a large scale,
for instance when considering a river system, a drainage area
may be referred to as a watershed. All water captured within
TA BLE 3 . 4 A Spot Elevation Nomenclature the drainage area will flow to the outfall at the low point of
the boundary. Drainage divides are the lines separating dif-
ABBREVIATION MEANING ferent drainage areas.
A drainage area can be used to calculate the area of the site
TW/BW Top/bottom of wall
draining to a single storm drain or may show a larger por-
TC/BC Top/bottom of curb tion of the site that drains to a pond. See Figure 3.4L to see
how multiple drainage areas can be depicted on a topographic
FF El. Finished floor elevation map. The drainage divide is the line between each drainage
area and is shown as the (dashed line with arrow).
BF El. Basement floor
Figures 3.4M and 3.4N describe the process to draw a
elevation
drainage area.
HP/LP High/low point Drainage areas are drawn by first identifying the low point
of a site, as can be seen in step 1 of Figure 3.4M. From there,
Inv. El. Invert elevation the divide is traced uphill perpendicular to the contour lines,
as can be seen in step 2. When two lines are drawn in oppo-
MH El. Manhole elevation
site directions from the low point, they will trace back to the
 3.4 ■ GRADING FUNDAMENTALS 215

map terminates, which is often at the limits of the site. It's

-:<~ \ \ l(:;;:. . . , , .,, / / ~ necessary to reference off-site contour information to accu-
"J;~/
. -' \ I I
/ '6'~ /~' .. ,/ rately depict the entire drainage area.

i- ,-!\. --- __ )\ \) '

q;s/I ,,/
· ~I\ \I \.__... / \/ ._ ~ -- On a large site, there may be several drainage areas, as shown
/
/ Cb ,,.,..
,, I I
L-~ .,..-
,,
2 , ~.. ----.. " I . I
in Figure 3.4N. One side of a ridge may flow in one direction,
II II c:::,I / _.,.. -...i, ~ \ while the other side will flow in the opposite, as can be seen in
I I If (
I
I N ,,\ - I \ I
+ :, .-~ \ "\ I
\ '
case B. Separate valleys within a site will each have their own
11
IJtr i I' I/\ 'I drainage areas, as can be seen in case C. Multiple valleys that

I/: //\\,,\ ~\I\ \/ / '

I I ', I I . ', ' \
11/ f '· \ I /1·.~ \ , are connected at one low point, however, will have one outfall
I I I : ', / and thus one drainage area, as can be seen in case D.

9\
',
1 / -
Af .._ . . . . . . _,,,,/z-':-,
I / /~

I 'O,"
~ , , ...
'- I ',
~I
,_, . t\ \/ ',,\

\. _,.. ___ ,, /
\ I

------4-
''-8---
'~~-6
--
The starting point of the drainage area does not neces-
sarily have to be at the low point of the site. A specific start-
ing point can be used to calculate different areas of drainage
within a site. Therefore, as a site is developed, multiple drain-
I J

I ·',
--

\... <
7---. J~
', '
', '· · --2
age areas will need to be drawn to be able to identify how
/ 1: '6.... ________
' ~ '
.,,, ...............
' ..........
..... ...............
... ..... ..... water is captured across the site. This will be utilized for
stormwater management facilities design, storm inlet design,
and with erosion and sediment control measures, which is
FIGURE 3.4L Drainage divides on a topographic map. discussed in Chapters 3.5, 3.6, 5.5, 5.6, and 5.7.
It is important to identify drainage areas during the site
same high point, and that will form the drainage area, as can analysis to know the existing conditions and drainage pat-
be seen in step 3. terns of the site. Generally, existing drainage patterns should
Ridges will usually form the border on the upland side of be maintained as the site is developed and graded. This will
the divide. As depicted in the graphics, the drainage divides minimize earthwork efforts, as well as work to preserve exist-
are not defined by the property line. The drainage divide for ing downstream conditions. The low point on a site will be
a site may include off-site drainage. A common error is to critical to know when considering stormwater management
assume that a drainage divide terminates where the contour strategies, which is discussed in Chapter 3.5.

HOW TO DEFINE DRAINAGE DIVIDES ACROSS STEP 1: IDENTIFY LOW PDINTAND BEGIN STEP 2: CONTINUE TRACING DRAINAGE STEP 3. REPEAT THE PROCESS ON THE
A SITE DRAWING THE DRAINAGE DIVIDE DIVIDE PERPENDICULAR TO THE CONTOURS OPPOSITE SIDE UNTIL A COMPLETE
PERPENDICULAR TO THE CONTOURS UNTIL THE HIGH POINT DRAINAGE DIVIDE IS PRODUCED

FIGURE 3.4M Process to draw a drainage area.

,,.,
,,,/' l
I
\ .·• ",,/
\ ( /,,- .,...._ ,
//
,,x 'f \ \ .-·/;-<....... ).:. ~/
- ,,.., , ,,...-\ I ';y/",/ '\,, ,," '<:( ·-,;'."-..~
'-.._(
\
\
I
I
L( ///..._
7,,,_, '\ /
,/ ,,ro,,
,, •::- \
rf ,,-/~\~ l
\\ II /~/
I\
¥'
I s{
/ .,,,.,....-,, ,
/
-.._ ~1 ·) \\\ \ y · '--. ~jy / $2
I ~ -~ l ~ ~---.,.
I I ,1,',, . . -..,_,..----
'--,,/ "
.,,." '\
\
--....i..- • •
\
~
' - - - ......... ,
, /~:----:~
✓;p-
~--
' ii(
-:",,/')\
~
+ · · \----.. , - ,_ \
I If()
I!~....... !\ f '
,-----........ )
\ ] (-~
I II o
..,_ I ,,_
I/ 1 I t,~ I
--- -..._
......,
\
I
I 7',--:,_
o
\
\

f~
I I I
I I ! ,. ........ J I "'\ I f '\ ', I 1I I
I~ l ,. - 1I /I\' ' \ I/ I, , ', 1
:I l/ I . ', I J :_ ...,, ' I I I / I , I J. ' -'

1: p /,f \ :
:I I\: '\,. , ./ I/ ~ ', 1,I,
\ I I . '' \ I I ·. ' ,
I
I
fI
I "' 1 \
I ·
I .
'
', I
/
/
/ \ ,
'

l\ /· '10 t '\ - --- \

I''\ ', 8 I l/ / \ \ \ \ ~--~ r ( ',, '---a---
1 1_1 1-:. ,_...
1 ....
J ',
\
\ I• '---6-- 1 j\'-...,
1\ / t=-. 10,H- \ 1. , . . . ___ 6--

rI}
: JI \,8-......, r/ ·. ~ ',,_,)) ,:-. ._
,:,,' a,,,_,
1 I\ I · ' IJ :

,, / J'------4 . . -~ ?,-'f''-----4-
,_ -:---. .
I / I

. . . , /•. . . . . ...._... <.... ·( :---... --2 --2

-. ,/1 : '8
......... _______ ,,...j . . . . . ..... ..................... .__. . . . ..... I
\ ,, / _______
." '6.........
-- ' ,,....j '-... ............................
-.. . ._ .

CASE A: MOUNTAINOUS REGION WITH SIX CASE B: DRAINAGE DIVIDES ON THE RIDGE CASE C: DRAINAGE DIVIDES FOR TWO
STREAM VALLEYS TOPS STREAM VALLEYS AT POINT 'A' AND 'B'

FIGURE 3.4N Multiple drainage areas on one site.

21& i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ
Environmental Impact. The drainage of a site is directly further analyze the topography of the site. The topography of
related to the water concerns that are discussed in Chapter 2.5. the site should be considered early in the design phase as grad-
During storm events, water quality and quantity must be con- ing will likely influence the site design. This section introduces
sidered as it drains across a site. Naturally, on undeveloped land, the terminology of slope and grade, which helps communicate
this water permeates through the surface into the ground and the existing topographic conditions. This terminology is used
slowly reaches downstream waterways. On developed and more to define standard slopes and grades for site conditions.
urban sites, however, impervious surfaces, like buildings and Grade and slope are often used interchangeably in defin-
concrete, decreases the amount of permeable surfaces, which ing incline or steepness of terrain. Slope may reference a
increases the storm runoff. This runoff is often too much for numeric ratio whereas grade may reference a percentage, but
the downstream waterways to accommodate-the runoff is also this is not a standard format across the industry.
moving quicker and can be heavily polluted. More information Along a linear path, like a roadway, the terminology oflon-
about water quality and quantity, as well as stormwater manage- gitudinal grade and cross slope is used to define directions of
ment strategies to manage runoff, are provided in Chapter 3.5. grade. Longitudinal grade refers to the grade along the length
During construction, though, specific strategies are required to of the path. Cross slope is the grade cut perpendicular to the
manage this runoff (as identified in Chapter 5.7). path. There are often different requirements for longitudinal
Erosion and Sediment Control. For any land development and cross slopes, as well as a maximum slope in any direction.
project, it is critical to develop an erosion and sediment Ground Slope. Ground slope is the rate of change in ele-
control plan to manage storm runoff during construction. vation, with respect to the horizontal distance, commonly
Construction activities remove the vegetative cover and expressed as a ratio. The ratio is provided in a format of
expose the soil underneath to the forces of water from storm horizontal:vertical distance. A slope of 4: 1 indicates that
events. Earthwork during construction can change the natu- for every 4 feet of horizontal distance the vertical elevation
ral drainage patterns of the site as well as negatively affect changes by 1 foot. This is usually spoken as "4 to 1" when
slope stability amongst other concerns. Runoff can then written as a ratio. Traditional nomenclature uses an elevation
erode the soil on the property and pollute downstream sites change of 1 foot, so it's not common to see a 5:2 slope, which
with excess sediment conveyance. The drainage across a site would instead be written as 2.5: 1.
is not limited to the property lines. The consequences of the The ratio format is best used to define steep slopes (e.g., 5:1,
construction activities could then affect neighboring parcels, 3:1, 1:1), whereas mild slopes are often described with a per-
which must be avoided and/or mitigated. centage or decimal. If the elevation drops 1 foot across 4 feet,
The erosion and sediment control plan prevents erosion and the percentage is calculated as rise/run, or 1/4 = 0.25 (25%).
the offsite migration of sediments. As a condition of the Clean Slope is usually written as a positive value with a directional
Water Act (as described in Chapter 2.5), most states require arrow in plan view. When shown in a profile for a road where
the preparation of a Stormwater Pollution Prevention Plan there is defined direction of travel the slope may be written as
(SWPPP) as part of every construction project that will involve negative for downhill and positive for uphill. Because there is
land disturbing activities. An erosion and sediment control plan no industry standard, even mild slopes may be written as a
is required by the SWPPP. A general erosion and sediment con- ratio of a different format (vertical:horizontal). A road cross
trol program must ensure compliance with local code regula- slope is often referenced as 1:48, or 2.08%.
tions, which will detail the specific requirements of the plan. Table 3.4B provides a list of common grades in both per-
To control runoff and sediment on a construction site, cent and ratio format.
typical elements of erosion and sediment control plans
include stabilized construction entrances; temporary sedi-
ment barriers such as silt fence, stormwater inlet filters, TA BLE 3 . 4 B Common Grades in Percent and
temporary sediment ponds, runoff diversions, check dams, Ratio Format
dust control measures, temporary stockpile, and soil stabi- PERCENT(%) RATIO (H:V)
lization; and permanent measures such as permanent veg-
etative cover, conduit outlet protection, slope stabilization, 2
or armoring. Many "nonstructural" design elements should
also be incorporated into these plans including minimizing 5
site disturbance during construction, minimizing soil com- 10
paction in vegetated areas to reduce runoff, and protecting
environmentally sensitive areas, such as wetlands, by estab- 20 5:1
lishing adequate buffers from construction activities.
More information about developing an erosion and sedi-
25 4:1
ment control plan will be discussed in Chapters 4.4 and 5.7. 33 3:1
3.4.4. Slope and Grade 50 2:1
After understanding the drainage across the site and environ-
100 1:1
mental impacts that must be accounted for, it is important to
 3.4 ■ GRADING FUNDAMENTALS 217

Note that these values (especially as percent format) Standard Slopes and Grades. When establishing the pro-
should not be confused with geometric angles. Slope is posed grades the site engineer should consider all national
rarely referred to with an angle in design but may be used and local requirements. Some jurisdictions will place limita-
when referencing geotechnical soil stability. The geomet- tions on how steep the ground can be graded based on soil
ric conversation is determined by the ArcTan of the deci- conditions and maintenance (2:1 and 3:1 are common limi-
mal format of the percentage slope (for a 25% slope, the tations based on soil characteristics and maintenance). Local
ArcTan(0.25) is 14°). jurisdictional requirements are usually found in the Devel-
The slope within a site can vary dramatically and should opment Standards Manual of the local subdivision ordi-
be considered when evaluating site features. Mild slopes nance, as discussed in Chapter 2.4. A retail tenant or home
(2% to 7%) can provide ideal locations for buildings with builder may also have grading requirements that should be
minimal earthwork requirements. Steep slopes (2:1 or 1:1) followed, which may set maximum and minimum grades
may suggest the need for walls. throughout the site. In addition, the Americans with Dis-
Given two points in a site (A and B) at a given distance abilities Act (ADA) sets requirements for maximum grades
apart, with elevations ElA and ElB, the average ground slope, of parking and accessible routes for persons with disabilities.
Savg, between the two points is The use of the site should also be considered when devel-
oping a grading plan to provide grades appropriate for the
(3.4A) proposed use. For example, in a retail development milder
slopes would be recommended to promote walkability
throughout the site.
By calculating the slope between two points, it's also possi- When designing a grading plan, it's important to consider
ble to identify the approximate elevation between those points errors in measurement and construction. The measured grade
through interpolation. For instance, Figure 3.40 shows points on paper should not depict the exact minimum or maximum
A and B that are 100 feet apart with a drop in elevation of grades. Any minor construction (or survey) error would result
20 feet (20% slope). Point C is between those points, 40 feet in a violation of the grading requirements, and most construc-
from point A. The elevation of point C is calculated as tion specifications allow for a tolerance of constructed eleva-
40 x 0.20 = 8, such that point C is 8 feet lower in elevation tions. This is especially important to consider when designing
than point A. Therefore, point C is at an elevation of 92. accessible routes that have requirements for maximum grades.
The grade can be easily calculated between contours based Parking (including ADA). Many jurisdictions will set require-
on the contour interval. For instance, if the contours are ments for grades within a parking lot. A 5% maximum grade is
shown at a 2-foot interval and the distance between mapped a common limit because it considers the challenge associated
contours is 20 feet the slope is 10%. This graphic relationship with opening a car door on a hill side. For parking along a ramp
between the distance of contours and the steepness of the site within a parking garage structure, the 5% is also a standard
can allow for a quick review of the site to identify suitable limit. While 5% may be a common limit for a parking lot or
building locations and areas of concern (Figure 3.4P). garage, on-street parking will follow the grade of the street.

A
ELEVATION 100

~
u
·•-
~
IU
>
1-
...
IU
IU

Cl
N
ONSO

100 FEET HORIZONTAL

FORMAT CALCULATED RESULT

RATIO: 100:20 5:1
PERCENT; 20/100 20%
FIG uRE 3. 4 0 Slope calculation for points A, B, and C.
210 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ
Steep Slopes Mild Slopes Steep Slopes
►

FIG uRE 3 . 4 P Example of mild slope areas and steep slope areas.

For a parking space that is marked to meet ADA park- When evaluating driveway grades, it's important to con-
ing requirements, the grade should be less than 2% in any sider the grade change between a primary road cross slope
direction-a longitudinal slope of2% and a cross slope of2% and the driveway grade. As noted in the AASHTO Guide
violates the maximum grade because it is 2.8% in the diagonal for Geometric Design of Driveways, the maximum desirable
direction. Some retail tenants will set requirements for mini- grade difference is near 8% before a vertical curve is recom-
mum and maximum grades of a parking lot as they consider mended. This guidance considers the effect of abrupt grade
shoppers with carts-a typical requirement is 1% minimum changes on vehicles, which may scrape along the roadway
(for drainage) and 3% maximum throughout the parking lot. if the transition is large. Considering a 2% road cross slope
Roads. A road will typically have a cross slope of 2.08% (down), the maximum desired driveway slope (up) should
(1:48) unless it is super-elevated or a jurisdiction permits begin at no more than 6% (for an 8% difference). A similar
lesser grades. Longitudinal slopes of a road will vary dramati- design guide should be used when considering site ramps
cally by geography. In areas with more mild terrain, such as for loading or parking garages as well as transitions from a
Texas, the department of transportation (DOT) has a mini- driveway into a garage home.
mum established grade of 0.25%. The AASHTO Green Book One other grade consideration for roads, or curbed
recommends 0.5% as a standard minimum grade, but many parking areas, is to provide a small shelf with a mild grade
private developments plan for a minimum grade of 1% to behind the curb when possible (Figure 3.4Q). The shelf
promote constructability and drainage. Maximum grades are should be graded near 2% or 3% for about 2 feet before
typically restricted by a jurisdiction and should consider the steeper slopes are proposed. This shelf provides a level
roadway classification, speed, and the number oflarge vehicles surface for curb inlets, site lighting, hydrants, and other
traveling along the roadway. For land development projects, site furnishings. Additionally, the shelf provides structural
it's common to establish a maximum road grade near 5% to support for the back of curb. Conversely, if there is a steep
allow for a parallel accessible sidewalk route, but in moun- slope toward the roadway or parking area there should be
tainous terrain it's not uncommon to see grades above 10%. enough width to transition to the road grades and provide
All road grades and changes in grade are restricted by vertical a swale, which prevents stormwater from running into the
geometry requirements, as discussed in Chapters 3.3 and 5.3. street.
When establishing the longitudinal grades of roads, it is Sidewalks and Trails. A sidewalk and trail will typically
important to consider the adjacent building frontage. For exam- have a requirement for a 2% cross slope, with drainage
ple, a series of retail shops or townhomes along a road will often toward the street. Sidewalks and trails that are located adja-
seek a constant floor elevation. The constant elevation across cent to a street will likely follow the same vertical geometry
the building reduces breaks or steps in the building but can cre- of the roadway. If a road grade is steeper than 5%, it may be
ate challenges with how steep the grade between building and required that the sidewalk alignment deviates from the road
road becomes. Mild slopes or localized high and low points can to provide a route that is less than 5%-although this is not
provide a nearly flat condition across the building face. always practical and a ramp may be required.
 3.4 ■ GRADING FUNDAMENTALS 219

SHELF ----·I
I
I
I

{2'-3')

FIG uRE 3. 4 Q Example of a shelf behind a curb line.

For accessible routes, the ADA requirements will govern distance the minimum permissible grade may be 3% within
the allowable grades for sidewalks and trails. The maximum the yard. A retail tenant may have requirements for 0.5% to
grade along an accessible route is 5% (1:20) before it is con- 1% grades within a given distance of the main entrance to
sidered a ramp. A ramp may be as steep as 8.3% (1:12) if the account for shopping carts. Steep grades adjacent to a build-
total rise is limited to 2.5 feet, a handrail is provided, and a ing entrance may also create issues with doors opening or
5-foot landing area (2% maximum slope) is provided. The accessibility. Some tenants may also require mild grades near
maximum length of a ramp is 30 feet to achieve a total rise of loading docks to provide a near-level condition for loading
2.5 feet. The effective or average grade of a route with ramps and unloading.
and landings, when considering the landings, is near 7%. Open Space. Grading within an open space is typically less
Curb ramps, the ramp between the street and a sidewalk, restrictive than hardscape areas and building perimeters. As
are also subject to ADA requirements. The 8.3% rule is still always, drainage should be considered when establishing
applicable as a maximum grade for the ramp but a handrail grades. In lawn areas and sports fields, the minimum grade is
is not required. When a curb ramp is provided with a gutter often 2% to 3%. Large open space areas should be evaluated to
section the gutter should not have a grade steeper than 5% ensure drainage is accommodated with yard inlets or defined
(1:20), which often requires minor deviations from the stan- channels to prevent ponding-lawn areas are often prone to
dard gutter slope. When designing a curb ramp the longitu- differential settlement which causes localized depressions.
dinal grade of the route should be considered. If the sidewalk Steep Slopes. Topography of the site, especially steep
has a longitudinal slope the length of the curb ramp may need slopes, will influence the developable area of the site and
to be increased to account for the change in relative elevation increase construction costs associated with earthwork. A
between the start and end of the ramp. When a curb ramp is steep slope is usually referenced as anything more than 3:1
proposed along a sidewalk route with a steep grade, the ramp (33% grade), but the specific threshold will vary based on
length may be impossible to accommodate. Some jurisdictions soil conditions. Steep slopes are challenging for pedestrians
set maximum lengths of a ramp. Figure 3.4R depicts two dif- to traverse and are well beyond grades acceptable for vehicle
ferent scenarios of curb ramps: one on a conceptual flat street travel. After a certain threshold the soil requires reinforce-
and the other on a street with a longitudinal grade of 4%. ment to prevent failure of the slope. If the site has a large area
When considering the grade of a sidewalk or trail it is of steep slopes in the existing conditions, it is likely that the
necessary to consider the effect of curved alignments. The developable area will be less than the total site area, and that
inside of a curve has a shorter distance and should therefore walls may be required to develop the site.
be considered when evaluating the grade of the sidewalk. For example, a project site has a total land area of 10
Building Perimeter. The floor elevation of a building is acres, but an initial evaluation of the site topography iden-
referred to as the finished floor elevation. The grading around tifies that large areas of the site have slopes steeper than
a building perimeter should be evaluated to ensure positive 15%. This analysis is important because the site will be con-
drainage away from the building. Additionally, if the elevation strained as the internal roads and building pads are estab-
around the building varies along the perimeter the variations lished at mild slopes (5% or less). The construction of walls
should be coordinated with the architect to ensure compat- could expand the developable area for the site, but there are
ibility with building features, such as windows and facade several conditions that should be documented during the
treatments. Within a retail strip or a row of townhomes the site analysis:
builder may request mild slopes to prevent steps between
shops or homes-vertical differences between attached units • Retaining walls will add significant cost to the design,
construction, and maintenance.
can add cost and restrict how a retail space can be used.
Many home builders will have criteria for grades adja- • Most wall systems require reinforcement behind the
cent to a building. For instance, within the first 10 feet of wall (70% to 100% of the wall height is common)
the home it's common to see a grade of 5% and beyond that which limits what can be constructed.
220 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ
CURB RAMP - 0% ROAD SLOPE

<
<I

,4 4

:VATION

CURB RAMP - 4% ROAD SLOPE

lADE

<I

+1.1 ' SIDEWALK

ELEVATION

FIG uRE 3 .4 R Example of a curb ramps on various street grades.

• If a wall is located near the edge of the property, the con- may limit the buildable area or identify the need for walls.
structability and the reinforcement systems may require Significant elevation changes may require long access roads
the wall to be offset into the site (or permission and to prevent excessive road grades. At this stage it's important
easements may be required from the adjacent parcel). to carefully analyze the site and begin considering how the
final topography will be established. The grading design
Steep slopes within a site will also require special mainte-
work begins in concept and schematic design phases (refer
nance considerations. Vegetation on the steep slope should
to Chapter 4 for more information). The preliminary grad-
not require significant maintenance, but a vegetative cover is
ing effort is usually limited to the following actions:
often recommended to enhance slope stability.
Determine critical points: The critical topographic points
3.4.5. Preliminary Grading and Earthwork within a site include access locations, desirable building
The development of final grading plan is typically reserved locations, and drainage outfall points. The elevation at the
until later phases in the design, but a preliminary analysis road entrances, existing elevation around the property,
of site grading can influence the site layout. Steep slopes and internal access will quickly shape the site topography.
 3.4 ■ GRADING FUNDAMENTALS 221

Identify steep slopes: Steep slopes throughout the site are a earthwork, the use of retaining walls, and drainage
sign that significant grading will be required. Most devel- problems, increases construction costs.
oped areas, such as sidewalks, parking areas, and buildings
2. Grading establishes new drainage patterns. To be
will have mild (or flat) slopes. The steep slopes will need
cost effective, the grading design should allow for
to be regraded to accommodate proposed development.
the efficient collection, conveyance, and control of
Calculate potential walls: The potential for walls should stormwater runoff. Proper grading prevents flooding
be identified early as the infrastructure can add signifi- structures, soggy yards, foundation damage, erosion,
cant cost. It's important to understand which wall system and muddy stream waters.
can be used for the project because the supporting infra-
structure and construction may require the walls to be
3. Grading defines the character and aesthetics of the
setback from the property line.
site. Site design is the foundation upon which many
other elements of development depend. Proper grad-
Consider geotechnical conditions: While a geotechnical ing should be cost effective to the developer, appeal-
report may not be available in early stages of design, it's ing to the user, and responsive to the opportunities
possible that some information has been collected. The and constraints offered by the site. In this way, it
presence of undesirable material, such as subsurface enhances property value and contributes to the suc-
rock, should be considered when identifying potential cess of a land development project.
area of cut in the site.
Site grading is one of the most important steps of the
Aim for balance: There's often an economic benefit to
land development design process. It determines the extent of
balancing the site earthwork, meaning that if the site
the clearing limits of the project and the potential for costly
needs significant grade the amount of cut will be similar
infrastructure, such as walls.
to the amount of fill required.
Prior to initiating work on the grading plan the design
Avoid drainage issues: Drainage issues can arise iflarge engineer should review soils mapping and available geo-
depressions are created in the site (sags, sinks, or bowls) technical reports to understand and evaluate existing site
with no way for water to escape. Even within storm and soils conditions. These investigations should include
drains this scenario should be avoided because drainage a review of information regarding problem soils, ground-
systems can be clogged or overwhelmed. water levels, rock formations, suitability of on-site soil
for reuse, and other conditions that may affect the grad-
Understand limits: Most projects will keep all grading work
ing design. In areas of poor soils it's possible that material
within the project parcel as permission from adjacent own-
would need to be removed and replaced, which can add
ers is often challenging. The grading limits should consider
cost. Similarly, digging in areas with significant rock for-
the parcel line as an area of the site that can't be changed,
mations will add cost and should be minimized when pos-
or permission to work off-site should be sought and estab-
sible. Refer to Chapter 2.5 for additional information on
lished early in the project. Within the property there may
soil classifications.
also be limitations on grading because oflocal regulations-
A grading plan is established through refinement of dif-
see Chapters 2.3 and 2.4 for more information.
ferent schemes over the course of several trials. During the
Keep aesthetics and accessibility in mind: While consider- first few trials, grades are adjusted to accommodate site
ing all else, the form and function of the site should always constraints, earthwork, different building designs, and the
be considered. A developer may prefer a more attractive preferences of the developer. A grading plan should be estab-
grading scheme even if it's not the most economical. Addi- lished to meet the following criteria:
tionally, comfort and accessibility can enhance the site.
I. Drainage: Ensure adequate drainage within the site
Grading Fundamentals. A good design integrates the natu-
ral landforms of the site with the proposed program to create 2. Earthwork: Balance the site earthwork, to minimize
an aesthetically pleasing, yet functional, and cost-effective import and export of soil material
site plan. Because a grading scheme must consider function 3. Access: Provide accessibility throughout the main
and utility, as well as aesthetics, it is both a science and an art. site routes, for pedestrians and vehicles
The grading of a site serves three basic purposes:
4. Aesthetics: Create an aesthetically pleasing landform
I. Grading re-forms the land for the intended use: The
relative elevations and gradients of streets, build- Experience and creativity both play a role in developing
ings, parking areas, and pedestrian/vehicle accesses the grading scheme. As the designer begins to work through
must be mutually compatible if they are to function the process, relationships between proposed improvements
as a system. Similarly, they must be compatible with and existing conditions begin to coalesce. It's possible to have
the surrounding existing terrain. Incompatibility a technically correct solution that isn't necessarily the most
with the existing terrain, which leads to excessive desirable solution. Important relationships begin to dictate
222 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ
patterns, such as existing elevations at site entry points com- often require slopes less than those recommended, thus, they
pared to ground elevations at proposed building sites. are not entirely uncommon. The use of flat slopes should be
When possible, it's economically and environmentally carefully considered, and avoided if possible.
beneficial to minimize the amount of native soil disturbed Earthwork. The term "earthwork'' refers to the manual
when developing a site. Or in the case of redevelopment, movement of soil. Earth is taken from one location and moved
existing impervious areas should be reduced, and native to another in order to form the land as desired. In general,
plant material would be reintroduced to the site. The site moving earth from one location on a site to another can be
design does not always require clearing and grading of the expensive. It is even more costly to a project when earth must
entire site, and the grading plan should limit the amount of be removed from or brought onto a site. Therefore, it is very
disturbed land when possible. important to have a balanced site where there will not be a
Drainage. Perhaps the most important aspect of grading large amount of excess soil or, vice versa, soil demand.
is to ensure proper drainage of the site. If water is trapped, The term "cut" refers to an area where soil is removed, while
flows toward undesirable locations, or causes erosion, the the term "fill" refers to the area where soil is added. Cut and
grading has failed in its most basic requirement. The design fill areas are indicated on the grading plan by comparing the
engineer must consider runoff within the site as well as run- existing contour lines to the proposed contour lines. Where the
off that flows onto the site from off-site areas. The drainage proposed contour elevation is higher than the existing contour
study sets the basic parameters for the grading design and elevation, the area is a fill. Conversely, a cut area is one in which
often influences the site layout. The following is a list of goals the proposed elevation is lower than the existing elevation.
for a site grading plan from a drainage perspective: Figure 3.4S shows a grading plan of a building with cut and
fill areas. As an example of determining the depth of cut from
• Collect and convey stormwater runoff and direct it to comparison of contour lines, consider point A, where the exist-
adequate outfall points. ing 106 contour line intersects the proposed 100 contour line.
The section view shows the 6 feet depth of cut at this point.
• Convey runoff away from buildings to protect them
The left side of the building is a cut area and the right
from damage.
side is a fill area. The plan view shows a line around the cut
• Establish overland relief to prevent localized flooding.

Drainage is conveyed either overland or subsurface.

Overland flow in its most benign form is called sheet flow,
where little or no concentration of water exists as it moves
across uniform, fairly level areas. Sheet flow is an ideal way
to convey water because it helps absorption and is nonero-
sive. However, after about 200 feet (or less for steep slopes)
the sheet flow becomes shallow concentrated flow. Shallow
concentrated flow should be directed to adequate convey-
ance systems prior to causing erosion. The designer's job is
to artfully manipulate this transition from sheet flow to shal-
low concentrated flow using sound engineering principles
without cluttering the site with drainage system components.
Within most site there's a condition that will lead to local-
110
ized depressions or sump conditions. These locations will
need to be drained through inlets and closed conduit sys-
tems. But these areas should be graded with consideration
for overland relief-if the inlets and pipe systems are over- 10S
whelmed the localized flooding should not affect buildings.
As discussed in more detail with Chapters 3.5 and 3.6, most
storm drain systems are designed only for 10 year storms, 100
which means they may be surcharged with larger storms.
During the surcharged condition the site should be graded
to allow the overflow to be carried away from the buildings.
9S
Adequate drainage through a site is also important prior
to site stabilization. Construction delays could also occur:
Very flat slopes are difficult to achieve in the field, even
90..__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
given the precision of modern construction equipment. Flat
SECTION A-A
areas also remain wet for a longer period of time, which may
cause construction delays following rain. Yet, site constraints FIGURE 3.4S Plan and section view showing cut and fill areas.
 3.4 ■ GRADING FUNDAMENTALS 223

and fill areas known as the zero cut/fill line. This line con- it is most effective to cut into the hillside and use the excess
nects the points where no fill or cut occurs and separates soil as fill on the lower portion of the site.
the cut areas from the fill areas. Additionally, notice that the One of the most compelling reasons to achieve a balance
line also follows the points where the proposed contour lines of earthwork is its effect on project cost. Moving soil around
connect to the existing contour lines around the perimeter of a site is less costly than either importing fill to the site or
the graded area. Since the basement floor elevation has been hauling excess cut from the site. Generally, importing fill
established at elevation 99.0 feet, the zero line follows the onto the site costs more than hauling excess material away.
existing 99-foot contour line through the center of the build- Balancing the earthwork helps keep costs under control and
ing. Although this grading plan shows only one cut and one often will help the finished site appear more in harmony with
fill area, other projects may have several areas of both types. its surroundings.
The zero cut/fill lines are helpful for determining earthwork The relationship between cut and fill is simple in concept,
quantities, which is discussed later in the chapter. but other factors must be considered which complicate the
Consideration of cut and fill quantities is very important equation. These factors include
when developing a grading plan. For many reasons, a "bal-
ance'' of cut and fill is usually desirable. Balance is achieved Soil conditions: It cannot be assumed that onsite material
when the quantity of cut is roughly equal to the amount of may be used as fill, especially in areas where a load, such
fill. For example, in order to create a flat area on a hillside, as a building or wall, is to be placed. The designer must

Flat Site

a). Berms, mounds and landscaping transform a

mundane flat site into a flowing land forms.

b). Berms can be used to hide unsightly areas,

attenutate noise and divert wind.

c). Emphasizing
picturesque views.

FIG uRE 3. 4 T Grading to improve aesthetics. (Courtesy of Maurice Nelischer, ed., Handbook of Land-
scape Architectural Construction, Vol. 1, 2nd ed. Washington, D.C.: Landscape Architecture Foundation, 1985.)
224 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ

verify the engineering characteristics of on-site soils Aesthetics. Drainage and earthwork considerations form
rather than assume they may be used as fill material. the basis of functionally sound grading; however, form
should follow closely to function. A site must appeal to
Undercut: The cut/fill analysis should consider that the
a user's aesthetic sense in order to be successful. If a com-
proposed grade condition might not represent the total
mercial development is set below the road elevation, the
amount of cut or fill. Undercut occurs if the soils are poor
visibility (and marketability) of the site is poor. If a home is
and need to be excavated and replaced with good material.
set too high above the road elevation, it may appear unwel-
Topsoil: In undeveloped areas of a site the existing natu- coming and require an uncomfortably steep driveway. When
ral grade (turf or forested conditions) can have nearly a designed properly, grading can transform a flat, featureless
foot of topsoil. This material is required to be removed site into a visually pleasing series of rolling landforms that
(cut) but can be only be reused in proposed turf and established a visual interest in the site and enhances the con-
forested area. sumer's experience.
Figure 3.4T illustrates how grading can be used to enhance
Pavement and building slabs: Pavement and building slabs
aesthetics. The grading itself can become the feature, as in
have an associated thickness of material below grade, which
the creation oflandforms where none exists [Figure 3.4T(a)].
reduces required adjustments to the cut and fill calcula-
Grading can also be used to influence what we see, by hiding
tions. Areas of the site with proposed pavement or building
a visually undesirable element, as shown in Figure 3.4T(b),
slabs will decrease the amount of fill required in a fill con-
or opening up a view, shown in Figure 3.4T(c). The land-
dition and increase the amount of cut in a cut condition.
forms created for aesthetic reasons can simultaneously serve
Shrink and swell: Soil, especially expansive clays, will functional roles. The landform may aid in the balancing of
shrink and swell based on changing moisture condi- earthwork by providing an on-site location to dispose of
tions. The shrink and swell will modify the volumetric excess soil or be used to direct wind away from buildings or
calculations. Similarly, when reporting the amount of cut outdoor use areas.
for other soils the contractor should understand that in However, using the grading to enhance the site aestheti-
situ volumes of material will be smaller than the volume cally is not achieved by simply following formulas and rules,
when stockpiled or transported in an uncompacted state. it must be coupled with creativity and a thorough knowledge
Borrow across projects: A site developer (or the contrac- of the site. Because most of these grading devices have an
tor) may have several concurrent projects with different impact on project costs, the aesthetic gain must be compared
cut and fill needs. It may be desirable to intentionally to the extra construction expense. Sometimes the designer
produce a need for fill on one project to dispose of can justify the expense, but must be prepared with lower cost
excess fill from another nearby project. solutions if necessary.
Impacts of Grading and Earthwork. It is important to
Additional details on necessary adjustments to earthwork consider the impacts of grading and earthwork during early
are described in Chapter 5.4. In all cases it's important to con- design stages before the final grading is commenced. Earth-
sider the daylight limits for the site are proposed. The daylight work is often a major cost of a land development project and
limit represents the point at which the proposed grade is equal often requires a significant amount of construction time.
to the existing grade and generally represents the boundary of When possible, a permit for clearing and rough grading may
the site or the limits of work. If a significant cut or fill condi- allow for earthwork to occur while other site elements are
tion exists near the limits of work, it's possible that a retaining being final designed.
wall will be required to prevent earthwork off-site. During construction it's possible that undesirable con-
Access. The site's access grading for both pedestrians and ditions arise as rock is discovered, or unsuitable material is
vehicles should be designed based on the proposed use of identified-the grading plan should consider the site geo-
the development. A residential site will have different access technical reports to limit costly earthwork conditions. For
requirements than an industrial site because the volume of example, if the geotechnical report identifies shallow rock
traffic and variety of vehicles. Large trucks are impeded by conditions the grading plan should reduce the amount of cut
steep grades or abrupt grade transitions, whereas passen- to prevent the need for blasting.
ger vehicles can traverse steep terrain without a significant By removing vegetation from the site during the earth-
impact on vehicle behavior. work efforts of construction, the runoff from storm events
Grading can also create intentional vertical barriers increases. Vegetation is naturally permeable and allows for
that limit access. A berm may be used to limit pedes- rainwater to percolate into the ground. Compacted dirt across
trian access or a retaining wall may establish a separa- a construction site does not allow for drainage into the soil
tion between a roadway and an adjacent green space. and will instead sheet flow runoff across a site. This can dam-
When possible, all pedestrian routes should meet ADA age the site and existing waterways. To avoid harming the
accessibility requirements-existing steep roadways may environment, this runoff is mitigated during construction
prohibit adjacent pedestrian routes and alternate routes through appropriate erosion and sediment control measures,
should be developed. which will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 5.7.
 CHAPTER 3.5

STORMWATER FUNDAMENTALS

3.5.1. Introduction and wildlife are affected by land use changes or before these
The transformation of land results in a change in the hydro- effects become noticed. Damaging effects from other pollut-
logic and hydraulic characteristics of the watershed during ants such as phosphorus and nitrogen promote algae growth as
construction and after the development is complete. The they are washed into natural water systems. If left unchecked,
natural environment allows for permeation of stormwater eutrophication and water quality degradation are imminent.
runoff into the ground. Land development, however, has his- Stormwater management (SWM) is the mechanism for
torically increased the amount of impervious area. The built controlling stormwater runoff for the purposes of reducing
environment of structures, asphalt, and concrete decreases downstream erosion and flooding, and mitigating the nega-
the amount of natural permeable surfaces. tive effects resulting from urbanization. Many localities have
This development has resulted in an increase in the post- ordinances which require specific action to mitigate such
development flow rates, the runoff volumes, and frequency of potential damage. Within the broad scope of the Clean Water
flooding as well as the degradation of surface water quality. To Act (as defined in Chapter 2.5) local authorities are com-
convey the increased runoff: systems consisting of curb and pelled to implement measures such as sediment and erosion
gutter, storm pipes, and channels are typically developed to control, stormwater quantity, and quality controls to dimin-
safely convey the runoff through the developed basin. These ish the negative effects of land use changes. Best Manage-
man-made conveyance systems directly increase flow veloc- ment Practices (BMPs) are those techniques used to control
ity that decreases the basin time of concentration, resulting NPS pollution. Local jurisdictions may also have additional
in higher peak flow rates. This increase can be dramatic- SWM performance requirements, commonly groundwa-
even moderate development conditions can increase the peak ter recharge, which can greatly affect the overall site SWM
discharge from two to five times higher than pre-developed strategy. While traditional SWM techniques centered on the
conditions. Perhaps more importantly, the volume of runoff detention of stormwater runoff, current techniques look to not
can be increased by several orders of magnitude. only decrease the peak runoff rate but also the total volume of
Figure 3.SA depicts a hydrograph of the same size site before runoff. To manage runoff rate and volume, these techniques
and after development. In the figure, each line represents the utilize infiltration or collect rainwater for reuse to replicate the
discharge rate of stormwater from the site, with the peak flow pre-development hydrologic conditions of the site.
occurring about midway through the storm. The volume of The modern approach to SWM often involves a com-
runoff is illustrated in Figure 3.5A by the area under each curve. bination of facilities and technologies to address the vari-
Along with the increase in water quantity, urbanization ous performance requirements in a given jurisdiction and
results in an increase in nonpoint source (NPS) pollutants. accommodate the unique characteristics of a site. This chap-
Trace metals from galvanized downspouts, flashing and roof- ter discusses the basic concepts for hydraulic analysis, design
ing materials, and other pollutants are washed into natural techniques for sizing and locating various SWM facilities,
channels. Other pollutants such as tire particulate, hydrocar- and various types of BMPs that can be incorporated into the
bon products from pavement and fuels, and mechanical part land development program.
flakes can all end up in the surrounding streams, lakes, and This text focuses on two of the most common methods of
groundwater. The damaging effects of the many pollutants hydrology; rational method and Natural Resources Conser-
might not be immediately apparent. It may be years before fish vation Service (NRCS) methodology. The rational method

225
22& i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ
BEFORE AFTER
DEVELOPMENT DEVELOPMENT
------ ----.,
--~ - - ...0.. '
(

,,\
I
I
I
\
\, \ IAL

s.

23-V·......··... -- l
~ ---------------------- )

TIME (HOURS) t
FIG uRE 3. 5 A Hydraulic and hydrologic effects of urbanization.
 3.5 ■ STORMWATER FUNDAMENTALS 227

is best used for very small drainage areas and provides a early planning and design to ensure sufficient space is allot-
good estimate of peak runoff rate based on a few simple vari- ted and an adequate outfall is available. Therefore, consider-
ables. The NRCS method, in reference to Technical Release ation of stormwater is important in the planning stages of a
55 (TR-55), is a more robust methodology which uses syn- project. To develop a successful stormwater management pro-
thetic storm models over a given duration (usually a 24-hour gram (one that meets applicable jurisdictional guidelines and
storm) to evaluate the quantity of runoff as well as the rate. adheres to client/developer expectations and project goals),
Both methods are generally accepted and the differences the engineer must understand the site hydrologic conditions
between each will be discussed in depth. and options for stormwater management systems.
Storm Model Units. When evaluating stormwater manage- Hydrology focuses on the stormwater runoff from a site
ment, it's necessary to understand the source of input values (hydraulics focuses on conveyance, which is identified in
and the available precision of the calculated values. Hydrol- Chapter 3.6). The hydrologic conditions of a site are affected
ogy and hydraulics analysis uses modeled storm events based by the characteristics of the site's topography, soils, land cover
on historical rainfall data-but an actual rainfall event will not condition, and rainfall pattern. These characteristics will influ-
match the modeled event. The values used for the storm mod- ence the rate, volume, and quality of runoff from a site. A site
els are determined by statistical methods based on the observed is evaluated in a before and after (pre and post) development
events. When reporting the results and preparing a design, it's condition, which documents how stormwater management
important to consider the available precision and the appropri- systems provide necessary treatment. This comparison deter-
ate significant figures in documentation. In most cases, a rain- mines the applicable stormwater management requirements
fall model is built on a value of inches measured to the tenth and reveals feasible strategies for managing site runoff.
of an inch (usually three significant figures). As an example, Like all components of the design process, the hydrologic
the calculated channel flow based on a rainfall intensity of 7.03 analysis is often iterative, especially when it comes to assessing
inches per hour and calculated as 145.17569 cfs (cubic feet per the post-development condition. Hydrologic analysis performed
second) should be reported as 145 cfs-anything more suggests as part of the preliminary engineering effort is often updated,
a measured accuracy that is not actually available. checked, and rechecked as the site layout and grading scheme are
An additional concept to consider is the unit of measure- refined. A larger building, additional parking spaces, or additional
ment for calculating runoff: cubic feet per second (or cfs). roadways will change the stormwater management requirements.
This unit of measurement is an industry standard, but it may The preliminary engineering hydrologic analysis (usually
be easier to visualize the equivalent volume for gallons. One performed during concept and schematic design) should be
cubic foot is equal to about 7 and half gallons (7.48052). performed at a level of detail sufficient to confirm applicable
For reference, a 24-inch-diameter concrete pipe at a slope of requirements and ensure that adequate facilities can be pro-
2% can convey about 32 cfs or 240 gallons per second. vided to meet those requirements. This typically means that
The volume of runoff is usually evaluated based on a given the size and location of the stormwater management systems
rain event and measured as inches of runoff for an area to deter- are estimated based on the proposed land cover condition.
mine the cubic feet of runoff (for larger systems it's also com- Instead of calculating the exact square footage of buildings
mon to see a measurement of acre-feet for a unit of volume). In the impervious area of a site can be estimate as a percentage-
the example shown earlier in Figure 3.SA, the volume of runoff estimate examples are provided later in this chapter.
from a 10-acre site during a 10-year rain event was calculated at In the early stages of design, the location of the outfall should
172,000 cubic feet-this converts to 1,287,000 gallons, or almost be identified to verify that the downstream system is adequate
enough water to fill two Olympic sized swimming pools (each for the post-development condition. A site may have multiple
Olympic pool is about 660,000 gallons). outfall points, which all must be evaluated. The adequacy of an
When considering the velocity of stormwater, the common outfall is determined by the geometric condition and the capac-
unit of measurement is feet per second (ft/s). For a common ity. The geometric condition of the outfall should be at an attain-
reference, each foot per second is equivalent to about 0.7 mile able elevation such that stormwater can gravity-drain from the
per hour. For most pipe (or man-made) conveyance systems site. The capacity of the downstream system should accommo-
the maximum recommended velocity is 10 to 20 ft/s (7 to 14 date the post-development flow rate without causing flooding
mph), depending on the material. For natural channel systems, or erosion. If the downstream system is not adequate it will
the maximum velocity is based on the land cover conditions require additional SWM systems to control the site discharge,
but is often less than 3 ft/s to prevent erosion of the channel. improvements to the outfall system, or both.
By considering the units of measurement, it's easy to The importance and validity of the preliminary plan is
appreciate the magnitude of stormwater management sys- established by ordinance and, in some jurisdictions, reaf-
tems. Large storm events can have disastrous consequences firmed through proffers or development conditions often
to a community-and even small events can lead to continu- related to specific infrastructure components such as storm-
ous degradation of the natural environment. water management facilities. As such, it is important for the
preliminary engineering hydrologic analysis and related
3.5.2. Hydrologic Analysis design efforts to be accurate but conservative.
Site layout, grading, and drainage are interrelated: stormwater The following discussion presents a primer on the popu-
management systems are integral parts of a site and require lar methodologies for hydrologic analysis. It is important to
220 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ
understand that certain sites may warrant detailed investigation The concept of exceedance probability and recurrence
and at times, alternate methodologies may be required either interval is often misinterpreted. A 100-year storm does not
due to site conditions or jurisdictional design standards. The mean that it will only occur once every 100 years. Likewise,
site engineer should be aware of the jurisdictional requirements if a particular event occurs today, then it will not occur for
prior to initiating the hydrologic study. The techniques, applica- the next Tr years is not the proper interpretation of the recur-
tions, and limitations of both the rational and NRCS methods rence interval. The recurrence interval represents the statis-
are identified in this chapter. Before introducing the hydrology tical average number of years between similar events given a
methods, it's important to understand the components that are relatively long period of record.
common to both methodologies: rainfall and runoff. Occasionally, it is necessary to determine the probabil-
Additional information and detailed computations and ity of a specific event being exceeded within a specific time.
examples are presented in Chapter 5.5-this chapter intro- The probability P of an event having a given return period Tr
duces the concepts and fundamentals. occurring at least once in N successive years is given as
Rainfall and Runoff. Every rainfall event is unique. Tempo-
ral and spatial precipitation vary seasonally as well as within
a storm event due to the prevailing climatic conditions at
P=1-(1-;JN (3.5B)

the time of the storm. Just as every rainfall event is unique,

the resulting runoff from a storm event is also unique. The From this equation the probability of a 100-year storm
runoff condition of the site will change as the site transitions occurring at least once in 100 years is 63%. A distinction exists
from pre-development to post-development. between the probability of an event occurring at least once and
The site characteristics such as the amount of vegetation, exactly once in a given time period. Another form of the risk
land use, soil classification, topography, and other factors affect equation determines the probability of an event to occur a pre-
the rate and quantity of runoff. When designing the individual cise number of times in a given period. In this equation,
components of a storm drain system such as a road inlet, the
effects of the temporal and spatial distribution of runoff have (N!) (T,1)' (1- T,1)N-/
little impact. However, the temporal effects of runoff must P=------- (3.5C)
be considered when designing larger components, such as /!(N-/)!
stormwater management facilities or major conveyance sys-
tems. With larger drainage areas, the conveyance time could Here, I is the exact number of times the event with Tr occurs
in N successive years. From this equation, there's almost a
take hours, which impacts how the peak runoff rate is calcu-
lated based on the corresponding temporal distribution of the 19% chance of a 100-year storm occurring twice in 100 years.
storm (refer to time of concentration content in this chapter). A jurisdiction will often use the exceedance probabil-
ity to prescribe the design storm for inlets, channels, and
Hydrologic data is historic by nature-rainfall data is col-
lected through observation of a storm event. When calculating stormwater management systems. A pipe system may be
runoff conditions for a storm event, the rainfall condition is required to demonstrate capacity for the 10 year storm,
based on a theoretical storm model that's derived from historic while a pond should be checked to make sure the system
events. The storm model represents the practical method for does not overflow during a 100-year storm event. It is good
analyzing the runoff condition of a given storm and the docu- practice to understand how larger storms would perform on
a site as well, even if the system is not designed to accom-
mented results should consider the source of inputs.
Exceedance Probability and Recurrence Interval. Gener- modate them.
ally, hydrologic events are predicted by stating their exceed-
ance probability or recurrence interval. The exceedance 3.5.3. Design Storms
probability represents the likelihood that an event of specified A design storm is the defined result of a statistically esti-
magnitude will be exceeded in each time period. Typically, the mated rainfall-runoff event used in the design of hydraulic
time period is 1 year for most hydrologic events. Similarly, the systems. Depending on the hydrologic technique selected,
return period represents the average length of time that will the design storm can be inferred from point precipitation
pass between events having the same magnitude. For example, depths (rainfall data), fabricated (synthetic) hydrographs,
a 100-year frequency return period for a rainfall event means or isohyetal maps using predetermined spatial storm pat-
that on the average, there is a 1% chance (1/100) that this rain- terns. It is important to note that the design storm is not
fall event will be exceeded in any year. A IO-year frequency an actual storm of record. Rather, it is a fabricated storm
return period rainfall event would on average have a 10% compiled from average characteristics of previous storm
chance (1/10) ofbeing exceeded in any year, and so on. events, and for convenience and standardization, most
Specifically, the recurrence interval is review agencies dictate the design storm(s) for use in the
design process.
T, =-X100
p
1
(3.5A) Every storm produces different peak discharges of runoff,
has different times to the peak discharge and consequently
where Tr is the recurrence interval and P is the probability different volumes of runoff. Therefore, a specific design
in percent. storm is often characterized by the following items:
 3.5 ■ STORMWATER FUNDAMENTALS 229

• Duration-the length of time of the storm event (hours)

TAB LE 3 . 5 A Guidelines for Design Storms for
• Depth-precipitation for the duration of the storm Various Hydraulic Systems
event (inches)
HYDRAULIC SYSTEM DESIGN RECURRENCE INTERVAL
• Type-reference to NRCS distribution patterns (I, IA,
II, III) Minor storm drain system 2- to 25-year
• Frequency-design storm based on exceedance prob- Major storm drain system 10- to 50-year
ability (years)
Road culverts crossing minor 10- to 50-year
• Intensity-precipitation depth divided by duration streams
(inches/hour)
Road culverts crossing major 25- to 100-year
Each of these items by themselves will not provide enough streams
information to compute the hydrologic conditions from a
design storm. Duration is usually defined as a 24-hour storm Small on-site 2-, 10-, 25-, 100-year
event, which matches NRCS synthetic rainfall distribution detention/retention ponds
models. The depth is the precipitation depth throughout the Large on-site or regional pond 100-year to PMF*
entire storm duration. It is important to recognize that the
precipitation depth (and volume) is not necessarily equal Floodplains on minor streams 10-year to 100-year
to the runoff depth (and volume). Runoff is the amount of Floodplains on major streams 100-year+
excess precipitation, that is, the amount of rainfall after all
abstractions, including infiltration, evapotranspiration, and 'Probable maximum flood.
depression storage, have been accounted for.
The storm type, as defined by NRCS TR-55, identifies a area closer to the outlet point could travel over dense flat ter-
synthetic storm model that is assigned to a geographic region. rain, thus slowing it down. The hydraulically most distant
This is important to consider because the storm intensity will point would be the area travel through natural terrain (if it
vary over the duration. Even with the same 24-hour duration takes longer than the storm system conveyance). When runoff
and same precipitation depth the peak intensity of a storm from the most hydraulically remote point reaches the outlet,
will be different in southern California than it is in Colorado. the entire catchment area is then contributing to the discharge.
Storm frequency is geographic specific, meaning that a 10-year The time of concentration is the sum of two components:
storm in Illinois does not have the same precipitation depth as (1) the overland flow time (or inlet time) and (2) the channel
Florida (about 4 inches as opposed to about 10 inches). (or conveyance) time (Figure 3.SB). Overland flow is typi-
The storm intensity references the peak intensity, which is cally thought of as a flowing thin layer without any significant
used to determine peak flow rate and evaluate channel capacity. depth, before it concentrates in defined swales and channels.
The peak intensity occurs near the middle of the 24-hour storm This could also be referred to as inlet time, since overland
(depending on the storm type) over several minutes. The peak flow is basically confined to a short stretch often draining to a
intensity of a storm is based on the depth of precipitation as well catchment, such as a street inlet. Channel time is that part of
as the duration and type of storm. A 24-hour storm duration the flow time when the runoff proceeds as concentrated flow
with a precipitation depth of 10 inches does not imply 0.4 inch/ in perhaps irregular but well-defined channels. Often, flow
hour (10/24) of a peak intensity because the intensity of rainfall time is determined by computing the velocity of the stormwa-
varies throughout the duration of the storm event. ter within the channel over the length of the channel.
The appropriate intensity used from a design storm is
determined based on the site characteristics. Intensity is a
function of the time of concentration for the site. A shorter
time of concentration will result in a higher intensity whereas
a larger time of concentration results in a lower intensity.
Table 3.SA provides general guidelines for recurrence
interval storms for selected hydraulic systems typical of
many local, state, and federal requirements. The duration is
specified by the local public agencies.
Time of Concentration. The time of concentration is the
time for water to flow from the most hydraulically remote
point of the drainage area to the outlet point. Recognize that
this does not imply the most distant point in terms of length.
Rather, it is considered as the longest flow time from some
point in the drainage area to the outlet point. For example, the
point most distant could be drained by storm sewers, which
would decrease the travel time to the outlet point, while an FIGURE 3.58 Exampleofaflowpath.
230 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ
The time of concentration varies according to hydraulic feet of sheet flow on a mild slope. Large areas (hundreds
characteristics of the watershed and the storm event itself. of acres) could easily have a time of concentration that
Generally, the time of concentration used in analysis is never exceeds an hour.
less than 5 minutes-even for the smallest catchment and There are numerous empirical methods to determine the
nearlyimpervious ground surface. The time ofconcentration inlet time of concentration. The method selected depends
for a developed project will often range from 5 to 15 minutes on the information available and the preferences dictated by
where there are large impervious areas and pipe convey- local review agencies and the site engineer. Some of the vari-
ance systems. When analyzing a natural area, the time of ous methods are listed in Table 3.5B. Example computations
concentration could be 15 minutes just for the first 100 are provided in Chapter 5.5.

TA BLE 3 . 5 B Summary of Time of Concentration Formulas

METHOD AND DATE FORMULA FOR fc (min) REMARKS

Kirpich (1940) tc = 0.0078L077 5-0-385 Developed from SCS data for seven rural basins
L = length of channel/ditch from in Tennessee with well-defined channel and steep
headwater to outlet (ft) slopes (3-10%); for overland flow on concrete or
5 = average watershed slope (ft/ft) asphalt surfaces multiply tc by 0.4; for concrete
channels multiply by 0.2; no adjustments for over-
land flow on bare soil or flow in roadside ditches.
California Culverts Practice L3 )o.385 Essentially the Kirpich formula; developed from
(1942) tc = 60 ( 11.9 H small mountainous basins in California (U.S.
Bureau of Reclamation, pp. 67-71, 1973).
L = length of longest watercourse (mi)
H= elevation difference between divide
and outlet (ft)
Izzard (1946) t = 41.025(0.007i+c)L033 Developed in laboratory experiments by Bureau of
C 50.33;067 Public Roads for overland flow on roadway and turf
i = rainfall intensity (in/hr) surfaces; values of the retardance coefficient range
c = retardance coefficient from 0.0070 for very smooth pavement to 0.012 for
L = length of flow path (ft) concrete pavement to 0.06 for dense turf; solution
5 = slope of flow path (ft/ft) requires iteration; product itimes L should be ~500.

Federal Aviation Lo5 Developed from airfield drainage data assembled

Administration (1970) tc =1.8(1.1-C) 5033 by the Corps of Engineers; method is intended for
C= rational method runoff coefficient use on airfield drainage problems, but has been
L = length of overland flow (ft) used frequently for overland flow in urban basins.
5 = surface slope (%)
Kinematic wave formulas t = 0.94Lo.6 no.6 Overland flow equation developed from kinematic
Morgali and Linsley (1965) C i 0.450 3 wave analysis surface runoff from developed
Aron and Erborge (1973) L = length of overland flow (ft) surfaces; method requires iteration since
n = Manning roughness coefficient both ; (rainfall intensity) and tc are unknown;
i = rainfall intensity (in/hr) superposition of intensity-duration-frequency curve
5 = average overland slope (ft/ft) gives direct graphical solution to fc.

SCS average velocity charts Overland flow charts in Figure 3-1 of TR 55 show
t =-1 <~
(1975, 1986) c 60-V average velocity as function of watercourse slope
L = length of flow path (ft) and surface cover.
V= average velocity in feet per second from
Figure 3.1 of TR 55 for various surfaces
Source: Kibler, David F., ed. Urban Stormwater Hydrology Monograph 7. Copyright 1982 by the American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC.
 3.5 ■ STORMWATER FUNDAMENTALS 231

Often, large catchments will require the consideration and the watershed. The area under a runoffhydrograph repre-
of several flow paths in determining which represents the sents the volume of runoff from the watershed.
time of concentration. The flow path with the longest travel The following parameters define the timing aspects of the
time is typically selected for design, but this condition is best hydrograph (Figure 3.SC):
suited for homogeneous drainage areas (i.e., consistent land
use and topography), which increase linearly with length. Time to peak (tp)-the time from beginning of runoff to
Both the shape of the drainage basin and its homogeneity the peak.
affect the peak discharge at various points within the catch- Lag time (tJ-the time from center of mass of rainfall
ment. For those situations where catchment area and length excess to the peak rate of runoff.
are not linearly related or when the catchment has widely
Time of concentration (t,)-the time of equilibrium
varied land use (e.g., a large grass area flowing to a park-
of the watershed. On a hydro graph, t, is the time from
ing lot), selecting the flow path with the longest t, does not
always produce the peak discharge at the specified location. the end of excessive rainfall to the inflection point on the
The time of concentration is important in hydrology, for recession limb.
both the rational method and the NRCS method. Both hydro- Time base (TB)-total duration of the direct runoff
logic methods use the variable when determining runoff con- hydrograph.
ditions based on the storm model. Professional judgement
should be used when selecting an appropriate time of con- As might be deduced from the hydrograph sketch and the
centration, and an early evaluation can provide insight into above definitions, the hydrograph shape is affected by
stormwater management requirements. • The intensity, duration, and distribution (both tem-
Hydrographs. Runoff from a watershed is graphically shown porally and spatially) of rainfall
by a hydrograph, which is a plot of the discharge as a function
of time. In the most simplistic case a hydrograph has a rising • The size and shape of the watershed
limb, which reflects rainfall characteristics, a crest segment, • Factors which influence the time of concentration
and a recession curve that reflects watershed characteristics. (land slope, channel length, and land cover/use)
A hydrograph may be classified as a natural hydrograph, one
which is derived from observed data from a stream flow gage A short time of concentration results in a higher peak dis-
or it may be classified as a synthetic hydrograph, one which is charge rate and a shorter time to peak while a long time of con-
derived from presumed characteristics related to the rainfall centration results in a lower peak discharge rate and longer time

CREST SEGMENT

BASE FLOW

Tb
TIME (T)
FIG uRE 3. 5 C Elements of a hydrograph.
232 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ

n
I \_
... - - - - ...

. ... - - ... ~

, '
I
, '

... ----- ... _

r
FIG uRE 3. 5 D Effect of basin shape and tc on hydrograph shape. (Modified for color and style,
TIME

courtesy of Martin P. Wanielista, Hydrology and Water Quality Control, New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Reprinted with permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)

to peak (assuming the land cover conditions and drainage area variety of SWM techniques or other site features that maintain
are constant). These concepts are illustrated in Figure 3.5D. or even elongate the time of concentration or improves the
Generally, land development activities will decrease the land cover condition, the structural SWM facilities required
time of concentration and increase the imperviousness for can be minimized.
a basin. These changes decrease the time to peak discharge Unit Hydrographs. A unit hydrograph is defined as a run-
as well as increase the peak discharge and the total runoff off hydrograph generated from a unit depth of rainfall excess
volume; it is these increases which must be mitigated with occurring at a constant rate over a specified duration of time,
stormwater management methods. A low-impact develop- uniformly distributed over the watershed. The area under a
ment (LID) or sustainable design approach to stormwater unit hydrograph represents one unit of runoff depth over the
management seeks to replicate the pre-developed hydrologic entire watershed. Each unit hydrograph has a specific duration,
conditions and reduce these inherent increases related to site that is, time base, which represents the duration of the rainfall
development. An example of an LID is a bioretention system excess. Therefore, a D-hour unit hydrograph is defined as the
(rain garden) or infiltration trench, whereas a traditional hydrograph, which results from a storm with a constant rain-
method is an underground detention pipe. By employing a fall excess of 1 inch over a duration ofD hours (Figure 3.SE).
 3.5 ■ STORMWATER FUNDAMENTALS 233

Depth of D 1 Unit of rainfall excess for duration D.

Rainfall
Excess

.A
0.4
The unit hydrograph (UH) obtained
Ou
from observed data or a synthetic
0.1 UH representing a design storm.

The runoff (OR/0 ) ordinates obtained

0.4 by multiplying the ordinates of the
UH (i.e:,Ou) by the rainfall excess.
OR/o
0.1 ex: at t=2D
D 2D 3D 4D OR/o =(0.4)(1 )=(0.4)

Depth of D 2 Units of rainfall excess for duration D.

Rainfall 2
Excess Units

.A
0.4
Ou
Unit Hydrograph
0.1

I\
I \
0.8
I \ Using the same UH, the runoff
OR/o I \ hydrograph is obtained by
multiplying the ordiantes of the
I \ UH by 2 units of rainfall excess.
0.2
I \ ex: at t=2D
D 2D 3D 4D OR/o =(0.4)(2)=(0.8)

Depth of D 2D
2 Consecutive units of rainfall excess
Rainfall 1 1 each occuring for duration D.
Excess Unit Unit

.A
0.4 Unit hydrograph carresponding
Ou to first rainfall excess.
0.1

0.4 Unit hydrograph translated to

coincide with second unit
rainfall excess.
0.1

A
0.8
/ '\ Direct runoff hydrograph obtained
OR/o by adding the ordinates of
0.5
each UH at each time increment.
/ '\
/ '\
0.1 ex: at t=2D
OR/o =(0.4)(1 )+(0.4)(1 )=0.8
D 2D 3D 4D 5D
FIGURE 3.5E Direct runoff from a unit hydrograph.
234 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ
D 2D
2 Units of rainfall excess occuring for
duration D followed by 1 unit of
rainfall excess for duration D.

0.4
Unit Hydrograph
0.1

A
Hydrograph representing the 2 units
I \
0.8 of rainfall excess with the ordinates
I \ obtained by multiplying the UH
ordinates by the rainfall excess.
Q
I \ ex: at t=2D
0.2 Q =(0.4)(2)=0.8
I \

2D
Hydrograph translated to coincide
/'-
with second unit of rainfall excess.
0.4 Obtained by multiplying the UH
Q ordinates by the rainfall excess.
0.1 ex: at t=2D
2D
Q =(0.4)(1 )=0.4

A
.12
Direct runoff hydrograph obtained
0.9 by adding the ordinates of the
I preceeding two hydrographs at
~lo each time increments.
I
0.6
I \ ex: at t=2D
I \ QR/o =(0.4)(2)+(0.4)(1 )=0.12
0.2 \
0.1 I

D 2D 3D 4D 5D

FIGURE 3.5E (Continued)

The physical features of a watershed vary little from storm from 20 to 200 acres. Even at 20 acres, the rational method
to storm. Therefore, in unit hydrograph theory, a storm event may not be appropriate if there is large variation in land
of equal duration but different intensity produces a direct run- cover (nonhomogeneous). Other jurisdictions also place
off hydrograph with an equal base length and similar shape as time of concentration restrictions on the use of rational
that of a unit hydrograph. If the ordinates of the direct run- method, limiting the maximum time of concentration to
off hydrograph are proportional to runoff volume, multiply- 60 minutes.
ing the ordinates of a unit hydrograph by the rainfall intensity For small urban drainage areas, common in minor
generates a hydrograph corresponding to that intensity. storm drainage design, it is assumed that short-duration
For more complex unit hydrographs, it is necessary to high-intensity storms are the cause of flooding. For such
generate direct runoff hydrographs through multiplication- short-duration storms and small drainage areas, the rainfall
translation-addition procedures (convolution) to obtain intensity is often assumed constant. The peak runoff rate
the direct runoff hydrograph. This can only be done if the then occurs when the entire drainage area is contributing
assumptions of linearity are valid, that is, the time base to the runoff. If a storm of constant intensity begins instan-
remains constant regardless of the runoff depth. Figure 3.SE taneously, the rate of runoff for the catchment steadily
shows how to obtain a direct runoffhydrograph using multi- increases until the entire drainage area is contributing to
plication-translation-addition procedure. the discharge at the outlet point. From then on, the drain-
age area is in equilibrium. All precipitation is converted to
3.5.4. Rational Method Hydrology runoff and the peak runoff remains uniform for the dura-
The rational method is best utilized for determining peak tion of the constant intensity rainfall.
flows for small drainage areas with homogenous land Peak runoff from the rational method is given by
cover conditions. Most localities have maximum restric-
tions on the applicability of the rational method, ranging QP =CiA (3.50)
 3.5 ■ STORMWATER FUNDAMENTALS 235

where Qp is the peak discharge in cubic feet per second the C coefficient and hence, the greater the runoff. The NRCS
(cfs), A is the drainage area in acres, C is a runoff coefficient method, discussed in this chapter, has a similar mechanism for
characteristic of the ground surface (0 < C < 1), and i is the adjusting a runoff factor based on a limit of initial abstraction.
average rainfall intensity (inches/hour). The precision of the Other localities account for the change in C coefficient ver-
peak discharge depends on the estimated values of C and i. sus recurrence interval by using a correction factor. For exam-
The average rainfall intensity is a function of the time of con- ple, using the correction factor, Equation (3.5D) becomes
centration of the drainage area. The units in this equation are
not consistent (cfs, inches/hour, acre) but the conversion of
QP =C,CiA (3.5E)
inches/hour and acres is nearly one (1.0083), and common where the correction factor c1 varies by recurrence interval.
practice is to ignore the conversion factor. Comparing the City of Austin example in Table 3.5D, the C
Runoff Coefficient. In Equation (3.5D), the product iA can coefficient would remain the same for all storms; however,
be considered as the inflow to the catchment while also repre- the C1 factor would change for storms greater than the 2-year
senting the maximum possible runoff rate. The ratio of peak event. C1 would equal 1.066, 1.107, 1.178, 1.233, 1.301, and
discharge, Qp, to inflow, iA, is the runoff coefficient, C. This 1.370 for the 5-, 10-, 25-, 50-, 100-, and 500-year events,
coefficient can be considered as a lump-sum parameter that respectively.
accounts for abstractions (losses before runoff begins-mainly Use of hydrologic soil groups is more common in NRCS
interception, infiltration, and surface storage), antecedent run- hydrology; however, Table 3.5E is useful in that it correlates
off conditions (index of the runoff potential of the soil before the C coefficient to hydrologic soil groups and slope ranges
a storm event) and other variables affecting the runoff rate. with various types of land use.
Table 3.5C identifies the ASCE's (American Society of Civil Whenever a single catchment area consists of several
Engineers) version of the runoff coefficient and the standards areas with different C coefficients a weighted coefficient is
used in Austin, Texas, are shown as an example in Table 3.5D. computed. The weighted coefficient is found by
Note, the coefficient, C, is also a function of the recur-
m
rence interval of the storm. The reason for this function is an
attempt to approximate soil saturation conditions. For larger I.CA
C =1=1___ (3.5F)
storm events, it is understood that the soil has already been w A,
saturated to such an extent that it no longer has the infiltra-
tion characteristics associated with everyday conditions. where Cw is the weighted C coefficient, A; is the area of the
Therefore, since the soil is saturated, the rainfall will produce subarea with C; coefficient, and AT is the total area of the
more runoff; the greater the saturation of the soil, the higher catchment.

TA BLE 3 . 5 C Runoff Coefficients, C, Recurrence Interval s 1OYears*

DESCRIPTION OF AREA RUNOFF COEFFICIENTS CHARACTER OF SURFACE RUNOFF COEFFICIENTS

Business Pavement
Downtown 0.70-0.95 Asphalt or concrete 0.70-0.95
Neighborhood 0.50-0.70 Brick 0.70-0.85
Residential Roofs
Single-family 0.30-0.50 Lawns, sandy soil
Multiunits, detached 0.40-0.60 Flat, 2% 0.05-0.10
Multiunits, attached 0.60-0.75 Average, 2-7% 0.10-0.15
Residential, suburban 0.25-0.40 Steep, 7% or more 0.15-0.20
Apartment 0.50-0.70 Lawns, heavy soil
Industrial Flat, 2% 0.13-0.17
Light 0.50-0.80 Average, 2-7% 0.18-0.22
Heavy 0.60-0.90 Steep, 7% or more 0.25-0.35
Parks, cemeteries 0.10-0.25
Railroad yard 0.20-0.35
Unimproved 0.10-0.30
Source: From "Design and Construction of Sanitary and Storm Sewers," ASCE Manual of Practice No. 37, revised by D. Earl Jones, Jr., 1970.
'For 25- to 100-year recurrence intervals, multiply coefficient by 1.1 and 1.25, respectively, and the product cannot exceed 1.0.
23& i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ

TAB LE 3 . 5 D Runoff Coefficients for Use in the Rational Method

RETURN PERIOD (YEARS}

CHARACTER DF SURFACE 2 5 10 25 50 100 500

Developed
Asphaltic 0.73 0.77 0.81 0.86 0.90 0.95 1.00
Concrete/roof 0.75 0.80 0.83 0.88 0.92 0.97 1.00
Grass areas (lawns, parks, etc.)
Poor condition (grass cover < 50% of the area)
Flat, 0-2% 0.32 0.34 0.37 0.40 0.44 0.47 0.58
Average, 2-7% 0.37 0.40 0.43 0.46 0.49 0.53 0.61
Steep, over 7% 0.40 0.43 0.45 0.49 0.52 0.55 0.62
Fair condition (grass cover on 50-75% of the area)
Flat, 0-2% 0.25 0.28 0.30 0.34 0.37 0.41 0.53
Average, 2-7% 0.33 0.36 0.38 0.42 0.45 0.49 0.58
Steep, over 7% 0.37 0.40 0.42 0.46 0.49 0.53 0.60
Good condition (grass cover > 75% of the area)
Flat, 0-2% 0.21 0.23 0.25 0.29 0.32 0.36 0.49
Average, 2-7% 0.29 0.32 0.35 0.39 0.42 0.46 0.56
Steep, over 7% 0.34 0.37 0.40 0.44 0.47 0.51 0.58
Undeveloped
Cultivated land
Flat, 0-2% 0.31 0.34 0.36 0.40 0.43 0.47 0.57
Average, 2-7% 0.35 0.38 0.41 0.44 0.48 0.51 0.60
Steep, over 7% 0.39 0.42 0.44 0.48 0.51 0.54 0.61
Pasture/range
Flat, 0-2% 0.25 0.28 0.30 0.34 0.37 0.41 0.53
Average, 2-7% 0.33 0.36 0.38 0.42 0.45 0.49 0.58
Steep, over 7% 0.37 0.40 0.42 0.46 0.49 0.53 0.60
ForesVwoodlands
Flat, 0-2% 0.22 0.25 0.28 0.31 0.35 0.39 0.48
Average, 2-7% 0.31 0.34 0.36 0.40 0.43 0.47 0.56
Steep, over 7% 0.35 0.39 0.41 0.45 0.48 0.52 0.58
Note:The values in the table are the standards used by the City of Austin, Texas. Used with permission.

3.5.5. Intensity-Duration-Frequency Curves purposes-the design storm values can vary between an
The hydrologic procedure selected to establish the rainfall- adjacent city or county.
runoff relationship determines what type of data is required ID F curves present hydrologic data for use as design storm
to generate the design storm. Simple types of computa- information. These curves show precipitation intensity on
tional procedures, such as the rational method, require the ordinate (y axis), duration along the abscissa (x axis), and
basic intensity-duration-frequency (IDF) curves, whereas a series of curves representing individual storm frequencies.
more sophisticated hydrologic approaches require hyeto- The IDF curves are developed through statistical analysis of
graphs (time variation of precipitation) or hydrographs long time series rainfall data. They graphically represent the
(time variation of runoff) as input. Data specific to the probability that a certain average rainfall intensity will occur
model selected is available from various public agencies. given a duration. Note: This is quite different from the mis-
The engineer should always check with the jurisdiction to conception that they represent an actual duration or actual
determine the applicable rainfall values to use for design time history of rainfall. A single IDF curve represents data
 3.5 ■ STORMWATER FUNDAMENTALS 237

TAB LE 3 . 5 E Runoff Coefficients for the Rational Formula by Hydrologic Soil Group and Slope Range
A B C D
LAND USE 0-2% 2-6% 6%+ 0-2% 2-6% 6%+ 0-2% 2-6% 6%+ 0-2% 2-6% 6%+
Cultivated land 0.08* 0.13 0.16 0.11 0.15 0.21 0.14 0.19 0.26 0.18 0.23 0.31
o.14t 0.18 0.22 0.16 0.21 0.28 0.20 0.25 0.34 0.24 0.29 0.41
Pasture 0.12 0.20 0.30 0.18 0.28 0.37 0.24 0.34 0.44 0.30 0.40 0.50
0.15 0.25 0.37 0.23 0.34 0.45 0.30 0.42 0.52 0.37 0.50 0.62
Meadow 0.10 0.16 0.25 0.14 0.22 0.30 0.20 0.28 0.36 0.24 0.30 0.40
0.14 0.22 0.30 0.20 0.28 0.37 0.26 0.35 0.44 0.30 0.40 0.50
Forest 0.05 0.08 0.11 0.08 0.11 0.14 0.10 0.13 0.16 0.12 0.16 0.20
0.08 0.11 0.14 0.10 0.14 0.18 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.15 0.20 0.25
Residential lot 0.25 0.28 0.31 0.27 0.30 0.35 0.30 0.33 0.38 0.33 0.36 0.42
Size½ acre 0.33 0.37 0.40 0.35 0.39 0.44 0.38 0.42 0.49 0.41 0.45 0.54
Lot size ¼ acre 0.22 0.26 0.29 0.24 0.29 0.33 0.27 0.31 0.36 0.30 0.34 0.40
0.30 0.34 0.37 0.33 0.37 0.42 0.36 0.40 0.47 0.38 0.42 0.52
Lot size ½ acre 0.19 0.23 0.26 0.22 0.26 0.30 0.25 0.29 0.34 0.28 0.32 0.39
0.28 0.32 0.35 0.30 0.35 0.39 0.33 0.38 0.45 0.36 0.40 0.50
Lot size ½ acre 0.16 0.20 0.24 0.19 0.23 0.28 0.22 0.27 0.32 0.26 0.30 0.37
0.25 0.29 0.32 0.28 0.32 0.36 0.31 0.35 0.42 0.34 0.38 0.46
Lot size 1 acre 0.14 0.19 0.22 0.17 0.21 0.26 0.20 0.25 0.31 0.24 0.29 0.35
0.22 0.26 0.29 0.24 0.23 0.34 0.28 0.32 0.40 0.31 0.35 0.46
Industrial 0.67 0.68 0.68 0.68 0.68 0.69 0.68 0.69 0.69 0.69 0.69 0.70
0.85 0.85 0.86 0.85 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.87 0.86 0.86 0.88
Commercial 0.71 0.71 0.72 0.71 0.72 0.72 0.72 0.72 0.72 0.72 0.72 0.72
0.88 0.88 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.90 0.89 0.89 0.90
............................................................................................................................................. ..................................... ................................................................................................. ................................................
Streets 0.70 0.71 0.72 0.71 0.72 0.74 0.72 0.73 0.76 0.73 0.75 0.78
0.76 0.77 0.79 0.80 0.82 0.84 0.84 0.85 0.89 0.89 0.91 0.95
Open space 0.05 0.10 0.14 0.08 0.13 0.19 0.12 0.17 0.24 0.16 0.21 0.28
0.11 0.16 0.20 0.14 0.19 0.26 0.18 0.23 0.32 0.22 0.27 0.39
Parking 0.85 0.86 0.87 0.85 0.86 0.87 0.85 0.86 0.87 0.85 0.86 0.87
0.95 0.96 0.97 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.95 0.96 0.97
Source: Kibler, D.F., et al., 1982. Recommended Hydro!ogic Procedures for Computing Urban Runoff in Pennsylvania. Commonwealth of Pa. Harrisburg Pa.: Dept. of Environ-
mental Resources.
'Runoff coefficients for storm recurrence intervals less than 25 years.
1Runoff coefficients for storm recurrence intervals of 25 years or more.
230 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ
from several different storms. The IDF is fabricated from become suspect due to the assumption of a steady uniform rain
extracting rainfall depths from selected time segments of over a catchment area. Additionally, the inherent uncertain-
longer storms. Procedures for constructing IDF curves are ties in the C coefficient are magnified as the catchment area
discussed in McPherson (1978). These curves are mainly increases and homogeneity is less likely. There are different
used in conjunction with the rational method for determin- applications for determining the upper limit of the catchment
ing peak runoff. See Figure 3.SF for a typical IDF curve. size that can effectively utilize the rational method. Values of
IDF curves are available through many local agencies 20 acres, to 200 acres, and up to 1 square mile (640 acres) have
such as the state highway departments and the NRCS. In been proposed. Certainly for the relatively small catchments
rare cases where IDF curves cannot be obtained, they can (less than 20 acres) encountered in minor storm drain design
be developed from current and applicable U.S. Weather the rational method should be satisfactory for use.
Service Maps or from frequency analysis using local rainfall The key element in using the rational method is proper
information. determination of the time of concentration. Due to the
Rational Method Umitations. The rational method provides hyperbolic shape of the IDF curves, a small error in t, (i.e.,
adequate results for computing peak discharges if it is used rainfall duration) causes large discrepancies on the inten-
properly, with an understanding of the underlying assump- sity. If the estimated t, is less than the actual t the rainfall
0

tions and limitations. Even with proper understanding of the intensity will be too high, resulting in a high Q. Another
rational method, as the catchment increases in size, the results important consideration, when performing the hydrologic

DURATION OF STORM IN MINUTES

10 15 20 30 45 60 90 120 180
10.0

- -----
9.0
8.0
7.0

6.0

5.0

4.0

3.0
a:
~ 2.5
►
!::
rn 2.0
zw
I-
~
..J 1.5
..J
ct
u.
z
ci:
a:
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4 l - - - - - - + - - - - 1 - - - - - + - - - - - + - - - - + - - - + - - - - + - - - + - -- --i

BASED ON: RAINFALL FREQUENCY DATA, ANNUAL SERIES

DATA 1913 - 1975
0.3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
10 15 20 30 45 60 90 120 180

DURATION OF STORM IN MINUTES

FIG uRE 3. 5 F Intensity-duration-frequency curves.
 3.5 ■ STORMWATER FUNDAMENTALS 239

analysis, is the dynamics of the land use in the catchment. systems in addition to determining peak flow (for sizing
For projects within a catchment undergoing development, conveyance systems).
the runoff coefficient should represent the catchment as it Many jurisdictions require NRCS methodology for the
might ultimately appear, rather than current conditions. design of larger SWM facilities, where downstream safety is
To summarize, the basic assumptions in the rational a major concern in the event of dam failure. Local agencies
method are usually require a hydrologic analysis of large storm events
such as the probable maximum precipitation (PMP), the
• Small drainage basins are appropriate, usually 20 acres probable maximum flood (PMF), or a percentage of the
or less, and should have a homogenous land cover PMF. The PMF is the flood discharge, which may be expected
condition. from the most severe combination of critical meteorologic
• Rainfall intensity is uniform and constant over the and hydrologic conditions that are reasonably possible in the
catchment and the duration of this rainfall intensity region. The PMP is, theoretically, the greatest depth of pre-
is at least as long as the time of concentration of the cipitation for a given duration that is physically possible over
catchment. a given size storm area at a particular geographic location at
a certain time of the year.
• Peak rate of runoff occurs when constant rainfall Runoff Curve Numbers. The curve number is analogous
intensity falls on a catchment for as long, or longer to the runoff coefficient used in the rational method. It con-
than the time of concentration. verts the mass rainfall to runoff and is based on such factors
• Runoff coefficient is the same for each rainfall inten- as the hydrologic soil group (HSG), cover type, hydrologic
sity and for all return intervals (or adjusted by event). conditions, and antecedent moisture conditions. In part,
This is an assumption inherent in the original pro- the curve number (CN) for a particular soil depends on the
posal by Kuichling in 1877. Runoff coefficients are HSG classification. Soils are divided into four hydrologic
typically higher for the less frequent storms because soil groups, A, B, C, and D, according to their minimum
of the reduction effect of the rainfall abstractions. infiltration rate. Soils classified in hydrologic group A gen-
Runoff coefficients are also increased for the higher erally have high infiltration rates (sand), whereas the HSG
intensity rainfalls for the same reason. D has the lowest infiltration rates (clay). The cover type
describes the surface of the catchment, such as type and
• Frequency of the peak discharge is the same as that of denseness of vegetation and impervious or semi-impervious
the rainfall intensity for the given time of concentra- pavements. It is determined from field reconnaissance,
tion. Although this may not be necessarily true due aerial photographs, specialized photography (infrared,
to variations in surface conditions. etc.), and land use maps. Hydrologic condition (poor, fair,
or good) is a measure of the effects of the cover type on
3.5.6. NRCS Methodology infiltration and runoff.
For relatively small catchments the rational method can be Table 3.5F presents CN values for several types of soils
used to determine peak runoff discharge. However, designers and cover types. It should be noted that these CN values are
often prefer to use more sophisticated rainfall-runoff mod- based upon an average antecedent runoff condition. The
els. Although a more sophisticated model does not neces- NRCS publishes soil surveys for the majority of localities
sarily provide greater accuracy, there is greater flexibility for in the United States and contains soil classification infor-
calibrating the model to local observations. One such hydro- mation. The surveys are found in many different formats,
logic model, developed by the NRCS, is widely accepted including databases and GIS layers. The NRCS is constantly
and well documented. Underlying fundamentals of this updating information available electronically; refer to the
method are found in the National Engineering Handbook, United State Department of Agriculture (USDA) website for
Chapter 4, Hydrology (NEH-4) and the computer program the latest information.
documented in Technical Release 20 (TR-20) and Technical Once the hydrologic soil group and the cover type and
Release 55 (TR-55) Urban Hydrology for Small Watersheds. antecedent runoff condition have been determined, a
These documents are available from the Government Print- weighted CN can be found by determining the areal cover-
ing Office, Washington, D.C. and online. age of each set of conditions and consulting an NRCS curve
The NRCS method is commonly used with computer number table. Figure 3.5G shows the HSG groups overlain on
software because there are numerous steps in modeling a land use map. A soil's map is used to identify the soil series,
a storm event and computing peak runoff (as compared which is then converted to a hydrologic soil group. This map
to the rational method with relatively simple equations). was created by referencing the HSG map onto the land use
By modeling the entirety of the storm event, the NRCS map. The worksheet shown in Figure 3.5H is used to tabulate
method can be used to determine volume of runoff or eval- the data and determine the composite CN.
uating multiple sites with different land cover conditions. The NRCS curve number is used to determine the depth
The model allows for designing stormwater management of runoff (using basic equations) and can be used within a
240 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ

TA BLE 3 . 5 F (A) Runoff Curve Numbers for Urban Areas1

CURVE NUMBERS FOR HYDROLOGIC SOIL GROUP
COVER DESCRIPTION
AVERAGE%
COVER TYPE AND HYDROLOGIC CONDITION IMPERVIOUS AREA2 A B C D

Fully developed urban areas (vegetation established)

Open space (lawns, parks, golf courses, cemeteries, etc.) 3
Poor condition (grass cover < 50%) 68 79 86 89
Fair condition (grass cover 50-75%) 49 69 79 84
Good condition (grass cover > 75%) 39 61 74 80
Impervious areas:
Paved parking lots, roofs, driveways, etc. (excluding right-of-way) 98 98 98 98
Streets and roads:
Paved: curbs and storm sewers (excluding right-of-way) 83 89 92 93
Paved: open ditches (including right-of-way) 83 89 92 93
Gravel (including right-of-way) 76 85 89 91
Dirt (including right-of-way) 72 82 87 89
Western desert urban areas:
Natural desert landscaping (pervious areas only) 4 63 77 85 88
Artificial desert landscaping (impervious weed barrier, desert 96 96 96 96
shrub with 1- to 2-in sand or gravel mulch and basin borders)
Urban districts:
Commercial and business 85 89 92 94 95
Industrial 72 81 88 91 93

Residential districts by average lot size:

½ acre or less (town houses) 65 77 85 90 92
¼ acre 38 61 75 83 87
½ acre 30 57 72 81 86
½ acre 25 54 70 80 85
1 acre 20 51 68 79 84
2 acres 12 46 65 77 82

Developing urban areas

Newly graded areas (pervious areas only, no vegetation) 5 77 86 91 94
Idle lands.
1Average runoff condition and I,= 0.2S. For range in humid regions, use Table 3.5F(b).
'The average percent impervious area shown was used to develop the composite CNs. Other assumptions are as follows: impervious areas are directly connected to the drain-
age system, impervious areas have a CN of 98, and pervious areas are considered equivalent to open space in good hydrologic condition.
3CNs shown are equivalent to those of pasture. Composite CNs may be computed for other combinations of open-space cover type.

'Composite CNs for natural desert landscaping should be computed based on the impervious area percentage (CN = 98) and the pervious area CN. The pervious area CNs are
assumed equivalent to desert shrub in poor hydrologic condition.
5Comparable CNs to use for the design of temporary measures during grading and construction should be computed based on the degree of development (impervious area

percentage) and the CNs for the newly graded pervious area.
Source: USDA, TR-55.
 3.5 ■ STORMWATER FUNDAMENTALS 241

TA BLE 3 . 5 F ( B) Runoff Curve Numbers for Urban Areas (Continued)

CURVE NUMBERS FOR
COVER DESCRIPTION HYDROLOGIC SOIL GROUP
HYDRDL0GIC
COVER TYPE C0NDITI0N 1 A2 B C D

Pasture, grassland, or range-continuous forage for grazing 1 Poor 68 79 86 89

Fair 49 69 79 84
Good 39 61 74 80
Meadow-continuous grass, protected from grazing and generally 30 58 71 78
mowed for hay
Brush-brush-weed-grass mixture with brush the major element2 Poor 48 67 77 83
Fair 35 56 70 77
Good 303 48 65 73
Woods-grass combination (orchard or tree farm) 4 Poor 57 73 82 85
Fair 43 65 76 82
Good 32 58 72 79
Woods 5 Poor 45 66 77 83
Fair 36 60 73 79
Good 303 55 70 77
Farmsteads-buildings, lanes, driveways, and surrounding lots 59 74 82 86
1Poor: <50% ground cover or heavily grazed with no mulch.
Fair: 50-75% ground cover and not heavily grazed.
Good: >75% ground cover and lightly or only occasionally grazed.
2Poor: <50% ground cover.

Fair: 50-75% ground cover.

Good: >75% ground cover.
3Actual curve number is less than 30: use CN = 30 for runoff computations.

4CNs shown were computed for areas with 50% woods and 50% grass (pasture) cover. Other combinations of conditions may be computed from the CNs for

woods and pasture.

5Poor: Forest litter, small trees, and brush are destroyed by heavy grazing or regular burning.

Fair: Woods are grazed but not burned, and some forest litter covers the soil.
Good: Woods are protected from grazing, and litter and brush adequately over the soil.
Source: USDA, TR-55.

computer model to determine the peak runoff for the site to mimic the location of the peak intensity for the particu-
(traditional tabular methods are also an option). Examples of lar region of the United States. For example, peak intensi-
using curve numbers are provided in Chapter 5.5. ties for type I and IA storms occur around 8 hours, similar
Rainfall Models. The NRCS has developed four synthetic to the storms in the far western part of the United States.
rainfall distributions, which are indicative of the rainfall Type II and III storms have peak intensities occurring
intensities inherent to geographic regions of the United around the midpoint of the duration. Specific geographical
States. These four standard rainfall distributions, labeled areas are shown in Figure 3.51.
type I, IA, II, and III, have been developed from numer- Computer Models for NRCS Method. Computer software
ous publications. Since most rainfall data is reported on a applications have made hydrologic modeling easier and
24-hour basis, the NRCS used 24 hours as the duration for quicker. The designer should have a strong understanding
these distributions. The location of the peak rainfall inten- of the hydrologic processes as well as knowledge of the fun-
sity (early, center, or late peaking) in each storm is intended damental limitations of the programs. The reliability of the
242 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ

HYDOLOGIC SOILS GROUPS

CONVERSION OF SOIL TYPES TO SOIL GROUPS
SOIL SOIL SOIL SOIL
TYPE SOIL NAME GROUP TYPE SOIL NAME TYPE

1 Mixed Alluvial C 52 Elbert D

10 Glenville C 55 Glenelg B
14 Manassas B 67 Penn C
20 Meadowville B 69 Enon B
21 Manor B 72 Bucks B/C
32 Mayodan B 80 Croton D
50 Iredell• CID
Mecklenburg

FIG uRE 3. 5 G Hydrologic soils designation on topographic mapping.

output from any computer program is only as good as the selected depends on the user, available data, and possi-
input data. The designer should be familiar with the inherent bly any preferences by the reviewing agencies. The NRCS
assumptions associated with the model as well as the numeri- WinTR-20 is a popular application, but there are numerous
cal techniques used to simulate the model. options available.
A number of computer models are available, well doc-
umented and supported, and powerful in terms of their 3.5. 7. Stormwater Management
ability to perform hydrology and manipulate hydrographs. To mitigate the effects of development, stormwater man-
These models may be used to generate hydrographs from agement systems are usually required for new projects.
either synthetic or historical design storms, combine These systems provide a storage volume that mitigates peak
hydrographs together, and perform storm drain design and flow conditions to reduce the rate of flow (and sometimes
channel and pond routings. The type of computer model the volume) from a storm event during post-development
 3.5 ■ STORMWATER FUNDAMENTALS 243

FIGURE 3.56 (Continued)

conditions. Designing stormwater management facili- • Detention basin (i.e., dry pond for the temporary
ties should be considered during the concept design impoundment of surface water runoff)
to determine the required site area for the system. This
• Retention basin (i.e., wet pond that maintains a per-
preliminary engineering effort will help the designer to
manent pool of water with additional storage volume
understand the characteristics of the site as they prepare
above the permanent pool for detaining runoff)
initial plans. In order to size the facilities, it is important
to determine the specific performance requirements for • Infiltration facilities
the facility. As mentioned previously, these may include
• Reuse systems (i.e., cisterns for irrigation or building
water quality or pollution removal, groundwater recharge,
graywater)
and quantity control (detention/retention) requirements
for the proposed development. These requirements vary • Structural facilities (i.e., underground manufactured
greatly from region to region through the United States system)
and even at the state and local levels. Although the exact
configurations and grading of such facilities are subject to Exact design parameters for each of these facility types
change during final engineering, it is important to ensure may vary depending on local requirements, and often com-
that adequate provisions have been made to accommodate binations of these generalized facility types are used together
and locate these facilities to achieve the required storm- to achieve performance goals. For instance, a stormwater
water management objectives. management facility may employ infiltration of runoff as
Stormwater management facilities are commonly grouped a means to provide groundwater recharge and water qual-
into several facility types which are selected based on site ity functions, while providing controlled outflow for larger
considerations, performance requirements, aesthetics, and storms. Similarly, a wet pond may be used for water quality
other factors (cost). These facilities usually fall into one of treatment in conjunction with extended detention to reduce
the following types: peak runoff rates. If runoff volume control is required, the
244 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ
Worksheet 2: Runoff curve number and runoff

Project _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ By _ _ _ _ _ Date_ _ _ __ _

Location _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Checked _ _ __ Date _ _ _ _ __

Circle one: Present Developed

1. Runoff curve number (CN)

Soil name Cover description CN 1 Area Product

and hydrologic of
group (cover type, treatment, and □ acres CN x area
";'
hydrologic condition;
percent impervious;
....
II')

Cl)
~
C)
:t
C)
□ mi'
□ %
unconnected/connected JS
(appendix A) impervious area ratio) ~ u:: u::

Totals=

CN (wei hied) = total product = - - = UseCN =

9 total area ----

2. Runoff Storm#l Storm#2 Storm#3

Frequency.......••...•.•....•..........•.••.•..••••.......••• yr
Rainfall, P (24-hour) ...................•....•......•.....in
Runoff, Q .....................................................in

FIG uRE 3 .5 H Runoff curve number worksheet. (Source: TR-55.)

post-development stormwater management program will SWM facility should be located so that runoff will drain into it
have to include permanent storage facilities (retention), naturally, without requiring additional engineering measures
infiltration facilities, stormwater harvesting/reuse facilities such as storm sewers or channels to artificially force drainage
(typically structural), or some combination of the three in divides. The most economical design for any SWM facility is
order to minimize the total volume of runoff leaving the site. one that requires the least earthwork and structural compo-
The designer must evaluate and determine the most appro- nents. Further, facilities should be located with respect to out-
priate facility or combination of facilities to achieve the falls in order to maintain natural (existing) drainage divides as
applicable performance requirements. well as protect and improve the condition of outfalls through
Locating SWM Facilities. The location of SWM facilities adequate capacity analysis and erosion reduction.
should be integrated with the site design, either to minimize When designed properly, stormwater management sys-
the impact on the development project or to enhance the tems can also enhance the site aesthetics. For large sites, a wet
development in terms of function and aesthetics. It's important pond can act as a prominent feature of the site (Figure 3.SJ).
to understand the scale, location, and strategy of stormwater In smaller sites, bioretention systems (rain gardens) can pro-
management systems during early design phases. If possible, a vide stormwater management benefits while also adding to
 3.5 ■ STORMWATER FUNDAMENTALS 245

Rainfall
Distribution

~ Type

mill' Type IA

D Type II

~ Type Ill

,:/'
"""'
•• -o"'
FIGURE 3,51 Approximate geographic boundaries for NRCS rainfall distributions. (Source: USDA, TR-55.)

the aesthetic character of the site. The shape of these systems to peak inflow discharge for the four types of synthetic
may also benefit from a natural formation, as opposed to an storms (Figure 3.SK).
engineered geometric shape. Once an initial estimate of the required volume has been
Estimating the Volume of Storage Required. When initially made and the location determined, a preliminary grading
sizing an SWM facility, the required storage volume to meet plan (for earthen or surface facilities) or volumetric design
detention requirements is unknown. An initial estimate of the (for structural or infiltration based facilities) can be per-
required storage volume may be made based on the inflow formed. This usually occurs during concept and schematic
hydrograph and the required outflow rate. The amount of stor- design phases. In preparing the grading plan, the objective
age required for a given design storm is equal to the represen- is to obtain the preliminary storage volume while keeping in
tative volume between the inflow and outflow hydrographs. mind such things as minimizing earthwork, nominal height
To obtain a first estimate of the storage required, the out- requirements of the embankment, depth and clear height
flow hydrograph can be approximated by drawing a straight (confined space) limitations for safety, sediment storage,
line from the beginning of substantial runoff on the inflow aquatic vegetation, depth to groundwater table, cost and aes-
hydrograph to the point on the receding limb corresponding thetic considerations.
to the allowable peak outflow rate. Alternatively, TR-55 pro- Many stormwater management system design software
vides a dimensionless graph relating the ratio of storage vol- packages can perform preliminary sizing estimates for
ume to runoff volume to the ratio of peak outflow discharge detention basins, utilizing the above methods. These can
be helpful in streamlining the evaluation of various basin
designs. The graph published by NRCS in TR-55 also pro-
vides a volume estimate that can be used with an anticipated
depth to determine a size requirement. For instance, if the
estimated storage volume is computed as 10,000 cf and the
outfall elevation allows for a system of 5 feet deep, a land
area of about 2000 sf would be required. When estimating
the size of a system, it's important how the size is impacted by
grading, freeboard requirements (additional system depth),
dam height limitations, or pretreatment requirements. For
instance, once the grading and freeboard parameters are
considered the estimated land area should be larger than the
simple computation of volume divided by depth.

3.5.8. Stormwater Quality Control

The Clean Water Act (as introduced in Chapter 2.5) reg-
ulates the restoration and maintenance of the chemi-
FIG uRE 3. 5 J Example of a stormwater management facility. cal, physical, and biological integrity of the Waters of the
24& i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ
.6

r,....
'-
~
.5
I'\. '-
\. ~

.,.-1...
> >
l'I.
'I
' I',..

- .4
'\
I'\ ' ....
e 41
e ;'\.
' ~,
1g
.:o -
> 0
>
:,

41 ....

~ .3
I
i
I'\.

" 1'-
......
.... ~ Types rr
.,...__
& IIII

---
0 :,
i--,.,
~ a: r-,...._
I'..
......
,

~I'-.. Types I & IA

I ....
....
---
i--,., "'-
.2 r-....
.... _
~

- -- I

.1
.1 .2 .3 .4 .s .6 .7 .8
Peak outflow discharge (Clo)
Peak _inflow discharge ~

FIG uRE 3. 5 K Approximate detention basin routing for synthetic rainfall distribution. (Source: USDA, TR-55.)

United States. When first enacted, the Clean Water Act directly to the natural waters without being processed
was primarily aimed at point-source discharges. However, through a treatment plant (as is seen with wastewater). The
as point-source discharges decreased, the awareness of EPA regulations focus on stormwater quality control for a
the detrimental effects from non-point-source discharges constructed site as well as management during construction
increased. NPS discharges are, as the name implies, pollut- activities (often referred to as erosion and sediment control,
ant discharges emanating from a dispersed area. Figure 3.SL described in detail in Chapter 5.7).
illustrates some of the NPSs. One of the difficulties with NPS Pollutants. NPS pollutants include sediments, oxygen
standardizing and implementing specific controls for NPSs demand, bacteria, nutrients, metals, and other toxic chemi-
of pollution is that many of the sources are transient with cals. In identifying the source and the type of pollutant, the
respect to time. engineer is better able to recommend a suitable best manage-
In 1978, the EPA provided funding and guidance to a ment practice (BMP) and its appropriate placement in con-
5-year study called the Nationwide Urban Runoff Program text of the site and outfall. The national distribution of the
(NURP). NURP studied the runoff from commercial and following described selected primary types ofNPS pollutants
residential areas across the United States. These studies con- is shown in Figure 3.SM.
cluded that the effects of urban runoff on receiving water Sediment is one of the largest contributors to NPS pollu-
quality are highly site specific. They depend on the type, size, tion by volume. Too much sediment in the receiving waters
and hydrology of the water body, the characteristics of the may cause fish gills to clog; reduce the size of spawning areas;
runoff quantity and quality, the designated beneficial use of block sunlight, preventing plant growth; reduce organism
the receiving water, and the concentration levels of the spe- species and numbers because of food-chain perturbations;
cific pollutants that affect that use. Certain types of water and reduce aesthetic values. Construction sites and agricul-
bodies are more vulnerable to NPS pollution than others. tural areas are primary generators of sediment. Sediment
For example, lakes, reservoirs, and estuaries, which have long buildup in existing ponds (including manmade stormwater
residence times, may be subject to accelerated eutrophica- management system) will reduce the volume of the systems
tion because pollutants and sediment may be retained, lead- and decrease the effectiveness.
ing to nutrient buildup. Oxygen demand, free oxygen, or dissolved oxygen (DO)
For jurisdictions that have a municipal separate storm is necessary in water to maintain aquatic life. DO is an
sewer system (MS4s) stormwater is ultimately discharged indicator of the health of lakes and streams. If the oxygen
 3.5 ■ STORMWATER FUNDAMENTALS 247

Dry Fallout Precipitation

~c:=J
Woodlands
(Silvaculture)

~
Waterfowl
G

Agricultural

Construction

Recreation

Mining

,illL
,._,,I~ I_
,illL ~--,illL

-,illL ,illL "'11,,

------
Wetlands

Salt Water
Intrusion

Non-Point Sources
FIG uRE 3. 5 L Non point pollutant sources. (Adapted from Martin P. Wanielista, Stormwater Management, New York: John Wiley & Sons. Reprinted
with permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)

demanding bacteria exceed the oxygen replenishing algae, be present. Sources include animal droppings, garbage, and
the DO will be depleted. DO is consumed by microorgan- sanitary wastewaters.
isms as they decompose organic matter. A low-DO can lead Nutrients are chemicals that stimulate the growth of
to fish death and to a reduction in aesthetic values. algae and water plants, which in excess can contribute to
Common bacteria are coliform, fecal coliform, and spe- the degradation oflake and stream water quality. Micronu-
cific pathogens, such as Shigella, Salmonella, and Clostridium. trients are nutrients that are needed in very small quantities.
Bacteria, in addition to causing a low DO, may be a health Nitrogen and phosphorus are the most common micro-
hazard. Generally, surface waters are tested for coliform bac- nutrients. Water quality problems that result from excess
teria. While coliform bacteria are not pathogenic, their pres- nutrients include algal scums, water discoloration, odors,
ence is an indicator that more pathogenic organisms may toxic releases, and overgrowth of plants. Sources include
240 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ
Toxics
Salinity 3%
3%
Pathogens
2%
Oxygen Demand
3%
~ - - - Pesticides
1%

Acidity
4%

Physical
Habitat
Alteration Nutrients
4% 58%

Sediment
22%

FIG uRE 3. 5 M Primary types of NPS pollution in lakes in the United States.
(Courtesy of Engineers & Surveyors Institute Northern Virginia.)

gardens, lawns, golf courses, and other areas that are fre- BMP will be based on site characteristics and the jurisdic-
quently fertilized. tion's pollutant removal goals. In terms of land development
Metals are widely varied and may be present in stormwa- engineering, either structural or nonstructural BMPs may be
ter. An ingestion of excess metals may cause health problems utilized. Structural BMPs include such controls as extended
and birth defects; this is a primary concern in waters used detention ponds, dry ponds, infiltration trenches, shallow
for recreational purposes and in terms of fish and seafood marshes/wetlands, porous pavements, and water quality
cultivation. The most common metals in urban runoff are inlets. Nonstructural BMPs include street cleaning, fertilizer
lead (Pb), copper (Cu), and zinc (Zn). Sources include flash- application control, and certain vegetative practices such as
ing, gutters, downspouts, brake linings from vehicles, paints, grass swales and filter strips.
catalytic converters, and tires. The primary mechanisms for pollutant removal in BMP
Other toxic chemicals found in surface waters may include facilities are
phenols and creosols (wood preservatives), pesticides and
herbicides, oils and greases, petroleum products, and many 1. Settling of pollutants
other manufactured chemicals.
2. Filtering pollutants
Because of laws such as the Clean Water Act, design-
ers are often required to reduce the amount of pollutants 3. Infiltration of soluble nutrients through the soil
leaving a development area to some percentage of pre- profile and biological and chemical stabilization
development levels. This generally involves quantifying of nutrients
the pre- and post-development pollutant loads from some
key pollutants (frequently nutrients). The method for cal- A list of common systems is included in Appendix Chapter 7.2.
culating pollutant loads is identified in Chapter 5.5. The The selection for and effectiveness of a BMP facility
engineer then attempts to reduce the post-development depend on numerous site conditions such as climate, water-
loads by implementing some form of best management shed size, soil permeability, ground slope, subsurface condi-
practice (BMP). tions (e.g., bedrock and groundwater), and land use to name
Best Management Practices. Best management practices a few (Figure 3.5N). Figures 3.50 through 3.5Q recommend
(BMPs) are policies, practices, procedures, and structures various restrictions to specific BMP facilities.
implemented to mitigate the adverse impacts to surface water Another factor influencing the design and selection
quality resulting from development (they may also provide a of BMPs is the governing criteria for efficiency. Local cri-
benefit to volume or water quantity). There are many differ- teria prescribe the allowable post-development pollutant
ent BMPs that can be used within a site and the appropriate loading. Typical policies range from "no net gains;' that is,
 Table 10-1. BMP Selection Criteria
Area Served (AC) Soil Type and Minimum Infiltration Rate (in/hr)
Sandy Silty Ground-
Best Management Loamy Sandy Silt Clay Clay Clay Sandy Silty water
Practices (BMPs) Sand Sand Loam Loam Loam Loam Loam Loam Clay Clay Clay Table
8.0 2.5 1.0 0.5 0.25 0.15 0.08 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.02 (ft)

-■■-- ----
0-5 5-10 10-30 30-50 50+ A A B B C C D D D D D
Biofi ltration 1-2

Infiltration Trench 2-4

Infiltration Basin 2-4

Grassed Swa les

1-2
(with Check Dams)

Filter Strips 1-2

Water Qua lity Inlet

Detention Ponds
Retention Ponds
Extended Detention/
Retention Ponds
Detention/Retention
with Wetland Bottoms

FIG uRE 3. 5 N BMP selection criteria.

250 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ
BMP AREA SERVED

DRY EXTENDED DETENTION POND

WET EXTENDED DETENTION POND

WET POND

INFILTRATION TRENCH I

INFILTRATION BASIN I

POROUS PAVEMENT I

WATER QUALITY INLET

GRASSED SWALE
- I

FILTEA STRIP I
., I I
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 95 100
WATERSHED AREA (ACRES)

LEGEND:
Feasible Mar9inal Not Feasible

FIG uRE 3. 5 0 Watershed area restrictions for BMPs. (Courtesy of Thomas R. Schueler, Controlling Urban Runoff:
A Practical Manual for Planning and Designing Urban BMPs, Washington, D.C.: Metropolitan Washington Council of
Governments, 1987.)

BMP SOIL TYPE

EXTENDED DETENTION POND

WET POND

INFILTRATION TRENCH

INFILTRATION BASIN

POROUS PAVEMENT

SWALE/FILTEA STRIP

SAND LOAMY SANOV LOAM SILT SANOV CLAY SILTY SANOV SILTY CLAY
(8.27) ft~,~ ~f~ (0.52) LOAM CLAY LOAM LOAM CLAY LOAM CLAY
(0.27) (0.17) (0.09) (0.06) (0.05)
CLAY
(0.04)
(0.<Yl)

SOIL TYPE
(minimum infiltration rate inches/hour)

LEGEND:
Feasible Mar9inal Not Feasible

FIG uRE 3. 5 P Soil permeability restrictions for BMPs. (Courtesy of Thomas R. Schueler, Controlling Urban Runoff: A
Practical Manual for Planning and Designing Urban BMPs, Washington, D.C.: Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments,
1987.)

post-development pollutant loading must be less than or pollutant removal efficiencies shown in Figure 3.SR might
equal to pre-development pollutant loads, to reducing the be considered for ideal conditions. These values are to be used
post-development pollutant loads to a specific percent- as a guide since some studies have shown substantial differ-
age of the pre-developed conditions. Other criteria may set ences from these efficiencies. Of the types of BMP measures
the allowable loadings on a site-by-site basis, which may be listed in Figure 3.SR the most effective types of facilities,
contingent on location within a water or sewer district. The according to a study done in Maryland (John, 1982), are the
 3.5 ■ STORMWATER FUNDAMENTALS 251

High
High Waler Close to Proximity to Space Maximum Restricted Sediment Thermal
BMP Slope Table Bedrock Foundations Consumption Depth Land Uses Input Impacts

Extended Detention Pond

• • • • 0
• • • •
Wet Pond
• • • • 0 0
• • 0
Infiltration Trench 0 0 0 0
• 0
• 0
•
Infiltration Basin
• 0 0
• • 0
• 0
•
Porous Pavement 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
•
Water Quality Inlet
• • 0 0
• 0 0 0
•
Grassed Swale 0 0
• • • • 0 0
•
Filter Strip
• • • • • • • 0
•
LEGEND • May preclude the use of a BMP

e Can be overcome with careful site design

0 Generally not a restriction

FIG uRE 3 . 5 Q Other common restrictions on BMPs. (Courtesy of Thomas R. Schueler, Controlling Urban Runoff: A Practical Manual for Planning
and Designing Urban BMPs, Washington, D.C.: Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments, 1987.)

wet ponds, extended detention ponds, artificial marshes, and most settling systems), which increases cost but decreases
infiltration trenches (Table 3.SG). the land area occupied by the BMP. Underground systems
Settling. For a BMP to use settlement practices the storm- can usually be installed below parking areas or private road
water is detained in a basin and slowly drained over 24 to networks.
48 hours, which provides time for the pollutants to settle. Examples of filtering systems are sand filters, tree box soil
Settling column experiments have been performed to esti- media filters, porous pavers, and bioretention systems.
mate the removal of pollutants from urban runoff. Sus- Runoff Reduction. Runoff reduction systems provide
pended sediment removal frequently forms the basis of BMP quality control by removing the runoff volume from entering
designs. It should be noted that the efficiency of removal of the downstream waterway. Runoff reduction can be achieved
pollutants through settlement is related to through infiltration, where runoff is collected and allowed to
seep back into the soil-this condition relies on soil testing to
1. The particle size of the pollutants (which affects the verify the soils can infiltrate the stormwater at an acceptable
settling velocity) rate. Stormwater can also be reused within the development.
2. The velocity of flow through the storage area Water reuse is often implemented for irrigation systems or
nonpotable uses (washing vehicles, lavatory water, etc.).
3. The depth and total storage volume available (related Many vegetative BMP systems have inherent runoff reduc-
to the hydraulic residence time, or the length of time tion benefits because of evapotranspiration and vegetative
during which settling may occur) uptake to support plant growth.
Examples of runoff reduction include infiltration
Examples of BMPs that use settling practices are wet ponds
trenches, water reuse cisterns (irrigation or building reuse),
and dry ponds, but some filtering systems also rely on set-
and vegetated BMPs.
tling practices in addition to filtration.
Filtering. Filtering mechanisms allow runoff water to
REFERENCES
pass through an engineered media, such as sand, gravel, John Galli, Analysis of Urban BMP Performance and Longevity in
or a proprietary manufactured filter. Unlike a practice that Prince Georges County, Maryland, Washington, D.C.: Metropoli-
retains runoff for to allow settling, a filter system may not tan Washington Council of Governments, 1982.
reduce the discharge rate of stormwater runoff. Many of the McPherson, M.B. 1978. The Design Storm Concept. Urban Runoff
filtering systems require extensive maintenance to replace Control Planning Miscellaneous Report Series. U.S. Environ-
the filters after a certain number of years. These systems are mental Protection Agency. Washington, DC: U.S. Government
commonly designed as subsurface systems (as opposed to Printing Office.
252 iiih3iiili ►irti· i/Oihti\ii,■ ;@iliiiiiiliih/i,i-V:ii/idtJ

~ (/)
w :::, ..I
::E a:
2i 0 zw 0
z ~
w 0
(/)
:J::
0. CJ
0
;w (/)
..I ::E
w
0 (/)
a: ~ a:
w
0
0
:J:: t: 0 w cc ..I ~
zw 0. z z ::E ii: ..I ..I
..I ..I w w w cc iii
a:
CJ I-
0.
(/) ~ ~ >
><
(.)
cc
a:
(.)
cc
w
>CC
f
BMP/Design :::,
u, ~ ~ 0 I- m 0 (J

EXTENDED DETENTION POND

DESIGN 1 a ~ ~ ~ 0 ® MODERATE
DESIGN 2
DESIGN 3
•• 0
a
~
0
0
0
a
a
®
®
MODERATE
HIGH
WET POND
DESIGN 4 a 0 ~ ~ ~ ® MODERATE
DESIGN 5 a 0 ~ ~ a ® MODERATE

INFILTRATION TRENCH
DESIGN 6
• a 0 0 a ® HIGH

DESIGN 7 a 0 0 a a a MODERATE

•• • •• •
DESIGN 8 0 0 a a HIGH
DESIGN 9 a a HIGH
INFILTRATION BASIN
DESIGN 7 a 0 0 a a 0 MODERATE
DESIGN 8
DESIGN 9
••
0
a
0
a
a •
• • •
a HIGH
HIGH
POROUS PAVEMENT
DESIGN 7 0 a 0 a 0 a MODERATE

•• • •• ••
DESIGN 8 a a a HIGH
DESIGN 9 a a HIGH
WATER QUALITY INLET
DESIGN 10 0 ® ® ® ® ® LOW
FILTER STRIP
DESIGN 11 ~ 0 0 0 ~ ® LOW

GRASSED SWALE
DESIGN 12
• 0 0 a • ® MODERATE

DESIGN 13 0 0 0 0 0 ® LOW
DESIGN 14 ~ ~ ~ ~ 0 ® LOW

Design 1: First-flush runoff volume detained for 6-12 hours.

KEY:
Design 2: Runoff volume produced by 1.0 inch, detained 24 hours.
Design 3: As in Design 2, but with shallow marsh in bottom stage. 0 0 TO 20% REMOVAL
Design 4: Permanent pool equal to 0.5 inch storage per impervious acre. ~ 20 TO 40% REMOVAL
Design 5: Permanent pool equal to 2.5 (Vr); where Vr mean storm runoff. 0 40 TO 60% REMOVAL
6: Permanent pool equal to 4.0 (Vr); approx. 2 weeks retention.
Design
Design 7: Facility exfiltrates first-flush; 0.5 inch runoff/impervious acre.
a 60 TO 80% REMOVAL .
Design 8: Facility exfiltrates one inch runoff volume per impervious acre. • 80 TO 100% REMOVAL
Design 9: Facility exfiltrates all runoff up to the 2 year design storm. ® INSUFFICIENT KNOWLEDGE
Design 10: 400 cubic feet wet storage per impervious acre.
Design 11 : 20 foot wide turf strip.
Design 12: 100 foot wide forested strip, with level spreader.
Design 13: High slope swales, with no check dams.
Design 14: Low gradient swales with check dams.

FIG uRE 3. 5 R Comparative pollutant removal of urban BMP designs. (Courtesy of John Galli, Analysis of Urban BMP Performance
and Longevity in Prince George's County, Maryland, Washington, D.C.: Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments, 1982.)
 3.5 ■ STORMWATER FUNDAMENTALS 253

TA BLE 3 . 5 G Summary: General Attributes of BMP Systems Field Surveyed

I. BENEFITS

POROUS GRASS
INFILTRATION PAVEMENT ANO INFILTRATION FILTERS/ ED DRY WET ARTIFICIAL POCKET O1L/GRIT DRY
FACTOR TRENCHES DRY WELLS BASINS SWALES PONDS PONDS MARSHES WETLANDS SEPARATORS PONDS

Downstream channel
protection
• 0 0 0
• • • • 0 0

Removal of particulate
pollutants
• 0
• 0
• • 0
• 0 0

Removal of soluble
pollutants
• 0 0 0 0
• • 0 0 0

Aquatic/wildlife habitat
creation
0 0 0 0 0
• • 0 0 0

Wetland creation 0 0
• 0 0
• • • 0 0

Thermal impact
protection
• • • 0 0
• 0 0 0 0

II. DISADVANTAGES

Soils limitations
• • • • • • • • 0
•
Maintenance
requirements
• • • • • • • • • •
Space consumption
• 0
• • • • • • 0
•
Public safety hazards 0 0
• 0
• • • • 0
•
Functional life/reliability* 0 0 0
• 0
• • 0 0 0

(Source: Courtesy of Galli, John. 1982. Analysis of Urban BMP Performance and Longevity in Prince George's County, Maryland. Washington, D.C.: Metropolitan Washington
Council of Governments, 777 No. Capital St. NE, Suite 300, Washington, DC 20002-4226, 202/962-3256).
o Low
• Moderate
e High
• General ability to provide water quality/quantity control benefits for 5 years or more without regular sedimenVtrash removal.
254 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ

OAKWOOD BEACH FLOOD RESILIENCY STUDY WITH NATURE BASED INFRASTRUCTURE

Location: Staten Island, NY
Client: New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (NYSDEC) through the New York State Office of
General Services (NYSOGS)
Completion Date: April 4, 2014 (Design)
Case Study: After Superstorm Sandy impacted the Oakwood Beach area, the New York State Department of Envi-
ronmental Conservation (NYSDEC) had the opportunity to infuse natural infrastructure solutions into USACE's hard
infrastructure coastal flood protection system. The low-lying portion of Oakwood Beach on the south shore of Staten
Island, New York is subject to flooding from coastal storm surge and heavy rainfall.
For this high-visibility project, which was mentioned in the NYS Governor's State of the State address, Dewberry
worked with stakeholders to prepare a Feasibility Study and Conceptual Design Plan for a combination of natural
and gray infrastructure to provide storage for a 100-year rainfall event and reduce damages from the 500-year coastal
storm event. This comprehensive conceptual design plan would provide environmental/recreational benefits and
help to improve flood resiliency by protecting 1,843 houses along with DEP's critical infrastructure within Oakwood
Beach community.
Dewberry's study evaluated stormwater Best Management Practices (BMPs) and freshwater and tidal wetland resto-
ration opportunities in concert with storm damage reduction strategies. Coastal hydrodynamic and wave modeling
assessed tidal wetland restoration alternatives. Hydromorphic assessment and hydrology and hydraulic analyses were
also performed. Alternatives were based on availability of parcels, wetland restoration benefits, ability to manage storm-
water runoff, mitigation of storm surge, and resiliency offered from projected sea level rise.
 CHAPTER 3.6

UTILITY FUNDAMENTALS

3.6.1. Introduction systems may require larger pipes (96 inches is a common
Most urban land development projects will be served by maximum) or box culverts, which range from 4 x 4 feet up
public utility systems, whereas smaller rural sites will have to much larger sizes.
private on-site systems. The site engineer is typically focused In addition to the physical size of each utility, there are
on the design of the storm, sanitary, and sewer utility systems separation requirements (both horizontal and vertical). A
for a site. Other utilities, such as power, gas, and communica- public utility may also require an easement, which can vary
tion, are often coordinated with the utility provider but may from 10 to 25 feet in width along the center of the utility.
be designed by the site engineer. Large facilities, such as a For major utility systems, such as power transmission, the
university campus or hospital, may have a central plant with easements can be over 100 feet in width. These easements
steam, chilled water, and hot water systems. There is gen- are required to protect the utility system and accommodate
erally one public utility provider for a region's water, sewer, maintenance activity. The easements often include restric-
and power, but there may be more than one provider for tions on development. Many easements must be clear of
communication. vegetation, buildings, or other site furnishings. These con-
The availability and existing capacity of utilities, such as ditions are especially challenging as utility systems compete
sanitary and water, can impact the development potential for with other site requirements like landscaping and screening.
a site. If there is no public water or sewer available near a new The required separation and easement requirement should
residential community the development will need large lots be determined early in the design phase.
to accommodate septic systems and well systems. In some Utility design should be carefully coordinated with build-
cases, a public utility may be available, but the capacity would ing requirements. The connection between a building and
not support the desired development-in this case the devel- the site is critical, and each discipline will likely have differ-
oper would need to consider upgrading the system (which ent design requirements. An estimate of utility requirements
could be prohibitively expensive) or they may be required to is important in the early phases of design so that the capacity
decrease the desired density. can be verified. If capacity does not exist in the utility sys-
Each utility system has individual design, construction, tems, there may be a need for costly upgrades and in some
maintenance, and operation requirements. Each utility pro- cases, it may not be possible to modify the system.
vider and jurisdiction will have a set of requirements, and This chapter is separated into four parts: (A) Storm
often a set of unique details, for the utility systems. In dense Drainage, (B) Sanitary Sewer, (C) Water Distribution, and
development projects, one of the challenges is to accommo- (D) Dry Utilities. These utilities are often the focus of site
date the utility systems within a confined space. Water and engineering design work, but all other utilities should be
sanitary systems are generally smaller diameter pipes (less considered and carefully coordinated. This chapter intro-
than 10 inches is large enough to serve most developments). duces the terminology, materials, and design strategies of
Storm drainage systems usually have a IS-inch minimum utility systems. Design examples and detailed equations are
pipe size, and can quickly grow to 60 inches-very large provided in Chapter 5.6.

255
256 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ
PART A-STORM DRAINAGE design of the conveyance system. But the ultimate routing
of the conveyance system may alter the stormwater manage-
3.6.2. Introduction ment facility locations, which would then change the grading
After the planning of the site layout and initial hydrologic of the site. The site design and buildings can change, espe-
analysis of the site, the horizontal placement (and later, the cially during the site analysis and preliminary engineering
sizing) of the storm drainage system is performed. Con- phase of a project, which may require edits to the storm sys-
veyance systems may vary from nonstructural systems tem. Figure 3.6A depicts the final design for a storm drain-
such as grass channels to structural systems comprised of age system for a residential community. The design includes
pipes, culverts, and inlets. The selection of conveyance sys- inlets, pipes, channels, and stormwater management systems.
tems may vary due to development conditions, low-impact Preliminary sizing of the conveyance drainage sys-
development (LID) goals, available site area, topography, tem should be performed on each component to provide
soils, as well as local jurisdictional requirements. The adequate conveyance of stormwater runoff to proposed
implementation of LID techniques is often encouraged stormwater management facilities or points of discharge
for storm conveyance systems as additional measures of (outfalls). It is important to verify the design storm and siz-
stormwater management. The design team must evaluate ing requirements for these systems with local authorities
and consider these objectives and incorporate these various having jurisdiction. A common design storm for convey-
design elements as appropriate. In some cases, the other site ance systems is 10- to IS-year storm events, but the loca-
infrastructure may govern the type of conveyance system tion of the system can require conveyance for larger design
used. For instance, a road with curb and gutter will require storms (such as 25- or SO-year storms adjacent to a highway
inlets and pipes, while a road with just a paved shoulder crossing).
would require a roadside ditch. The designer must also account for safe runoff convey-
Once the type of conveyance and collection system has ance either via overland flow, via the collection system, or
been established, these systems are incorporated into the site via other secondary means of conveyance for storm events
plan as the grading and drainage plan is developed. But this exceeding the required design storm for the collection sys-
may require iterations of design to determine the best storm tem. This is necessary to ensure that drainage water is con-
network layout. Preliminary grading leads to the placement veyed to appropriate stormwater management systems even
of stormwater management facilities, which leads to the as the pipes and channels are overwhelmed.

• -I"-
-- ___
-----~
-- ·--..,_..,_·-·
---------
__
-.-
---
__..... --
----~ - 03.202

FIG uRE 3. 6A Example of a storm drainage system.

 3.6 ■ UTILITY FUNDAMENTALS 257

Profiles of the storm sewer system are typically part of TOPS

the final design; however, select profiling should occur dur-
ing preliminary engineering to check vertical conflicts with
outfall systems and other utilities. Additionally, flow capaci-
ties of proposed and existing systems should be checked. It
is important to ensure that proposed developments on a site
do not negatively affect surrounding properties and existing
drainage systems. Since the adequacy of the drainage outfalls
is critical, as-built information of existing storm systems and
field run cross sections of existing drainage channels (natural
or man-made) should be obtained. RISERS
Drainage systems are often divided into two categories:
minor and major. The minor system, which consists of
swales, small ditches, gutters, small pipes and the other vari-
ous types of inlets and catch basins, collect and convey run-
off to a discharge area or impoundment. Components in the
minor system are sized to carry runoff generated by the more
frequent, short-duration, storm events. The major drainage
system includes natural streams, channels, ponds, lakes, I
retention and detention facilities, large pipes, and culverts. ·.',
I
I
Design criteria for the major system are based on significant I
I
I

I
amounts of rainfall produced by the less frequent, long dura- I
I
tion storms and are further governed by the hydraulic con - n:I
cepts related to bridges and large conveyance structures.
This part of this chapter will build from Chapter 3.5 by
introducing the storm system that conveys water into the BASES
stormwater management facility. This chapter begins by
describing the parts of a storm sewer system, including the
materials and preliminary sizes. Then the design and loca - (;;---I~
tion of the system within a property will be discussed, to
allow for the optimal design of a site. A holistic understand-
ing of stormwater will enable the success of a project. I '\
I
1 •
3.6.3. Storm System Materials t
I
I
I
A storm drainage system is generally comprised of concrete I
I
structures (manholes and inlets) and pipes of a variety of mate- I
I

rials. The layout of structured systems (pipes, inlets, manholes, ''

I
i
endwalls) generally follows a layout in which straight pipe seg-
ments form connections between storm structures. At each
storm structure the pipe can change horizontal direction or ~--~----------------*-~
vertical direction (pipe slope). The layout of a storm network FIG uRE 3. 6 B Precast unit assembly diagram.
can often look like a constellation pattern as the infrastructure
meanders around the site. There is a large catalog of storm
structures and the details usually vary by jurisdiction. approximately 4 feet but can increase to 8 feet or more. When
Storm Junctions. Manholes are typically precast circular several pipes converge at a manhole the size and angle of the
concrete barrel sections, in 3 to 4 feet lengths, that stack on pipes should be evaluated to ensure that manhole can accom-
top of each other (Figure 3.6B). The elevation of the top of modate the connections. For large systems, concrete junction
the manhole is adjusted to meet grade with spacer rings. The boxes may be required to accommodate pipe connections.
top is covered with an iron ring fitted with an iron cover. In Figure 3.6C(a), the size and angles of the pipes are such
Manholes are used to change horizontal and/ or vertical that they can be connected to the manhole without interfer-
direction of pipes, while also acting as a junction, allowing ing with each other. Compare this to Figure 3.6C(b), where
the convergence of several incoming pipes. Many types of the pipe sizes and angles cannot fit into the manhole at the
inlets use the manhole barrel sections but have a precast same elevations (or nearly same elevations). In the second
throat or grate that fits to the top. case the elevations of the pipe should be staggered enough to
The diameter of the manhole depends on the size of the provide for the necessary clearance. In each case the thickness
pipes connecting to it. Standard manhole diameters are of the pipe walls should be considered when determining the
250 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ
12"

a) 30" 30"
b)
FIG uRE 3. 6 C Pipes connecting at manhole at same elevation.

necessary manhole size, Wall thickness and other details are an incoming 36-inch-diameter pipe properly fitted to a
often available from manufacturers or in details from local 3 x 5-foot (outside dimensions) structure. In Figure 3.6D(b),
jurisdictions. the pipes are skewed and do not properly connect to the
Similar to the preceding discussion, where several pipe structure. In this example, the center of the structure is
connections to the manhole must be checked for proper aligned with the centerline of the pipe and the skew angle
fit, the skew angle of the pipe connection at a rectangular causes part of the incoming pipe to overlap onto the 3-foot
structure must be checked for fit. Figure 3.6D(a) shows side of the structure.
The angle of the inflow and outflow pipe should be more
than 90° to prevent a U-turn condition of the flow, which
reduces hydraulic efficiency. At the base of a structure, inlet

r.·. .- // shaping is usually provided to promote flow through the

system and reduce energy losses (Figure 3.6E). Inlet shap-
ing is the practice of creating a channel from the inflow
pipes to the outflow pipe. The inlet shaping is most effec-
... :..
tive when pipe inverts are similar for the inflow and out-
.. flow pipes.

L -------..
3' : .
Storm Collection Structures. There is a large catalog of
storm structures and the details vary by jurisdiction. In most
.. _....,_,.,.,,,...--.--~-.,....,..,.---,,.-,-----' cases, storm collection structures will include inlets and end-
~ ·. -! -~4-~ ~~~I~~~~ -"
walls (or headwalls, depending on whether they receive or
(a)
f I
discharge stormwater). An endwall or headwall (Figure 3.6F)
is located where a pipe system connects to an open channel,
and the structure retains the adjacent earth.

1/ Intersects
Storm inlets are generally classified into four categories,
as identified by Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) in
the HEC-22 Urban Drainage Design Manual (Figure 3.6G):
Wall
a. Grate
b. Curb opening
c. Combination (grate and curb opening)
d. Slotted drain
(b) rI Many jurisdictions, including the state department of
transportation (DOT), will have a prescribed catalog of
FIG uRE 3. 6 D Skew angle for pipes connecting to rectangular inlet types. Some jurisdictions limit the use of certain inlets,
structure. such as grate inlets, if they consider them prone to clogging.
 3.6 ■ UTILITY FUNDAMENTALS 259

Shape to
contour
of pipe

" " ' - . _ Slope co drain co Invert of

of outlet pipe
SECTION A-A

METHOD OF TREATMENT IN DROP INLETS

PLAN SECTION B

METHOD OF TREATMENT IN MANHOLES

FIG uRE 3. 6 E Example of inlet shaping, modified from Virginia Department of Transportation Road and Bridge
Standards.

Figure 3.6H depicts various inlet types located along a road- will generally have a manhole or other vertical structure
way. Inlets may be located within the roadway, parking lots, below the inlet top to allow for pipe connections.
hardscape, or outside of paved areas based on the grading Pipe Materials. Pipe systems (closed channel conveyance)
and hydraulic requirements. Smaller variations of these inlet are common in suburban and urban development, and typi-
types are typically used for plaza, landscape, or yard drain- cally seen in conjunction with curb and gutter streets that
age [usually high-density polyethylene (HDPE) or polyvinyl have inlets. Pipes can be manufactured from many different
chloride (PVC)]. Inlets can be precast or cast in place and materials but the most common are reinforced concrete pipe
(RCP) and HDPE. Other plastic pipe systems may be used
for smaller yard drains or building connections. Corrugated
metal pipe (CMP) is often used for driveway culverts. Each
material will often have a variety of specifications for instal-
lation, trenches, and connections. For example, a storm pipe
that connects to a wet pond and is constantly submerged will
have a different joint specification than a pipe used just for
conveyance.
It is important to determine acceptable pipe materials
selection based on locality specifications and site constraints.
pH levels and resistivity of the soils, high or low fill areas, cor-
rosive environmental conditions, and tidal areas will be some
of the site constraints. Others may be the preference of contrac-
tor, the proximity to manufacturing plants, and the cost of the
different pipe materials. The engineer must be careful to con-
sider the pipe material when designing a storm sewer system.
The various pipes available on the market can have an enor-
mous range of Manning's "n" values (from as little as 0.007 to
as high as 0.033). Since then value plays an important role in
STRAIGHT HEADWALL pipe capacity and hydraulic grade line calculations, the selec-
FIG uRE 3. 6 F Example of a headwall. tion of the pipe material could dramatically affect the design.
2so i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ

a. Grate b. Curb-opening Inlet

c;:. Combination Inlet d. Slotted Drain Inlet

FIG uRE 3. 6 G Example of storm drain inlets (FHWA, HEC-22, 3rd edition, Urban Drainage Design
Manual).

ON-GRADE INLET SUMP INLET ON-GRADE INLET ON-GRADE INLET

(FLANKING) (FLANKING)

ROAD& ROAD&
DRAINAGE SLOPE LOW POINT DRAINAGE SLOPE

FIG uRE 3. 6 H Example of inlet shapes.

An acceptable n value for concrete pipe is usually 0.013, and modified. Therefore, it is important that the engineer under-
HDPE may be 0.011 to 0.12. Additional information on 'n' val- stand the requirements of the local industry before determin-
ues and Manning's equation is provided in Chapter 5.6. ing pipe materials to be used for design and analysis.
Some localities will provide guidance as to the types of Pipes are generally circular and will range from small
materials preferred. Many other jurisdictions will allow the diameter plastic pipes (3 to 10 inches) for building and
contractor to choose the pipe material. When the contractor landscape drains with larger diameter options for RCP and
is given the option of pipe materials, it will either be up to the HDPE, as well as other common materials. The pipe size
contractor or the engineer to determine whether the mate- option usually starts around 12-inch diameter and increases
rial selected will still meet the design requirements of the in 3-inch increments to 36-inch diameter before increasing at
construction documents. If the design documents use HDPE 6-inch increments. As with all pipe materials, the wall width
with a lower n value (and greater capacity) but the contrac- should be considered in the design of the pipe network-
tor chooses RCP (higher n value), the design may need to be the diameter references the interior dimension but the wall
 3.6 ■ UTILITY FUNDAMENTALS 261

Concrete Pipe Size, Wall Thickness and Weight

INTERNAL PIPE DIAMETER WALL THICKNESS WEIGHT
(in) (8 TYPE, in) (lb/ft)
12 2 93
15 2¼ 127
18 2½ 168
24 3 264
30 3½ 384
36 4 524
42 4½ 686
48 5 867
54 5½ 1068
60 6 1295
72 7 1811
FIG uRE 3. 61 Dimension and weights of pipes.

thickness can add as much add 4 to 18 inches to the outside Channel material can vary between natural linings, such as
diameter for RCP. Figure 3.61 provides a list of common con- vegetation, or manufactured lining such as concrete, riprap,
crete storm pipe sizes, wall thickness, and weight. or geotextile fabrics. The appropriate lining is determined
Alternative pipe size and geometry may provide solutions by an iterative process of selecting a material, determining
to difficult design situations, such as a utility crossing with the velocity and shear stress (based on Mannings "n" of the
other systems. A reduction of a pipe size will have a significant material), evaluating whether the velocity and shear stress
impact on available capacity. Storm pipes are also available in is permissible, and choosing a different material as needed.
elliptical shapes, which can reduce the total height or width For smaller conveyance systems, vegetated lining is generally
of a pipe while maintaining capacity. Rectangular shapes (box acceptable until a velocity of 3 to 6 feet/second based on the
culverts) are often used for large capacity systems and convey- vegetation, slope, and underlying soil conditions.
ance below a road crossing. Pipes, whether circular, box, ellip- Culverts. A culvert is a relatively short length of conduit,
tical, or arch, can also be used for underground stormwater typically less than 250 feet long, used to transport water
detention systems when surface systems (such as ponds) are through (or under) an embankment. A culvert, which acts
not feasible. as an enclosed channel through the embankment, serves as
Open Channel Systems. Open channel conveyance sys- a continuation of the open channel. However, flow through
tems provide an alternative to pipe systems. Open channels culverts depends on entrance geometry and depth of flow
may be used for stormwater quality (vegetated channels can at the downstream end. Consequently, flow computations
remove pollutants) or may be used to reduce construction for culverts are more complex than the open channel flow
costs of a conveyance system (usually at the expense ofland analysis associated with pipes and ditches. Culverts through
area). Unlike pipes, open channels can change horizontal roadway and railway embankments are designed to pass the
or vertical direction without the need for a storm structure. design discharge without overtopping the embankment or
Channels often parallel a highway or rural subdivision roads causing extensive ponding, or inundation at the upstream
but can be used for conveyance in other applications as well. end. Local requirements may allow nominal depths over the
For man-made channels, the geometry is usually trap- embankments for lesser frequency storm (greater recurrence
ezoidal or triangular, with side slopes typically ranging from interval) events.
4:1 to 1:1 based on design criteria and channel material. Major components of a culvert design include specify-
Channel geometry can also be irregular, when considering ing the materials-the barrel, end treatments such as head-
natural channels, or can be established as parabolic or rect- walls, endwalls, and wingwalls, outlet protection, and inlet
angular. Determining the capacity of a channel can be chal- improvements such as debris control structures as well as
lenging because the shape, slope, and contributing drainage determining the environmental permitting requirements.
area can vary along the channel alignment. Evaluating the Except for the barrel, these components are used as the spe-
capacity at different locations (minimum slope, maximum cific situation warrants.
slope, complete drainage area) is often necessary to ensure Barrels. Barrels are available in various sizes, shapes, and
the channel is adequate. materials. Figure 3.6J shows the commonly used culvert
2s2 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ

Shape Range of Sizes Common Uses

Round

8 6' -26'
Culverts, subdrains, sewers, service tunnels,
etc. All plates same radius. For medium and
high fills (or trenches).

Culverts, sewers, service tunnels, recovery

Vertically-elongated 4' - 21 ' nominal; tunnels. Plates of varying radii ; shop
(ellipse) 5% is common before elongating fabrication. For appearance and where
backfill compaction is only moderate.

Span x Rise Where headroom is limited. Has hydraulic

18' X 11 '
Pipe-arch advantages at low flows. Corner plate radius,
to 18 inches or 31 inches for structural plate.
20' 7' X 13' 2"

Span x Rise
5' 8" X 5' 9' For pedestrians, livestock or vehicles
Underpass· to (structural plate).
20' 4" X 17' 9'

Span x Rise
6' X 1' 9½" For low clearance large waterway opening,
Arch to and aesthetics (structural plate).
25' X 12' 6'

Horizontal Ellipse g Span

20' -40'
Culverts, grade separations, storm sewers,
tunnels.

Span Grade separations, culverts, storm sewers,

Pear 25'-30' tunnels.

High Profile Arch

-0 Span
20'-45'
Culverts, grade separations, storm sewers,
tunnels, Ammo ammunition magazines,
earth covered storage.

Low Profile Arch

0 Span
20' - 50'
Low-Wide waterway enclosures, culverts,
storm sewers.

Span Low-Wide waterway enclosures, culverts,

Box Culverts storm sewers.
3'-20'

For lining old structures or other special

Specials Various
purposes. Special fabrication.

• For equal area or clearance, the round shape is generally more economical and simpler to assemble.

FIGURE 3.6J Common shapes of culverts.

 3.6 ■ UTILITY FUNDAMENTALS 263

shapes as well as applications of the various shapes. Selec- alignment to the culvert alignment. Figure 3.6K shows four
tion of shape depends on construction limitations, embank- types of end treatments.
ment height, environmental issues, hydraulic performance, Debris barriers are sometimes constructed on the
and cost. The most commonly used culvert materials are upstream end to prevent material from entering and clog-
corrugated steel, corrugated aluminum, and precast or cast ging the culvert. The barriers are placed far enough away
in place concrete. Factors such as corrosion, abrasion, and from the entrance so that accumulated debris does not clog
structural strength determine the selection of material. In the entrance.
cases where the culvert is located in a highly visible area, the At the inlet and outlet ends of the culvert, endwalls and
selection of shape and material may be based on aesthetics, wingwalls serve as retaining walls and erosion protection for
as well as the functional aspects. the embankment and help to inhibit piping along the out-
End Treatments. Headwalls and wingwalls are examples of side surface of the culvert. Downstream wingwalls provide
end treatments. They protect the embankment from erosion, a smooth transition between the culvert and the natural
serve as retaining walls to stabilize the bank and add weight stream banks.
to counter any buoyancy effects. Ideally, the centerline of the All culverts that cross underneath roadway embankments
culvert should follow the alignment and grade of the natu- inherently create potential stability concerns for the embank-
ral channel. In many cases this cannot be done, and skewing ments. The same can be said of storm sewer pipe installa-
headwalls and wingwalls help transition the natural stream tions. This is a function of the construction of the culvert

WING PH APWA STRAIGHT HEAPWA L

FIG uRE 3. 6 K Four common end inlet treatments.
254 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ

system. Compaction around a pipe, whether it is circular or engineer to determine appropriate countermeasures, such as
rectangular, is more difficult than standard compaction of fill concrete cradles, use of impervious materials, or embank-
slopes. The contractor must take care in compacting around ment draining devices such as toe-drains to minimize the
culvert systems, usually requiring several "lifts" (e.g., 6 to potential for piping failures. Permitting requirements for
12 inches layers of soil) to compact the surrounding fill mate- natural channels may require the countersinking the culvert
rial to specification. Consideration should always be given, 3 to 12 inches depending on the local, state, and federal laws.
by the designer and contractor, that storm runoff will seep The depth of countersinking may be dictated by the type of
into roadway embankments, or groundwater tables will rise ground material. Countersinking the culvert will provide a
during flood events. If the compaction is inadequate, water natural channel bottom through the culvert for aquatic habi-
can run along the voids in the soil of the "uncompacted" por- tat. The culvert analysis must consider the loss of flow area in
tion of the culvert. When water continues to flow along a the culvert, a modified Manning's "n" value for the channel
pipe or culvert, the "uncompacted" material slowly washes bottom, and model the effective opening.
away from the surrounding pipe, and failure of the embank-
ment may occur. This is one of the most common causes of 3.6.4. Storm System Layout
embankment failures at culvert installations and roadway The storm system design, like most design processes, is itera-
pavement failures at storm sewer installations. This type of tive. The results from one iteration provide the details neces-
failure is referred to as piping failure. sary for further refinement of the design in the next iteration.
Culverts and storm sewers are typically constructed with a Each iteration attempts to optimize the design to provide ade-
stone base to provide support and flexibility. For most instal- quate drainage control, without an excessive number of inlets
lations, this stone base is porous and allows any water inside or length of pipe. The design of the minor system involves:
the embankment to travel downstream, along the path of the
culvert. Typically, this aggregate base aids in reducing pip- • Outfall determination-identify all outfall points
ing failures, in that it concentrates the water flowing through for site
the embankment. However, should there be excessive pond-
• Inlet location-based on preliminary grading and
ing of water behind an embankment, the standard bedding
drainage divides
provided at culvert installations will not be adequate to pass
the seepage flow safely along the conduit, and piping failures • Conveyance system layout-connecting inlets, build-
may occur. The designer should consult with a geotechnical ings, manholes, and SWM systems
• Preliminary analysis-checking hydrologic and
hydraulic assumptions for inlet locations and pipe/
channel sizes
• Verify design-determine if the system follows local

[ criteria and standards, and any impacts to other

components of the project

Requisite information to begin design of the storm drain

system generally includes on-site and off-site topographic
maps, current and projected land use maps, soil identifica-
tion maps, floodplain delineation maps, floodplain reports,
existing site plans of surrounding property, stream and chan-
nel outfall information, and the plans of the proposed condi-
J
[ tions of the project.
Location of Inlets. On curb and gutter roads and parking
lots, inlets are placed at all low points, such as sag vertical
curves (low points within the road). In sag locations, where
there is a higher propensity for clogging of inlets, the spread of
ponded water presents a traffic hazard. Flanking inlets should
be considered, if they are not required by code, in the sump
area of a sag vertical curve. The addition of flanking inlets,
which limit the spread and ponding at the low point, provides

[ J
relief when the sump inlet is clogged or overwhelmed.
On normal crown street sections the locations of inlets
are usually similar for each side of the road. If the road is
sloped to one side (both lanes drain to one curb), the loca-
FIG uRE 3. 6 L Example of a road with location of inlets. tion of inlets will often be limited to the low side of the road;
 3.6 ■ UTILITY FUNDAMENTALS 265

however, if there is a large area adjacent to the roadway addi- the intersection. Detailed grading may be required along the
tional inlets may be placed on the upper side of the road to curb return to force water back to the inlet, or through the
capture water prior to spilling across the roadway. Refer to curb return to the next street.
Figure 3.6L for examples of inlet locations shown on the The designer should also consider the location of any
cross section of a road. This is important when considering handicap ramps or pedestrian crossings prior to placing
how snowmelt may drain across a roadway if not captured inlets at the end of the curb returns. Depending on the longi-
with an inlet. tudinal street slope and the gutter flow, an inlet just upstream
Additional inlets adjacent to the roadway (beyond the of this location may also be necessary. Locating inlets at the
curb and gutter) may also provide relief from drainage across ends of curb returns also reduces flows around the curb
the roadway. returns, which may be a consideration if the longitudinal
To properly locate the drainage inlet on superelevated gradient of either street is very steep, or if the area is a high
roadways, the design engineer should check the elevations pedestrian traffic area.
of the outer edge of pavement along the superelevation tran- After inlets have been placed at the required locations in
sition segment to determine the location of any "false low sumps and at intersections, the location of all remaining inlets
points:' 1 Most urban streets have curbed or curb and gut- is dictated by the limitations on spread of flow into the street
ter sections. In those situations, where the urban street is (on-grade inlets, as opposed to sump inlets). The location of
required to have superelevation through horizontal curves, on-grade inlets is dictated by the allowable spread of gutter
certain conditions create the situation where a low point flow. Most jurisdictions will prescribe a maximum spread for
occurs and is not in an obvious sump. To attain full super- gutter flow (often half a vehicular travel lane). The spread is
elevation or to go from full superelevation to normal crown calculated using Manning's equation for channel flow where
(or reverse superelevation in the case of compound curves) the curb, gutter, and road define the channel. A steeper lon-
requires a length of transition. If the rate of superelevation gitudinal road section will provide a higher capacity (less
is greater than the longitudinal rate of grade change, a low spread) than a mild slope-this means mild road slopes will
point in the gutter area results. The engineer should be aware require more frequent inlets to control the spread. Refer to
of the conditions that present this predicament and locate Chapter 5.6 for formulas and calculations of spread.
the low point and inlet location. In parking areas, the grading plan determines the drain-
Inlet placement in an intersection requires detailed age pattern and inlet location. In commercial building sites,
analysis of the intersection street's profiles and cross sec- pedestrian traffic is an important consideration for grad-
tions. Intersections have the potential for creating unusual ing and drainage. Sump areas should be avoided in pedes-
drainage patterns and collection networks. The design of an trian travel ways such as crosswalks or near entrances to the
intersection involves matching the cross slope of the inter- building. Additionally, sump areas should be avoided in areas
secting street with the longitudinal profile of the through where passengers discharge from vehicles such as bus stops
street. Sometimes the crowns meet in the intersection but or walkways. Although there is typically no limitation for the
other times the crown is only carried through on the major spread of flow into privately maintained travel lanes and park-
through street. This usually depends on the classification of ing areas, good judgment is needed to avoid people parking
the streets in the intersection. Two major roads will see the in puddles when stepping out of their vehicles and to limit the
crowns meet in the intersection but, for example, an arterial spread in cold regions, since the formation of ice sheets is a
and a local street will usually only have the crown of the arte- concern. Handicap ramps and parking spaces also need to be
rial carried through the intersection. Drainage patterns can considered when locating drainage inlets and sump areas.
be complicated by deviations from the cross slopes shown on In most moderate density developments, manholes and
the typical section, which may be relaxed through the inter- inlet structures will be spaced less than several hundred feet
section to fit the pavement from the intersecting street to the apart by necessity. Most localities will set design criteria
pavement of the through street. limiting the maximum distances between manholes, which
Curb returns (the horizontal curve portion of the curb often are a function of the pipe size. Table 3.6A is the recom-
used to join the curb of the two intersecting streets) and the mended spacing provided by AASHTO. This distance is usu-
cross sections of the intersecting streets coupled with any ally determined by maintenance and accessibility concerns,
horizontal and vertical curves can create sump areas in incon- verify acceptable distances per locality.
spicuous and unfavorable locations. Additionally, the profile Location of Yard Inlets. Ideally, the drainage system
of the curb return itself may not follow a known mathemati- should accommodate the site or roadway plan, and not be
cal function, for example, a parabolic curve, and typically the driving factor behind other design components. For
does not exactly coincide with the street profile. Typically, example, single-family detached projects favor drainage
inlets are placed along the curb and gutter of the downhill patterns toward the rear and side of the houses. Swales and
street before the curb return to capture water before entering inconspicuous ditches can convey the water across the rear
of the lots with minimal intrusion and little impact to the
1The term false low point is used to indicate a low point location difference from the overall site plan. Large grate inlets and concrete channels are
low point location given on the PGL. not desirable conditions for a residential yard.
266 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ

The relationship between pipe size, slope, and conveyance

TAB LE 3 . 6 A Recommended Structure
capacity can be seen in Table 3.6B.
(Manhole and Inlet) Spacing
Common practice is to set the pipe at minimum depth
PIPE DIAMETER DISTANCE (FT) (i.e., minimum cover or minimum inlet depth) or at the shal-
lowest depth possible (to ease in constructability) and select
12-24 350 the pipe size and slope that convey the design discharge at
27-36 400 near full capacity. The pipe network is typically designed
to prevent pressure flow (the conveyed flow is below the
42-54 500 pipe capacity). In pressure conditions, the pipe network is
surcharged for storms that generate runoff greater than the
~60 1000 design storm.
Discharge velocity in a pipe should be kept within a
nominal range to prevent scour and eliminate sediment
buildup. Sediment transported by very high velocities
The rate of flow being conveyed across a lot is limited to causes abrasion damage to the pipe. Low velocities cause
nonerosive velocities. Maintenance and ownership of swales sediment to settle out and reduce the pipe capacity. A rec-
and ditches is a factor in drainage design in suburban devel- ommended velocity range is 2 to 12 ft/s, but some materi-
opments. The desirability of a lot is reduced if a drainage als may warrant velocities up to 20 ft/s. Reducing velocity
easement runs through the middle of a rear yard. Drainage within a steep system may require mild pipe slopes with
easements may be necessary to prevent homeowners from drops between manhole structures (the drops would then
inadvertently impeding drainage patterns when improving require steel plates at the base of the manhole, or other pro-
their yards. In most cases, the drainage system should be tective measures).
kept within the public right-of-way.
Open spaces, including parks and plazas, may require
special attention to analyze the drainage patterns and
determine the best conveyance system. Sometimes these
open spaces can drain into the curb and gutter along a TAB LE 3 . 6 B Pipe Size, Slope, and Conveyance
street. But large parks may have too much flow for a street Capacity
inlet to handle. Yard inlets may then be required to capture CONCRETE PIPE INTERNAL DIAMATER (INCHES)
this flow, and swales can be utilized to route the drainage
into a yard inlet. These swales can be innocuous and blend 15 18 24 30 36 48 60
in to the landscaping of a park. Low points could also be a
concern. Yard inlets may again be required in low points, • 0.5 5 7 16 29 47 102 184
but small plazas may have smaller drains to strategically •1 6 10 23 41 67 144 260
capture water.
Pipe Design. After inlet locations are established, the pipe • 1.5 8 13 28 50 82 176 319
conveyance system is determined. The pipe network typically
converges to the outfall point. Occasionally, due to site con-
•2 9 15 32 58 94 203 368
ditions, the network is separated into several systems, each • 2.5 10 17 36 65 105 227 412
discharging at different outfall points or connecting to
another storm sewer network. Outfall points can be nat- •3 11 18 39 71 115 249 451
ural channels of adequate capacity, retention/detention l
Ill • 3.5 12 20 42 77 125 269 487
areas, lakes, and rivers. The size, slope, and depth of the
pipe in the network are controlled by the elevation of the
...
en
II.
Cl
·4
Ill 13 21 45 82 133 287 521
outfall point. This is more of a problem in flat terrain, II.
&:
such as Texas, where systems may also include inverted • 4.5 14 22 48 87 141 305 552
siphons to maintain an outfall location. In flat terrain,
the engineer may have design problems trying to match
•5 14 23 51 92 149 321 582
outfall elevations; whereas in steep terrain, high velocity • 5.5 15 25 53 96 156 337 610
and high energy losses may create a potential problem. In
general, the slope and size of the pipe is kept to the mini- •6 16 26 55 100 163 352 638
mum required to carry the design flows at near full capac-
• 6.5 16 27 58 105 170 366 664
ity. Many jurisdictions have a requirement for a minimum
allowable pipe size and slope (commonly set to 15-inch 7 17 28 60 108 176 380 689
diameter, with the exception of building and landscape
drains that may be smaller). Pipe capacity (cubic feet per second)
 3.6 ■ UTILITY FUNDAMENTALS 267

SELECT MATERIAL OR
STABILIZED SUBGRADE
MATERIAL IF SPECIFIED

~ SELECT MATERIAL OR
STABILIZED SUBGRADE
MATERIAL

PAVED SHOULDER SECTION CURB AND GUTTER SECTION

~uD-1 --1
TRENCH WITH AGGREGATE
UP TO ELBOW,
SUBBASE MATERIAL PIPE rs PERFORATED

45" ELBOW
CONNECTION

~ SELECT MATE RIAL OR

8"PIPE
STABILIZED SUBGRADE 2"
MATERIAL IF SPECIFIED
EW-12
(TYPICAL)
WITHOUT PAVED SHOULDER
PLAN VIEW OF OUTLET PIPE AT FILL

FIG uRE 3. 6 M Typical underdrain.

Because storm sewer flow is driven by gravity, any con- constructed to reduce the water collected underneath road-
flicts with other proposed nongravity dependent utilities are ways. This is usually done by placing a combination of small
usually resolved by redirecting those utilities. Attempts are plastic pipes (sometimes perforated or wrapped in geotextile
made to locate the proposed storm system around any exist- fabric) along the aggregates section of the pavement box and
ing gravity or nongravity dependent utilities. It can be costly discharging the water either into a ditch or a structure (i.e.,
to redirect existing utilities and only in the unavoidable case inlet or manhole) associated with the roadway drainage sys-
is this done. tem. These devices are called underdrains.
Underdrain Design. The inlet and storm sewer design In most urban situations, underdrains are placed along
has focused on surface runoff. However, there are many the edge of the pavement, below the curb and gutter sec-
instances where water collects underneath a pavement sec- tion. Typical roadway design requires that the pavement be
tion, either in locations of cut/fill transitions, or just by infil- sloped to the edge to facilitate drainage. The same applies
tration. Water will usually collect in the subgrade portion of to pavement design as well, such that all layers of the pave-
the pavement, especially in areas where aggregate or stone ment box (top surface course, base course, subgrade, etc.)
is used in the design. This collection of water underneath drain to the outside. Curb and gutter sections typically are
the pavement can be extremely problematic, leading to loss constructed on stone or aggregate bases, meaning that water
of stability and strength of the pavement structure, fatigue can flow easily along the corridor. Underdrains placed lon-
based on freeze/thaw conditions, or loss of cohesion and gitudinally below the curb line, within the aggregate, can
bearing pressures of the surrounding soil. capture the majority of water trapped beneath the pavement
Given certain situations, this excess water underneath the and discharge it directly into the roadway drainage system.
pavement will require that a secondary drainage system be Figure 3.6M shows a typical underdrain.
2sa i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ

GWINNETT COUNTY STORMWATER SYSTEM ASSESSMENT PROGRAM (MULTIPLE

WATERSHED PROJECTS)
Location: Gwinnett County, GA
Client: Gwinnett County Department of Water Resources
Completion Date: December 2012 thru March 2015; Multiple Projects
Case Study: Gwinnett County Department of Water Resources (GCDWR), in Georgia, launched a countywide program
to assess its stormwater pipe infrastructure system for each of its major watersheds. GCDWR spends approximately
$15 million annually replacing and rehabilitating failed pipe infrastructure. The primary driver for this is to address
aging infrastructure-approximately 67 percent of the 1400 miles of county-maintained stormwater pipe is corrugated
steel pipe (CSP) and is rapidly approaching the end of its useful life. In most cases the existing pipe's capacity level of
service (LOS) or upgrade needed is unknown.
GCDWR recognized the next step to enhance its active stormwater infrastructure asset management was to conduct a
comprehensive system assessment to identify the capacity LOS of the county-maintained piped drainage system in order
to better plan system rehabilitation and replacement projects. Dewberry was selected to lead a pilot study in the Level
Creek watershed that included over 24 miles of stormwater pipe infrastructure and 7 miles of open channels. To date
under this program, Dewberry has completed twelve comprehensive watershed studies, which include approximately
900 miles of pipe and 1000 miles of streams and open channels. Tasks include
• Enhanced stormwater inventory geodatabase to include pipe inverts, structure depths, and rehabilitation/replacement
quantities
• Assess construction work areas required for open trench pipe replacements to identify easement needs and conflicts
• Established asset values properly accounting for appurtenant items
• Watershed-wide dynamic rainfall-runoff modeling on an ESRI ArcGIS platform (PCSWMM) for all county-
maintained stormwater pipe systems and appurtenant natural channels to assign pipe LOS
• Scenario-based pipe rehabilitation and replacement modeling to achieve a desired LOS
• Development of Capital Improvement Project cost estimation decision support and planning tool
The aggregate result of these comprehensive system-wide analysis tasks is an asset management decision support tool. This
tool allows daily operational decisions involving stormwater pipe rehabilitation and replacement to be made based on a
comprehensive understanding of the existing capacity LOS, needed upgrades to meet the desired LOS, and associated costs.
 3.6 ■ UTILITY FUNDAMENTALS 269

PART B-SANITARY SEWER station and the route of the gravity collection piping as well as
the force main should be performed in the feasibility stage. In
3.6.5. Introduction the preliminary engineering phase, the pumping station will
Proper management of wastewater is one of the most impor- need to be sized based on anticipated flows, allowable resi-
tant factors for ensuring the general health of a community dence time, cycle length, and required wet well depth. Careful
and its surface water quality. The design of any sewer sys- consideration must be given to construction feasibility and
tem always involves several parties. Input from all impacted cost associated with each element of the pumping station.
parties should be organized early in the design. The design In the feasibility phase, downstream treatment plants
engineer must be familiar with the local, state and federal should be contacted to confirm that they have capacity for
laws and regulations as they apply to the proposed design. the proposed flows from the development. If public sanitary
Also, it is important to determine if the downstream seg- sewer is not available to the project, alternative methods for
ments of the sewer system and the treatment facilities that wastewater treatment will need to be explored in the prelimi-
will receive the flow have adequate capacity. If not, a treat- nary engineering phase. As an example, if septic systems will
ment plant and disposal of the treated effluent must be a be used for sewage treatment, they should be preliminarily
part of the planning phase. sized and configured. In order to do this, percolation tests
Generally, there are two common types of wastewater col- in the area of the disposal fields will have to be performed
lection and treatment methods implemented on land devel- to determine the rate at which the soil can absorb the efflu-
opment projects: individual subsurface disposal systems ent. The tests (including number and location) need to be
(septic systems) or public collection and treatment systems. coordinated with the geotechnical engineer and must be per-
A less common third type of system is a private community formed per the applicable regulatory requirements.
system that may utilize subsurface disposal or small, often
packaged treatment plants. Ordinarily, the decision as to 3.6.6. Sanitary Sewer Materials
which type of system will be utilized is made during the fea- A sanitary sewer system is generally comprised of concrete
sibility stage. At this time it is also necessary to make a deter- structures (manholes and inlets) and pipes of a variety of
mination as to whether sufficient capacity is available when materials. Similar to storm networks, the layout of generally
using public collection and treatment systems. follows a constellation pattern, where structures are used for
During the preliminary engineering phase the design of pipe junctions and to change the horizontal or vertical direc-
the collection system begins with a projection of anticipated tion of a pipe system. The engineer has several types of pipe
sewage flow. These calculations may be based on regulatory and structure material options available for use in sewer con-
requirements for projected flows, historical data obtained struction. It is important that the proper selection be made
from similar size and type of facilities, or other accepted for the specific installation conditions.
reference sources. See Chapter 5.6 for more information Manholes. Manholes are a required appurtenance to any
regarding quantity of sewage. It is important for the design sanitary sewer system. They provide access to the sewer for
engineer to recognize that the system must be designed inspection and maintenance. Manholes should be placed
according to anticipated capacity requirements as well as at every change in grade or horizontal alignment, at every
regulatory requirements, either of which may end up gov- change in sewer size, at every sewer intersection, and at loca-
erning the design. It is preferable for sanitary sewer collec- tions between long spans of pipe (jurisdictions often require
tion systems to be gravity systems to the maximum extent manhole access within 400 feet).
possible, to eliminate the increased cost and maintenance of Only precast reinforced concrete manholes should be
pumping facilities. It is also important to evaluate and assess used except where special field conditions make it necessary
the potential need for future expansion of the new system to field construct the manhole with brick or cast-in-place
and make appropriate accommodations if this is anticipated concrete. Figure 3.6N shows two typical type manholes. The
to occur. If the collection system will be tied into an exist- standard manhole includes a base that is generally cast as a
ing system, as-built information on the downstream system part of the first barrel section. The base shown is an extended
should be evaluated as part of the design. base, which spreads the manhole weight over a larger area.
Profiles of the sanitary sewer are normally part of final Additional barrel sections are used as required to bring the
design; however, select profiling should occur during prelimi- manhole to where the eccentric cone is added. A manhole
nary engineering to locate vertical conflicts with other utili- frame and cover is placed at the surface. The manhole sup-
ties, and determine whether there is adequate cover over pipes plier should adjust the height of the sections to comply with
such as at stream crossings and in roadways. Many jurisdic- installation requirements. The precast supplier tailors each
tions will require minimum clearances, cover, separation, and manhole for the specific site. Rubber boots are available
occasionally encasement of sanitary collection systems from that can be cast into the manhole at the locations where the
other utilities and in areas such as stream crossings. sewers will pass through the manhole wall. A stainless steel
If a pump station is required to convey sanitary flow, a clamp is used to secure the sewer to the boot making a water-
detailed analysis of the various options for placement of the tight connection. The inside of the connection is grouted
210 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ
MANHOLE DIMENSIONS
MANHOLE DIAMETER IN FEET Manhole Frame
& Caver
5'0" 6'0"
~ A 60" 72"
QB 84" 98" Adjustment rings
~ C 6" 7" 12" Max. Adj.
!:;il D
□1--1---+---+---+---I

0-Ring or ~rr:;.;,.,__=....:.:..:.....:::.""-"....-----+< '1

single offset
gasket,
ASTM C-361

12" max.
Individual MH to be adj. rings
Optional - max. 3"
strapped and details tapered lift hole plugged
as to number & location with rubber plug.
Steps to be
of straps to be shown set in line Mortar or mastic
on plans. outside only.
Manhole Step
==!'-"<'r- Cast In place
T'f-----------1-------a

Base sec. to
provide min. 6" Min
clearance between
12"
top of pipe and
bottom of bell +++~----=-+~+;-+-- Max 3" tapered
and spigot joint. lift hole plugged
with rubber plug. Base section to
Mortar or mastic provide min. 6"
outside only. cleara nee between
lop of pipe and precast cone. riser-
and bottom of
bell and spigot
joint.

,___ _ _ _ _ _ _ A
B _ _ _ _ ___,

TYPICAL 4'-0" ID TYPICAL 5'-0" & 6'-0" DIAMETER PRECAST

PRECAST CONCRETE MANHOLE CONCRETE MANHOLE WITH 4'-0" STACK

FIG uRE 3. 6 N Typical precast manhole design. (Source: Handbook of Steel Drainage and Highway Construction Products, reprinted with permission
from McGraw-Hill.)

along with the placement of the bench (only shrink proof and a cone section are added to the constructed base sec-
grout is used). Corrosion resistant steps are placed inside the tion until ground elevation is reached. Once the manhole is
manhole on a 12 or 16 inches vertical spacing. The exterior constructed, the top is cut out of the existing gravity sewer
of the manhole is waterproofed using bituminous mastic on pipe to allow the sewage from the new line to enter the pipe,
the surface and in the joints. joining the collection and conveyance system.
Figure 3.60 shows two types of drop manholes. A drop An epoxy coating or interior liner may also be used with
manhole is used to reduce slopes of incoming sewers or manhole construction if, in the opinion of the engineer,
to permit connecting a sewer entering the manhole at a highly corrosive situations may be present that would lead
higher elevation than the main sewer. Generally, if the dif- to the early deterioration of the concrete manhole. Typi-
ference in elevation is less than 5 feet and groundwater, or cally, these conditions could exist at manholes that receive
obstacles are not a problem, the slope of the higher sewer sewage discharge from a sanitary forcemain. There is a
is increased to lower the sewer to where the drop manhole wide variety of coatings and linings, which include painted-
will not be needed. on epoxies through precast high-density polyethylene
Doghouse manholes are typically used when a new grav- linings that are formed with the original construction of
ity sewer will intersect an existing gravity sewer and an the concrete barrel sections. These products can also be
existing manhole is not present. The doghouse manhole used in the rehabilitation of existing manholes that have
is located at the intersection of the two lines and includes not reached their useful life expectancy or are cost prohibi-
the construction of the manhole base in the field through tive to replace.
forms and cast-in-place concrete around the existing grav- The bench (similar to inlet shaping for storm systems)
ity sewer line, see Figure 3.6P. Additional barrel sections is constructed to provide a smooth section through the
 3.6 ■ UTILITY FUNDAMENTALS 271

Use drop connection when

drop exceeds the following:

SEWER DIA. IN MIN. Inside drop connection to be used

INCHES DROP under special circumstances such
FEET as:
Bad soils / rock
8 2.5 High water table
10 2.5 Utlllty conflicts
12 2.5 Excessive depths
15 2.8

Concrete encasement to extend

to first pipe joint beyond MH
drop connection excavation
(Min. 3')

Four #4 rebars to be
placed under pipe to
support joint.
27"

Connection

earth)

Crown of bend shall

Min. 4" compacted grave be 4"min. above
crown of main sewer.

TYPICAL 4' MANHOLE WITH TYPICAL MANHOLE WITH

OUTSIDE DROP CONNECTION INSIDE DROP CONNECTION

FIGURE 3.60 Typical drop manhole design.

STEPS (AS REQ'D.l

WEEP HOLE (AS REO'D.l

STEPS l<AS REQ'D.>

1
H
(LIN. FT. FOR
W-NHOLESl

__ l _
AL TERNA TE JOINT
·•· DET/>JL
'
__j x ,_
, - Y D-------,
__I x~

~ 6" x 6" - W5.5 x W5.5 WELDED

WIRE FABRIC OR EQUVALENT AREA
MONOLITHIC
, FOOTING
y

I---- D + 8" + 2X - - - - - < ~

IB-21
NOTES: DOGHOUSE WITH FOOTING
1. SEE GENERAL NOTES FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ON WEEP HOLES, STEP REQUIREMENTS,
"H" <LIN. FT. FOR MANHOLESl DIMENSIONS, ETC. DIMENSIONS
2. ALL BASE UNITS ARE TO BE IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE

3. CONCRETE SHALL BE 4000 PSI.

REQUIREMENTS OF AASHTO M199.
D
ll< 36"
X
MINIMUM
4"
y
MINIMUM
6"
SUGGESTED
MAX. PIPE SIZE
18"
ABSOL UTE
MAX IMUM
21 "
*
4. WHERE OPENINGS ARE REQUIRED FOR PIPE, THEY SHALL BE FORMED, DRILLED, OR NEATLY CUT 48" 5" 6" 24'' 27 "
AS APPROVED BY THE ENGINEER. THE CONTRACTOR SHALL FURNISH THE FABRICATOR WITH
THE ANGLES BETWEEN CENTER LINES, THE INVERT ELEVATIONS, ANO THE SIZE OF ALL PIPES TO 6D" 5" 8" 36" 42 "
ENTER THE MANHOLE. HOLES ARE TO BE A MINIMUM OF 4" TO A MAXIMUM OF 8" LARGER THAN 72" 6" 8" 48" 54"
THE OUTSIDE DIAMETER OF THE PROPOSED PIPE. 84" 7" 8" 60" 66 "
5. DIMENSIONS SHOWN ARE MINIMUM. ACTUAL DIMENSIONS MAY VARY WITH MANUFACTURER. 96" 8" 8" 66" 72 "

6. "O" IS NOMINAL DIAMETER.

Ji< DEPTH "H" OF 36" DIAMETER BASE UNIT RESTRICTED
7. IN THE EVENT THE INVERT OF THE OUTFALL PIPE IS HIGHER THAN THE BOTTOM OF THE STRUCTURE.
THE INVERT OF THE STRUCTURE SHALL BE SHAPED WITH CEMENT MORT AR TO PREVENT ST ANDING
OR PONDING OF WATER IN THE STRUCTURE. * TO 4'-0" MAXIMUM.
ONE THROUGH PIPE ONLY. IONE PIPE ENTERING AND
ONE PIPE EXITING STRUCTURE)
8. TONGUE AND GROOVE JOINT ARE TO BE OF FABRICATOR'S DESIGN MEETING VDOT APPROVAL.
JOINTS ARE TO BE SEALED WITH MORTAR, 0-RING GASKETS, OR BUTYL RUBBER.
212 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ
manhole so as to reduce energy losses, to prevent the accu- Many utilities have a specific design on the manhole cov-
mulation of solids in the manhole and to provide a place for ers, such as the name of the utility. These utilities stock the
the maintenance person to stand when working in the sewer. covers and sell them to the contractor.
The bench should extend to at least the springline (hori- Building Spurs. When manholes are placed in the street,
zontal reference line located at the mid-point of the pipe) of the building spur (also referred to as building lateral) should
the sewer. For sewers larger than 10 inches in diameter, the be installed from the sanitary sewer to a minimum of 1 foot
bench should extend to ½ of the sewer diameter. The specifi- inside the property line. A separate spur should be connected
cations should require that the base section be supplied with for each lot or building site. Where sidewalks are to be con-
an extended base, that a boot be cast in the section for all structed, the building spur should be constructed to 5 feet
sewer connections and that the channels and bench be cast beyond the back of the sidewalk. It is important that each
as a part of the section. All sewers entering a manhole should building spur be shown on the sewer plan with the station
be provided a smooth channel into the main channel. When of the connection being confirmed as a part of the as-built
there is a change in sewer diameter at a manhole, the invert drawings. SDR-35 or heavier pipe should be used for building
depths of the sewers should be placed at the same elevation. spurs. The spur should enter the main sewer through a manu-
This will prevent any upstream surcharging at full flow. The factured wye or tee. An approved saddle may be used when
change in flow direction at a manhole should not exceed connecting to existing sewers. Some localities require that the
90°. Where a greater change in direction is required, use two connecting wye or ell be of ductile iron because mechanical
manholes with a segment of sewer between them. rodding equipment will bore through a PVC connection if
In the past it has been common practice to allow for a care is not used. Building spurs should be laid to a grade of at
0.1-foot drop in sewer invert through a manhole where least 0.5% slope, with a minimum slope of 1% being provided
there is no change in pipe diameter. This is no longer nec- where possible.
essary (but might still be required by a local jurisdiction). A A wye may be installed and the extended line capped at
well-constructed channel will not require this drop. Many the surface at the lot line for access in the future as needed.
manhole suppliers now provide the base section with the Where the main sewer is excessively deep the spur should be
channel and bench cast in place when the manhole was brought to a reasonable depth prior to reaching the lot line,
formed. The channel invert must be smooth, having the but the spur must be kept deep enough to serve the build-
same shape as the sewer. In all instances, the penetrations ing. Figure 3.6R shows typical connections for building spurs
(openings in manhole wall for sewers) should be cast in the (service connections).
manhole or core drilled where an additional penetration Pipe Materials. Since all pipe material used in sewer con-
is needed. A penetration made with a jackhammer should struction is essentially smooth wall, there will be little differ-
never be permitted. ence in the pipe roughness and, hence, in the Mannings "n"
A short section of sewer is used at the manhole to provide value of n to be used in a design for different pipe material.
a joint in the sewer not more than 3 feet from the manhole. The selection of the type of pipe to be used in a design and
This allows some flexibility for any difference in settlement included in the contract specifications as being acceptable
between the manhole and the sewer. A pipe joint provides a for use in construction should be based on the long-term
connection from the pipe (usually plastic) to the manhole serviceability of the pipe material. Serviceability factors
(concrete). Manufactured rubber compression joints should should include expected useful life, resistance to problems
be used in sewer construction unless there are unusual con- with infiltration, ease of installation, resistance to corrosion
ditions. The joint should be free of debris and the rubber gas- and erosion, and maintenance requirements. Initial cost
ket lubricated prior to installing the pipe. should not be the only determining factor.
The manhole frame and cover should be of cast iron. A Pipe materials are classified as being either flexible or
typical frame and cover is shown in Figure 3.6Q. A standard rigid. Pipe manufactured from materials such as concrete
frame and cover as well as a watertight/locking frame and and vitrified clay are classified as rigid wall pipe. A deflection
cover are also shown in the figure. The engineer's library of the wall of a rigid wall pipe will result in pipe failure. The
should include a catalog on standard manhole castings. most common type of flexible pipe is PVC. Ductile iron and
The weight of the frame and cover must be selected to carry high-density polyethylene are also flexible pipe materials.
the expected loading. For example, a traffic bearing frame Rigid pipe is classified based on bursting strength, and for
and cover is required when the manhole is located in a pressure pipe the internal pressure rating is also included.
street, whereas a lighter weight one will be suitable for off- The bursting strength is established by standard tests and is
street locations. Locking frame and covers are available for provided by the manufacturer in pounds of external verti-
use where required. Waterproof frame and covers should cal force per foot of pipe. It is listed as the three-edge bear-
be used at locations where the area is subject to flooding. ing strength that reflects the type of standard test procedure.
Ventilation to the sewer is provided through the manhole Pipe is designed to withstand both the internal pressure and
cover. When waterproof frame and covers are used, alter- the external loading simultaneously. The manufactured wall
nate ventilation should be provided at least every 1000 feet thickness is adjusted to provide the required strength. The
of sewer. engineer should have library catalog data available for the
 3.6 ■ UTILITY FUNDAMENTALS 273

Material:
Gray iron

JA

Foundry to place
orientation mark
on rim of frame
PLAN VIEW PLAN VIEW and cover.

25 }'z"dia. 281/,4"dia.

1"
2 ¾i"

STANDARD ROADWAY WATERTIGHT MANHOLE COVER

MANHOLE COVER

SECTION A-A SECTION A-A

1 Y.z "fll hole in flange

for 1"fll anchor bolts
(typical of 4)

Locking key/
bolt slot
(typ. of 2)

PLAN VIEW PLAN VIEW

2 ¾" gray iron
30 J/2"dia.
6" 3 ½"
½"
25¾"dia. 24"dia.

36"dia. 2 ½" aluminum 36"dia.

STANDARD ROADWAY FRAME WATERTIGHT/LOCKING MANHOLE FRAME

SECTION A-A SECTION A-A

FIG uRE 3. 6 Q Typical manhole frame and covers.
214 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ
C
G) II)

Min. grade to be 2.08% .?: 5

for a 4" plastic lateral and a.
1.04% for cast iron .E(/) C
0
spur. Max. grade to be
4.17% for all laterals.
Red Plastic Locator

r
Ribbon (from Spur
End to Top of Stake)
For Both Offset Stakes Easement or
Property line
Concrete
Offset Cradle unless otherwise
Stake to Joint shown on plans

Lateral material
to be Cl or Standard Granular
PVC Meeting Bedding Throughout
Appropriate
Cocles.
Invert
elevation
Optional Easement or
Riser with
-------+--+----
property line
Watertight 12" min.
Plug •10• max.
Gravel ------'--==-~W·atertight plug
bedding
• Where sidewalk is to be constructed,
Compacted gravel the spur or extension shall be
extended to 5' beyond the sidewalk.

PLAN VIEW

HOUSE LATERAL SPUR

FIG uRE 3 .6 R Service connections showing building spurs or laterals.

types of pipe material being considered for incorporation sanitary main can increase to 10, 12, 15 inches or larger (with
into a design. The strength of rigid pressure pipe will be carrying size increments).
shown by pipe class such as class 150, 200, and so on.
Gravity flow sewer pipe is designed to withstand external 3.6. 7. Sanitary Sewer Layout
pressure loadings. Rigid wall pipe is manufactured in sev- The sanitary sewer networks are deigned to allow connec-
eral wall strengths as may be required for design conditions. tions from each site building to an existing public sanitary
For example, pipe classes are designated as 1500, 2400, 3300, sewer system (or septic system). Sanitary sewer lines are
4000, and 5000. The class strengths represent the design often deeper than other utilities because the elevation at
crushing strength in pounds per linear foot of pipe. a building connection will be deep (especially if there is a
Flexible wall pipe is classified by the ratio of the exter-
nal diameter to the wall thickness. This is expressed as TAB LE 3 . 6 C Characteristics of the Most
dimension ratio (DR) or standard dimension ratio (SDR). Commonly Used Sizes of SDR-35 Pipe
Since limited deflection of the pipe can be tolerated, the
NOMINAL EXTERNAL WALL
strength is expressed in terms of the force required to cause
a defined deflection. Pressure flexible pipe is designated by SIZE LAYING DIAMETER THICKNESS WEIGHT LAYING

pressure class. Flexible sewer pipe, such as PVC, is desig- LENGTH (IN) (IN) (IN) (LB/FT) LENGTH
nated by the standard dimension ratio as noted for flexible
8 8.4 0.24 4.42 20
pressure pipe. The most often used sewer flexible pipe is
SDR-35. Heavier-wall-thickness pipe, such as DR-21, are 10 10.5 0.300 6.93 20
available for use where required to meet laying conditions.
Table 3.6C provides a list of common SDR-35 sizes, wall 12 12.5 0.36 9.91 20
thickness, weight, and laying length.
15 15.3 0.43 14.90 12.5
Sanitary sewer pipes are circular, typically with a mini-
mum size of 8-inch diameter for sanitary mains. Smaller Reprinted with permission from American Society for Testing and Materials. ASTM
diameters are used for building connections. The size of a Standards in Building Codes, Vol. 4.
 3.6 ■ UTILITY FUNDAMENTALS 275

basement without a pump). The system should be designed some areas. Pressure sewers are particularly applicable for
to minimize the number of manholes, where possible, and sewering less populated areas and developments or commu-
monitor the depth to prevent excessively deep manholes (20 nities located in hilly or rocky terrain. Conventional gravity
feet or more). sewers may need to be deep and costly to construct in areas
Gravity Sewers. Sewer depth is established by the eleva- where the topography is undulating. Also, a high water table
tion of the buildings to be served. The sewer should be suf- may make the construction of gravity sewers economically
ficiently deep to permit gravity drainage from all buildings unfeasible. Pressure sewers also have merit other than lower
if possible. For residential subdivisions, the sewer depth construction cost. Reliable pumping equipment is avail-
is based on the building construction. If the homes have able. The technology requires no modification to the house
basements, the sewer should be at sufficient depth to grav- plumbing and therefore the use of pressure systems causes
ity sewer the basement. Below the basement, an additional little inconvenience to the homeowner. However, a gravity
2 feet of depth is needed to allow for the basement foun- system is often the desired solution because there is no reli-
dation, as the house sewer should be located below the ance on moving parts or power.
wall foundation and not through the foundation (pump- The two major types of pressure sewer systems are the
ing would be required if the outfall is not below the base- grinder pump (GP) system and the septic tank effluent
ment foundation). The building spur (sometimes referred pressure (STEP) system. Figure 3.6S shows the basic ele-
to as the house lateral or house sewer) should be placed on ments of both systems. A typical grinder pump is shown
a minimum slope of¼ in per foot (0.0208 ft/ft). Plumbing in Figure 3.6T. The GP system consists of a grinder pump
codes allow a slope of¼ in per foot (0.0104 ft/ft) for sewers that receives the flow from a dwelling or other facility and
under conditions where the greater slope cannot be conve- pumps the flow into a pressure force main. The GP system
niently provided. may also be installed to replace an existing septic tank sys-
The design engineer should follow applicable rules in tem as shown in Figure 3.6S. The STEP system follows a
selecting sewer slope. The slope for each segment of sewer conventional septic tank where the flow is pumped into a
running between adjacent manholes is selected based on pressure force main.
design conditions. The overall design objective is to design Pumping equipment for the GP technology is well devel-
the collection system that can be constructed most economi- oped. The pump shown in Figure 3.6T is available in sev-
cally while maintaining good engineering practice. This gen- eral sizes and capacities to serve uses from a single family
erally means keeping the sewer as shallow as possible while dwelling to a small commercial or industrial flow. The unit
complying with the following criteria: is supplied in a pre-piped and wired fiberglass enclosure
that can be installed in a basement, crawl space, or below
1. Minimum sewer slope-the slope required to pro- ground level in a lawn. The units are available with one or
vide a velocity of2.25 feet per second (fps), or the two pumps, for reliability. The unit is installed, and the
slope required to carry the required flow, whichever 4-inch building sewer connected. Pumps are available for
is greatest. Most jurisdictions will prescribe a mini- pumping against discharge heads of more than 100 feet.
mum slope for public sewers, which can be 0.5% Pressure systems are designed similar to force mains, except
or less (allowable slope often decreases as pipe size a determination of the number of pumps operating on the
increases). main at any one time and the resulting flow. GP suppliers
2. Minimum cover have developed this type statistical data and it can be found
a. Sewers located in streets should have at least in the respective catalog.
6 feet of cover. If less than 6 feet of cover is pro- The normal wet well size for a single-family dwelling is
vided, special bedding may be needed because 60 gallons (pump enclosure provides wet well volume). This
of the superimposed load from traffic. constitutes some wastewater storage availability during peri-
b. Sewers located within off-street easements ods of power outages. The units are wired to permit placing
should be placed below the applicable freeze a high water alarm at an appropriate location in the home,
depth or at least to a depth of 3 feet. usually in the kitchen, so that the homeowner is made aware
c. Sewer segments serving a building lateral should that the pump is not operating and that the wet well is full.
be at sufficient depth to provide gravity drainage The pumping units are designed for easy removal of the
from the building served. entire unit in case of pump failure. The pumps should give
10 or more years of service under normal conditions. It is
The requisite cover, size, and slope conditions may vary desirable for the community with a GP system to have ser-
between jurisdictions and should be determined prior to vice provided by a utility or by a private plumbing company
design. that will keep spare pumps in stock for rapid installation. The
Pressure Sewers. A pressure sewer collection system is nonfunctioning pump is then taken to the shop for repair or
used as an alternative to conventional gravity sewer systems. replacement and kept in stock for the next replacement need.
The technology may be the only feasible means of sewering If rapid service is not available, the homeowner should install
21& i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ
Pressure
Pipe

From

Grinder
Pump - .: :- .: :- L
-Sensor

- "77
Septic Tank
Removed Or
, _J L - - 7 Abandoned
I I
On-Off Level
Sensor Storage : :
Tank L_ _ _ _ _ _J

a) Grinder Pump

\ [Main
2" Pipe For
Electricity 1¼"Sm1ca ~

From
House

Existing or New
Septic Tank

Ch eek_/'-------"' 24"0 Concrete Pipe

Valve With Floor And Lid

),3 HP Sump Pump

b) Septic Tank Effluent Pump

FIG uRE 3. 6 S Flow diagram for pressure pumping systems.

the duplex unit so that a backup pump is always available, The septic tank located ahead of the pump eliminates most
allowing time to have the nonfunctioning unit repaired. of the grease and solids in the flow to be pumped. The force
The septic tank effluent pressure system (STEP) is a means main design is similar to the GP system except for the type of
of eliminating the need for onsite treatment and disposal, pump required. The homeowner must continue to maintain
such as the soil absorption field. In past years, septic tanks a septic tank as a part of the STEP design.
absorption fields have been installed at locations that are no Septic Sewer Systems. If there is not public sanitary
longer environmentally acceptable. Criteria for siting absorp- sewer service for a project, which may occur on rural resi-
tion fields have improved as more knowledge on soil perco- dential sites, a septic system can be proposed. A septic sys-
lation and potential for groundwater pollution has become tem is installed on the lot. The system includes a septic tank
available. The STEP systems are being installed to eliminate that holds wastewater and a drain field. The system relies on
failing absorption fields and as a means of providing cen- soil and groundwater conditions, specifically for the drain
tral sewerage service to both existing and new communities. field component.
 STRAIN A!'ELJl!l::F CQHD
WATER TtGHT LID, FRP CONNECTOR
WITH PADLOCK (ST.M0AA0J - - -
PROTECTIVE CABLE SHROUD
(F,R?)

F!ELO JOINT, REQUIRED

FOR MODELS TA!LiLER POWER/Al.ARM CABLE
THAN 2010 - 93 12·6
(1 2FTL0NG)

INmERNAL WELI. VENT

2;0" DIA.

NLEJ, 4.0' GROMMET

TO ACOEPT 4.50• 0 .0 .
PVC P fPE (STAND~RDj.
OUST COVER SUPPUEO
FOR SHIPMENT ,(NOT
DISCHAR.G E SUITABLE FOR ,au
RIAL)
11 1/◄" FNPT

l
28 1n.

'
701 rmm.
51~.
18in. 195 l
447mm,

~Pr·
14 in.
345mm.
i~~t
SEMJ-POSITIVE OISP-LACEMENT TYPE PUMP
OlRECTLY DR™EN BY A 1 HP M:OT0R
CA?ABI.E OF DELIVERING 9 gpm AT 138" T .DJH.
(34 lpm AT 42rn T.D.ti.J

FIG uRE 3. 6 T Typical grinder pump complete with housing. (Reprinted with permission from Environmental One Corp. 1994, Grinder Envi
One product catalog, Schenectady, NY.)

........N
210 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ

GOOSE CREEK INTERCEPTOR PIPELINE REPLACEMENT/REHABILITATION

Location: Boulder, CO
Client: City of Boulder
Completion Date: September 2016 through March 2017
Case Study: The City of Boulder, Colorado, operates and maintains an expansive wastewater collection and transmis-
sion system that services the city. Based on work performed as part of the City's 2016 Wastewater Collection System
Master Plan update, a few areas within the city's wastewater collection and transmission system were identified as requir-
ing upgrades, either due to pipe capacity limitations, pipe condition, or both. One of these areas identified by the city
includes a portion of the Goose Creek Interceptor pipeline.
The city contracted with Dewberry to provide engineering services to perform preliminary design tasks for replacement
and/ or rehabilitation of the interceptor segment. These tasks included analyzing the pipeline hydraulic conditions of the
interceptor segment, reviewing third party CCTV footage to categorize the current condition of the interceptor segment,
and developing and evaluating replacement or rehabilitation alternatives to correct both existing hydraulic/capacity
issues and the existing pipe condition issues.
Dewberry collected survey data on the manholes and pipe inverts of the interceptor, and in combination with exist-
ing GIS information, constructed and analyzed a hydraulic model at various flow rates to confirm all areas of hydrau-
lic concern were identified. Dewberry reviewed the existing CCTV footage to identify and categorize the physical
condition of all pipe segments. With the hydraulic model results and physical condition assessment complete, Dew-
berry then used existing Lidar elevation data and existing GIS mapping data to develop design alternatives utiliz-
ing a combination of replacement and rehabilitation methodologies to provide the necessary improvements for the
interceptor segment.
The design replacement and rehabilitation alternatives were evaluated using economic (quantitative) and noneconomic
(qualitative) criteria to define a preferred approach for rehabilitation and/or replacement. The findings of the evalua-
tion were documented in an alternatives analysis report, which was delivered to the city for their use in future project
planning.
 3.6 ■ UTILITY FUNDAMENTALS 279

PART C-WATER DISTRIBUTION A treatment facility to purify the water for safe use. Since
pumping clean water is less expensive than pumping
3.6.8. Introduction sediment-laden water, the location of the filtration plant
Water supply is ordinarily facilitated by either connection should be near the source. The treatment facility treats
of the development to a public water distribution system or and disinfects the water to meet the water quality stan-
installation of an on-site groundwater supply well. In most dards set by government regulations. The law mandates
cases, it is preferable to provide a connection to public water that the water supply company provide quality potable
supply if it is available to the site or can be extended to serve water and consumers expect and rely on the water com-
the site at a reasonable cost. The decision as to which type pany to do so.
of system will be utilized to serve the development is made Transmission lines convey the water leading from the
during the feasibility stage along with a determination as source to the treatment facility, as well as from the
to whether sufficient capacity for fire and domestic flow is treatment facility to the distribution network. For
available from the existing water system. moderate to large population areas, transmission lines
A water supply system includes the water supply, treat- can be 6 feet in diameter (and larger) and operate at
ment facilities, pumping facilities, transmission lines, and the pressures in excess of 200 psi. They serve as the link
local distribution network. The distribution network consists between the source, the treatment facility, and the dis-
of pipes, fittings, valves, and other appurtenances designed to tribution network. Therefore, transmission lines have
convey potable water at adequate pressures and discharges. limited branches and service taps.
The water utility company is responsible for the water qual-
ity and operation of the distribution system. A water utility Pumping facilities provide necessary energy to move
company can either be a public entity that, like many other the potable water to consumers. Pumping facilities are
public bureaus, exists for the health, safety and welfare of the needed to convey the water through transmission lines
public, or it may be a privately owned utility providing water to the distribution system. These pumping facilities
for profit. In some of the larger metropolitan and suburban can be simple, such as the well pumps in small systems,
areas, the water utility company heavily controls the design of or they can be complex, high-capacity pumping sta-
a water distribution system. Personnel within the water com- tions needed for large municipalities. Pumping sta-
pany perform most of the design, analysis, and layout. In this tions within the distribution network, called booster
case, the site designer of the land development project only stations, are used to maintain required minimum
performs the lesser water works design aspects and incorpo- pressures.
rates the analysis, along with the water company's information, Intermediate storage facilities (e.g., water tanks) are
into the construction drawing set. In smaller locales, the analy- located near the distribution network. Intermediate stor-
sis and design may be performed entirely by the private con- age facilities stabilize the line pressures, serve as reserve
sultant working for the developer. Typically, the water supply for peak demand periods, and storage for fire flow
company, to ensure conformance with local standards, reviews requirements. All domestic water line systems operate
the private consultant's design. Regardless of whether the water under pressure. In times of high demand, the pressure
supply company is public or private, the design must conform in the network is decreased, requiring the water supply
to the state health department's criteria, as well as any other to be supplemented from the storage tanks along with
controlling public agencies. Design parameters and regulations the water from the treatment plant. During low-demand
for water works are available from state board of health and periods, when supply pressure in the distribution lines is
the local city/county health departments. Additional informa- high, the storage tanks refill. Discounting fire flow stor-
tion on water quality, as well as material and construction stan- age, water storage volumes fluctuate 40 to 70% on a daily
dards, are available from the Environmental Protection Agency basis.
(EPA), the American Water Works Association (AWWA), and
the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). Distribution lines are used to link the intermediate
The overall waterworks system consists of the following storage facilities and the feeder lines that connect the
elements: residential, commercial, and industrial service areas.
Typically, distribution networks are laid out as inter-
The water source, usually a lake, river, or aquifer, which connecting loops. The looped (grid) layout allows for
serves as the municipality's main supply. Larger munici- bidirectional flow of water. Since water travels toward
palities may have more than one source. Lakes and res- the area with the lowest pressure, which is often the area
ervoirs are located in outlying areas to take advantage of highest demand, looping delivers twice the volume of
of runoff from large catchments and where there is less water for fire flows and other heavy demands. Addition-
pollution. Along rivers, water is usually extracted on the ally, grid layout allows for isolation of small areas during
upstream side of the population centers. The minimum repairs. A branching type of configuration consists of a
supply volume at the source must coincide with the pres- main feeder line with single-dead-end branches to ser-
ent and projected demand, which it is to serve. vice areas. In comparison to the grid system the branch
200 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ
system is not as economical for several reasons: (1) clos- electric, pneumatic, or hydraulic. Whereas automatic valves
ing down a branch for maintenance disrupts service to a are more commonly used at the treatment facilities or pump
larger area, (2) poor water quality resulting from stagna- stations, most valves used in the distribution pipe network
tion and sedimentation in the branch ends requires peri- are manual.
odic flushing at the ends. Although dead ends cannot be In addition to their function, valves are also described by
avoided, they should be minimized. Fire hydrants, flush- their numerous characteristics such as size, material, fitting
ing hydrants, or blow-off valves at the dead ends allow end, pressure rating, and actuator. The five most common
for such periodic flushing. types of valves used in water lines along with their specific
characteristics, provide an extensive list for specifying a par-
Appurtenances such as fire hydrants, valves, auxiliary ticular valve. These are identified as follows.
pumps, and fittings such as wyes, elbows, crosses, and A ball valve (Figure 3.6U) has a slotted spherical or section
tees augment the operation of the distribution system.
of a spherical closure element that rotates within the casing.
The arrangement of the appurtenances and fittings is The valve is opened when the opening is parallel to the flow
specific to the local area they serve. Valves allow the
direction. A ¼-turn of the opening closes the valve. Typically,
system to isolate small service areas when repairs are
ball valves are used for on-off service and throttling the flow.
needed. Other fittings are used to change flow direction
and provide economic flexibility in sizing pipes.
HANDLE& NUT
The design of the entire system requires an evaluation of
numerous factors. Location and size of main water supplies
depend on general characteristics of the region such as climate,
hydrology, geology, and topography. Design of treatment facil-
ities, transmission and distribution lines depends on existing
water quality at the source, existing and projected population
and its spatial distribution. Additionally, as the municipality
grows, the increasing population and expanding development
inevitably influences hydrologic and topographic factors as
well as others, which in turn affect water demand.

3.6.9. Water Supply Materials

Typically, pipes used in waterworks systems are classified
according to its design working pressures. The four most
common classes of working pressures are 100,150,200, and
250 psi. Other parameters for identifying pipe strength are
the bursting strength rating, which identifies the strength
against internal forces caused by hydrostatic and hydrody-
namic pressures, such as pressure surges and water hammer, BODY
and the crushing strength, which deals with the external
FLANGE
forces related to soil, vehicles, and impact loadings. PORT
BOLT
Essential to a distribution system are such components as OPENINGS
valves, fire hydrants, meters, thrust restrains, joints, and fit- (a)
tings. The location and size of these components impacts the
system's hydraulic efficiency and cost-effectiveness as well as
the health, safety, and welfare of the public.
Valves. In a waterworks system, valves are used in control-
ling flow directions, regulating flow rates, pressure control,
isolating flows, and transient wave suppression. Typically fau-
cets, bibs, stoppers, and plugs are types of valves used in the
water supply lines within a building, while gate valves, butterfly
valves, and check valves are those typically used in water dis-
tribution lines.
A valve is completely closed when some type of operating
mechanism, such as a wheel, forces the gasket or plug tightly
against the fixed seat. The operating mechanism, that is, actu-
ator, for a valve is either manual or automatic. Manual actua- (b)
tors include wheels and levers; automatic actuators can be FIG uRE 3. 6 U Ball valve. (Courtesy of Flowerve Corp.)
 3.6 ■ UTILITY FUNDAMENTALS 281

A plug valve (Figure 3.6V) is similar to the ball valve in close the valve. The shaft rotates the seat over the pipe open-
that a cone or cylinder attached to a shaft, with a rectangular ing to regulate the rate of flow. Typically, plug valves are used
slot or circular orifice, opens and closes the flow by rotating for control and isolation purposes. Smaller plug valves are
the slot parallel to the direction of flow. Eccentric plug valves used on service connections and are referred to as service or
use a seat that consists of only part of the cone or cylinder to corporation cocks. Plug valves have low head losses and typi-
cally cost more than gate, globe, and butterfly valves.
ACTUATOR NUT Gate valves, a type of the broader classification of
slide valves, are the most frequently used when trying to iso-
late flows in the pipe network (Figure 3.6W). The gate valve
(shutoff valve) is used to completely stop the flow through
the pipeline. They operate by raising or lowering a plate
or disc into the flow path. Note, a shutoff valve's intended
use is to operate in the full open or full closed positions
only, and not as a throttling valve (partially opened state).
Considerable wear and tear on the mechanism occurs in the
partially opened position and the head loss, at this position,
is very high. Typically, gate valves are placed in valve boxes
that extend to the ground surface to permit access. The valve is
operated with an extension wrench that reaches down through
the box to turn the operating nut on top of the valve stem.
As shown in Figure 3.6X, a butterfly valve, also a type of
rotary valve, consists of a thin disk that rotates about a thin
shaft. When the face of the disc is parallel to the flow direc-
~ - - PLUG
tions the valve is fully opened. Butterfly valves can be used
for either shutoff or throttling purposes. Although these
types of valves have relatively low head loss, they present
problems when cleaning, since the disk is in the flow stream.
The globe valve, which is another type of slide valve, con-
sists of a flexible disk attached to a screw-operated stem. A
schematic diagram of a globe valve is shown in Figure 3.6Y.
Raising and lowering the disc onto a horizontal seat controls
(a)
the flow. Use of globe valves is most common in smaller
domestic water lines; a familiar globe valve is the household
faucet. High-pressure losses are typical of most globe valves.
A summary of the important characteristics for these par-
ticular valves appears in Table 3.6D. In addition to the basic
valves just described, there are other specialty valves used in
waterworks systems:
Check Valves are pressure-activated valves. Typical
water main systems are bidirectional in that water flows
according to the pressure differential in the pipes. Check
valves are inserted to restrict flows to one direction. For
example, a check valve on the discharge end of a pump
or treatment plant prevents the water from reversing
directions and flooding out the facility when the facil-
ity shuts down operation. Check valves are also used to
control flows at the boundary of different water supply
districts and service areas of different pressures.
Pressure reducing valves (PRV) are automatic valves that
protect against excess pressure in the water lines. Pres-
sure reducing valves reduce pressure by controlling the
flow and intentionally causing high head losses. Large
(b) pressure-reducing valves are operated by a smaller pilot
FIG uRE 3. &V (a) Schematic diagram of a plug valve, (b) eccentric valve. A wheel on the pilot valve sets the internal spring
plug. (Reprinted with permission of DeZurik, Sartell, Minn.) tension, which in turn sets the activating pressure.
202 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ

GLAN

STEM
PACKING-- ---.

BODY

w ~
FIG uRE 3. 6 W Gate valve. (a) Schematic diagram, (b) resilient seat gate valve. (Reprinted with permission of Mueller Co., Decatur, Illinois.)

w ~
FIG uRE 3. 6 X (a) Butterfly valve, (b) AWWA butterfly valve. (Reprinted with permission of DeZurik, Sartell, Minn.)
 WHEEL

BONN1 BOOY

FIG uRE 3. 6 Y Schematic diagram of a globe valve.

TABLE 3.6D Valve Summary

COMMON SIZE PARTICULARLY
VALVE TYPE RANGE (IN,) ADAPTED TO MAIN ADVANTAGES MAIN DISADVANTAGES

Gate ½-24 Isolation services in Low cost in small sizes High cost in large sizes
distribution grids Low friction Large sizes are quite heavy
Good service life Poor for throttling; should not be used
Ease of installation where frequent operation is necessary
Butterfly 3 & up Isolation and automatic Low cost in larger sizes for Higher friction loss than gate valve
control normal service pressures
Some types have very short Difficult to open in lines where differ-
lengths ential pressures exist
Ease of operation May cause problems when relining pipe
Leaks because of seat damage
Globe ½-24 Isolation in smaller sizes Simple construction High friction loss
Flow control in larger Dependable, can be used for Very heavy and expensive in large sizes
sizes throttling
Pressure control Good for pressure control
Sediment or material unlikely
to prevent complete closing
Ball and plug ½-3 Isolation and throttling Dependable High cost in large sizes
½-12 Very low friction loss Very heavy
Slow shut-off characteristic
minimizes closing surges
Ease of operation
Resistant to erosion
Long life
(Reprinted from American Water Distribution Operator Training Handbook, by permission. Copyright© 1976, American Water Works Association.)

283
204 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ

1'-0" 2'-0"

Finish
Grode

Valve -
Boxes Male Thread
Adaptor w/
Brass Cop

Water Main
(Size Varies)

2" Bross Pipe, or Cleon, Washed

Type K Hard Temper Gravel
Tapped Plug Copper Tube, Typ.

2" £11 - Drill Two (2) J,B''

Holes For Drainage Purposes

FIG uRE 3. 6 Z Two-inch blow-off valve detail.

Larger PRVs are placed on line between service areas distribution systems change elevations as the pipe
of different elevations. Smaller PRV (less than 2 inches) follows the terrain. In effect, the changes in elevation
valves are used to protect residential plumbing from change the pressure in the system. Consequently, the
excessive pressures in the main line. The valve acts as the air dissociates from the water and collects at the higher
transition between high-pressure zones and low-pressure points in the pipeline. Since the return of air back into
zones. For example, ifline pressures are greater than the water does not occur as readily as it leaves the water,
70 psi, a pressure-regulating valve installed on a domes- air pockets, which add 10 to 15% more resistance to the
tic service line reduces the service line to pressures so flow, are formed. Additionally, these pockets can lead
that the pressure will not damage household fixtures. to air lock of the system, which can completely stop the
flow. Typically, air relief valves are installed at the local
Altitude valves are automatically activated according to
peaks in the pipe system. As shown in Figure 3.6AA,
the pressure differential on either side of the seat. This
a peak is any section of pipe that slopes up toward the
type of valve is usually used to control the flow to and
hydraulic grade line or runs parallel to it. Air release
from an elevated storage tank. The valve opens, allowing
valves should also be considered in sections where there
the tank to refill, when the pressure in the distribution
is an increase in the downward slope or decrease in the
line is greater than the static pressure of the water in the
upward slope 2 of the pipe.
tank. In times of high demand, when the pressure in
the main decreases, the valve opens to allow the water
in the storage tank to equalize the distribution system. Hydraulic surge (water hammer) can occur when water
flowing in a long pipeline suddenly stops. Surge can actually
Blow-off valves and drain valves are used to dewater lines cause a water column separation at high points, or peaks, on
for repairs or remove accumulated sediment. These the main. This, at first, exerts a tremendous negative pres-
valves are most commonly used at the end of branches sure (or vacuum) on the main that can cause it to collapse.
and at low points of the water main (Figure 3.6Z). If the system does not collapse, the vacuum will be followed
Air release valves-water at standard conditions contains immediately by a pressure spike, which occurs as the sepa-
about 2% to 3% dissolved air by volume. The amount rated water columns reunite, that also can rupture the pipe.
of dissolved air in a water line system is governed by
the turbulence before it enters the system and the pres- 2Golden Anderson Automatic Valve Reference Manual, Golden Anderson Industries,
sure and temperature within the system. Pressurized Inc. Pa.
 3.6 ■ UTILITY FUNDAMENTALS 285

Air Release
Valve

Flow

a)

Hydraulic Gradient

Flush~Z-
When Emptying Or

Air Valve At In
Change In Slope Long Ascending
Downward Slope. Stretch Without
Vacuum Likely Summit
When Emptying Line. DATUM LINE

Long Horizontal
Stretch Without
Summit

Stretch

Downward Grade Approaching The

Hyd. Grad. Air Valve At Peak

b)
FIG uRE 3. &AA (a) Typical bubble behavior, (b) suggested air release valve locations. (Reprinted with permission of GA Industries, Inc., Cranberry
Township, PA.)
206 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ
To prevent this, vacuum relief, or combination air release This pressure force acts perpendicular to a surface. Thus, for
and vacuum relief valves, are used at points on water mains a pipe with full flow the pressure acts radially outward and
where analysis indicates water column separation might along the longitudinal axis of the pipe.
occur. The vacuum relief valve lets air into the pipeline dur- Hydrodynamic forces are the result of changes in momen-
ing hydraulic surge to both relieve the vacuum and provide tum of the moving fluid. Any change in direction or mag-
a volume of air that cushions the pressure spike caused by nitude of flow velocity results in a change in momentum of
the two water columns coming together again. Note, hydrau- fluid. Fittings such as bends, tees, and wyes change the direc-
lic surge analysis is a specialized field and must be done by tion of flow; nozzles, valves, and reducers change the cross-
qualified personnel. sectional area of the flow path. Each of these fixtures has
Fire Hydrants. A fire hydrant consists of the above ground force acting on them due to hydrostatics and hydrodynamics.
barrel that extends below grade to the water supply line. The On horizontal bends, the placement of the thrust block is
supply line connecting the barrel to the water main is a mini- against the outer edge of the bend. On vertical down bends,
mum 6-inch-diameter pipe. Typically, a gate valve located similar placement would put the thrust block on top of
in an underground valve box allows for shut-off and repair. the pipe. In situations where thrust blocks cannot be used,
Maximum recommended friction losses in the hydrant are another common method for thrust resistance is the use of
2.5 psi, and 5 psi in the water supply line, from the main to restrained joints. A restrained joint is a specially designed
the hydrant, for flows of 600 gpm. Hydrants have various joint that provides longitudinal restraint. The thrust force
nozzle arrangements, but the most common hydrant has two at the component is transferred to the surrounding soil
2.5-inch hose connections and one 4.5-inch pumper connec- through frictional resistance and bearing from a predeter-
tion. The bend directly below the barrel connects the barrel mined length of pipe.
to the supply line. A thrust block prevents movement from
lateral forces and a concrete block underneath the bend pre- 3.6.11. Pipe Materials
vents excessive settling. After use of the hydrant, the barrel is Standard pipe diameters used in distribution systems range
drained by way of a drain near the base of the barrel. A gravel from 6 through 20 inches in 2-inch increments. Then, begin-
bed surrounds the thrust block or bend to allow for draining ning with 24 inches, diameters increase in 6-inch incre-
of the barrel. ments. For residential plumbing pipe, diameters begin at ½
Meters. Meters are commonly used to measure water for inch and increase in ¼-inch increments. Since manufactur-
setting cost, collecting payments from customers, and deter- ers and pipe material dictate the available pipe diameters,
mining fair distribution of water delivery costs. Other uses diameters other than those mentioned here might be avail-
for meters include flow measurements to and from treatment able. The supplier should be contacted to verify what pipe
plants and reservoirs, blending of water and chemicals, and diameters are available and if they are in stock.
measuring water sold to other jurisdictions. Although ductile iron pipe (DIP) is the most popular cast
Meters used to measure usage for residential dwellings iron pipe, other common pipe materials for water distribu-
and commercial use are located in areas easily accessible to tion lines include grey cast iron, steel, plastic, and polyeth-
the water utility company. They should not interfere with ylene. Note that this same type of piping is used for water
public safety nor act as a hazardous obstacle. Most meters are service lines larger than 2 inches. Copper or plastic tubing is
located below ground surface levels for safety and to reduce commonly used for service lines smaller than 2 inches.
damage due to weather and tampering. Occasionally meters Plastic pipe-distribution lines for small water sys-
will be located inside the building with a remote recorder tems are normally constructed of PVC pipe because of its
mounted on the outside. ease of construction and economy. Plastic pipe used for
Meters are available in the same sizes as pipe diameters. drinking applications should be certified by an accept-
Usually the meter is sized one diameter size less than the able testing laboratory (such as the National Sanitation
pipe for reasons associated with accuracy, head loss, and Foundation) as not producing objectionable taste, and as
cost. Unlike pipe, where the cost differential between suc- being nontoxic. Standards for PVC pipe (up to 12 inches)
cessive pipe sizes may be on the order of 10 to 25%, the cost for underground service are ASTM D1785, ASTM D2241,
differential between successive meter sizes can be signifi- and ANSI/AWWA C900. ASTM D1785 pipe is available in
cantly more. Downsizing the meter also down sizes succeed- schedule 40, 80, and 120 thickness. ASTM D2241 pipe has
ing appurtenances and fixtures thereby reducing costs. The pressure ratings up to 250 psi, while AWWA C900 pipe is
increase in accuracy in using the smaller size meter is coun- available in pressure ratings up to 200 psi. AWWA C900
terbalanced by an increase in the head loss. Usually the cost pipe is manufactured to ductile-iron pipe outside dimen-
savings and the accuracy offset the drawback incurred from sions, and both ASTM D2241 and ASTM DI 785 are man-
the increased head loss. ufactured to steel pipe outside dimensions. Joining these
pipes requires a transition gasket used with standard duc-
3.6.10. Thrust Restraint tile-iron fittings.
Two basic forces associated with flowing water under pres- Ductile-iron pipe-is standardized in ANSI/AWWA
sure are the hydrostatic forces and hydrodynamic forces. C150/ A21.50-96 and is available in sizes from 3 to 64 inches,
 3.6 ■ UTILITY FUNDAMENTALS 287

in various pressure classes. Push-on or mechanical joints thrust blocking, as for the push-on joint, a restraining col-
are used on DIP for underground service. For water service, lar with locking bolts is used to hold the joint together.
DIP is normally lined with cement-mortar. Soft water will The mechanical joint is easy to assemble and is intermedi-
leach the cement-mortar lining if not properly conditioned. ate in cost.
Depending on soil conditions, DIP is often installed in poly- The ball joint is used for crossing waterways, as a restrained
ethylene wrapping to aid in corrosion protection. joint, and where free turning deflections are needed. The
Steel pipe-steel pipe is normally used for large diam- gasket is inserted into the bell and compressed by the enter-
eter installations beyond the sizes of which DIP is available, ing ball. The joint is secured by locking the bayonet-type
and is not often used for small water systems. However, it is retainer over the lugs on the bell. A retainer lock inserted
available in various sizes and thickness classes. It is covered between the lugs prevents the retainer from rotating.
under AWWA C200 standard. Note buried steel pipe is more The flanged joint is used for the larger sizes of above
susceptible to corrosion than DIP, and must be adequately ground distribution piping, such as in pump stations. This
protected. It is usually installed underground with a tape- joint is seldom used for underground distribution piping
wrap coating as a minimum, and the pipe interior is nor- because of its cost and difficulty of installation. The flanged
mally specified to be provided with a cement mortar lining joint has a flat-faced or flat-faced with gasket groove bolt
for drinking water service. collar or flange on each end of the pipe. A suitable gasket is
Polyethylene pipe (PE)-PE is becoming popular for small placed between the flange faces and compressed by the bolts
water service, mainly because it is economical to purchase to form a pressure-tight joint. The flange joint is the stron-
and install. PE is available in sizes larger than 4-inches and gest of the joints. The chief disadvantage of the flange joint
the standard for PE is AWWA C906. is that usually some type oflength compensating joint must
High-density polyethylene pipe (HDPE)-HDPE is popular be included in the pipe run, because as the flange bolts are
in directional drilling applications. The pipe is fused together drawn up, the overall length of the pipe run is shortened by
with a machine that provides a "jointless'' connection. The the compression of the gaskets.
pipe is flexible and can be installed around a radius without The threaded or screwed joint is formed by cutting threads
the use of joints. The pipe is covered under ASTM Dl248, into the end of the pipe on a tapered diameter, that is, "pipe
ASTM 3350, AWWA C901, AWWA C906, and NSF Stan- threads:' When the tapered threads are screwed together they
dards 14 and 61. It can be used in a direct burial applica- create an interference fit, which with the aid of a mastic pipe
tion or with a directional drilling machine that bores a hole sealing compound on the threads makes a pressure-tight
through the ground for a specified distance and then pulls joint. The threaded joint is not commonly used for distribu-
the pipe back into the void. tion piping because it is difficult to make in larger pipe sizes
Additionally, it is important to note that DIP and pre- and due to the loss of metal in the pipe wall at the threads, it
stressed concrete cylinder pipe (PCCP) are also typically is weaker than the flanged joint.
used for larger diameter water lines such as transmission The ball, flanged, and threaded joint are considered
lines from treatment facilities to the distribution network. "restrained" joints in that the joint will hold the individual
Joints. Distribution pipes are connected by either of the lengths of pipe together under system operating pressure, as
several different types of joints shown in Figure 3.6BB. such, these joints are suitable for above-ground use.
The push-on joint is a compression joint that creates a Fittings. Fittings are used to connect same- or different-
pressure-tight seal when a gasket, inside the bell end, is size pipes, change the flow direction, split the flow into
compressed by the plain end of the pipe. This type of joint several directions and stop the flow. Examples of fittings
allows for fast and easy installation and is low in cost, which commonly used in the distribution network are crosses,
probably accounts for its popularity. However, this type tees, wyes, and bends. Standard bends are 90° or full bends,
of joint does not restrain the individual lengths of piping 45° or ½0 bends, 22½ 0 or ¼ 0 bends, and 11 ¼ 0 or ¼ 0 bends.
from separating under pressure, so concrete thrust blocks Fittings are readily available in standard sizes. Nonstandard
are cast at elbows and other turns to restrain the pipe. Soil sizes are special order items from a manufacturer. Because
friction on the pipe also acts to prevent join separation. The the special order items cost significantly more and may
push on joint is not suitable for above-ground use in pres- delay construction while on order, their use and necessity in
sure piping. design should be avoided except in the most extreme cases.
For the mechanical joint, the pipes fit together as a Typically, the AWWA, ANSI, and ASTM designate accept-
plain end inside a bell-shaped end. A pressure-tight seal able standards and specifications for various pipes and fix-
is created by a gasket tightened between the flange on tures for supply water systems. Examples of various fittings
the bell end and the gland, a flange-like collar that slips are shown in Figure 3.6CC.
over the plain end. The flange and gland are held together Most manufacturers and water distribution agencies
with bolts. The mechanical joint is considered a "semi- provide an allowance in in deflection with the fittings. The
restrained" joint in that friction, in the highly compressed range is minimal, usually about 2° to 3°, but allows for an
gasket, provides some restraint against pipe separation additional range beyond standard fittings. Additionally, the
under pressure. Where joint restraint is not provided by deflection can be applied between pipes (without a fitting) to
288 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ

SUPER BELL-TITE PUSH-ON JOINT BALL JOINT

The Super Bell-Tile Push-On joint is Ball joint iron pipe is designed espe-
a rubber ring gasket, compression cially for submarine and submerged
type joint whose only accessory is a piping and for pipe lines installed
molded rubber gasket. Fitted into the across hilly terrain. Easy joint assembly
gasket recess of the bell, the gasket and long lengths make this pipe ideal
forms a pressure-tight seal with for such purposes.The joint provides a
ample deflection when compressed maximum 15° free turning dellection
in position by the entering plain end wtth no reduction in the internal open-
of pipe. ing area at any deflection.

c:===~~ ~:_-_-_-_-~-,
Super Bell·Tlte Push-On Joint Bal/Joint

MECHANICAL JOINT FLANGED JOINT

Mechanical joint is used extensively Flanged joint cast iron pipe is ideally
for underground water, sewage, and used for exposed piping inside and
gas lines and for conveying liquids outside of buildings for conveying
and semi-solids, both outside and water, sewage, sludge and other flu-
inside buildings. The joint consists of ids corrosive to steel but not to cast
an integral bell with flange, and is iron. It also is used for low pressure
made up with a rubber ring gasket, air, steam, oil, gas and other ser-
follower glands, nuts and bolts. When vices.
assembled the joint provides for nor-
mal expansion, and contradiction
and permits adequate deflection in
all diameters Meehan/cal Joint Flanged Joint

THREADED I.P.S. JOINT

Cast iron I.P.S. (Iron Pipe Size) is cast to the

same outside diameter as steel pipe, and is
used for plumbing and drainage services,
such as downspouts, waste and vent lines.
The pipe is used with regular screwed,
drainage and soil fittings, and can be cut,
threaded and fitted on the job wtth the ordi·
nary tools of the piping trade.
Threaded /,P.S. Joint
FIG uRE 3. 6 BB Joint connections for cast iron pipe. (Reprinted with permission of McWane Cast Iron Pipe Company, Birmingham, Alabama.)

effectively curve the pipe along a large radius (several hun- These calculations may be based on regulatory requirements
dred feet). for projected flows, historical data obtained from similar size
and type of facilities, or other accepted reference sources. The
3.6.12. Water Distribution Layout potential need for future expansion of the new system should
The preliminary water supply system design begins with a be considered and appropriate accommodations made if this
projection of anticipated domestic and fire flow demands. is anticipated to occur. The horizontal configuration of the
 3.6 ■ UTILITY FUNDAMENTALS 289

BTee
n
Reducing on
One Run
D
Reducing on
Both Runs
other subdivision and zoning constraints; for example, the
water line must meet the criteria for minimum distance to
dwellings and other structures.
Location of water mains in commercial areas and high-

m
density residential areas (e.g., townhouses and condomini-

Cross
0
Reducing on
One Outlet
0
Reducing on
Both Outlets
0
Reducing on
One Run a:
ums) is dictated, in part, by other utilities, their structures,
location of fire prevention and control devices for the internal
parts of the building (e.g., fire hose connections, sprinkler
One Outlet systems), location of fire hydrants and type of metering
system. Generally, these sites contain a more complex maze

~
Laterlal
D E>
Reducing on
Branch
Reducing on
One Run
~Reducing
True Y
of underground utilities within the travelways that present
obstacles in the layout. To illustrate, the travelways are nar-
rower than public street right -of-ways; the sites contain higher
impervious areas which translates to more storm sewer pipe
and inlets; and the higher density usually means more sani-

~
90- Elbow
~
45" Elbow
ftl
22Y.z· Elbow
a
Concentric
Rtdu<:tr
tary connections. Since water lines are normally nongravity
dependent, the water line can be adapted to weave over, under
and around the other gravity dependent utilities.
FIGURE 3.&CC Various types of fittings. Although water mains are usually no smaller than 6 inches
in diameter, since this size is common for stub lines serving
fire hydrants and lines that only serve a few residential units,
water supply system should be determined. Water system 4-inch lines may be acceptable for special situations. Typical
pressures in the immediate vicinity of the proposed develop- pipe sizes for water mains are 4-, 6-, 8-, 12-, 16-, 18-, and
ment should be checked as well as available fire flows. 24-inch diameters. The size varies according to the specifi-
If the site will be served by an on-site water supply well, cations of the jurisdiction and the availability of pipe mate-
borings and pumping tests must be performed to verify rials. Since the velocity increases as the diameter decreases,
available capacity. smaller diameter pipes result in higher headlosses for the
In many developments, distribution lines typically follow same discharge. Velocities of 3 to 6 fps at normal working
the street network and are usually located within the public conditions are preferred, although higher velocities in short
right-of-way. Some localities require the location of the water lengths of pipe for short periods are tolerable. Sustained high
line to be a fixed distance from the centerline, curb line, or discharge velocities scour the interior of pipes.
right -of-way line and on the same side of the street for uni- Water lines are set at a depth of 3 to 4 feet, which is below
formity. For instance, in some parts of the United States the the frost line. The engineer profiles the water line after the
water line is laid on the north and east side of the centerline. horizontal layout is complete to show how the water line
Whether the water main is located under the pavement or weaves over and under other utilities in the development.
behind the curb line is a matter of preference set by the local The depth of the water line is generally constant, but may
standards. deviate in cover conditions to avoid other utilities. Most ver-
Although the grid layout is preferable to the branch- tical adjustments can be accommodated by pipe curvature,
ing layout, dead-end lines cannot always be avoided. but vertical bends are proposed to minimize the length of
Therefore, most distribution systems are a combination of deeper pipe systems.
loops and branches, with the branch lines kept to a mini- Water lines can also be installed using directional drilling
mum. Many branch lines are temporary, and are built for machines that facilitate "trenchless" installation. This type
the convenience of future connections needed when new of installation is beneficial in several different scenarios. For
developments are added and streets are extended. Cul-de- example, when the water line must be extended across water-
sac streets, common in residential developments, make ways such as streams to serve another section of the distribu-
looping of distribution lines difficult since easements are tion system, a directional drilling machine will allow the line
required to extend the water line through private prop- to be installed without impacting the stream or other environ-
erty. The water supply company, in its desire to mini- mentally sensitive areas such as wetlands. A directional drill-
mize dead-end water lines, may require the developer to ing machine can also be used to extend a water distribution
provide easements through the project for interconnect- line across a congested roadway in a manner that avoids sig-
ing the water line. The easements should preferably run nificant disturbance to everyday vehicular traffic that would
through out-parcels and common land rather than indi- otherwise be experienced with typical open trench excavation.
vidual lots. However, if the water line must pass through Valve Locations. Isolation valves are placed on line for
a lot, the preferred location is along lot lines, with the shutting down a section of the system for repairs and main-
lot lines coincident with the edge of the easement. Note, tenance. Recommended valve spacing ranges from 500 to
this method of locating the easement must comply with 1200-foot intervals. Since the purpose of isolation valves is
290 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ
to shut down a section for repairs, the objective of valve allow flows to the building or hydrant although part of the
locations is to balance the economics of using as few valves nearby distribution line is shut down. The third valve on the
as possible to inconvenience the smallest number of cus- stub side allows the building or hydrant to be isolated with-
tomers when a section is shut down. out disrupting flows along the water main.
Most water main systems follow a community's public Valves are also commonly located where the distribution
road. In moderate to high-density (i.e., more than 3 DU/ AC) line has been downsized. As the number of service con-
residential and commercial areas, the frequency of street nections decrease on the line, for instance at a terminating
intersections is typically less than 1000 feet and in many street, the distribution line's diameter can be reduced due to
developments 500 feet and less. At these intersections, tees the reduced demand. A reducer is a component that allows
and crosses divide the water line into other feeder lines. for the connection of a large pipe to a smaller pipe. Typi-
Included with these tees and crosses are valves that allow cally, valves are placed after the reducer on the side with the
for various ways to segment small service areas. Gener- smaller diameter as an economic consideration.
ally, valves are placed on two sides of a tee and three sides The number and location of valves in a development
of a cross. At tees one valve is placed on the minor line. project is a function of the density. In the low- and mod-
Likewise with crosses, valves are placed at each side of erate-density areas the placement of valves every ±500
the minor connection [Figure 3.6DD(a)]. The location of feet is inherent due to the street layout. In areas of higher
the remaining valves for the cross and tee depends on the densities (e.g., 10 DU/ AC, or apartment complexes), the
location of the valves at the next junction upstream and placement of valves at 500 feet intervals would mean
downstream from the point under consideration. Referring inconveniencing numerous households when a section is
to Figure 3.6DD(a), recognize that two valves at each tee shut down. In such cases the location of valves will depend
can accomplish the same results as three valves. The water on the number of service lines that can comfortably be
main segments ofB-D, D-F, and C-E can be isolated without shut down. A reasonable range is 15 to 25 service lines
the need for a valve at P. between isolation valves. To do this requires intermediate
The exception to the above noted rule occurs on tees valves placed on line to limit the number of households to
where the stub side connects to either a reasonably large a reasonable level.
commercial building or a fire hydrant. In these cases, Valves are installed in cast iron or PVC valve boxes-a
valves are placed on all three sides of the tee as shown in sleeve placed over the valve that prevents backfilling over the
Figure 3.6DD(b). The two valves along the distribution line valve and allows access from the ground level. The valve box
and its lid present a nuisance when located in lawns. When
possible, the valve should be placed in accessible areas, but
6" Waler 6" Waler h.loln not where the valve box would be covered with soil and
h.loin
overgrown vegetation (e.g., wooded areas). Although locat-
ing valves in such areas should be avoided, this is not always
possible. In such instances, the valve is enclosed within a
vault. The vault may be concrete or another permanent
enclosure that protrudes above the ground surface at least
G 6 inches. A vent stack may also be connected to the vault.
The protruding vault and vent stack allows for locating the
Segments B-0, D-f", and C-E con be valve much easier.
Isolated without valve P. Placement of valves for isolation purposes can be very
a) subjective. Occasionally, the water supply company dictates
the location of valves and other controlling components. The
water supply company has immediate access to information
not readily available to the project engineer. The project
C
0 BLDG engineer can then only make the best guess using the forego-
.
::::E

.!
ing concepts and personal experience for showing water line
~
0 and component location on the plan sheets.
io Fire Hydrant Location. Fire hydrants need to be conspic-
Service Line uously located and highly accessible. Fire fighters in the
8" Water h.loln
throes of fighting a blaze need to locate a hydrant by quick
glances in obvious directions. Typically, fire hydrants are
3 Valves Required 3 Valves Required located 2 to 3 feet behind the curb or edge of pavement.
The hydrant is oriented so that the pumper connection
b)
faces the street or travelway and is set far enough behind
FIGURE 3.60D Valve placement. the face of curb to avoid damage from vehicles. Hydrants
 3.6 ■ UTILITY FUNDAMENTALS 291

are placed to be accessible for hose connections and the travelways. Placement of fire hydrants on both sides of the
pumper truck and therefore should not be placed high on street to protect the building opposite from the fire hydrant
embankments, in depressions or ditches, or near trees, will not suffice because of the BOCA restrictions on place-
poles, walls, or where there is insufficient clearance for ment of fire hoses.
hose lines (Figure 3.6EE). On commercial sites, hydrant spacing is governed by the
In high-density residential areas (e.g., townhouse and estimated coverage as determined by fire flow requirements,
condominium sites) fire hydrants are frequently placed on the course of the unrolled fire hose, and the location of fire
parking islands near buildings. Consideration is given to hose connections on the building (in addition to any other
the minimum distance between the fire hydrant and closest local requirements). Since fire hoses are unrolled along the
building it is intended to serve. Local codes prescribe the safe travelways and grassy areas, the distance between hydrants is
distance for which the fire fighters can access a hydrant with- not measured along a straight line connecting the hydrants.
out sustaining injury from the burning building, approxi- Subsequently, for streets and travel ways with many short
mately 50 to 75 feet. Therefore, several hydrants may be radius curves and obstructions (e.g., fences and walls) more
needed throughout high-density and commercial areas to fire hydrants will be needed. Commercial buildings may be
protect the building. Another consideration, when locating required to have an exterior fire hose manifold (e.g., stand-
hydrants is the placement of fire hoses. For example, Build- pipe, fire department connection). The location of this
ing Officials and Code Administrators (BOCA) fire codes do manifold on the building must be near a fire hydrant, usually
not recommend placement of unprotected fire hoses across within 100 feet of a fire hydrant.

r- 2' -6" ----j

liQ1n;
.r.-r---.--... • :~ ·. 1
Fire Hydrant Must Be Plumb In All Directions
Use Two Straps As Shown, Same Diameter
As Fitting Bolt, At Or Near Horizontal Plane
Through Pipe Centerline
~.----~~-~
•

·· 1
.. .
2'

Concrete Base
Hydrant Has
Been Set
Min Cover
Below Frost
Line

Iron Tee Gate Valve .

It ": • ·_ 6 -- ~ - ..

ELEVATION ,liQ!§_;
Ample Gravel Sholl
Be Placed Around
Hydrant Drain To
Allow Proper Drainage
FIG uRE 3. 6 EE Typical hydrant settings.
292 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ
The ISO recommends hydrant distribution according to In placing fire hydrants in a residential subdivision, a sys-
the coverage presented in Table 3.6E. Hydrant spacing ranges tematic method would be to start on the cul-de-sac streets.
from 300 to 1000-foot intervals. Actual spacing considers the Determine the fire flow coverage or the maximum distance
type and size of the dwelling, land use, and risk (e.g., high- from fire hydrant to the farthest buildings as prescribed
value district in terms of property cost and public safety) and by local codes. Using this distance, place the fire hydrant
local controlling ordinances. as far away from the houses within the cul-de-sac as this
To the extent possible, placement of hydrants should not distance allows. Proceed along the cul-de-sac street toward
detract from the streetscape. The fire hydrant needs to be vis- the through street, placing fire hydrants at the appropri-
ible and accessible to the fire fighters and yet not be obtrusive. ate distances, considering hydrant spacing and prescribed
For example, in single family detached subdivisions a hydrant maximum distances to dwellings. After all cul-de-sac streets
placed behind the curb at the side property line extended have the appropriate number of hydrants, the hydrants
would serve both purposes. A fire hydrant in the middle of along through streets are located to provide fire protection
the front property line may be unattractive-especially if the not covered by the cul-de-sac fire hydrants or any existing
house sits close to the front property line. fire hydrants.
A map, such as the one of Figure 3.6FF, showing hydrant
and valve locations might be available from the water utility
company or Department of Public Works. A copy of a map
TAB LE 3 . 6 E Standard Hydrant Distribution
such as this for the project area should be obtained prior to
FIRE FLOW REQUIRED AVERAGE AREA PER HYDRANT beginning the design. This provides information for assess-
(6PM) (FT2) ing water availability and hydrant location during the site
analysis phase.
1000 or less 160,000 Pipe Curvature. Gradual change of direction with pipe
is accomplished by using bends or simulating curvature
1500 150,000
through succeeding deflection of pipe joints. The approxi-
2000 140,000 mate radius of curvature depends on the type of pipe joint,
length of pipe, and pipe diameter. Figure 3.6GG shows
2500 130,000 details for joint deflections for mechanical and push-on type
pipe joints.
3000 120,000
Connections. During construction, building service
3500 110,000 connections are extended from the water main to the
right-of-way line. Whereas the water main may be 6- to
4000 100,000 12-inch-diameter pipe, the service connections for residen-
tial dwellings are typically 3/4 to I-inch diameter and less
4500 95,000
than 6 inches for other buildings. A corporation stop assem-
5000 90,000 bly (Figure 3.6HH) connects the service line to the water
main at a point above the horizontal center of the water
5500 85,000 main. This location does not draw off any sediment from the
6000 80,000 bottom of the water main, is an easily accessible location for
repairs, and allows trapped air to escape from the water main
6500 75,000 and be expelled through water fixtures. However, the specific
location of the connection depends on the policy of the util-
7000 70,000 ity company.
7500 65,000 The service connection ends at the meter box or curb
box. The meter box contains the shutoff service valve, a
8000 60,000 yoke, and the water meter. The yoke is a special fitting to
hold the service pipe stubs at the proper alignment for con-
8500 57,500 necting the meter. The service box contains only the service
9000 55,000 valve. In some areas, the building contractor is responsible
for installation of the meter and the service line leading to
10,000 50,000 the house and in others the water utility company man-
ages the installation of the water main and service lines.
11,000 45,000 The stubbed service lines are installed during construction
12,000 40,000 of the water main. This allows the house connections to
be made as the houses are built without cutting into new
Reprinted with permission of Insurance Services Office, Inc. Copyright© 1974. pavement.
 3.6 ■ UTILITY FUNDAMENTALS 293

FIG uRE 3. 6 FF Municipal map showing water line and valve and hydrant location in
residential area.

3.6.13. Connecting to an Existing Water Line extended and the valve is opened when the extended water
Special types of construction methods are used to con- main has been approved for service. The advantage of the
nect the proposed water main to an existing water main, tapping sleeve and valve is that it does not require exist-
when the existing service cannot be shut down-even for ing service to be shut down while the connection is made.
the short time needed to make the connection. The type of However, this type of connection, sometimes referred to as
method selected depends on the specific site conditions and a wet-tap, can be expensive.
the locality. If isolation valves are located in close proximity to the
One common method uses a tapping sleeve and valve. proposed connection, they can be closed while the connec-
As illustrated in Figure 3.6II, the tapping sleeve and valve tion is made. While the valves are closed the existing pipe
consists of two half sections of pipe that are strapped over can be cut. The cut section is removed, and a tee and sleeve
the existing line. Special equipment designed to fit over a is inserted in its place. Note, this method requires inconve-
valve cuts a hole in the existing water main through the niencing the customers while the construction is performed.
opened valve fixture. After the hole is cut the equipment Another method consists of inserting valves onto the
is withdrawn and the valve is closed. The water main is existing line in the area where the connection is to be made.
294 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ

Pipeline Curve Geometry

e = deflection angle
S = joint deflection offset
L = laying length
R = radius of curve

R= L
2 tan .JL
2

Maximum Joint Deflection Full-Length Pipe-Mechanical-Joint Pipe

Approx. Radius of Curve-A
Maximum Offset-S Produced by Succession of Joints
Nominal Deflection in. (m) ft. (m)
Pipe Size Angle-e L = 18 ft L = 20ft L:18ft L = 20 ft
i11. deg (5.5 m) (6.1 m) (5.5 m) (6.1 m)
3 8-18 31 (0.79) 35 (0.89) 125 (38) 140 (43)
4 8-18 31 (0.79) 35 (0.89) 125 (38) 140 (43)
6 7--07 27 (0.69) 30 (0.76) 145 (44) 160 (49)
8 5-21 20 (0.51) 22 (0.56) 195 (59) 220 (67)
10 5-21 20 (0.51) 22 (0.56) 195 (59) 220 (67)
12 5-21 20 (0.51) 22 (0.56) 195 (59) 220 (67)
14 3-35 13.5 (0.34) 15 (0.38) 285 (87) 320 (98)
16 3-35 13.5 (0.34) 15 (0.38) 285 (87) 320 (98)
18 3--00 11 (0.28) 12 (0.30) 340 (104) 380 (116)
20 3--00 11 (0.28) 12 (0.30) 340 (104) 380 (116)
24 2-23 9 (0.23) 10 (0.25) 450 (137) 500 (152)
30 2-23 9 (0.23) 10 (0.25) 450 (137) 500 (152)
36 2--05 8 (0.20) 9 (0.23) 500 (152) 550 (167)
42 2--00 7.5 (0.19) 8 (0.20) 510 (155) 570 (174)
48 2--00 7.5 (0.19) 8 (0.20) 510 (155) 570 (174)

Maximum Joint Deflection* Full-Length Pipe-Push-On Type Joint Pipe

Approx. Radius of Curve-A
Maximum Offset-S Produced by Succession of Joints
Nominal Deflection in. (m) ft. (m)
Pipe Size Angle-B =
L 18 ft =
L 20ft =
L 18 ft =
L 20 ft
in. deg (5.5 m) (6.1 m) (5.5 m) (6.1 m)
3 5 19 (0.48) 21 (0.53) 205 (62) 230 (70)
4 5 19 (0.48) 21 (0.53) 205 (62) 230 (70)
6 5 19 (0.48) 21 (0.53) 205 (62) 230 (70)
8 5 19 (0.48) 21 (0.53) 205 (62) 230 (70)
10 5 19 (0.48) 21 (0.53) 205 (62) 230 (70)
12 5 19 (0.48) 21 (0.53) 205 (62) 230 (70)
14 3• 11 (0.28) 12 (0.30) 340 (104) 380 (116)
16 3• 11 (0.28) 12 (0.30) 340 (104) 380 (116)
18 3• 11 (0.28) 12 (0.30) 340 (104) 380 (116)
20 3• 11 (0.28) 12 (0.30) 340 (104) 380 (116)
24 3• 11 (0.28) 12 (0.30) 340 (104) 380 (116)
30 3• 11 (0.28) 12 (0.30) 340 (104) 380 (116)
36 3• 11 (0.28) 12 (0.30) 340 (104) 380 (116)
42 2· 7.5 (0.19) 8 (0.20) 510 (155) 570 (174)
48 2· 7.5 (0.19) 8 (0.20) 510 (155) 570 (174)
54 1 ½* 5.5 (0.14) 6 (0.15) 680 (207) 760 (232)
• For 14-in. and larger push-on joints, maximum deflection angle may be larger than shown above. Consult the manufacturer.

FIG uRE 3. 6 GG Joint deflections for mechanical and push-on joints. (Reprinted by permission from American Water Works Association
Standard for Ductile Iron Water Mains and Their Appurtenances. Copyright© 1993, American Water Works Association.)
 3.6 ■ UTILITY FUNDAMENTALS 295

nnl•h•d Grad•

.I!
Q. Meter Box
e
Q

Corporotlon ~
Cock or Stop \
~ ---t-t- ~"x 1/i' or~"
Water Meter
~--tt-- Copper■■tter or
Curb Cock Meler Yoke
or Stop With Double
Caulked Check Valve
Pipe
s1..ve
¾"Pigtail
Coupllng at
Une Property Lin•

a) b)
¾" Coupling on Inlet
and Outlet

FIG uRE 3 . 6 HH Typical service connections.

The valves are installed similar to the wet tap method. The An actual situation where contamination of the water
valves are closed and the existing water line is cut and replaced supply resulted from back flow occurred as reported by
by the fixture. However, like the wet-tap, this method can be the EPA:
expensive.
Many connections of appurtenances require addi- A contractor using a tank truck with a rig designed to pump
and spray a mixture of water, fertilizer, grass seed and wood
tional stability due to pressure forces. Besides using thrust
pulp was working on the grounds of a subdivision. The con-
blocks, stability is attained by strapping the appurtenances
tractor was using a direct connection to a fire hydrant to fill
to other stable parts. Strapping consists of connecting one the tank with water, which was then mixed with the fertilizer,
fixture to another fixture or pipe by using several rods etc. A high-pressure pump then sprayed the mixture onto
attached at the flanges. the ground. As the wood pulp circulated through the tank
piping system, it plugged one of the lines while the pump
3.6.14. Cross Connections continued to run creating a very high pressure in the tank.
A cross connection is a link through which contaminated This pressure was higher than the water supply system pres-
water enters the potable water supply. The most obvious sit- sure and it forced the solution of fertilizer into the water
uation in which this occurs is when the potable water sup- system. Several people in the subdivision became ill after
ply is directly connected to a contaminated source, either drinking the water, but the contamination was discovered
and quick action in flushing and disinfecting the lines elimi-
through an error during construction or poor hydraulic
nated the danger. 3
design. Although, the system of checks and balances that
exists during the design and approval process minimizes Although certain precautionary measures can be used to
the chances of such a connection occurring, the repercus- reduce the potential for cross connection during the design,
sions of even one occurrence is costly both in human safety as long as the human element is present in design and con-
and monetary damages. Even if not physically connected to struction, the potential for cross connection will always
the water supply system, cross connections can occur when exist. The most direct and easiest method for back flow
back siphonage and back flows of contaminated water enter prevention is the inclusion of an air space between the free
the potable water system. Back siphonage, a type of back flowing discharge end of the pipe and the flood level rim
flow, results from negative pressures within the distribut- of the fixture. Other mechanical methods, used mainly in
ing pipes of the potable water supply, which draw water the smaller distribution and service lines, include vacuum
from the surrounding area into the system. Back siphonage breakers, double check valve, and reduced-pressure-principle
can occur from inadequate pressure at the suction side of device.
a booster pump, a water main break causing significantly
reduced pressure in the system, and reduced pressure in the
system caused during repairs. Cross Connection Control Manual, USEPA 1975.
3
29& i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ
The MUELLER method for making a lateral connection using the MUELLER CL-12 Drilling Machine

1 The tapping sleeve and valve are first attached to the main
and tested. Then the drilling machine, with a shell cutter at-
2 bar
With the tapping valve open, the shell cutter and boring
are advanced to cut the main.
tached to the boring bar, is attached to the tapping valve
using an adapter. The assembly should be pressure tested
prior to making the cut.

3 contain
The boring bar is retracted and the tapping valve closed to
the water pressure.
4 With the machine removed, the lateral is connected and
the tapping valve opened to pressurize the lateral and
place it in service.
Large drllllng machine selection guide
Machine Tapping valve size range Maximum pressure Operation Recommended uses
CL-12 2"-12" 250 oSil! ( 1724 kPa) Hand or oowcr For making lateral connections
Cl-36-99002 2"-24" 500 PSil! (3447 kPa) Hand or oowcr or inscning valves under
CC-25 2"-12" 500 PSil! (3447 kPa) Hand pressure

FIGURE 3. 6 II Tapping sleeve and valve. (Reprinted with permission of Mueller Co., Decatur, Illinois.)
 3.6 ■ UTILITY FUNDAMENTALS 297

PART D-DRY UTILITY SYSTEMS these services should be determined in the feasibility phase.
It may be necessary to contact the utility providers during
3.6.15. Introduction the preliminary engineering phase to determine the limits
Underground dry utilities are generally comprised of gas, of design responsibility, upgrades that may be necessary,
electrical power, and communications infrastructure. Elec- and load information that will be required to perform final
trical power is typically in the form of low-voltage and/or design and engineering of these systems.
medium-voltage installations. Communications infrastruc- Cables and Ductbank. Electrical power is typically dis-
ture includes voice, data, and video services transmitted over tributed underground via direct buried cables, direct buried
copper and fiberoptic cabling. Each category of power and conduits, or cast-in-place, concrete-encased conduits called
communications infrastructure has its unique requirements ductbank. Protection increases from cable to conduit to
for installation, access, and separation from other utilities. ductbank but so does cost. Direct buried cables are typically
These requirements can differ from one service provider to used in residential developments for their ease of installation
the other or from one area of the country to the next. Proper and cost savings. Direct buried conduits are typically used in
design and coordination of underground dry utilities begin areas that would be difficult to excavate in the future-under
with a conceptual understanding of the project's needs in roads, sidewalks, and structures. When added physical pro-
terms of power, system voltage, and communications con- tection is required or when minimum direct bury depth is
nectivity. This rough data is conveyed to the various service not obtainable, ductbank is used. Ductbank offers the flexi-
providers that will deliver power, phone, data, and video to bility of planning for future growth and replacing or upgrad-
the site. The service providers will share with the designer ing cabling without further excavation. It is commonly used
the available infrastructure and their installation require- in public rights-of-way and in campus environments. This
ments. From this information, the designer can then proceed discussion focuses primarily on ductbank design, but many
with detailed engineering. of the design principles are applicable to direct buried cables
Communication and coordination are the key to success- and conduits.
ful dry utility design. The site engineers are often the link The purpose of the concrete-encased ductbank is to
between the building engineers, the utility companies, and provide physical protection against future excavation and
local municipalities. These utilities have requirements for to add structural strength to the conduits (ducts) should
clearance, bend radius, and burial depth that are very dif- the soil below settle or be undermined (Figure 3.611). PVC
ferent from gravity or pressure utilities, but they also offer conduits are generally used in ductbank in lieu of metal
unique opportunities. Dry utilities can be offset over, under, conduits for several reasons: ease of installation, lower cost,
and around conflicts; they have much more flexibility with and corrosion resistance. The keys to good ductbank design
burial depth and are generally much easier to locate once include steel reinforcing bars (rebar) and spacing between
placed underground. Understanding the design require- the conduits. Steel #4 rebar should be installed along the
ments of these utilities allows the site engineer to effectively entire length of the ductbank-a minimum of one in each
plan the integration of these systems into a project and pro- corner with #4 stirrups installed every 5 feet. PVC con-
vides a better overall site design. duits are tied to the steel reinforcing to prevent "floating"
when the concrete is poured. Spacing the conduits allows
concrete to settle between the conduits and results in a
3.6.16. Dry Utility Materials much stronger system. Figure 3.6MM shows duct spacers
Manholes. Manholes serve several purposes within the used in a ductbank. Spacers are generally installed every
electrical distribution system: They provide access to the 5 feet along the conduit run. Couplings should be staggered
conductors, they provide a location for splices, they pro- 12 inches apart to prevent a weak spot in the ductbank. The
vide pulling points along the ductbank route, and they allow National Electrical Code (NEC, NFPA 70) requires a mini-
changes in direction. A dry utility manhole is often a larger mum of 3-inch separation between conduits and a mini-
concrete structure (larger than the standard 4-foot-diameter mum of 2 inches of concrete cover. Figure 3.6NN shows
manholes that are common with storm and sanitary) to sup- a typical ductbank detail with dimensions. Figure 3.600
port working space for cable installation and maintenance illustrates the installation of direct buried conduits. Direct
(Figure 3.6JJ). A manhole will generally include access buried cables and conduits are laid on a 3-inch bed of sand
cover(s), ladders, grounding for safety, racking provisions and then covered with 3 inches of sand to prevent damage
to support cables (Figure 3.6KK), pulling irons to facilitate to cables or conduits.
installation, drainage or a sump pump. Additionally, the Additional Equipment. Eventually, the electrical power
manhole is often designed to support vehicle traffic. Most conductors terminate at a piece of electrical equipment. This
manholes will also have several knockout panels to allow for could be a medium-voltage transformer, a medium-voltage
the conduit (ductbank) entry. switch, an electrical meter, or switchgear located within a
Most development projects will require various dry building. Placement, access, and working clearances for
utility services such as natural gas, electrical distribution, this equipment are dictated by the NEC, the NESC, and the
telephone, and data communications services. Availability of local utility. The generally accepted standard for clearance of
290 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ

~EMOVA BLE GALVAN IZED STEE L

~RESSURE-LOCKED BANDED
GRATIN G OVER SUMP.
GRATIN G SHALL CONFORM TO
ATSM A-569 WITH 3/4" x 1/ 8"
3EARING BARS AT 1-3 /1 6"
'.lN CENTER SPAC ING AND
WITH CROSS BARS AT
4" ON CE TER.

A A

L _j

NOTE: MANHOLE
ROOF SLAB, BASE,
PLAN AND WALLS SHALL
BE MINIMUM 1O"
THICKNESS

ROOF PLAN

MANH OLE

OUCTBAN K DUCTBANK

SLOPE BASE SLAB 1- 1/ 2" FRO M

MANH OLE PERIM ETER TO SUMP
(NON-SHRIN K GROUT MAY BE
USED TO CREATE SLOP E) SECTION A-A

TYPICAL PRE - CAST CONCR ETE MANH OLE DETAIL

NO SCALE

FIG uRE 3. 6 J J Electrical manhole details.

 3.6 ■ UTILITY FUNDAMENTALS 299

MAGNETIC CABLE MARKING TAP E

:. •';•·. .
co
I"")

~
·. . ·. ·-~ ~ _l
.::i ·• ·
.,, ·. •.

FIG uRE
wall.
3. 6 KK Typical racking arrangement on interior manhole 0- 4 •

4"

#4 REBAR
LONGITUDINALLY 6" ON CENTER
HORIZONTALLY 5' ON CENTER

TYPICAL CONCRETE ENCASED DUCTBANK

NO SCALE
FIG uRE 3. 6 N N Typical ductbank detail.

medium-voltage equipment is to maintain 10 feet from any

building opening (doors, windows, or louvers), 3 feet on all
nonoperable sides, and 10 feet on all operable sides. Oper-
able sides are sides that have doors for access to components
FIG uRE 3. 6 LL Ductbank photo.
within the equipment enclosure. The IO-foot clearance is
required to allow the use of a hotstick, a long insulated pole
used to operate medium-voltage equipment while energized,
or hot. The local utility can provide the dimensions of the
medium-voltage transformer or switch to be used, but most
will fit on a 10 x IO-foot concrete pad. To conservatively esti-
mate the required space and clearances, designers assume a
10 x IO-foot pad and lay out clearances from it, knowing the
actual equipment will be smaller. Often it is desirable or even
required to screen electrical equipment from view; however,
it is important that bollards, shrubs, fences, parking spaces,
and other obstructions remain outside of the required clear-
ances. It is also important to provide access for a flatbed
boom truck to allow removal and replacement of the equip-
ment. Electrical equipment space and access considerations
are based on public health and safety measures; thus, it is
important to work closely with the utility provider and the
authority having jurisdiction to balance the technical system
FIG uRE 3. 6 MM Duct spacers. needs with the site aesthetics (Figure 3.6PP).
300 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ
FINISH GRAD E PAVING OR TOPSOIL TO
MATCH SITE CONDITIONS.

T 30"
MIN IMUM
COMPAC T BACKFILL TO
NO ROCKS OR MATCH SURROUNDING
DEBRIS IN CONDITIONS
BACKFILL - - - + - - ----e
MARK IN G TAPE

TYPI CAL DIRECT BU RIE D CABLE OR CO N DU IT

NO SCALE
FIG uRE 3. 6 0 0 Direct buried conduit installation.

Low-voltage equipment clearances are based on the 0.25 percent. Conduits should always be sloped toward man-
system voltage to ground and the physical surroundings holes and away from buildings.
or context in which the equipment is placed. This gener- There are times when the geometry of the ductbank must
ally applies to meter bases, disconnect switches, panel- be altered along its route to avoid obstacles and to facilitate
boards, and switchboards. The system voltage to ground is entry into a structure. For example, a 12-way ductbank of
the lower of the two numbers in any given cell within the 4-inch ducts will usually be arranged in three rows of four
table included in Figure 3.6QQ. The context defines what is ducts that can be approximately 29-inch width by 22-inch
behind a person as he or she faces the equipment: Is it insu- height. When crossing a water line buried at 36 inches, the
lated, grounded, or energized? In brief, if the system volt- ductbank must maintain 6 inches of cover and 12 inches
age to ground is 150 V or less, a 3-foot clearance is required of separation from the water line. Therefore, the ductbank
regardless of the context. If the system voltage exceeds 150 V can pass below and require 70 inches of excavation, or it can
to ground, the clearance requirement grows from 3 to 4 feet transition to two rows of six ducts, pass above, and require
depending on the context. only 24 inches of excavation. Similar situations arise when
entering manholes and buildings. Often entry points require
3.6.17. Dry Utility Layout the ductbank to transition to a vertical rectangle that is only
The ductbank system should be designed using bends with two or three rows wide.
the least curvature possible while avoiding abrupt direction Burial depth of electrical conduits depends on whether
changes. Schedule 40 PVC is sufficiently flexible to allow they are concrete-encased and where they are routed.
minor changes in direction or elevation without the use Concrete-encased conduits may generally be buried at
of factory-made fittings. Where possible, lay out the duct- shallower depths than nonencased conduits regardless of
bank system both horizontally and vertically with minimum routing, and conduits routed under roadways generally are
25-foot radius bends. Where an abrupt direction change is buried deeper than conduits located beside a road. Table 3.6F
required, use factory-produced fittings with a minimum indicates burial depths dictated by the NEC.
bend radius of 48 inches. Bend radii between 48 inches and When considering separation from other utilities,
25 feet can be accomplished in the field using a hot box (see access and heat are the major concerns. Ductbanks should
Figure 3.6RR). maintain a minimum of 12-inch separation (horizontal
To prevent water accumulation, conduits and ductbanks and vertical) from other utilities such as water lines, sewer
are sloped to drain at a minimum of 3 inches per 100 feet or lines, and gas to allow adequate access to repair these lines
 3.6 ■ UTILITY FUNDAMENTALS 301

1
LEGEND

~
Aviod Placing Transformer
Beneath Window
1 Fireproof Window
Fireproof Door
Whenever Possible 4
: Ventilating Exhaust Duct
Ventilating Intake Duct
.S Transformer
::.
'o
I

I-
0
Door

@ II
*1 o· -O"Min .
10'-0"Min.
II
©

* If This Is An Exit of A Public

Assembly Room Such As An Sol id Wall of
Auditorium, Change to 25 Feet. Build i ng or Structure

If This Is A Non-Fireproof Opening

Change To 25 Feet.
@
*10'-0"M in . '-O"Min .

NOTES:
1. THE PRECEDING ARE MINIMUM CLEARANCES BETWEEN THE TRANSFORMER
AND WINDOWS, DOORS, FIRE ESCAPES, ENTRANCES AND VENTILATING
DUCTS.

2. PLACE TRANSFORMER SO THAT DOOR FACES AWAY FROM WALLS,

FENCES, OR OTHER FI XED STRUCTURES. ACCESS REQUIRED FOR
OPERATING LBTs WITH 8 FOOT HOT STICK HELD HORIZONTALLY.

3. NO BUSHES, TREES, OR OTHER OBSTRUCTIONS SHALL BE PLANTED OR

INSTALLED IN FRONT OF TRANSFORMER DOORS.

4. NO OPENINGS IN BUILDINGS OR STRUCTURE WILL BE PERMITTED

WITHIN 10 FEET OF TRANSFORMER. BUILDING MATERIAL, INCLUDING
DOOR AND WINDOWS LESS THAN 25 FEET FROM TRANSFORMER SHALL BE
FIREPROOF IN ACCORDANCE WITH NATIONAL FIRE CODE.

5. CLASS 1, DIVIS ION 1 and 2 LOCATIONS SHALL REQUIRE A MINIMUM

OF 25 FEET CLEARANCE (e .g . PROPANE TANKS, GAS PUMPS, ETC . OR
ANY PLACE WHERE VOLATILE LIQUID / GA S TRANSFER FILLING OCC URS)
[SEE NEC ARTICLES 500-5(a)(3) and 450-27]
REFERENCE DRAWINGS
CS 3960 10 PADMOUNT TRANSFORMER 25-167kVA
CS 5315 30 13kV-4kV 1500kVA STEP-DOWN TRANSFORMER
CS 5322 500 and 1000kVA NETWORK TRANSFORMERS
CS 5325 1500 ond 2000kVA NETWORK TRANSFORMERS
CS 5362 30 4kV OR 13kV 75 - 1500kVA "DEAD FRON T" TRANSFORMER
APPROVED BY REVI SION ◄ CONSTRUCTION STANDARD
TRANSFORMER INSTALLATION AND HOUSING
DRAWN BY ETK
8. 03/01: KEYSPAN FORMAT. CONSTRUCTION: PAD AND EN CLOSURE HOUSED
NUMBER SHEET NO REV
DATE TRANSFORMER PAD LOCATI ON
LONG ISLAND POWER AUTHORITY AD JACENT TO BU ILDINGS
,,,..,.,.. -. KEYSPAN ENERGY
0dg1Dal Sl.gned S tandard Oll fil e at T&D!lll

FIG uRE 3. 6 PP Electrical equipment clearances.

302 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ

Effectively insulated
: / / I .---Electrl_c___,
/ switchboard
Exposed 150 V,
live parts I nominal,
or less
I +--3ft-
i
.... .. .., 1'I
Condition 1
(3 ft min. for 151-800 V)

Grounded parts, concrete, etc.

'" / I Electric
switchboard
/
Exposed
150V,
nominal,
- live parts I or less
-3tt---
I ••.•• .... ; :• -. • . •.: ~-:' I
Condition 2
(Space Would Increase to 3½ ft for 151-800 V)

Exposed
Electric live parts Electric
switchboard switchboard
150V,
nominal,
/~ 150V,
nominal,
or less or less
3 ft
.' .'
Condition 3
(Space Would Increase to 4 ft tor 151 - 800 V)

Working paces

Nominal Minimum Clear Distance

Voltage to
,round Condition I Condition 2 Condition 3

~I 0 900 mm (3 ft ) 900 mm (3 ft) 900 mm ( ft)

151 - 600 900 mm (3 fl) 1.1 m tJ½ ft ) 1.2 m (4 fl)

Nocc : Wh ere the coodition~ a.re as follo ws:

Condition I - Exposed live part on one side uf the working spaa:
and no live o r grounded pans on 1he other side of 1bc working space.
or exposed live parts on both sides of the working space that arc
e ffectively guarded hy insulating material s.
Condition 2 - fa po d live part on one sick: of the working space
and grounded pait s on the ocher side of the working space. Concrete.
brick . o r tile walls shall be considered as grounded.
C-Ondition l - Ex ed live part o n both side of lhe work.in
space.

FIG uRE 3 . 6 QQ Low-voltage working clearances.

 3.6 ■ UTILITY FUNDAMENTALS 303

Optional
PVC Plug

Long Cover

Short Cover

Optional 857
PVC Roller Support
Timer

F IGuRE 3 • 6 RR Hot box.

TA BL E 3 . 6 F Recommended Burial Depths

MINIMUM COVER* REQUIREMENTS, 0 TO 600 VOLTS, NOMINAL, BURIAL IN MILLIMETERS (INCHES)

TYPE OF WIRING METHOD OR CIRCUIT 11• §

NONMETALLIC RESIDENTIAL BRANCH CIRCUITS FOR CONTROL OF

RACEWAYS LISTED CIRCUITS RATED IRRIGATION ANO LANDSCAPE
FOR DIRECT BURIALt 120 VOLTS OR LESS WITH LIGHTING LIMITED TO NOT
RIGID METAL WITHOUT CONCRETE GFCI PROTECTION ANO MORE THAN 30 VOLTS ANO
DIRECT BURIAL CONDUIT OR ENCASEMENT OR MAXIMUM OVERCURRENT INSTALLED WITH TYPE Uf
loCATI0N OF WIRING CABLES OR INTERMEDIATE OTHER APPROVED PROTECTION OF OR OTHER IDENTIFIED
METHOD OR CIRCUIT CONDUCTORS* METAL CONDUIT RACEWAYS 20 AMPERES CABLE OR RACEWAY

MM IN MM IN MM IN MM IN MM IN

All locations not 600 24 150 6 450 18 300 12 150 6

specified below
In trench below 450 18 150 6 300 12 150 6 150 6
50-mm (2-in) thick
concrete or equivalent
Under a building 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
(in raceway only) (in raceway only) (in raceway only)
Under minimum of 450 18 100 4 100 4 150 6 150 6
102-mm (4-in) thick (direct burial)
concrete exterior slab
with no vehicular traffic 100 4
and the slab extending (in raceway)
not less than 152 mm
(6 in) beyond the
underground installation
Under streets, highways, 600 24 600 24 600 24 600 24 600 24
roads, alleys, driveways,
and parking lots
(Continued)
304 i➔ ih$liifl ►Ml·i:OihfY.i/i,■ ;1rn 1 / 1 iiii 1 /ii#iiii,i\MilidtJ

TABLE 3. 6 F Recommended Burial Depths (Continued)

MINIMUM COVER* REQUIREMENTS, 0 TO 600 VOLTS, NOMINAL, BURIAL IN MILLIMETERS (INCHES)

TYPE OF WIRING METHOD OR CIRCUIT 11• §

NONMETALLIC RESIDENTIAL BRANCH CIRCUITS FOR CONTROL OF

RACEWAYS LISTED CIRCUITS RATED IRRIGATION ANO LANDSCAPE
FOR DIRECT BURIALt 120 VOLTS OR LESS WITH LIGHTING LIMITED TO NOT
RIGID METAL WITHOUT CONCRETE GFCI PROTECTION ANO MORE THAN 30 VOLTS ANO
DIRECT BURIAL CONDUIT OR ENCASEMENT OR MAXIMUM OVERCURRENT INSTALLED WITH TYPE Uf
loCATI0N OF WIRING CABLES OR INTERMEDIATE OTHER APPROVED PROTECTION OF OR OTHER IDENTIFIED
METHOD OR CIRCUIT CONDUCTORS* METAL CONDUIT RACEWAYS 20 AMPERES CABLE OR RACEWAY

MM IN MM IN MM IN MM IN MM IN

One- and two-family 450 18 450 18 450 18 300 12 450 18

dwelling driveways and
outdoor parking areas,
and used only for
dwelling-related purposes
In or under airport 450 18 450 18 450 18 450 18 450 18
runways, including
adjacent areas where
trespassing is prohibited
'Cover is defined as the shortest distance in millimeters (inches) measured between a point on the top surface of any direct buried conductor, cable, conduit, or other raceway
and the top surface of finished grade, concrete, or similar cover.
1Raceways approved for burial only where concrete encasement shall require concrete envelope not less than 50 mm (2 in) thick.
1Lesser depths shall be permitted where cables and conductors rise for terminations or splices or where access is otherwise required.
11 Where one of the listed wiring method types is used for one of the listed circuit types, the shallowest depth of burial shall be permitted.

§Where solid rock prevents compliance with the cover depths specified in this table, the wiring shall be installed in metal or nonmetallic raceway permitted for direct burial. The
raceways shall be covered by a minimum of 50 mm (2 in) of concrete extending down to rock.
© Reprinted with permission from NFPA?0®-2008, National Electrical Code®, copyright 2007, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA. This reprinted material is not
the complete and official position of the NFPA on the referenced subject, which is represented only by the standard in its entity.

should a break occur. When routing in the proximity of maintain a minimum of 12-inch separation (horizontal and
steam lines, a 24-inch minimum separation is required to vertical) from other utilities such as water lines, sewer lines,
avoid thermal damage to the conductors within the duct- and gas to allow adequate access to repair these lines should
bank. When crossing steam lines, always route ductbanks a break occur. When routing in the proximity of steam lines,
below rather than above the steam lines. Where adequate a 24-inch minimum separation is required to avoid thermal
separation from steam is not possible, a suitable thermal damage to the conductors within the ductbank. When cross-
barrier must be used such as 6 to 12 inches of rigid or ing steam lines, always route ductbanks below rather than
expanding foam insulation. When utilities cross, each util- above the steam lines. Where adequate separation from
ity must be self-supported so as not to transfer load from steam is not possible, a suitable thermal barrier must be used
one to the other. such as 6 to 12 inches of rigid or expanding foam insulation.
When considering separation from other utilities, When utilities cross, each utility must be self-supported so as
access and heat are the major concerns. Ductbanks should not to transfer load from one to the other.
PART Ill

DESIGN
This page intentionally left blank
 CHAPTER 4

CONCEPTUAL AND SCHEMATIC

DESIGN

Chapter 4.1 introduces the preliminary design phase of framework depicting the distribution, organization, and
the project, conceptual and schematic designs. This stage arrangement of the development program. The concep-
begins after the pre-design efforts of due diligence and site tual design should honor the development constraints
analysis, as part of the developer's site selection, have been yet take advantage of opportunities identified during the
completed. Additional studies that may be required during due diligence and site analysis. Often an iterative process,
these preliminary design efforts will be introduced as well, the site diagram is utilized to produce a series of concept
including the site selection study, yield study, and impact plans.
studies. Chapter 4.4 discusses the schematic design. The schematic
Chapter 4.2 introduces product types and development design is a refinement of the conceptual design that provides
principles. This is an overview of typical types encountered more precise scale and site detail of program components
and consideration for design decisions. The single most and supporting site improvements. The detail included in the
influential and guiding framework for any land development schematic design is based, in part, on information obtained
project is the context of the site and how it relates to the sur- during the due diligence and site analysis stages and pro-
rounding community and environment. vides further assurance that the development program can
Chapter 4.3 discusses the conceptual design. The objec- be achieved. Preliminary engineering is required in this stage
tive of the conceptual design is to establish a preliminary to produce preliminary plans.

PRE-DESIGN DESIGN POST-DESIGN

CHAPTER2 CHAPTER3 CHAPTER4 CHAPTER 5 CHAPTER 6

Due Dilligence Site Analysis Conceptual & Final Design Permits &
Schematic Design Construction

FIG uRE 4. 1 A The land development design process.

307
 CHAPTER 4.1
PRELIMINARY PLAN SUBMISSION
AND SITE STUDIES

4.1.1. Introduction After the preliminary plan is approved by the developer,

The due diligence and site analysis of the site selection pro- or initial approval through the local jurisdiction is achieved
cess (as seen in Chapters 2 and 3) identified site constraints during the entitlement review, final engineering design can
and development opportunities for the project. If a site was commence (to be discussed in Chapter 5). This entire pro-
selected from these pre-design efforts, the project contin- cess from the site analysis, into the conceptual and schematic
ues into the next stage of preliminary design. All informa- design, and eventually into final engineering design is a
tion from the pre-design will help to shape design decisions cohesive effort but is an iterative process. Initial assumptions
within the preliminary design. and preliminary designs will be refined throughout this pro-
Conceptual designs begin with the site diagram to cess. It is important to understand that generally the design
achieve the development program on the site. As described process is not linear, and initial concept plans never make it
in Chapter 3.2, the site diagram defines the buildable area to construction in their entirety.
for the site. These designs are produced based off the site A land planner is vital in this preliminary design stage
diagram to satisfy regulatory requirements, overcome site of the land development design process. The role of a land
constraints, and identify the opportunities. The concep- planner may be held by the site engineer, a landscape archi-
tual design effort is the first layout of the site intended to tect, architect, or even a dedicated planner depending on the
achieve the development program, as described in Chapter project. Larger and more complicated projects may require
2.1. The deliverables produced during conceptual design a dedicated planner to be a part of the design team. This
efforts are referred to as concept plans, or sometimes as land planner may produce the conceptual designs and get
sketch plans. This work is predominately a planning effort the project through entitlement review before a site engineer
more than engineering; however, engineering analysis is is involved. Every project is different, but it is important to
critical when preparing a concept plan that will be realis- understand the basics no matter who is responsible for the
tic for final design. The conceptual design process will be planning effort.
detailed in Chapter 4.3. Plan Submission. Guided by the jurisdiction's administra-
Schematic design begins with the preferred concept tive regulations and development ordinances (as discussed
plan-this concept plan is refined with additional engineer- in Chapter 2.4), the plan submittals are the developer's actual
ing efforts to produce the preliminary plan. The preliminary representation of the proposed development. Comprised of
plan may also be necessary for the entitlement review, the drawings and other design information, the plan sets or sub-
first stage in the review process as described in Chapter 2.4. missions show (with increasing detail) the arrangement of
A preliminary plan will depict additional engineering detail property lines, lots, buildings, infrastructure, and other fea-
and may include annotations about initial design assump- tures that will occupy the site. Plans and plats identify the
tions for estimating infrastructure requirements. The sche- public and private facilities to serve the intended uses. These
matic design effort details are in Chapter 4.4. plans also provide information on how those facilities will

308
 4.1 ■ PRELIMINARY PLAN SUBMISSION AND SITE STUDIES 309

be constructed through grading of the property, connection will require concept or preliminary plans for specific project
of utilities, and pedestrian and vehicle access arrangements. milestones.
Within their review process (as described in Chapter 2.4), The preliminary plan is perhaps the most important as
many communities have established three submission it represents the parameters by which the site will be engi-
checkpoints: neered, and construction plans prepared. Many developers
refer to this as the entitlement document and it is typically
• Concept plan (or pre-application) the first critical path element for most land development
projects. In addition to the plan itself, many preliminary
• Preliminary plan
plans are associated with development conditions or proffers
• Final plan that further clarify the proposed development program and
outline the various exactions the developer is obligated to
The entitlement review requires a concept plan (optional fulfill. This plan and its affiliated documents will be reviewed
in some jurisdictions) and preliminary plan. The entitle- by the agencies for compliance with all applicable codes and
ment review processes often includes the subdivision plan, ordinances as well as compatibility with surrounding areas.
comprehensive plan amendments, and/or rezoning efforts. The information that is submitted and approved as part
This could also include review of special exceptions and of the preliminary plan must be adhered to throughout the
variances under Euclidean zoning, planned unit develop- life of the project. To change what is shown on the approved
ment approval under negotiated zoning, a form-based preliminary plan may require starting the time-consuming
code review, and more. The final review then requires a process from the beginning which may be very costly to the
final plan, which is described in Chapter 5.1. Therefore, developer. The preliminary plan usually does not give the
these submission checkpoints generally correspond to the developer any right or privilege to begin construction opera-
land development design stages of conceptual, schematic, tions on the site. It is merely a method of communication by
and final design efforts as described within this book. which the developer shows the local government and other
Early project efforts like due diligence and site analysis, as regulating agencies, in more accurate detail than a concept
described in Chapters 2 and 3, often occur outside the pur- plan, how the proposed development will be accomplished.
view of jurisdictional review as the focus is geared more It is not uncommon for the preliminary plan to accompany
toward development feasibility. or even form a component part of the rezoning application.
Another outcome of the submission of the preliminary The preliminary plan depicts information for the entire
plan is a memorandum of understanding (MOU). The project; it shows relationships and ties to each section or
MOU can be based on preliminary engineering plans and is phase of construction for large sites. Regulations often spec-
a letter that identifies assumptions and the design require- ify the minimum area that can be sectioned or phased from
ments, which is intended to reduce major changes with the a larger project for independent preliminary review. Each
final design submissions. The MOU is presented in a narra- section is usually required to form a self-sustaining project,
tive format because the information shown on the plans is capable of standing alone in terms of regulatory compliance.
likely not sufficient to cover every detail of the project. The This condition is common to protect the locality in case the
MOU process is something that has become more preva- developer delays or abandons future sections-the previ-
lent in projects (especially road projects) because different ously approved sections or phases should satisfy ordinance
reviewers during later phases of design can interpret codes and functional requirements. The coordinating agency
differently. often maintains, or in some cases requires the applicant to
For instance, a new mixed use development might maintain, an accounting of critical elements of the project
have an option of using subdivision street requirements that are intended to support the development through vari-
or urban street design requirements. Each design stan- ous phases (parking counts, stormwater management, etc.).
dard (subdivision or urban) may have different minimum Regardless of regulation, the sections should be selected to
lane widths, sidewalk requirements, intersection spacing, ensure that access and infrastructure can be constructed
and design speeds. Early in the project an MOU should without exceedingly long connections to existing facilities.
be developed and agreed upon by Department of Trans- The preliminary plan is drawn to a scale sufficient to show
portation (DOT)/jurisdiction/developer to agree on which the necessary detail. A preliminary plan typically includes
design standard will be used for the project. the following information:
Concept and Preliminary Plan. While the concept plan
is developed to discuss ideas and document construction, • Soils, geology, and field-verified topography
the preliminary plan could be considered as the first formal • Field surveyed site boundary
submission. The concept plan is the result of the conceptual
• Adjacent property owners, zoning, and use
design, while the preliminary plan is the result of the sche-
matic design. It's possible that some projects may not require • The proposed lot layout of the project showing area,
a significant effort in the early design phases, while others dimensions, and other property line information
310 i@Uhili F%1BU/ii,i/i¥%: 1Hifoi41 1M
• Information regarding height, bulk, and area require- An abbreviated study approach: This approach aims to
ments of any existing and proposed structures provide an efficient method of the primary study ele-
ments, which is often beneficial for projects that want to
• Street layout including off-site improvements, center-
move forward faster (but with less information).
line alignment, profiles, typical cross sections, turn
lanes, intersections and entrances, sidewalks and Site Selection Study. Occasionally, there may be several
trails, traffic control signs and devices sites available with the potential to fit the development pro-
• Proposed street names gram that have passed due diligence (Chapter 2) and satisfy
site analysis criteria (Chapter 3). In such cases a process needs
• Location of existing utilities and easements to be used to compare and contrast the physical and regula-
• Location of proposed public utilities, including sizing tory factors which affect the development program for each
and alignment of sewer, water, and fire hydrants, and of the properties. This process, a site selection study, deter-
conduit runs mines which property, if any, is best suited to the develop-
ment program. To present the information and data collected
• Sizing and location of proposed major drainage sys- in a fashion that allows the developer to evaluate different
tems, including outfall and drainage area analysis, sites, a standardized narrative and graphic format needs to be
accurate floodplain delineation, estimated pipe siz- developed. The site selection study involves an engineering
ing, and existing and proposed stormwater manage- feasibility study for each property. However, the information
ment facilities contained in the site selection study must be obtained in a
• Proposed easements, both temporary and per- consistent manner to compare the properties equally.
manent, for access, utilities, construction, and To determine the development opportunities and con-
maintenance straints associated with each property, the following site
related issues need to be reviewed:
• Information regarding buffers, landscaping, clearing
limits, and impact mitigation • Property location and ownership
• Septic drainfield and perc information, and well sites • Existing land use, current zoning, and master plan
for projects using package water treatment systems for the property
and/ or individual wells
• Physiographic and environmental characteristics
4.1.2. Additional Studies • Order of magnitude development costs
Additional studies may be performed during the preliminary
design phase. These will sometimes be required with the Information is obtained in a similar fashion as in an
conceptual design, schematic design, or both. Often the land engineering feasibility study for a single site: desktop review
planner and the site engineer perform these studies in coor- of private entity and government (federal, state, and local)
dination with other specialists or consultants. It is important resources, review of public records, site inspection, relevant
for all members of the design team to understand the inves- interviews, and other research. This information-gathering
tigation process and the study results. process is carried out systematically for each site in the study
The additional studies to be introduced in this chapter are: to have consistent metrics by which to compare.
As in any engineering feasibility study, but most important
Site selection study: This study is intended to provide in the site selection study, the elements that are critical to the
an analytical comparison between several alternative client's program need to be identified and prioritized. While
sites. The site engineer is primarily responsible for many criteria have an equal weight in importance, often the
gathering information relevant to land use and infra- land use criteria is the first reviewed. Zoning is a major fac-
structure. The developer can use this information, in tor on whether the program can be located on the property.
addition to financial information, to choose a project Consideration must be given to the time necessary to amend
site. the land use map or rezone the property if the intended use
is not permitted by right. This should be documented and
Yield study: A yield study identifies the potential
presented to the developer in early phases of site selection
number of units or building size that can be accom-
studies. The time to amend a comprehensive plan or rezone
modated within the project site. Site plan layouts are
a piece of property (which involves interaction with the gov-
necessary when determining the reasonable yield for
erning body and coordination with the citizens) may elimi-
a site so that all constraints and opportunities are
nate a site for consideration early in the evaluation process.
considered.
After zoning and land use issues, there are many other
Impact studies: Several different impact studies are com- factors that can affect the selection of the site. Some site char-
pleted to evaluate how the new development will change acteristics can be overcome during the development of the
the traffic, community, financial, and environmental site. For instance, challenging terrain can be overcome by
conditions of the community. grading the site, but the soil conditions must be considered
 4.1 ■ PRELIMINARY PLAN SUBMISSION AND SITE STUDIES 311

when evaluating the project cost and feasibility. Additionally, part of the engineering feasibility study, the cost to develop
substantial grading efforts should be weighed against the the site is a critical element in the feasibility of the site.
value of the natural site conditions-grading the entire site Not only are the developments' construction costs impor-
often destroys stands of vegetation and natural habitat. tant in a site selection study, but so are the relative construction
Environmental characteristics of the site also need to costs associated with bringing the sites to a comparable level.
be determined and evaluated against the client program. If a few additional dollars need to be spent on a site (or on the
Wetlands, floodplains, and Phase I Environmental Assess- infrastructure for a site) that does not require rezoning or any
ments (ESAs) often determine the available area suitable for land use time, then the additional dollars may be less expen-
development. When green building certification is a project sive than the time to go through the planning process. While
priority, the site selection study should specifically evalu- the client does not often own the property until it is zoned and
ate the common site location credits: is the site located on does not have a great carrying cost on the land loan, rezoning is
prime farmland, habitat for threatened and endangered spe- still a time-consuming process that results in a lost (or delayed)
cies, parkland, a brownfield? And what is the proximity of opportunity. In some cases, the site selection study may have
the site to floodplains, wetlands, natural water bodies, transit criteria for site availability. Is the site available now or are there
and other developed communities? Much of this informa- steps and time required before development can begin? In
tion will be available from the engineering feasibility study, which case, the only way to make the site immediately avail-
but it needs to be presented in a consistent manner for com - able may be through expending resources to make it accept-
parison. A site selection study is one of the instances where able as an element of review. Costs may have to be incurred to
the site engineer can help a developer make an informed improve the access or provide utilities and thus avoid having to
decision regarding site location. These are important con- go through the time-consuming rezoning process.
siderations, beyond just the existing physical conditions of Once all the data is collected, a value or rank is assigned
the site, that affect the value and character of the ultimate to each factor. A matrix can then be used to collectively show
product and should be considered as part of the decision- the information and evaluate each property. An example of
making process. A more detailed description of the specific the procedure is shown in Tables 4.lA and 4.lB. Table 4.lA
green building criteria is provided within the Environmental lists the criteria pertinent to one particular development
Impact Studies section at the end of this chapter. program. The symbols used in the table indicates the basic
Capacity of the infrastructure is another critical factor differences of each item. Each potential tract of land is then
influencing the development potential of a site. The major evaluated based on the listed criteria. Table 4.lB is a compi-
components of the infrastructure are the utilities and trans- lation of the criteria for each alternative site. Selecting the
portation. The availability of water, sewer, power, and com- property best suited for the program is ultimately a business
munications are usually determined in the site feasibility decision for the client. Each item does not necessarily have
study but the unique aspects of the client program resulting equal weight in terms of importance or priority and only
in special utility requirements should be assessed as a por- the client knows what the relative weight of the items are in
tion of the site selection study. Additional power capability terms of his best interests or situation. The site engineer sup-
for computers, dual feeds, telephone expansion, and security plies the data for the client to analyze to make the selection.
are all possible elements that may need to be considered as Yield Study. A yield study is often performed, upon request
part of the site comparison. Again, these factors are to be of the developer, to determine the potential intensity of
compared on a site-to-site basis. development for the property. By knowing the total develop-
The ability to provide adequate access to the site is also a ment potential that can be achieved on a site, the developer
consideration in any site selection study. Not only does the can determine if per unit costs are within an acceptable range
existing and proposed road network need to be considered, but for local market conditions. The study will also be used as a
also rail, bus, air, and water or any other means of transporta- guideline during the conceptual layout stage to determine if
tion that might be critical to the client's program. Such access the land is being used to its greatest efficiency.
may be a part of the overall master transportation plan for the The simplest approach to a yield study is to apply maxi-
jurisdiction. While some master planning efforts may eventu - mum densities to the project area. Density of development is
ally provide the improvements necessary for the development simply the number of new dwelling units permitted per acre of
of the property, the timing of the improvements is crucial. available land for residential type development, or new build-
The ability of the developer's program to be flexible and ing area per acre of land for nonresidential development. For
adjust to the site is important. A rigid site layout or program nonresidential development the density is often referred to as
could, by itself, eliminate a site from the selection process. floor area ratio or building coverage and specified as a ratio or
The engineering feasibility study and associated yield study percentage ofland area. Maximum densities are prescribed in
will present the development potential of the site. A com- the zoning ordinance, as described in Chapter 2.3. An ordi-
parison between the yield study and the client program will nance may not have a prescribed density to land area ratio,
determine the amount of adjustment, and the ensuing flex- and instead use minimum lot sizes, minimum open space
ibility, required to merge the client's program to the different requirements, or maximum building sizes to control density.
sites. The greater the flexibility in the program, the better the The yield study first subtracts all "undevelopable'' land
chance the program can fit to a site. Last, as stated earlier as from the gross (total) land area, to arrive at the net site area
312 i@Uhili F%1BU/ii,i/i¥%: 1Hifoi41 1M
TA BLE 4 . 1 A Criteria and Values for Elements of the Site Selection Study
PLANNING CRITERIA

Existing zone ® Zoned for intended use

0 Zoned for nonresidential use
0 Zoned for agricultural/residential
Adjacent land use ® Adjacent uses office/mixed use
0 Adjacent uses nonresidential
0 Adjacent uses agricultural/residential
Consistency with comprehensive plans ® Specific use consistent with comprehensive plan
0 General use consistent with comprehensive plan
0 Use not consistent with comprehensive plan
SITE CHARACTERISTICS
Topography ® Relatively flat site <5%
O Moderate slope constraints 5-15%
0 Significant slope constraints >15%
Drainage ® Single drainage shed
0 Several drainage sheds
0 Numerous drainage sheds
Soils/Substances ® Minimum grading/excavation problems anticipated
0 Moderate grading/excavation problems anticipated
0 Significant grading/excavation problems anticipated
Vegetation ® Significant native vegetation for landscape buffer/character
0 Moderate native vegetation for landscape buffer/character
0 No native vegetation for landscape buffer/character
Structures ® No existing on-site structures
0 Existing structures of marginal value/concern
0 Existing structures of significant value/concern
ENVIRONMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS

Wetlands ® Minimum wetlands constraints (approx. less than 1 acre of care area)
0 Moderate wetlands constraints (approx. between 1and 10 acres of care area)
0 Significant wetlands constraints (approx. more than 1Oacres of care area)
Floodplain ® No floodplain
0 Floodplain but no impact on care development area
0 Floodplain within care development area
INFRASTRUCTURE-UTILITIES

Power ® Available capacity on-site or immediate proximity

Water supply 0 Available in general vicinity
Sanitary sewer 0 Capacity not available in general vicinity
Communications
Natural gas
INFRASTRUCTURE-TRANSPORTATION

Existing roads ® Two or more existing roads available to access/egress site and major regional
arterial/freeway in close proximity
0 Two or more existing roads available to access/egress site
0 One existing road available to access/egress site
(Continued)
 4.1 ■ PRELIMINARY PLAN SUBMISSION AND SITE STUDIES 313

TABLE 4 .1 A Criteria and Values for Elements of the Site Selection Study (Continued)
Site access ® No encumbrances to two points of access/egress
0 Limited encumbrances to two points of access/egress
0 Both access/egress points significantly encumbered
Proposed roads ® Multiple master planned or existing roads adjacent to core development area
and regional arterial/freeway in close proximity
0 Two master planned roads or existing road adjacent to care development area
0 One master planned road or existing road adjacent to care development area
Mass transit ® Rail and bus available
O Bus available
0 No mass transit available
Rail ® Rail line immediately adjacent to site
0 Rail line in general vicinity
0 No rail line in general vicinity
Flight paths ® No flight path near site
0 Flight path near site flight altitude restrictions
0 Flight path nearby and low altitude
PROGRAM FIT

® Program fits/additional acreage provides location flexibility

0 Program fits/limited location flexibility
0 Program does not fit
ROUGH COST ESTIMATE

0 Ranking 1 through 9, low cost to high cost

® Excessive or unusual cases
0 N/A-nonapplicable

(the buildable area as described in Chapter 3.2) suitable for calculations. Alternatively, if that same site has 2 acres of land
density calculation. Note the distinction between undevelop- within a floodplain, the local jurisdiction may reduce the
able and unbuildable land. The former accounts for acreage allowable density by 2 acres.
not eligible for density calculation as defined by the local Unbuildable land may include portions of a site character-
zoning ordinance. The latter is land that is comprised of cer- ized by physical conditions that make construction imprac-
tain physical characteristics that cannot be (easily) modified tical. Site conditions such as poor soils, underlying bedrock,
and that make construction impossible or impractical. The or excessively steep slopes may reduce the buildable area of
resulting net area is multiplied by the density allowed in the the site. In this case, the land area may still be used for den-
zoning regulations for the proposed zoning district. For non- sity credits but the effective density of the site is increased. For
residential land, total building area is derived by multiplying example, a IO-acre site may have 3 acres of excessively steep
the countable area by the floor area ratio or building coverage slopes with underlying bedrock. The developer may be per-
permitted in the district. mitted to build to a density based on the IO-acre site, but they
Undevelopable land refers to site area that is prohibited are effectively limited to only 7 acres ofland to build on.
from being developed based on jurisdictional regulations, The number of units derived by applying the maximum
such as in the zoning ordinance. This may include flood- densities usually establishes the high end of the probable
plains, stream protection buffers, or areas reserved for future yield range. It does not account for open space, subdivision
public roadways. Each of these conditions can impact the streets, stormwater management facilities, area required for
yield of the site. The zoning ordinance may require a reduc- off-street parking for nonresidential development or other
tion in the allowable site density by subtracting the undevel- components of a development that occupy land to the exclu-
opable land from the site area, while other conditions may sion of other uses. Other factors affect the achievement of full
honor the allowable density. For example, a IO-acre site may development potential. Characteristics of parcel size, shape,
be required to dedicate 1 acre for public roadway improve- and topography also limit the number of lots or area of new
ments. The dedicated land area creates a 9-acre site but the building that can be achieved. Small, irregularly shaped par-
jurisdiction may still honor the original 10 acres for density cels are difficult to develop efficiently; hilly terrain also limits
314 i@Uhili F%1BU/ii,i/i¥%: 1Hifoi41 1M
TA BLE 4 . 1 B Matrix Comparison of Properties
ALTERNATE SITES
CRITERIA A B C D E F G H
Planning criteria
Existing zoning 0 0 0 0 0 ® 0 0 0
Adjacent land use ® ® ® ® 0 0 0 0 0
Consistency with comprehensive plans 0 ® 0 0 0 ® 0 0 0
Site characteristics
Topography ® 0 0 0 ® ® ® 0 ®
Drainage 0 0 0 0 ® ® 0 0 0
Soils/subsurface 0 0 0 0 0 0 ® 0 ®
Vegetation 0 ® 0 ® ® 0 0 0 0
Structure 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Environmental characteristics
Wetlands 0 0 0 0 ® 0 ® 0 ®
Floodplain 0 0 0 0 0 ® 0 0 0
Infrastructu re-uti Iities
Power 0 ® 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Water supply ® ® ® 0 0 ® 0 0 0
Sanitary sewer ® 0 0 0 0 ® 0 0 0
Communications 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Natural gas ® ® ® 0 0 ® 0 ® 0
Infrastructure-transportation
Existing roads ® ® ® 0 0 ® 0 0 0
Site access ® ® ® ® ® ® 0 0 ®
Proposed roads ® ® ® 0 0 ® 0 0 0
Mass transit 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ®
Rail 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ®
Flight paths 0 0 0 0 0 ® ® 0 0
Program fit ® ® 0 0 ® ® ® ® ®
Rough cost (ranked; #1 = lowest cost) 3 4 N/A 6 1 5 7 8 2

opportunities to maximize development potential without For greatest accuracy, and for non-single family or non-
extensive, and expensive, clearing and grading. residential projects, a series of trial sketches prepared on an
A more accurate reflection of residential site yield results overlay of the base map is often the best approach to a yield
by determining total buildable area of a tract. This calcula- study, as is discussed through the conceptual design phase in
tion is then adjusted to account for land that will be used for Chapter 4.3. This is especially important for residential proj-
streets and other public dedication or lost to inherent inef- ects where alternative development techniques such as cluster-
ficiencies in layout. An adjustment factor of 20% is reason- ing or transfer of development rights are possible or desirable.
able. The resulting area is then divided by the lot size either Cluster development allows for reductions in lot size while
allowed in the zoning district (which may be specified as a maintaining the density permitted by the property's zoning.
minimum or minimum average) or required by the builder The area removed from lot development is typically preserved
(in order to accommodate the product), to arrive at probable as open space for passive or active recreation. Quick calculation
yield. Table 4.1 C is useful as a rule of thumb for estimating and rule of thumb methods assume that a conventional subdi-
site yield per acre for a single-family detached development. vision layout is proposed. If the local subdivision (or zoning)
 4.1 ■ PRELIMINARY PLAN SUBMISSION AND SITE STUDIES 315

For nonresidential development, yield of new building

TA BL E 4 . 1 C Estimating Single-Family
area is not only dependent upon the permitted floor area ratio
Site Yield
or building coverage, but is highly dependent upon require-
CONVENTIONAL SUBDIVISION LAYOUT ments for off-street parking. Local zoning regulations typi-
cally specify the size and number of parking stalls required
AVERAGE LOT SIZE AVERAGE YIELD (LOTS PER for differing nonresidential uses, with more intense uses such
(FT2) BUILDABLE ACRE) as office, retail, or service establishments needing more stalls.
Conversely, uses such as warehouses and industrial facilities
6,000-8,000 4.5
are generally less intense and require fewer stalls. The require-
8,000-10,000 3.5 ments for off-street parking are typically designated per square
foot of nonresidential building space, although other meth-
10,000-12,500 3.0 ods such as "per seat" or "per employee" may also be encoun-
tered. Since the number of parking stalls required is directly
12,500-15,000 2.7
proportional to the amount of building area or intensity of
15,000-20,000 2.3 development proposed, several trial sketches may be neces-
sary to find a balance on site that will yield the maximum new
20, 000-25, 000 1.5 building area while providing the requisite amount of parking
and area for other design elements (e.g., stormwater manage-
25, 000-30, 000 1.2
ment basins, landscape buffers, loading areas, etc.).
30,000-40,000 0.9 Considerations of the Yield Study. Conceptual design and
creating trial layouts is an iterative process. These layouts
40 000-50 000
I I 0.7 and the corresponding yield studies may be time consuming,
Reproduced with permission from J. Dechiara and L. Koppelman. 1978. Site Planning and the time available during the preliminary engineering
Standards. New York: McGraw-Hill. phase may be limited. By considering a site's physical, loca-
tional, economic, and regulatory characteristics, they provide
the developer with the most realistic assessment of a parcel's
regulations have provisions for cluster development, a trial value and potential. The opportunity to consider several lay-
sketch is needed to estimate project yield. Using cluster meth- outs offers an early indication of the type and form of devel-
ods, greater flexibility in street and lot layout can be achieved. opment possible. When coupled with an early estimation of
This technique encourages the developer to avoid and pre- potential development costs and evaluation of the likelihood
serve sensitive and other unbuildable areas while acknowl- of project approval, inclusion of trial layouts in the feasibility
edging that those areas are a part of the parcel and project. study (introduced in Chapter 3.1) is an important tool.
Using cluster provisions of the zoning or subdivision regula- Estimating project yield by any method requires skills and
tions, the site layout can often approach full yield while mini- confidence that evolves only through experience. Without
mizing the construction of new infrastructure such as roads that experience, both with project design and local regulatory
and utilities. Cluster allows for the recapture of units that oth- involvement, unrealistic estimations can be misleading to the
erwise may be lost due to unbuildable land or unusual con- developer. False estimations, at either extreme, can result in
figuration. In some instances, local zoning regulations may financial loss or lost opportunity. Therefore, the site engineer
even allow for a slight increase in permitted density if cluster must avoid the temptation to use shortcuts and conjecture. In
provisions are utilized in the design of the project. addition, site yield varies with the ability of the development
Transfer of development rights (TDR) is a "purchase'' of team, resources of the developer, and market demand for a
density within a jurisdiction. Landowners in areas targeted product to accommodate difficult site conditions. Thus, any
for preservation (sending areas) can separate the development yield study that is performed should be reflected as a range
rights (and density) of their property from the property itself of units or area of new building space, specifying conditions
and sell them to developers in receiving areas who then receive that must be overcome during project implementation.
density bonuses on their own property. The TDR program Because of the importance of construction costs in proj-
may be isolated to individual municipalities or span regional ect feasibility, and the impact of environmental and proce-
areas. For example, in the New Jersey Pinelands Preserve the dural regulation on those costs, a site engineer should have a
purchase of 0.25 "Pineland Development Credits" allows an general understanding of construction economics. The final
additional one unit to be included in the development of a price of units should be weighed against the cost of acquisi-
parcel within specified regional growth areas of the Preserve. tion, engineering, and construction. There are always several
Although the purchase of development credits is an option alternatives for developing the site and certain tradeoffs. The
open to developers for increase in density, the cost is market assessment of these tradeoffs requires knowledge of relative
driven and currently costs tens of thousands of dollars. Several costs. In addition, certain characteristics of development
trial sketches may be necessary to determine if the additional projects affect market absorption, the rate at which units are
units gained will offset the cost of the credit( s) purchased. sold or leased, and the period within which the developer
31& i@Uhili F%1BU/ii,i/i¥%: 1Hifoi41 1M
recoups the investment. The developer will base the decision • Fiscal impact study
to continue or abandon the project on an estimation of costs
• Environmental impact study
to correct site problems. The cost analysis performed at this
time will be general because of the nature of the informa- Traffic Impact Study. Traffic studies often are required as
tion researched. However, it should be sufficiently detailed to part of the submittal package for a rezoning or special excep-
enable the developer to make a well-educated decision. More tion application. They serve two primary purposes. The first is
information about feasibility and preliminary cost estimates to identify potential impacts of the proposal on the transporta-
will be described in Chapters 4.3 and 4.4. tion system in the general area of the development. Second, the
The developer anticipates a certain intensity of develop- study looks specifically at potential impacts on roads and inter-
ment in order to recover costs and earn a profit. These costs sections in the immediate vicinity of the project. In communi-
include land acquisition, project engineering, hard construc- ties that assess impact fees on development or operate under
tion costs for public facilities and the building product, fees an adequate public facilities ordinance, a traffic study may be
and interest carrying charges for the land throughout the required for subdivision and building permit approval as well.
project. Using proprietary formulas that correlate investment, In addition to its review in consideration of project
demand, preference, and return, the developer can evaluate approval, the results of the traffic study serve to indicate sys-
finished costs, project unit size, and price range in order tem improvements to mitigate project impact. For instance,
to recover these costs. If the projected selling price needed the need for additional right-of-way for road widening or
to recover cost is out of line with either market demand or turn lanes may be a consequence of the study. This may affect
affordability, then reevaluation of the project is needed. project yield by encumbering otherwise developable land.
If the developer concludes that the project is economically The local governing body also may use the study to support
viable, he may elect to proceed with the development applica- operating restrictions on certain uses to increase the effi-
tion process. The information assembled in the feasibility study ciency of the existing system.
is an important foundation upon which to build subsequent The traffic study consists of four basic elements. These are
investigation. Having identified issues for further analysis, it
enables the site engineer to assemble a team of development 1. System capacity and level of service analysis
specialists whose expertise is specifically geared to solving 2. Background traffic assessment, an analysis of exist-
problems essential to project design. Further, the site engineer ing traffic that also considers traffic generated by
can develop an appropriate project work program and bud- pending projects and potential projects for which
get based on a clear understanding of the design requirements rezoning approval is not required
and an informed estimate of staffing and resources needed to
resolve the issues and procure plan approval. 3. Projected traffic generation for the proposed devel-
Impact Studies. Impact studies may be required by the opment, including probable origins or destinations
local governing body to determine the impact of the pro- and modes of transportation
posed development on the community, environment, or 4. Analysis of adjoining roads and nearby intersections
public infrastructure. These typically are performed after the to determine need for right-of-way or pavement
proposed use and development plan has progressed toward widening, turn lane improvements, and traffic con-
its final stages. However, in many cases, the outputs from trol signs or signalization
these studies are considered during development applica-
tions to determine the appropriateness of the use or intensity. Depending on the nature of the project, its location relative to
Often, they are used to determine appropriate dedications or the transportation network, and other factors, a traffic study
improvements, assessment of impact or similar fees, or to set would include data such as current daily traffic volumes,
a timetable for the staging of development. existing peak hour turning volumes, estimated site traffic gen-
Land development specialists other than the site engineer eration, directional distribution of site traffic, estimated trip
often perform these studies. However, they are mentioned generation for non-site development, estimated total future
here because many of the data inputs collected for the fea- traffic, and projected levels of service. Part of the street design,
sibility study (introduced in Chapter 3.1) are used in sub- such as number of lanes, turn lanes, and intersection control
sequent analysis. In addition, the outcome of these studies would be based on this data. Figure 4.IB is an example from
could affect project feasibility and further design efforts. This a traffic study showing impact of a new project on the traffic.
is especially true where known constraints in public systems The traffic study typically projects the volume for four
or issues of community priority may have direct bearing on types of traffic:
the use and yield of development sites.
The impact studies that will be discussed in this section Existing traffic-volume of traffic vehicles that are using
include the road prior to improvements and modifications
Future background traffic-increase in traffic expected to
• Traffic impact study
occur at the time of development (not including traffic
• Community impact study generated by new development)
 4.1 ■ PRELIMINARY PLAN SUBMISSION AND SITE STUDIES 317

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FI Gu RE 4 • 1 B Map from a traffic study.
310 i@Uhili F%1BU/ii,i/i¥%: 1Hifoi41 1M
Site traffic-traffic explicitly generated by new develop- either the origin or destination (exiting or entering) inside
ment project a study site:' 1 For example, a person leaves home for work
and returns later in the day constitutes two trip ends for that
Total future traffic-sum of the future background traffic
dwelling unit. The Trip Generation manual, published by
and site traffic
ITE, contains trip rates for nearly every type ofland use. The
Traffic volume is a result of traffic demand. Land use, reader should refer to this manual to estimate trip generation
socioeconomic conditions, and the amount and type of avail- in more specific detail.
able transportation affect travel demand. Land use dictates Two parameters frequently referred to in the design of
the location and intensity of the activity and socioeconomic major roads are the average daily traffic (ADT) and design
factors determine the magnitude and extent of population hourly volume (DHV). The ADT is the traffic volume
activity. The two factors are integral components in the counted over a number of 24 hours periods divided by the
development of trip generation models. number of 24-hour periods. The ADT is a parameter used
Trip generation models predict how many trips each to measure and evaluate existing traffic flow and to plan for
activity produces and the origin and destination of such future roads. ADT volumes do not reflect the specific varia-
trips. Forecasting travel demand with elaborate trip genera- tion in volumes during peak hours. Design for the expected
tion models or with tables, such as Table 4. lD, depends on greatest peak volume would not be cost effective. Therefore
the level of detail required for the study. The travel demand a cost-effective design must be one based on a traffic volume
analysis is a key element of transportation planning, whether that may be only occasionally exceeded.
for long-range wide area comprehensive plans or for short- The DHV is the projected hourly volume used for setting
range plans for a traffic corridor or specific project. the geometric design. It provides a base to account for change
Methods used for estimating traffic volumes on local and in demand on a roadway over a projected design period.
collector residential streets may be different than those used Data collected from rural arterial streets for a wide range of
for streets higher in the functional hierarchy or for com- traffic volumes over a wide geographic area has shown that
mercial/industrial projects. Whereas the higher order streets there are approximately 30 hours in a year where the road
require detailed traffic analysis and future traffic volume pro- carries the highest hourly volume (HV). The traffic vol-
jections, volumes on residential streets are typically based on ume for the remaining hours of the year is nearly uniform
averages of vehicle trips per type of dwelling unit. Table 4. lD relative to the 30 highest hours. Based on these results the
provides estimates on the number of trips generated for vari- 30th highest hourly volume for the projected design year
ous land uses. is determined as the DHV. That is to say that the projected
The trip rates shown in Table 4.lD are "trip-ends:' A hourly volume of traffic will be greater than the DHV only
trip-end is "a single or one direction vehicle movement with 29 hours in the year. In urban areas the 30th HV is typically
selected as the DHV as a general rule. However, unique land
use and other special situations such as major seasonal rec-
reation areas may warrant deviations from this general rule.
TAB LE 4 . 1 D Weekday Vehicle Trip In many instances the DHV is taken as a percentage of the
Generation for Selected Land Uses ADT. On urban highways the DHV is normally between 8
Single-family detached 9.6/DU and 12% of the ADT.
Traffic volumes are necessary to determine the impact a
Residential planned unit development 7.5/DU development project has on existing streets. New develop-
ment generates more traffic and consequently may alter pre-
Residential condominium/town house 5.9/DU vailing traffic patterns. Traffic volumes fluctuate daily and
Apartment 6.7/DU seasonally depending on the area served by the street. Major
corridors serving commercial and business areas have peak
Mobile home park 5.0/DU volumes in morning and late afternoons. Retail areas have
peak volumes on weekends and evenings especially during
General office building 11.0/1000 ft2 holidays. Many local agencies require off-site construction
Shopping center (excluding Christmas 42.9/1000 ft2 or financial contributions to alleviate the impact of develop-
season) ment on nearby collector and arterial streets. Transportation
impact studies for various types of land development proj-
Business park 12.8/1000 ft2 ects above a certain size, when required, are normally per-
formed by traffic engineering consultants.
Industrial park per employee 3.3/employee
County park 3.0/acre
1 Trip Generation, 5th ed., Institute of Transportation Engineers, Washington, D.C.,
(Compiled from ITE's Trip Generation, 7th ed.) 1991.
 4.1 ■ PRELIMINARY PLAN SUBMISSION AND SITE STUDIES 319

It's important to consider that many traffic impact studies the project (to offset the costs from the impacts identified
are brand-agnostic, meaning that there is no reference to a during preparation of the community impact study) may be
popular or unpopular destination type. While difficult (or necessary. This fiscal impact study will typically be required
impossible) to calculate, the design team should consider as part of the submittal for local approval of the project, but
whether the proposed development may generate unusu- may be commissioned by the developer prior to full design
ally high traffic demand based on the popularity of services to evaluate financial impacts to the affected municipality.
offered. Some grocery stores or restaurants may generate sig- In general, analysis of the fiscal impact of a project
nificantly more traffic than the average calculation identified begins by applying the current tax rate within the munici-
with the Trip Generation manual. pality (available from public records) to the anticipated cost
Community Impact Study. In communities experienc- of new dwelling units or building area to calculate the total
ing significant growth, local regulations may require anal- amount of tax revenue generated. Existing census data is
ysis of the potential impacts new development may have then utilized to project the number of expected residents
on the entire community. Focus on anticipated population and pupils from the development. By applying the total tax
growth, available capacity of existing utilities, adequacy of revenue generated to the projected number of residents, the
municipal facilities and services, and demand on schools is expected per capita tax revenue from the development is
typically required. Demonstration that existing public facili- determined.
ties such as community centers and libraries and munici- An evaluation of the actual current per capita costs to
pal services such as police and fire protection, emergency existing residents for municipal and school services is then
response, hospital and health care, solid waste disposal, and performed. This cost is calculated by simply applying the
public works will be able to accommodate the increase in most current municipal and school budgets, which are avail-
population generated by new development will be necessary. able through public records, to the population estimate from
Otherwise, the developer may be required to provide mon- the latest census data, or other available records.
etary contributions to the municipality for improvements If the expected tax revenue per capita is more than the
to those facilities and services adversely impacted. In some actual, then a positive impact from the development has
instances, the developer may even be required to fund and been demonstrated. For those instances where a negative
construct new facilities or provide improvements to existing impact is calculated, the local municipality may require
facilities to accommodate the new demands. This is more the developer to provide contributions for improvements
common when a project proposes the rezoning of a site to a to municipal services or even new facilities. Knowing the
more intense use. magnitude of potential municipal improvements costs
In most municipalities where schools are directly funded during the early stages of the project is an important fac-
from local property taxes, potential overcrowding in class- tor utilized by the developer in determining its economic
rooms is of the most importance. The ability to develop a feasibility.
residential project may often be jeopardized where project Environmental Impact Study. 2 As referenced in Chapter 2.5,
approval depends on available capacity within the local significant amounts of effort and diligence are expended to
school system or the magnitude of the additional tax bur- evaluate and assess the existing environmental conditions
den generated by the increase in pupils. The development of a site, including the presence of environmentally sensi-
application may include requirements for a pupil genera- tive areas, contaminated areas, threatened and endangered
tion study to be performed by the development team. This species, prime agricultural land, and historic/archaeological
examines the impact on the public schools system by the features. An environmental impact study summarizes the
new development. Through the analysis, the developer impact the proposed development may have on these areas
may be able to demonstrate that because of characteristics and other areas of concern which typically include air qual-
peculiar to the project, demand for available capacity may ity, surface water and groundwater quality, geology, soils,
be less than anticipated. Many communities recognize that aesthetics, and noise. Data gathered during the engineering
factors such as housing type and bedroom count have direct feasibility study can be used in concert with that informa-
correlation to the number of school age students that will tion obtained in the environmental assessment to prepare
occupy a development. In addition, developments geared a thorough study in which the environmental impacts are
to older single-person households are likely to generate few qualified, quantified, and assessed in terms of avoidance,
students. Rather than accept standard local housing unit/ minimization, and mitigation strategies and permitting
pupil ratios, the developer may have the option of surveying requirements.
similar developments in the community. With this study, it Green Building and Sustainable Design. When consider-
may be possible to demonstrate that the probable impact of ing the environmental impact of a particular development,
the project on student population is lower than originally
suggested. 2For the purposes of this chapter, an environmental impact study refers to an initial
Fiscal Impact Study. A determination as to whether the assessment for the purposes of the client's feasibility decision-making process and
local municipality can expect sufficient tax revenue from does not refer to the more formal, federally regulated by NEPA EIS.
320 i@Uhili F%MUM\i,i/i¥%:W:i\ili41iM
it should be determined during the initial planning stages approach would examine the essential factors related to a par-
whether the project is seeking a third-party green build- cel ofland's development potential including (at a minimum):
ing certification, or if compliance with green building
design guidelines is mandated by federal, state, or local • Identification of proper zoning or the ability to
regulations. Whether a developer priority or jurisdictional rezone
requirement, green building design guidelines are widely • Location and adequacy of utilities and essential
accepted and highly regarded within the land development services
profession as sound planning strategies. As such, they
should be referred to throughout the land development • Site access
process as a design tool, regardless of the need for third- • Topography, soils, environmental and sensitive fea-
party certification. tures, that is, defining the usable area
An Abbreviated Study Approach. Generally, it is not pos-
sible to conduct the depth and detail of analysis required in • Yield study to determine amount of new units or
a feasibility study, site selection study, yield study, and the building area possible
other described studies for every project. Time constraints • Site visit
are frequently imposed by dynamics of the real estate mar-
ketplace and the competitive nature of the land development Throughout the analysis, the development team seeks to
industry. Decisions to move ahead must be made quickly identify elements of concern, either physical or political, that
during short purchase option periods to take advantage of suggest the land is unsuitable or that a project is not practical.
favorable land prices or other conditions. Monetary con- The experienced site engineer begins each new study with a
straints are always a factor in land development where finan- prioritized list of items in the investigation. Through experi-
cial gain is likely to be several years off and cost containment ence and frequent involvement with local land use processes
is always an essential consideration. The studies described and decision -makers, it becomes possible to determine early
represent a considerable expenditure of funds, an upfront in each study when the investigation should be terminated.
expense that may be incurred several times in the analysis of Each site engineer arrives at a level of expertise, or comfort
various sites and projects. level, that allows relatively educated efficient judgments to be
To provide the broadest range of services to the devel- made. Regardless if the developer then moves ahead with a
oper, the design team must learn to develop an abbrevi- particular project or abandons it, the analysis can be viewed
ated approach for an engineering feasibility study. Such an as a justifiable expense.
 CHAPTER 4.2
PRODUCT TYPES AND
DEVELOPMENT PRINCIPLES

4.2.1. Introduction differences, a variety of names will often be used to describe

The most influential and guiding framework for any land similar types of patterns and land use.
development project is the context of the site and how it A variety of factors determine the type, land-use, and con-
relates to the surrounding community and built environment. figuration of a development. Some of the more influential
Community in this sense is more than the physical character- design and development factors include the landowner(s),
istics of a site. Community is the project's given sociocultural, community group(s), the availability ofland, the cost ofland
political, and economic context for which the site has a direct and construction, the natural and environmental attributes
and indirect relationship. A development should consider its of the site, the local zoning (or overlay district of a property),
surroundings to be successful, and be sensitive to the urban, and the character of the surrounding community. These fac-
suburban, or rural context in which the site exists. The local tors are often modified (sometimes to a great degree) by local
context of a site will often offer a guide to the project's design regulations, which are largely based on the more encompass-
opportunities and constraints. ing issues of health, safety, and welfare of the public. Local
Development considerations that are mindful of creat- considerations relative to the nature of commerce, prevalent
ing a "sense of place" or unique character can provide a new community attitude, and past community practice can also
perspective from which the design flourishes. The (re)emer- influence development and redevelopment projects.
gence of traditional neighborhood development (TNDs) and Examination of a jurisdiction's zoning ordinance reveals
transit-oriented developments (TODs) has been relatively a great variety in the categories of permitted land uses. Typi-
successful because they are examples of design patterns that cally, the zoning of a property is either residential, commer-
seek to develop a distinct community personality. Similarly, cial (at times the use is specified as office or retail), open
projects associated with smart growth and green develop- space, or industrial. Depending on the size, location, den-
ment practices offer meaningful insight into environmen- sity, and maturity of the community, a jurisdiction's zoning
tally responsible land development practices. Green building document may establish other land use categories to reflect
practices are supported by many communities and review a unique economic base such as manufacturing, agricul-
agencies because they are appropriate considerations for all ture, maritime use, mining, forestry, or institutional use.
types of development practices regardless of the project's Furthermore, the local jurisdiction's zoning ordinance (as
size, density, or location-urban, suburban, or rural. described in Chapter 2.3) normally identifies a series of
Development styles vary from one geographic region to dimensional standards or minimum bulk requirements. The
the next, and it is these regional variations that help create standards may include but are not limited to lot size, build-
a sense of place as well as establish a unique set of design ing height, front, rear and side yard setbacks, open space or
characteristics. These variations have been influenced by the impervious coverage. Additionally, supplemental land use
local history, culture, and heritage of an area. These styles ordinances, commonly a subdivision ordinance, may identify
in turn affect the development patterns of an area in terms utility requirements, easement sizes and location, as well as
of density, aesthetics, and arrangement of uses. Due to these right of way and road widths. It is often necessary and very

321
322 i@Uhili F%MUM\i,i/i¥%:W:i\ili41iM
helpful to assemble the local specifications for a project in extent practical) how transportation systems may influence
order to have a thorough understanding of any and all design future development. Large parking areas could be redevel-
constraints that may affect the conceptual layout. oped, if designed appropriately, to allow additional density
If there is a common denominator throughout contem- when parking demands are reduced.
porary development practice, it may be the heavy reliance Whether suburban, urban, or something in between, this
of today's society on the automobile. The suburban develop- chapter introduces product and development types common
ment pattern is often shaped and characterized by a strong to all. This is a broad overview that should be looked at as
dependence on the car for work, leisure, and day to day- a reference for making design decisions for a project. The
based trips. Historically, the separate clustering of residential site engineer may not be tasked with the design and plan-
and employment or convenience centers into different areas ning efforts, but nonetheless it is important to appreciate and
has made public transportation infeasible for many com- understand.
munities. As a result much of the population commutes by
way of the single-occupant automobile, which continues to 4.2.2. Product Types
be the most prevalent form of transportation in the suburbs. Land use activity is guided by the local community's plan-
This phenomenon places a unique set of requirements on all ning process (as introduced in Chapter 2), which represents
resulting land use types and development patterns. Because a variety of policies, priorities, and practices. Comprehensive
of this, attention to a common need for both vehicular cir- plans for the jurisdiction focus on topics such as population
culation and on-site parking is necessary. Streets and roads and economic growth, housing, community facilities, traffic
provide the common linkage between and within land uses patterns, education, and the surrounding land uses. While a
and the principal framework of the resulting development comprehensive plan may contain a mapped graphic represen-
patterns. Similarly, parking requirements for the automobile tation of what the community might look like, the local zon-
are a major design element often driving the size and orga- ing ordinance and zoning map are the tools that provide the
nization of individual land uses. Many of the land use codes day-to-day implementation strategies to form the intended
and ordinances support a vehicle-based design pattern; how- character of the community and direct land use decisions
ever, modern reports linking public health to the built envi- relative to the overall comprehensive plan objectives.
ronment have resulted in renewed interest in and attention A clear understanding of the distinction between the
to the pedestrian components (sidewalks, trails, bike paths, comprehensive plan and zoning ordinance is imperative to
and open space) of development as well. understanding the land use patterns and development activ-
Conversely, the resurgence of urban locales and more ity in each community. Decision makers in land development
intense development is also becoming more popular today. and design must be sensitive to the rationale behind the com-
Many suburban locations have exhausted unused and unde- prehensive plan and guide the site's design accordingly while
veloped land. As growth continues, redevelopment with adhering to the design standards and criteria governing the
increased density is common. Many examples of this can be size, form, character, and density of the proposed develop-
seen, including regional malls being transformed to mixed- ment, as identified in the local zoning ordinance, subdivision
use town centers or other creative uses. The movement back ordinance, and/or similar jurisdictional regulations.
to cities has also opened the opportunity for downtown rede- Zoning ordinances usually rely on the delineation of dis-
velopments. Much of this is occurring alongside new transit tinct geographic zones or districts that allow a certain type of
projects. As jurisdictions provide new public transportation development. The land use types in these districts typically
options, it is typical for them to plan for and support (re) include residential, commercial, industrial, and open space
development around stations. These urban and more intense classifications. Product types generally associate with these
developments pose other challenges to the development prac- allowable land uses. The zoning ordinance will govern which
tice. It is important to balance and plan for the people, places, product types will be allowed in which zone. Subcategories
and things within and around the site. Creating that "sense of for each land use may stipulate a range in density within the
place" is always important but it's necessary to remember to zone, prompting alternative development patterns or build-
develop at a scale that is comfortable to the users. Compat- ing programs.
ible uses and access on a site is important to achieve. In these During site selection, the development team should have
developments it is typical for the area to be shared amongst considered the development program with the zoning ordi-
users including pedestrians, bicyclists, transit lines, and the nance to ensure their product type would be feasible on a
all-important automobiles. The movement and interactions site. At the conceptual design stage of the land development
on the site as well as offsite locations is important to plan for. process, the designs begin to form around the developer's
Developers and the site engineer must consider all of this product type. The site planner will be responsible for adapt-
when producing preliminary designs. ing the product types to the site to conform to the developer's
The growth of autonomous vehicles, rideshare systems, intended program and meet all jurisdiction requirements.
and alternative transportation systems should be considered It is essential to understand different product types that
with new development programs. Most projects are designed can be pursued in a project. These product types will be
to last for more than 30 years and should consider (to the the basis of the conceptual design efforts that are discussed
 4.2 ■ PRODUCT TYPES AND DEVELOPMENT PRINCIPLES 323

in Chapter 4.3. Each developer will usually be heavily • Industrial

involved with the site planning based on their own program
• Mixed use
and their intended use for the site. Also, development regula-
tions are different for each jurisdiction. Therefore, each proj- Residential. Residential includes
ect is different, so it is not realistic to describe every product
type and configuration that is possible for a site. Instead, a • Single-family detached
summary of the most basic types is described in this chap-
• Single-family attached
ter. Each of these can be adapted to high, medium, or low-
density projects or unique site constraints based on the needs • Multifamily
of the project.
It should also be noted that terminology can vary based Single-Family Detached. In a single-family detached resi-
on the jurisdiction. The local zoning ordinance may define a dential dwelling, each individual living unit is a freestanding
product type in one way, while the local building codes may structure. Each dwelling unit normally occupies a separate
have a different definition. Additionally, the common percep- recorded lot. In a conventional lot arrangement the single-
tion of the product type may use a different term. For example, family home is surrounded on all sides by property or yards
a unit may look like a townhome, but if the row of townhomes reserved for the occupant's exclusive use. A plan view of a
is on a single lot (rentals) the zoning code may consider it typical single-family residential area is shown in Figure 4.2A.
a multifamily building. It is important for the development A conceptual isometric view of single-family detached home
team to agree on terminology to avoid confusion. is shown in Figure 4.2B.
Land use approval and specific regulations will be depen - Zero Lot Line House. Like the single-family detached,
dent on the local comprehensive plan for the jurisdiction, the zero lot line house is a freestanding unit on its own
the applicable zoning regulations, and the subdivision ordi- separate lot. The building, however, is shifted to the side
nance and other regulations, as described in Chapter 2.4. It is against the lot line (Figure 4.2C). This allows for more
important to reference these ordinances when determining usable space on the opposite side of the house. This unit is
the type of development for a project and producing designs. typically found in more urban settings where lots are nar-
The product types that will be introduced in this section row. The occupant has exclusive use of the front yard, back
relate to these land uses: yard, and one-side yard.
Cottage House. The cottage house, or bungalow court, is
• Residential generally a smaller single-family detached home. The cot-
tage house, however, is grouped together with other cot-
• Commercial retail
tage homes around a shared open space (Figure 4.2D). The
• Commercial office homes are situated tightly together, so the small-side yards

FIG uRE 4. 2 A Single-family detached plan view (graphic produced from Fairfax County GIS data).
324 i@Uhili F%MUMll·ili¥%:W:i\ili41iM
may not be usable. The occupant may have exclusive use of
their back yard they may be positioned with little or no use-
able rear yard. Instead, they may have no exclusive use of any
of their yards, but instead will have the front yard and com-
mon space to share with their neighbors. Multiple cottage
houses can be located on one lot, or each cottage home could
be on its own recorded lot.
Single-Family Attached. Single-family attached dwellings
include housing types with multiple dwellings in a building
arrangement where two or more dwellings share common
walls, and in some cases common floors and ceilings. Each
unit usually has a separate private entrance at grade level
and/ or a contiguous exterior yard reserved for the occupant's
exclusive use.
Variations may include
FIG uRE 4. 2 B Single-family isometric.
• Duplex
• Townhouse
• Stacked townhomes
• Back-to-back townhouse
• Multiplex

Duplex. The duplex, or single-family semidetached unit, is

comprised of two living units that occupy a single structure,
separated by a common wall. They can be attached either side
by side or stacked one above the other (Figure 4.2E), with each
dwelling having its own exterior entrance. If they are attached
side by side, each dwelling unit is on a separate recorded lot
and surrounded on three sides by property reserved for the
occupant's exclusive use. If they are attached one above the
other, then both dwelling units may be located on one lot
together with common space that is shared between the units.
Townhouse. The townhouse is comprised of three or more
units attached side by side (in a row, also known as a stick of
FIG uRE 4. 2 C Zero lot line house isometric.
townhomes), as shown in Figure 4.2F. The townhouse is a
common urban housing prototype but has become a popular
component of the suburban housing market. A common or
party wall separates individual units, each with an at-grade
entry. Each unit is on its own recorded lot. Property on at
least two sides, normally front and back, is generally reserved
for the occupants' exclusive use.
Townhomes may be parked with rear loaded or front
loaded garages (the latter requires a wider unit to accommo-
date the front door)-or there may be no attached garage.
Stacked Townhomes. A stacked townhome may include
a multistory unit over a single-story flat, or another multi-
story townhouse over a similar multistory unit. A common
variation is the two over two, which is a two-story unit over
another two-story unit (Figure 4.2G).
Back-to-Back Townhouse. While considered an attached
multifamily housing type in many jurisdictions, the back-to-
back townhouse often divides the length of a traditional town-
FIG uRE 4. 2 D Cottage house isometric. house stick with an additional common wall that serves to
 4.2 ■ PRODUCT TYPES AND DEVELOPMENT PRINCIPLES 325

FIG uRE 4. 2 F Townhouse isometric.

separate units organized along opposing facade (Figure 4.2H).

The resulting aggregate building form has two front yards.
The double frontage prompts a need for careful site plan-
ning to ensure the convenient placement of adequate park-
ing for each unit. Reliance on a single-exterior exposure for
each residence requires subtle design considerations to bal-
ance the semipublic nature of a front entry with any privacy
requirements associated with the singular exterior living

'-V"

FIG uRE 4. 2 E Duplex variations isometric. FIG uRE 4. 2 G Stacked isometric.

32& i@Uhili F%MUMll·ili¥%:W:i\ili41iM
located on individual recorded lots with each unit having
a separate entrance, similar to the townhome. The yards
surrounding a multiplex unit may be reserved for common
occupant use or portions of the yards may be designated for
an individual unit's exclusive use. Figure 4.2K shows a vari-
ety of multiplex combinations.
Piggyback townhouses and manor houses may be consid-
ered another variation of multiplex units. Figures 4.2L, 4.2M,
and 4.2N depict variations of 3, 4, and 6 unit multiplex build-
ings, respectively.
Multifamily. Multifamily structures are characterized by
four or more units in a single building, with units sharing
access to the exterior by one or more common entrances.
Structures may be one or more stories and multifamily
communities or developments may consist of one or more
buildings on a single tract or lot. Structures are surrounded
by common open space, which often contains on-site rec-
FIG uRE 4. 2 H Back-to-back isometric. reational facilities for resident use. Private drives or service
roads provide access to surface parking lots or in some cases
structured parking, private garages, or carports.
space, which occupies the same facade. This configuration
Multifamily structures are generally categorized as
can also be stacked as shown in Figure 4.21. A plan view of
either garden (low rise), mid-rise, or high-rise struc-
this configuration is shown in Figure 4.2J.
tures. Distinctions and characteristics of each of these are
Multiplex. The multiplex can be defined as many different
described below.
product types depending on the jurisdiction. Some include
Garden Style. Garden apartments, sometimes referred to
all product types with a prefix representing the number of
as walk-up or low rise, consist of one- to four-story struc-
attached units, such as a duplex, triplex, or quadplex.
tures (Figure 4.20). The individual apartment units may
Generally, a multiplex includes residences consisting
be arranged along corridors or around common stairwells,
of three to eight units in various configurations. Some are
which may be enclosed within the structure or open and
located on a single lot with a single entrance. Others are
integrated into the exterior architectural design. While
located on single lot but with each dwelling unit having
some units may have direct private entrances at grade level,
its own separate at-grade exterior entrance. Still others are
normally units share common entries. As the name implies,
the garden apartment focuses on melding the dwelling unit
to the building grounds. The building units are generally
organized around landscaped open space and parking
areas. Ground floor units may have direct access to exterior
patios or garden areas and upper floors may have balconies
or terraces, providing each individual unit with exterior liv-
ing space.
Garden apartments can include single-loaded buildings
in which the individual unit runs from the front to the rear of
a building (through units), or double-loaded arrangements
wherein each unit has a single (front or rear) exposure.
Figure 4.2P illustrates single- and double-loaded garden
apartment layouts.
Parking is usually accommodated in surface parking lots
surrounding the buildings. Some include sheltered park-
ing options such as carports or individual garages separate
from the building in the parking lot. Sometimes, small struc-
tured parking is included near the building, or the building
could be built atop a garage level. Garden apartment com-
munities increasingly promote amenity packages that
include community centers with pools, as well as expanded
site improvements including tot-lots, court facilities, trails,
FIG uRE 4. 21 Stacked-back-to-back isometric. and other park areas.
 4.2 ■ PRODUCT TYPES AND DEVELOPMENT PRINCIPLES 327

C
0
E
0
Front Yard u Front Yard
Section

Units have flanking front yards

Pion of 12 Unit Building

Interior units share rear

and side common walls
FIG uRE 4. 2 J Back-to-back townhouse.

Mid-Rise and High-Rise. Mid-rise multifamily residences Internally, buildings are organized around the elevator,
are generally four- to eight-story structures. High-rise resi- utility, and a stairwell core, which may be central to the
dences normally exceed eight stories. Both rely on elevators building floor plate. Entered at a common lobby, or mul-
for vertical circulation. Individual dwelling units access com- tiple lobbies at differing levels if terrain permits, the cor-
mon corridors. Units are generally arranged along opposite ridors penetrate the building extremities providing access
sides of the corridor providing a single-exterior exposure for to the individual residential units. Additional stairwells
the principal interior living spaces. positioned at the further reaches of the corridor provide
320 i@Uhili F%MUMll·ili¥%:W:i\ili41iM

u u

p p p p

Triplex Quadraplex Eight-plex

U Dwelling Unit
P Parking Area
T Terrace or Patio
FIG uRE 4. 2 K Potential multiplex combinations: triplex, quadplex, octaplex.

FIG uRE 4. 2 L Triplex isometric.

"'V

FIG uRE 4. 2 M Quadplex isometric.

 4.2 ■ PRODUCT TYPES AND DEVELOPMENT PRINCIPLES 329

Double Loaded

rf0n l
U Dwell in g Unit
S Stoirway to Uppe r Uni ts

8acl<

Single Loaded

™ s s
rronl

Pion
s

Section

FIG uRE 4. 2 P Example of double-loaded and single-loaded garden

apartments.

buildings may be internal to the structure, but exterior ele-

FIG uRE 4. 2 N Six-Plex isometric.
ments may include a full range of recreational and leisure
activity areas. In more urban settings, this may include
an alternate means of access/egress. The concentrated need indoor or rooftop swimming pools, landscaped arrival
for service and delivery is generally satisfied by a central courts, and lush-landscaped perimeters. On more expansive
loading area, which is often located to the rear or side of sites, the provisions may include tennis courts, elaborate
the building removed from main tenant access and view. pool facilities, and exterior exercise and recreation offerings
A conceptual isometric of a mid-rise building is shown in a park-like setting.
in Figure 4.2Q and a high-rise is shown in Figure 4.2R. Commercial Retail. Commercial retail includes
Figure 4.2S is illustrative of a typical mid- and high-rise
• Strip centers
multiple family floor plate.
Provision for parking increasingly relies on subsurface • Community retail center
or structured arrangements to maximize land use efficien-
• Power center
cies and promote tenant convenience and safety. Many of
the amenity provisions of mid- and high-rise residential • Freestanding

"'-I/

FIG uRE 4. 2 0 Garden apartment isometric. FIG uRE 4. 2 Q Mid-rise isometric.

330 i@Uhili F%MUMll·ili¥%:W:i\ili41iM
u

u u u u u u
u
Corridor

u u u u

U Dwelling Unit
E Elevator Core
S Stairs
FIG uRE 4. 2 S Typical mid-rise and high-rise multifamily housing
floor plate.

intersection of major transportation routes (Figure 4.2T).

Generally, the establishments are one store deep, share com-
mon interior walls, and are linked by a common pedestrian
walkway across the storefronts.
The bulk of parking is aggregated into one or more
principal parking areas normally located between the store
facade and the street. Strip centers rely on a strong visual
FIG uRE 4. 2 R High-rise isometric.
relationship to the adjacent street frontage for identity and
marketing.
Strip Centers. Strip centers, or neighborhood centers, rep- Community Retail Center. Like strip centers, community
resent the aggregation of retail uses in a linear arrangement retail centers share in their reliance on common parking
most notably with their front facades paralleling roadways. areas, major pedestrian circulation across storefronts, and
The retail usually includes small retail tenants and maybe maintenance of a reasonable relationship and visibility to
one smaller anchor tenant, like a drug store, for the center. adjacent roadways. The major distinction between the two,
Typical small retail tenants include restaurants, convenience however, can best be found in the size and number of retail
stores, salons and barbers shops, dry cleaners, etc. Sometimes tenants. Community retail centers have at least one large
the centers are positioned in an 'T' configuration at the anchor tenant, or a larger retailer, like a grocery store. They

FIG uRE 4. 2 T Strip center plan view (graphic produced from Fairfax County GIS data).
 4.2 ■ PRODUCT TYPES AND DEVELOPMENT PRINCIPLES 331

■■
t
--
FIG uRE 4. 2 U Community retail plan view (graphic produced from Fairfax County GIS data).

may have additional smaller anchors and other small retail establishments. The separation of major pedestrian move-
tenants throughout. Other differences include an abandon- ments from peripheral vehicular parking and circulation is
ment of sole reliance on a linear arrangement for all of the another component of the mall.
retail establishments, and the introduction of smaller pad Parking surrounds the mall building, usually in expan-
sites within the retail center site. sive parking lots. Sometimes structured parking can assist in
Centers often are arranged in an 'T' or "U" shape with reducing distances between parking areas and retail stores. A
anchor stores occurring at the building extremities and/or normal convention in organizing on-site vehicular circula-
central to the parking lot (Figure 4.2U). These arrangements tion is to position a service drive at the building perimeter
take advantage of parcel depth, and by lining multiple sides and a perimeter road near the outer edge of the major field of
of the parking area with stores reduces the distance between parking (Figure 4.2W). Major approaches to the mall tend to
the parking stalls and a variety of retail establishments. The be aligned with main store anchors. In many instances, pad
introduction of freestanding retail pad sites such as banks, gas sites may occupy acreage between the outer mall loop drive
stations, and restaurants at the center or along the roadway and the perimeter street network.
frontage prompts a functional complexity to a retail center and Freestanding. The freestanding, also known as an out-par-
requires careful attention to site details to ensure sufficient vis- cel, retail establishments are associated with individual retail
ibility, access, convenience of parking, service, and loading. tenants occupying a single building on a separately recorded
Power Center. The power center is similar to the previ- lot. Figure 4.2X highlights the freestanding retail pad within
ous retail centers, except it is even larger and contains more a larger power center development. These establishments
anchor retail tenants. Big box stores are typically located include restaurants, banks, and gasoline stations, and simi-
within a power center as well as other anchor tenants, lar singular operations may be located on an individual lot.
smaller anchors, and other small retail tenants. Additionally, These lots are sometimes within or proximate to larger retail
several pad sites (standalone buildings such as banks or fast or shopping center and may be referred to as pad sites if they
food buildings) can typically be found on the periphery of are within the parking area or along the road frontage of
the power center (Figure 4.2V). larger retail centers.
Regional Mall. The distinguishing characteristics of the Freestanding retail may be an establishment sited on a
retail mall, or lifestyle center, is the large department store separate recorded lot, which is part of a larger community
anchors in addition to the other anchor and retail tenants. of like uses, such as a town or village center or in a linear
Generally, the stores surround and connect to an inter- arrangement along a major road or highway. It may represent
nal pedestrian walkway, located between opposing store a national or local business with a sufficiently unique market
facades. The mall may be either open or under roof with to generate patronage at a location apart from other retail
both arrangements providing an opportunity to direct trade or whose functional requirements are best satisfied as a
customers along the central walkway of intervening retail freestanding structure.
332 i@Uhili F%MUMll·ili¥%:W:i\ili41iM

•
I

FIG uRE 4. 2 V Power center plan view (graphic produced from Fairfax County GIS data).

The size and functional characteristics of such establish- generally present less difficulty in insuring community
ments vary considerably. However, building visibility, the fit and may afford advantages to the extent parking, street
number and convenience of customer parking, and the size improvements, and other infrastructure considerations may
and location of loading and service requirements generally serve multiple users.
represent the primary site design criteria that establish the Commercial Office. Commercial office includes
pattern for such uses. Where such a facility is contemplated
at isolated locations, one can anticipate a greater need to • Freestanding
ensure measures of compatibility with surrounding develop-
• Garden office
ment. Integration of freestanding retail uses as an adjunct to
neighboring strip, center, or mall retail development patterns • Townhouse office

FIG uRE 4. 2 W Regional mall plan view (graphic produced from Fairfax County GIS data).
 4.2 ■ PRODUCT TYPES AND DEVELOPMENT PRINCIPLES 333

FIG uRE 4. 2 X Freestanding plan view (graphic produced from Fairfax County GIS data).

Freestanding. Freestanding office buildings gener- development associated with modest residual open space,
ally comprise a self-contained building on an individually and greater restrictions on the number and location of
recorded lot or parcel. The building may contain single or access points.
multiple users or tenants. Space may be rented or owned by Buildings in less urban locations benefit from lower
the tenant or tenants. Its occupancy of a separate recorded land costs and may result in larger building floor plates,
parcel or lot and need to singularly satisfy appropriate zon- lower building height, and more expansive site improve-
ing criteria is perhaps the only generalization that may be ments, including reliance on surface parking. Building
made of the freestanding office structures. They can range siting may or may not demand a strong street presence.
from multifloor multi-tenant structures with relatively high Institutional and corporate clients may prefer a more
floor area ratios and heavy reliance on structured parking secluded setting in which the building is buffered from
to small single-tenant buildings serviced entirely by surface surrounding uses for purposes of privacy or security. A
parking. conceptual isometric of a free standing office building is
Types of office include Class A, B, and C. Class A offices shown in Figure 4.2Y.
are the highest-quality, new construction in the best loca- Other types of office products include the garden office
tion. Class B are high quality but in less desirable locations. and the townhouse office.
Class C includes most of everything else. Over time an office Garden Office. Similar to the garden apartment, garden
building can be downgraded as the building ages. On the offices, or office condominiums, are low density and gener-
other hand, the building can be upgraded with renovations ally provide for multiple tenants in a low-rise assembly of
and achieve a higher class. buildings (Figure 4.22). It is particularly attractive to pro-
All classes of freestanding offices can exist in urban loca- fessionals and service-oriented businesses that benefit from
tions as well as suburban and even rural locations. In an proximity to surrounding residential areas. Its scale is gen-
urban setting, the Class A offices include the premier high erally conducive to locations near residential development,
rises in the central business district. Class C offices could be and the architectural style and scale may closely resemble
found in an aging suburban location. garden style multifamily residential construction.
The location and context of the surrounding land use Ranging from one to three stories, the tenant space is
factor heavily into the nature and execution of site design normally divided horizontally, by floor, with individual
for office buildings. A more urban siting, with higher land entry often open to common stairwells. Multilevel struc-
costs, may confine the size of the building footprint and tures may be equipped with elevators. Buildings may be
prompt a taller structure to secure the desired square foot- arranged linearly with common parking areas to the front,
age. Such buildings may demand stronger street presence or clustered around parking areas or pedestrian courts.
to satisfy pedestrian access, increased reliance on struc- Where the terrain permits, entry may be gained at different
tured or below grade parking, more intensive landscape levels of the building providing the additional benefit and
334 i@Uhili F%MUMll·ili¥%:W:i\ili41iM

FIG uRE 4. 2 AA Townhouse office isometric.

The individual units may be single-story or multiple levels.

While normally a single tenant occupies each unit, smaller
businesses may occupy separate floors of the same unit.
Townhouse office, like garden office, benefits from a
'-V" scale that is conducive to a location near residential areas.
FIG uRE 4. 2 Y Freestanding office image. Its tenant profile focuses heavily on occupations and pro-
fessional services that seek that proximity. Typical layouts
vary from linear to cluster patterns, and topography may
convenience of having associated parking at the same level facilitate use of the lower level of the unit to accommodate a
as tenant space. separate tenancy.
Townhouse Office. Low-rise office space compartmental- Industrial. Industrial includes
ized vertically may be classified as townhouse office. Simi-
lar to its residential counterpart, each unit is organized to • Heavy manufacturing
access directly to the exterior at grade level (Figure 4.2AA).
• Light assembly
• Flex industrial
• Bulk warehouse

Heavy Manufacturing. Heavy manufacturing includes

heavy industrial uses. Precedent activity, proximity to raw
materials, natural resources, power sources, and location at
major transportation hubs and population centers are sev-
eral factors that prompt need for heavy industrial activity
in otherwise urban and suburban markets. Generally, these
activities foster a litany of potential use conflicts.
Zoning criteria normally focus on minimum dimensional
standards and performance criteria to reduce or contain the
impacts of such uses. Facilities may include intense manufac-
turing operations; heavy equipment, construction, and fuel
yards; mining and quarrying and major transportation termi-
nals; and other equivalent concentrations of potential noxious
uses. Heavy reliance on truck transport favors industrial loca-
tions with reasonably convenient access to major arterial or
collector roads or in the case of interstate trade, major free-
"V ways, and highways. Reliance on rail and water access contin-
FIG uRE 4. 2 Z Garden office isometric. ues to be important to certain types of industrial activity.
 4.2 ■ PRODUCT TYPES AND DEVELOPMENT PRINCIPLES 335

Light Industry. Light industry includes medium intensity proximate to interior bay storage, fabrication, or assembly
and light industrial uses. Product fabrication and assembly operations.
operations, storage, and similar industrial operations in sub- While buildings are normally single story on slab con-
urban locations tend to be categorized as light manufactur- struction, full or partial second stories (mezzanine levels)
ing. This may include distribution centers, warehouses, and may be incorporated into the building. Upper levels are com-
data centers. They offer reduced levels of noise, smoke, glare, monly devoted to administrative uses and often are limited
and other environmental pollutants normally associated to the front module of the building.
with the more intense or heavy industrial activity. Devel- Mixed Use. Mixed-use projects are becoming increasingly
opment considerations and site design issues do not differ popular in both urban and suburban areas. These types of
substantially from those previously cited. Characteristics developments provide a mix of uses on a given parcel(s) of
associated with a smaller scale of operation or activity that land. There may also be a mix of uses within the building
has a relatively less invasive impact on surrounding land uses itself. Mixed-use projects regularly include retail within a
often accommodates mitigation of concerns within the con - residential or office building. Retail will be on the ground
fines of the site. floor of the building, with the primary use on the other floors
Flex Industrial. One of the more notable and popular of the building. Allowing for retail on the ground floor helps
building forms that has emerged in suburban development to activate the street front to create a lively development.
markets is the "flex-tech'' or "office showroom'' prototype Mixed-use development creates nodes or places of inter-
that allows for a mix of industrial with office. The overall est and should ideally be placed along or proximal to trans-
building shell is designed to allow the compartmentalization portation or other high activity/visibility corridors. These
of separate units depending on the spatial needs of individual corridors are not limited to just automobile corridors, but
tenants. Generally, unit or "bay" sizes are tied to the modular may include systems of mass transit, pedestrian connections,
dimensions of the building structure (the roof span between or greenways. By creating nodes within the community, it
vertical support elements). provides a community with a sense of organization, and
The overall length of the building may be divided by inte- will help facilitate the traffic patterns: pedestrian, vehicular,
rior walls providing each occupant an exterior exposure on or otherwise between nodes. By combining uses, the devel-
both the front and service side of the building. The front opment becomes a vibrant area where the community can
exposure is generally devoted to pedestrian access and proxi- live, work, and play without having to travel between each
mate parking. Limited retail sales, showroom, or administra- activity.
tive offices may be located at the front of the tenant bay. Beyond the mix of uses, signature design elements
The utility or service side of the bay is accessed from a include the streetscape and scattered open space areas usu-
vehicular service drive. Service drive pavement dimensions ally in the form of pocket parks or plazas. Mixed-use devel-
are sized relative to the type of service vehicle required for opments are typically dense and may be complimented by
the targeted tenant group. Individual or shared loading docks other dense product types such as town homes and multi-
or service doors generally extend along the service facade family products (Figure 4.2BB).

I
oc
I.I

FIG uRE 4. 2 BB
"
Mixed-use plan view (graphic produced from Fairfax County GIS data).
33& i@Uhili F%MUMll·ili¥%:W:i\ili41iM

~
FIG uRE 4. 2 CC Live work unit isometric.

Live Work Units. Live work units may be included in a The following section includes a summary of typical
mixed-use development. This product is typically composed development types. It is not realistic to describe every devel-
of a multilevel structure similar in nature to a residential opment type that is possible for a project. Instead, this should
townhome or duplex. The difference, however, is that the be a good reference for a list of commonly encountered
first floor is a retail or office component, and the subsequent development types.
floors form a residential unit (Figure 4.2CC). The live work The development types that will be introduced in this sec-
scenario presents a unique architectural opportunity as the tion include
facade is both a "store front" and a housefront. This may
include two separate entrances, unique window treatments, • Conventional subdivision
signing considerations, and parking considerations. Live • Alternative subdivision
work units would typically be parked at the residential rate as
it is generally assumed that the "work" component is a com- • Office/industrial park
munity serving establishment and as such would not have • Campus
high vehicle demand. Live work units can create a unique
sense of place and provide a community with a greater diver- • Traditional neighborhood development
sity in product type. • Transit-oriented developments
4.2.3. Development Types Conventional Subdivision. Historically, the most common
Each product type described in the last section can be devel- type of residential development is the conventional subdivi-
oped differently. This is determined by not only the develop- sion. Created by the division of a larger land tract or parcel
ment program, but also by the local jurisdiction and what they into smaller land units for both dwelling units and nonresi-
will allow. While much land development activity is single dential spaces, such subdivision commonly requires new
zone, or single-use development, other more flexible develop- streets and utilities to service the newly created smaller lots.
ment patterns exist to foster a framework for greater variety in While subdivisions have become varied in pattern, lot size,
the permitted land use arrangements. street alignment, open space network, and in some cases a
 4.2 ■ PRODUCT TYPES AND DEVELOPMENT PRINCIPLES 337

mix of permitted land uses, conventional development con- development demands and resource conservation. By
tinues to thrive on the simple premise of subdivision ofland. providing the same density that would otherwise occupy
It has been the mainstay of suburban residential develop- the subdivision in a smaller or concentrated develop-
ment and accommodation of proximate retail, employment, ment footprint, these alternative approaches provide a
and public facilities. The larger tract of acreage is divided in unique forum for thoughtful design and distinct advan-
a manner that provides the transfer of land ownership to the tages in terms of optimizing the development potential
subsequent users. Streets are normally incorporated into pub- of the land. These alternative subdivision planning con-
lic ownership, and community open space, if provided, may be cepts aim to
deeded to an appropriate public or semipublic entity. Single or
multiple builders may initiate construction on a lot-by-lot basis. • Enhance conservation/preservation of environmen-
Figure 4.2DD represents a typical conventional subdivision. tally sensitive areas
It is important to remember that the subdivision (or con-
• Provide economic diversity within individual devel-
solidation) ofland requires compliance with the subdivision opment projects
ordinance, as described in Chapter 2.4.
Alternative Subdivision. Alternative approaches to • Reduce infrastructure costs by utilizing compact or
residential subdivision exist to strike a balance between concentrated layout patterns

10 25

11 I 24
I

17 2al
I -----1 I

~-- __ _I_ __ --~

1--
'-----7 ,--T---7 1--1
>------- - -----< '----- ___J

ir' ------<
I
T' -- 7 i
ir- --+, L__7 "i
I

~--~j ~--+--~ ~--~

c:: c::i_:J c-_~J
I

Conventional Subdivision
Landuse Tabulation:
I I I I I

- 34 Lots
- 0.0 Acres Open Space
- 38.5 Acres Total Site Area

FIG uRE 4. 2 DD Typical conventional subdivision.

33a i@Uhili F%MUMll·ili¥%:W:i\ili41iM
• Increase the linkages and connectivity between set aside in common, communal conservation or open space.
neighborhood entities, and subdivisions To achieve this type of development the reviewing agency
will generally allow a reasonable reduction in minimum lot
• Yield economic value from land dedicated to agricul-
size and setbacks, provided there is no increase in the over-
tural or other natural resource production endeavors
all number of lots that would otherwise be permitted under
without obliterating said use
regulations for a conventional subdivision.
Often jurisdictions that allow alternative subdivision Land which is not part of the residential lots is set aside as
approaches (such as those discussed in later sections) require community gathering space or open space. A cluster subdivision
a concept plan for a conventional subdivision to determine commonly places the development on the most usable areas of
the maximum feasible amount of lots. Thus if the conven- a site resulting in the reduction of development costs relating to
tional subdivision approach is applied to a SO-acre property site grading and infrastructure development and the preserva-
and yields 25 residential lots, the maximum number of resi- tion of or reduced impact on environmentally sensitive areas.
dential lots provided using any alternative subdivision meth- Cluster subdivisions require an increased attention to the details
odology will often not exceed 25. of the design and layout; for instance, the inherently smaller lots
Cluster Subdivision. Cluster subdivision relies on subdi- in a cluster subdivision necessitate alternate methods for privacy
viding larger properties into smaller lots or parcels, but dif- between adjacent units. As a result, greater controls are often
fers from conventional subdivision in that it typically results placed on the individual unit design and orientation. A typical
in a land plan with a greater percentage of the overall acreage cluster subdivision can be found in Figure 4.2EE.

-------- .-
._-

8
,-------
1-

-: ,
- :I

j"L7
I. -

•. 6 --
12
··.·-.
23
rj '\

L____
I 29
_;
i:
__ ,
-1 --.·:-_ ··.
_ _ i;;.......;..;a~..;...J

r.:r-,
-, 5 --
13 22
--~[;'_:: 30 -

I~::J:
- I
.- I I -.-_
I I_-_

i~-'[:
,--4
__ _J 7 1--

--- I
-- I
-.
•- I 3
-- 32 1-:

:-:j r-:::
-r---
::,
-J
16 19
1--:_ I -
,_-,,
I -
r _, i - - - - - - - - - 1
17
-- ----------1
18
1 - - - - - - - - - 1 - -1
34
pen Spac

-: . ·- ~ ..

Cluster Subdivision
Landuse Tabulation:

- 34 Lots
- 7.2 Acres Open Space
- 38.5 Acres Total Site Area
FIG uRE 4. 2 EE Cluster subdivision_
 4.2 ■ PRODUCT TYPES AND DEVELOPMENT PRINCIPLES 339

One of the benefits of cluster development rests with the significant lot size reductions granted in exchange for perma-
potential reduction in per unit infrastructure costs, given nent preservation of sensitive environmental space, unique
the aggregation of dwellings on only a portion of the proj- landscape features, productive land (agriculture or forest), or
ect acreage. Similarly, the conservation of community open land of historic relevance. This open space is ideally part of a
space in cluster arrangements and its amenity appeal may larger open space system or green corridor. This land which
offset market concerns with smaller lot sizes and the poten- is set aside as open space could be composed of wetlands,
tial reduction in individual unit privacy. steep slopes, or other environmentally sensitive feature that
Conservation Subdivision. A conservation subdivision is is more costly to develop in terms of site grading, infrastruc-
an extension of the cluster concept: it is similar in many of its ture, and permitting.
characteristics including a reduced lot size and commitment Office and Industrial Park. The office park requires coor-
to preserve open space (Figure 4.2FF). This subdivision dination and control of a property assembly suitable for
model is more common in rural and greenfield applications multiple office buildings and support services. The office
and almost always includes a significant portion of the land park seeks to locate individual freestanding office structures
placed in perpetual conservation via easements, agreements, in a setting enhanced by open space and landscape ameni-
covenants, or other legal restrictions. The allowable density ties. In addition to in-place jurisdictional controls, supple-
is based on the underlying zoning and is achieved through mental guidelines and covenants generally ensure that all

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Conservation Subdivision
Landuse Tabulation:

-34 Lots
-17.2 Acres Open Space
- 38.5 Acres Total Site Area
FIG uRE 4. 2 FF Conservation subdivision.
340 i@Uhili F%MUMll·ili¥%:W:i\ili41iM
development within the park will meet certain predeter- The emergence of zoned industrial districts qualified
mined standards. The internal street system and infrastruc- as "institutional;' "research;' "technology;' "warehouse;'
ture is normally planned and developed by a single entity. and "distribution'' centers reflects unique sets of operating
This results in the availability of sites suitable for sale for requirements, an affinity for like-kind uses to collocate, and
individual building construction. market-driven pressure for elevating the site aesthetics of
The availability of appropriately zoned office acreage with select industrial land use activities.
in-place infrastructure is attractive to prospective owners Local public controls may afford opportunities for the
or tenants who may have neither the time, resources, nor creation of an industrial district that caters to uses that can
inclination to subject themselves to time-consuming front- demonstrate compatibility with surrounding land activities.
end requirements necessary to transform raw land for office Positioning more compatible activities at perimeter locations
development. The proximity of similar and related uses cou- often assists in creating an overall planned industrial devel-
pled with the shared infrastructure and amenity packages, opment that affords considerable variety in tenancy and use
which may not be economical to any single user, are induce- opportunities.
ments for location within a well planned and executed office Campus. A campus development type is applicable to col-
park. Shared infrastructure elements may include both on leges, universities, hospitals, and extends to large commercial
and off-site utility and roadway improvements as well as on- facilities. The campus development will include several build-
site amenities. Amenity provisions can range from extensive ings, each with different uses, but connected by a common
woodland preservation areas and water features to common ground. The uses within a campus can include the primary
recreation, athletic, and social facilities. Depending on the use (education, healthcare, etc.) with housing, office, retail,
location and scale of the park; hotel, select retail, and day- restaurants, and other support facilities-these uses are often
care facilities may also be included. Figure 4.2GG depicts an adjacent or mixed within a single building. Many campuses
office park parcel plan. will have a central plant for distribution of power, steam heat,
Industrial parks are constructed for the same reasons chilled water, or other support utilities.
and with similar standards as the office park. Contemporary Each campus will have a unique development type based
development patterns, evolution in building technology, and on the history, size, use, and planned growth. The develop-
opportunities or requirements for the containment of nox- ment patterns and goals are often outlined in master plan-
ious impacts has fostered a radical alteration in industrial ning documents or pattern books. A college campus may
prototypes over the last several decades. This has resulted have over a hundred years of development history and is
in refinements in standard land use controls, which are sen- always considering future growth and expansion. Many
sitive to trends focusing on the aggregation of compatible campus developments grow to meet the needs of the com-
industrial activities in planned industrial parks. munity. Development within a campus should plan for

FIG uRE 4. 2 GG Office park plan view (graphic produced from Fairfax County GIS data).
 4.2 ■ PRODUCT TYPES AND DEVELOPMENT PRINCIPLES 341

1
\

FIG uRE 4. 2 HH Campus plan view (graphic produced from Fairfax County GIS data. George Mason University campus shown).

future expansion and consider impacts to historic site con- spaces scattered through the community creates distinct
ditions. Figure 4.2HH depicts a university campus plan view. nodes in the organization pattern that facilitate pedestrian
Operations within a campus, especially education and activity and connectivity throughout the community.
healthcare, are continuous. The active uses, safety, and TND neighborhoods can occur in both infill (redevel-
potential for disruption of services should be considered opment) and greenfield development projects. These types
during the planning and construction of new projects. Pri- of developments are often driven by community interest,
mary modes of transportation within a campus are walking, involvement, and economics as they often result in a variety
biking, and campus transportation (trolley, bus, shuttle). of housing types and price points within a single commu-
Traditional Neighborhood Design. Traditional neighbor- nity. Through the use of TND developments, designers and
hood design or TND (sometimes referred to as new urbanism decision-making bodies hope to accomplish a broad range of
or neotraditional design) is derived from the contemporary goals including
design of the early to mid-1900s. During that period of time
many cities in America were composed of close-knit com- • Revitalize the urban and suburban landscape through
munities, defined by usable green space, a variety of hous- creation oflivable, efficient communities
ing types, and active street fronts. TND seeks to recreate this • Reduce suburban sprawl
communal experience through application of specific design
• Preserve greenways and provide density in rural or
characteristics at the lot, block, and neighborhood level.
fringe greenfield developments
TND neighborhoods are characterized by smaller lots and
rear (or alley) loaded homes, thus emphasizing the houses • Improve the quality oflife for those who live in or
and the streetscape rather than parked vehicles. Many homes near these communities
include front porches-an extension of the house itself- • Reduce the dependence on the automobile as the pri-
facilitating social interaction and lively street life. Traffic pat- mary source of transportation
terns throughout the community typically follow a modified
grid pattern with primary, secondary, and minor transporta- Transit-Oriented Development. Transit-oriented develop-
tion corridors. These corridors allow for efficient automo- ments (TODs) have emerged recently in many urban and
bile traffic and promote pedestrian activity. Streets may have suburban areas in response to extreme traffic congestion.
on-street parking and when they do, ample space is typically Communities have begun to focus development around
provided between the street and sidewalk to create a green mass transit hubs, such as a rail or subway stations, airports,
buffer, planting strip, or utility corridor. bus terminals, or some other type of transportation corri-
These communities often include a commercial compo- dor. Often the development density tapers from its highest
nent and a central gathering space. The inclusion of a central density around the hub and decreases as the development
gathering space, pocket parks as well as other public opens radiates out.
342 i@Uhili F%MUM\i,i/i¥%:W:i\ili41iM
These developments promote the use of alternative means includes internal transportation infrastructure, an open space
of transportation, other than the automobile. The develop- network, or some other type of organizational characteristics.
ments are often mixed use and commonly composed of resi- Amenities in these communities vary and range from unique
dential, commercial, office, retail, and community open space. environmental features, recreational uses, open space, or trail
TOD developments focus on creating a pedestrian friendly systems to the creation of a destination location such as a town
environment, where the use of a mass transit system is encour- center, community green, municipal building, neighborhood
aged. A development may be considered transit oriented if it is attraction, or a regional commercial center.
within ½ mile or approximately 10 minutes walking distance Master-planned projects represent large land assemblies
of the transit hub. Goals of a TOD development might include that attempt to satisfy a full range of lifestyle choices and
provide the requisite support elements to sustain its resident
• Reduce traffic congestion and encourage the use of population. All previously defined development types could
mass transit or pedestrian forms of transportation be represented in a master-planned project. Normally, devel-
• Revitalize urban settings around an established transit opment is undertaken by a single owner or master developer
systems, and reduce suburban sprawl by concentrating who in addition to orchestrating the financing, planning, and
development at transit hubs design of a project may construct the required infrastructure
and community amenities, making sites available to others
• Improve the quality oflife for those who live in or for individual building construction.
near these communities by providing a safe environ - These master-planned projects may be governed by a pri-
ment that also meets lifestyle needs vate master plan or other private development guidelines.
• Reduce the dependence on the single-occupancy While the comprehensive plan and zoning are public regula-
automobile as the primary source of transportation tions, a private plan may be established to direct the imple-
mentation of a master-planned project. This is common for
campus projects like a university or hospital. These types of
4.2.4. Development Scope
projects may include a master plan document that decides
Each development can be designed as a standalone project or what kind and where future growth will occur. This may
as part of a larger master planned project. include a phasing plan to dictate when this growth should be
Standalone Project. Most of the development types bring expected. This master plan may also include design guide-
to mind a large-scale development, with multiple buildings lines that dictate the architecture, streetscape, or other design
and many interior site roads. However, that does not always features of a master-planned project.
have to be the case. A standalone project can achieve each of
these development types on a small scale, whether it is a sin- 4.2.5. Product Design Guidelines
gle building or simply a small lot. As an example, a new office There are many different product and development types that
building near a train station can be a transit oriented devel- can be considered for a project. It is important to remember,
opment. Or, a subdivision can be a single lot subdivided into though, that this is merely a summary. There are many more
two parcels. The success of the project and the success of the types, arrangements, and styles that can be designed for a
designs are not determined by the scale of the development. project. Every project is different, and every site design is
While the development may be a standalone project, unique. A good foundation and basic understanding of most
independent of other nearby developments, it is important product and development types, however, will allow the site
to consider: engineer to be successful.
• The recommendations with the comprehensive plans The next step in this design process would be to decide
which product or development type to use for a project. Cer-
• Interactions with neighboring properties tain decisions will be made by the developer themselves and
• Awareness of adjacent development their development program. Other decisions are prescribed
by the local jurisdiction in the subdivision and zoning ordi-
• Nearby projects and future potential nances, and must be followed. These will generally determine
• Phasing and implementation the allowable uses for a site (or a rezone could be initiated
to achieve a more desirable use) and will help to determine
Master Planned Project. Each development type can also which product types and development types can be achieved.
be achieved as a large-scale development. Master planned This section describes guidelines to consider when choos-
projects are typically designed as a single comprehensive ing and designing a product for a site.
entity on a larger track of land, with a mix of product types Residential Product Types
and land uses, both public and private. Design Process. As with all land development activity, resi-
For instance, a master planned subdivision may include dential site design criteria stems from two principal sources.
product types of varying sizes of single-family homes, mul- The first consists of standards associated with the prospective
tifamily units, commercial retail, or possibly commercial use. This includes the spatial characteristics and site provi-
office components. Ideally, this planning method creates a sions requisite to housing and servicing the facility, its ten-
balanced hierarchical community. The development often ants and customers. The second set of criteria concentrates
 4.2 ■ PRODUCT TYPES AND DEVELOPMENT PRINCIPLES 343

on local land development plans and controls. While the zon- Pipestem or flag lots were originally designed to allow
ing ordinance is the primary gage for establishing site perfor- access to otherwise landlocked parcel acreage. Use of this
mance, other considerations such as environmental, fire, and technique recognizes the environmental and economic
safety compliance factor heavily into facility and site design. advantage in substituting private driveway lengths to access
This set of criteria may vary among jurisdictions and the land, which would otherwise require additional street length
nature and intent of the specific land use under consideration. and potentially greater site disturbance and infrastructure
Common Standards. Subsequent to determining that the costs. The negative attributes of this technique include the
proposed use is appropriate for a given property, setback, potential burden on homeowners to individually maintain
height, bulk, other dimensional and performance standards longer driveways or private street lengths, potential access
constitute the principal site design criteria. These standards constraints for emergency vehicles, and possible undesirable
are normally contained in most jurisdictional subdivision house-to-house relationships, as pipestem dwellings may be
and zoning regulations. perceived to be in the rear yards of adjacent residences.
Most zoning ordinances specify detailed design criteria and However, judicious use of the pipestem lot arrangements
development standards for multifamily projects. For large mul- can pose distinct benefits in residential design when its use,
tifamily projects, minimum standards are adopted to guard resulting lot size dwelling orientation and access consid-
against overcrowding, to ensure access to light and air, to pro- erations are based on sound site planning and community
tect privacy, and to ensure compatibility between land uses. design criteria. Examples of these lot configurations are pre-
Density. In the zoning ordinance, each residential zone usu - sented in Figure 4.2II.
ally includes an allowable range of density for a site, including
means and method of calculation. Project density is usually
set as a maximum number of dwelling units per acre. In some
instances, the residential density may be expressed as a maxi-
) -,~
: (3)

mum permitted square feet of building or floor area coverage l -- 7 !,--

per acre of land, usually for higher density sites. The density
calculations may require the omission of all undevelopable
land. Instead of density values, the jurisdiction may also use
1 ',
I
(2) (1) : (1) : !:
:
"--~I _J_ liL (1) ,'
(2)
I
, ';

( 1)
I ,/

,,> '--1- - r 1-T- -

(2) 1 '- - Str;et /_
I
geometric requirements to control density by establishing
minimum lot sizes, required open space, maximum impervi- I /
ous area, or other physical constraints. Refer to Chapter 4.1 for I _,/ (2) : (1) : : (1) : (1) : (2) / ~ /
information on density and yield studies.
The ordinance may also describe a minimum acreage
L_ __ ~__ l __H-,(1)//
assembly for select residential types. Often cluster, conserva- (3) ,"-...._ <1) /401/
tion, or other planned development districts require a mini- I (1)-.. . . . . . q'j
' "--I
I
mum amount of acreage to be eligible for that zoning district. ( 1) Conventional Lot I I I

Lot Size. The lot must meet a minimum or average size pre-
scribed in the community's zoning ordinance. For residential
subdivisions, lots are normally square or slightly rectangular.
Lot Dimensions. Minimum lot dimensions, minimum lot
(2) Pie Shaped Lot
(3) Pipestem or Flag Lot /I
Shortened Street Length
widths, and frontage requirements are generally governed
by the local zoning ordinance. This includes distinction
between interior and corner lots, pipestem or flag lots, and
cul-de-sac lots. I

Decisions to exceed that dimension are often prompted

by market demand for additional distance between dwelling
units, the dimensions of the proposed house, or preferred
r--_i, t---1
L _ ------j t-- - ___j __ __J

~--~}--~ ~--~.f--~
driveway approach to the garage. An attached side loaded
garage requires a wider lot than a similarly sized front loaded
facility. These decisions will be made by the developer or the

_t~J~[J__t~J~r-~i
building team.
Lot Shape. For subdivision developments, lot lines nor-
mally run perpendicular to the street frontage. Variations
in lot configuration commonly include "pie-shaped" lots Street Street
around cul-de-sacs, and "flag'' or "pipestem'' lots. The latter
convention provides limited lot width along the public street
frontage to accommodate driveway access and a widening
* Pipestem Lots utilizing
common private drive
of the lot at the building setback line sufficient to satisfy the FIG uRE 4. 211 Example of conventional lot, pie-shaped lot, and flag
desired house type and its yard requirements. or pipestem lot.
344 i@Uhili F%MUMll·ili¥%:W:i\ili41iM
The ordinance may prescribe a maximum number of R-4 Cluster Loi Standards
pipestem lots permitted. Lot restrictions may also be listed,
(Fairfax County, Virginia)
regarding inclusion of environmentally sensitive areas and
utility easements. The zoning may determine a maximum
lot coverage, which is the ratio of the built structures (build-
Minimum Loi Size 6000 SF
ing footprint and other accessory structures) and total area Minimum Interior Loi Width None
of the lot. This is usually listed as a maximum percentage. Minimum Front Yard 20 Feel
Minimum Side Yard 8 Feel
Setbacks. Zoning ordinances generally provide setback Minimum Rear Yard 25 Feet
and yard requirements for single-family residential develop-
ment to ensure functional side, rear, and front yards. Mini- Remaining Building 2420 SF 0
mum yard requirements, including front, rear, and side yard
Envelope N
__ _J __
requirements may be expressed as a minimum dimension or
Street
relationship to the height of the building. Traditionally, front
yard setbacks are generally a minimum of 20 feet to accom- FIGURE 4.2KK Typicalclusterlot.
modate the length of a parked vehicle in the driveway. Front
yard setbacks may vary depending on the nature and scale of
the adjacent street.
Lesser setbacks may be acceptable where alternative park- • Maximum distance between unit entry and parking.
ing arrangements are provided, as is the case where rear • Variation in architectural facade and setbacks.
accessed alleys or service drives are employed. Deeper set-
• Minimum setback from common property lines.
backs may be required along more heavily traveled arterial
streets than on neighborhood streets or cul-de-sacs with less • Minimum distance between buildings.
traffic volume. • Standards and criteria for determining the number
For higher density residential product types, the zoning and placement ofloading and service areas.
ordinance provides specific setback requirements related to
the development type. In some cases, the setbacks may be Building and fire code requirements must also be followed.
limited based on building separation requirements and prac- Parking and Access. Criteria governing minimum parking
tical considerations. For traditional neighborhood develop- spaces are normally expressed in relationship to the use and
ments and more urban settings, the setbacks will usually be sometimes the floor area of the proposed building program.
smaller to allow for the building to better front the adjacent Most low density residential product types can accommo-
street. Figure 4.2JJ depicts a conventual lot and setbacks date parking requirements with garages in the units and
while Figure 4.2KK depicts a denser cluster lot with reduced on-street parking (Figure 4.2LL). Residential units without
setbacks. garages may need parking lots to accommodate the require-
Bulk Regulations. The subdivision and zoning ordinances ments. Higher-density residential product types will require
will usually prescribe a maximum building height and meth- more attention to ensure the minimum parking requirement
ods for calculating height. In attached and multifamily hous- is met. Structured parking garages provide the opportunity
ing types, considerations may include to allow for a higher density product type on a smaller lot,
albeit at a higher cost (Figure 4.2MM).
• Minimum unit width or size. The subdivision and zoning ordinance may include limi-
• Limitations regarding maximum number of units tations on public or private street length. Due to the more
that may be grouped together. intense traffic generation resulting from the higher densities
associated with multifamily housing or from larger mas-
ter planned residential communities, convenient access to
R-4 Conventional Lot Standards major collector or arterial streets is desirable. Depending on
(Fairfax County, Virginia) the size of a development, local fire and public works officials
may require at least two entrances or connections to a public
street. This allows access to be maintained in the event that
Minimum Lot Size 8400 SF one entrance becomes obstructed.
Minimum Interior Lot Width 70 Feet
Minimum Front Yard 30 Feet Site planning for multifamily developments requires an
Minimum Side Yard 10 Feet
Minimum Rear Yard 25 Feet appreciation and understanding of the proposed building
design. The higher densities, size of structures, and relationship
Remaining Building 3250 SF
between structures and site elements leaves less latitude than
~~ __ _J_ _
Envelope
may be afforded in site design for less dense residential hous-
ing types. The placement of driveways, location and sizing of
Street parking areas, and other infrastructure considerations require
FIG uRE 4. 2 J J Typical conventional lot. knowledge of building dimensions, elevations, and orientation.
 4.2 ■ PRODUCT TYPES AND DEVELOPMENT PRINCIPLES 345

SIDE
AR

. z
"'i

PRIVAT[ STRE£TS PRIVATELY OWNED

AND PRIVATELY MAINTAINED _ _ _ _ _ __

Typlcal Townhouse Layout - Non-Garage "'-V"

FIG uRE 4. 2 MM Mid-rise residential building and parking garage.

-r - - i - - r 1 - - , - "'
7
-RrARi YARD
I I I I I I LIJ
I I I I VARIES ' I ~ front, rear, and side yards; dwelling unit design, varia-
~
tion in lot sizes, lot dimensions, and concessions suited
to cluster or unique detached housing prototypes provide
r- "'~ r -
I ~ r - r- opportunities to tailor design to local market and site
1: ~ I r- 1 r- 1
I ~ > 1 1 I 1 I conditions. Figure 4.2NN depicts differences in lot types
I I I I I
I I based on proximity to street types and open space. Several
z
i

10 - _
-- u
"(~j-: ~~ ~ _}□
PRIVATE STR[ETS RIVATELY OWNED
_ _ _ ___ ANO _PRIVATELY MAINTAINED _ _ _
... - - - - L
1 Sire:_! ~ _\..
40 - ,_____ , ' ..:::.-:r=-- 1 \ I \J I -- I
Typical Townhouse with Garage Layout
V' : (2) : "' L
'{.. --":, 1 __ L_ __ _J 10
FIG uRE 4. 2 LL Typical townhouse condition.
~~-=-~-t--=-r
"'-
1 --~-JT __~ ~~~ \_~
\ I (3)
,, I: '' /I '' I ,' _3 1
I OpenI
• Space
1- - -
I

,I "-r>,~ ~''st;-Ji\-~-
Landscape and Open Space. The zoning and subdivision
J " k-_:_:~ \
ordinances usually provide minimum open space provisions,
including potential distinctions between usable open space,
dedicated open space, and common green space. Ordinances I
,,--
I :
,,
r - -r - ~ I ---1'
I :\
1
: I I - - --i
J
\;
dO

may discount or cap the amount of public open space allowed I// : (1) I \ I " -1- -- I I I
as part of the project open space calculation. Similarly, a per-
centage of the total open space may need to meet certain loca-
L ___ l__ j_~i:-~ __ JLJ~
tion, distribution, or performance criteria such as size, shape, Arterial Street or \ Thoroughfare
and topographic considerations, or be exclusive of flood- I
plains, utility easements, or wetlands. The ordinances some-
times also include screening and buffering standards given
.
I
0

(1) Deeper lots backed to arterial street

the specific use or use intensity proposed in relationship to
the nature and density of adjoining uses. The zoning may also (2) Wider lots in areas of steeper slopes
include a minimal landscape or tree canopy requirements. (3) Narrower lots lo increase yield along open space amenity
Residential Design Considerations. While conventional FIG uRE 4. 2 NN Example of variation in lot size due to site
subdivision regulations normally prescribe setbacks for characteristics.
34& i@Uhili F%MUM\i,i/i¥%:W:i\ili41iM
considerations can provide a strong foundation for residen- area. The common method of computation is the floor area
tial layout design. These include ratio (FAR), a method of measurement expressed as the rela-
tionship of total building square feet to the total site area as
• Lot and place houses in a manner that responds to discussed in Chapter 2.3.
the site's natural features As a reminder, the number of floors associated with the
• Avoid extremes in either random plan organization built product does not influence the floor area calculation.
or uniformity to the point of monotony in the pat- In the cited example, the 40,000 square foot building might
tern of development be constructed as a two floor building of 20,000 square feet
each, or a four-story building of 10,000 square feet (sf) each.
• Establish appropriate block lengths to minimize The FAR for a 40,000 sf parcel is 1.0 for each case. Most juris-
long views of repetitive housefronts, garages, and dictions do not include parking structures in floor area com-
driveways as well as foster convenient vehicular and putations. Similarly, exclusions may include portions of the
pedestrian movement building which are below grade or space programmed for
• Ensure yard dimensions and unit orientation that select circulation, service, and support facilities. It is impor-
promote individual dwelling legibility and sufficient tant to be aware of the method for calculating FAR in each
yard privacy jurisdiction.
Lot Size and Bulk Regulations. Minimum lot size, building
• Establish a sense of place through a coherent and leg- height, bulk, setback, and yard requirements are normally
ible circulation system stipulated in the individual zoning categories for nonresi-
• Reinforce the street hierarchy through practical dential uses. The criteria generally vary in relation to the
application of building setbacks intensity of the desired development and the characteristics
of the adjacent land use. Areas designated as more urban will
Nonresidential Product Types. Nonresidential develop- normally require smaller setbacks from parcel boundaries.
ment focuses on retail, office, and industrial land uses for While a maximum building height may be stipulated, the
both public and private developers. The design process and permitted height of a structure may be governed by perfor-
considerations for nonresidential product types has similar mance criteria.
considerations to residential development but the use and A common method of control focuses on maintaining a
design is inherently different. The following information relationship of building height to peripheral yard setbacks.
highlights the more prevalent building types and site consid- By designating an acceptable "angle of bulk plane'' from the
erations appropriate to nonresidential development. top of building to a given property or parcel line, the setback
Market Considerations. The decision by the developer can increase proportionately as the building height increases.
to pursue retail, office, and industrial development pro- Other jurisdictions may express a minimum yard setback
grams can be prompted by a myriad of factors. They may based on a given building height and simply stipulate that for
include observation of a demonstrated need for local dis- every additional foot of building height the setback dimen-
tribution of goods and services at a neighborhood or com- sion will increase a set distance.
munity level; recognition of an opportunity to fulfill a local Parking, Loading, and Service. Criteria governing minimum
jurisdictions development goal in expanding either local or parking, loading, and service spaces are normally expressed in
regional economic base; or recognizing local trends focus- relationship to the use and floor area of the proposed building
ing on the growth, consolidation, or relocation of business program. Typically, the zoning ordinance stipulates this stan-
ventures within an area. Regardless of the genesis or justifi- dard as a minimum number of parking spaces to be provided
cation for such facilities, site design and site execution must on site, although in some cases a portion of the parking may
be simultaneously sensitive to the requirements of the pro- be provided off-site or in combination with adjacent uses.
vider, prospective tenant and patron, site, and surrounding Jurisdictions vary in terms of how they express this relation-
community. ship. It may be based on gross building square footage, or net
Design Process. Nonresidential site design criteria stems building square footage, or net leasable or tenant area. The
from two principal sources, similar to residential develop- parking requirements for some uses are based on number
ment: prospective use and local development requirements. of employees, seats at restaurant, beds in a hospital, or other
Common Standards. Subsequent to determining that the measures of determining occupancy. The designer must
proposed use is appropriate for a given property, setback, understand the method of calculation, ascertain the mini-
height, bulk, and other dimensional and performance stan- mum requirement based on public standards, and ensure that
dards constitute the principal site design criteria. These such a minimum provision has client and market acceptance.
standards are normally contained in most jurisdictional sub- Unique program requirements or marketing considerations
division and zoning regulations. often prompt a need for parking and loading space provisions
Floor Area Ratio. Nonresidential development is most fre- to be in excess of the minimum zoning criteria.
quently programmed and sized on the basis of the aggregate Landscape and Open Space. For nonresidential uses, open
square feet of built structure relative to development site space is typically expressed as a percentage of the total site
 4.2 ■ PRODUCT TYPES AND DEVELOPMENT PRINCIPLES 347

FIG uRE 4. 2 0 0 Plan view of public development with open space areas (graphic produced from Fairfax County GIS data).

area that is not encumbered with the building, vehicular cir- areas (to the retail establishment) should be considered as a
culation, and parking. While it is normally considered the limit on the maximum acceptable distance between the most
residual portion of the site remaining for landscaping, in some peripheral parking space and the center itsel£ Example of differ-
localities it may be more conservatively delineated to exclude ent retail center layouts are shown in Figures 4.2PP and 4.2QQ.
pedestrian walkways, patios, and similar site improvements, Design considerations for retail activities should include
which are deemed impervious surface treatments. Landscape the following:
requirements are generally categorized as two main types.
Peripheral yard and buffer area requirements may be • Orientation to surrounding road network
stipulated for nonresidential projects, which are deemed • Sizing
incompatible with surrounding land uses. These may be pre-
scribed as a fixed dimensional width with certain pro forma
landscape treatments or as performance criteria requiring
a combination of plant material and/or structural elements
that provide an equal or improved buffering condition.
A second set of standards focuses on minimum land-
scape improvements required given specific development
program components. These may deal with shielding or
screening of parking areas, service and loading zones, mini-
mal streetscape standards, foundation planting, parking lot
landscaping, or other specific concerns of the local jurisdic-
tion. Figure 4.200 depicts a public building with open space
along the parking corridor and at the rear of the building.
Retail Design Considerations. Site design for retail cen-
ters should be predicated on overall customer ease in iden-
tifying and locating the individual tenants within the center.
Convenience of vehicular access, adequacy and placement of
customer parking, safety of pedestrian movements between
parking areas, and retail establishments are all fundamen-
tal site planning considerations. A secondary set of criteria
P Parki ng
focuses on the internal servicing and operation of the center R Re t ail Store
particularly in regard to separation of service, delivery, and S Service
loading facilities. Typically, reasonable convenience of parking FIG uRE 4. 2 PP Typical strip center arrangement.
34a i@Uhili F%MUMll·ili¥%:W:i\ili41iM
freestanding retail establishments, whose size and location
may be a function of numerous unique circumstances, the
size ofretail project and the profile ofresident tenants relate
to their intended service population. Normal conventions
include a distinction between neighborhood centers, com-
munity centers, and regional centers, although jurisdictions
may actually provide precise definitions for each in their
respective zoning documents.
Vehicular Circulation. Transportation circulation is extremely
important to retail site design. Access and egress points
should be well articulated and smoothly transition to the
adjacent public road system. Ideally, multiple access points,
sufficiently distanced to promote safe alternate approach
-.
~
routes, should be secured. Traffic routes should attempt to
separate service vehicles from customer traffic. A separate
vi
site entry/egress point for service traffic is ideal, but may
be impractical in many instances. Customer vehicle rout-
ing should provide as near a continuous drop-off zone along
the facade of retail establishments as possible. A perim-
eter circulation route, ring road, or street network to access
and exit the parking area can assist in reducing reliance on
travel ways near the building and minimize the potential con-
flict between through traffic and the discharging of passen-
gers and/ or loading of merchandise. In more conventional
retail arrangements, depending on the depth of the parking
bays and the size of the retail center, intermediate travelways
midway between store facade and perimeter boundaries can
P Parking assist high traffic volumes in navigating parking areas and
PS Pad Site
R Retail Store assist overall traffic flow.
S Service Service traffic should be directed to separate loading
Street areas and service docks. Normally, this occurs to the rear
FIG uRE 4. 2 QQ Typical retail center arrangements. of the retail stores, where it can be appropriately screened
and trash containers shielded from public view. Loading
bay approaches and service drive design should conform
to appropriate geometrics for the size and number of
• Vehicular circulation vehicles necessary to adequately serve the development
• Parking program. Entry drives should be of sufficient length for
vehicles to adequately enter the site prior to contemplat-
Orientation to Surrounding Road Network. Retail establish- ing major turn movements. Exits should provide suffi-
ments should be positioned to take advantage of visibility to cient stacking space to accommodate safe transitions into
abutting public rights-of-way. Leasing agents maintain the adjacent roadways.
greatest market asset of a retail center is unobstructed visibil- Retail Parking. As previously described, the minimum
ity from adjacent roadways. In expansive centers, the major number of parking spaces required to support retail activ-
anchors are usually singled out for this elevated position, with ity is normally specified in the zoning ordinance, as is the
smaller flanking or interior store locations dependent on foot required number of loading spaces. Criteria are usually
traffic generated by the anchor. There are ample examples expressed as a ratio of parking spaces to the square footage of
of successful retail centers, which do not rely on excessive the development program. The standards for retail establish-
road exposure. It should be cautioned, however, that many of ments vary depending on the service characteristics of the
these more introspective centers are located in planned com- retail establishment. More spaces may be required for enter-
munities, governed by site and architectural guidelines, and prises with higher customer occupancy, such as restaurants,
operate within an environment where the location of com- than for stores with more extensive display and stock stor-
peting establishments is stringently controlled. age space, such as a furniture store. The required number of
Sizing. The distinctions between strip center, community parking spaces is normally between 4 and 6 spaces per 1000
retail center, power center, regional mall, and freestand- square feet of gross leasable area. The local zoning ordinance
ing arrangements is generally related to the organization of should be consulted for specific standards. Requirements for
retail space and architectural massing. With the exception of certain retail uses may require provision of additional spaces
 4.2 ■ PRODUCT TYPES AND DEVELOPMENT PRINCIPLES 349

based on the number of employees, or in the case of restau-

rants and theaters, on seating capacity.
Although freestanding and smaller centers may accom-
modate parking stalls parallel to the pedestrian walkway
immediately in front of the retail store, larger retail cen-
ters generally preclude parking from the vehicular drop-off
and pedestrian approach zone. In these larger retail cen-
ters, the parking area normally begins beyond the frontage
service drive and drop-off aisle. While the configuration of
the parcel may warrant a different arrangement, parking
aisles are generally positioned to run perpendicular to the
store facade. This arrangement promotes ease and safety
in pedestrian movements from their parked vehicles to the
store entries.
Retail parking normally locates the major parking area
between the retail establishment and the major frontage road.
In larger multi-sided centers, such as shopping malls, park-
ing generally encircles the center. In planned communities,
where stringent design standards are in place, parking areas
may be required to be buffered from public view or located
to the rear of the retail area. Such an arrangement minimizes
the visible expanse of parking as well as promotes the retail
building form in a forward position on the site to assist in
defining the street edge. This latter approach is key to tradi-
tional design principles, which gives heightened importance
to pedestrian circulation, the use of building architecture, FIG uRE 4. 2 RR Example of an office park parcel plan.
and massing to enhance street definition.
The sizing of retail use for a particular site and the estab-
lishment of the building floor plate should be done in con- • Efficient floor configurations that are conducive to
sultation with both client and retail marketing professionals. leasing and occupancy requirements
While there are general rules of thumb associated with the
• Sufficient parking given tenant requirements
provision of retail space, rapid changes in marketing prac-
tices, and the unique circumstances associated with many • Parking that is convenient to both occupant and visitors
individual retail establishments, often prompt a tailored
• Site development and amenity provisions that are tai-
response which may vary from the norm.
lored to meet the requirements of developer and tenant
Office Design Considerations. As with retail design, there
are a few governing principles, which are appropriate for • Service and loading design that avoids conflict with
office parcel layout and design. Foremost in this checklist are normal building operations and are adequately
the specific requirements of the local jurisdiction. As men- screened from occupant and community view
tioned, zoning conditions may encompass building setbacks,
buffering and screening requirements, minimum parking The range of land use intensity attributable to conven-
counts, as well as govern the height, bulk, and size of the tional office use can vary considerably. FARs in excess of
building program. Municipal controls may reflect pro forma a 1.0 FAR are not uncommon in proximity to suburban
criteria attributable to the parcel zoning or tailored to the mixed-use centers. However, suburban office intensities for
unique circumstances of a site relative to surrounding land conventional freestanding buildings more commonly range
uses and/or on-site characteristics. An example office parcel from 0.25 to 0.4 FAR, which result in building heights of
layout is shown in Figure 4.2RR. one to four stories. The 0.4 FAR is normally considered the
Design of these elements requires attention to the details threshold at which an office building may be surface parked
of site organization and function. Considerations generally while maintaining reasonable distances between the building
include and outer perimeter parking areas. An FAR greater than 0.4
normally requires significant reliance on subsurface or park-
• Sensitivity in orchestrating an appropriate exter- ing structures (or alternate means of transportation).
nal image given potential roadway and land use Although traditional parking ratios for office use averages
adjacencies 4 spaces per 1000 sf of net leasable space, the requirement
• Site and building access that is legible and avoids may be lessened at locations close to public transportation or
congestion mass transit. In some circumstances, parking demands may
350 i@Uhili F%MUM\i,i/i¥%:W:i\ili41iM
be lessened if a disproportionate amount of building space Sensitivity to the diversity in industrial uses of both his-
is to be utilized for operations that are not employee depen- toric and contemporary facility types has prompted most
dent. On the other extreme, tenancy that requires high visitor jurisdictions to adapt their zoning ordinance to provide vary-
turnover, such as medical office uses, may necessitate higher ing standards for select classes of industrial activity. Classifica-
parking ratios. Similarly anticipated building occupancy by tions normally differentiated between "light;' "medium;' and
tenants employing smaller per employee work areas, such as "heavy" industrial uses. The gradation was strongly related
telecommunication call centers or 24-hour operations with to the potential level of land-use incompatibility anticipated
overlapping work shifts may require parking that exceeds between the subject industrial operations and adjacent land
conventional office criteria. uses. In recent years more fine-tuned distinctions have been
Industrial Design Considerations. Local development made to accommodate the less onerous industrial character-
standards governing industrial activity have often aug- istics associated with research and development (R&D) activi-
mented traditional zoning criteria with specific performance ties. In R&D Parks and similar institutional environments
standards that serve to categorize not only permitted types promoting scientific research and product development,
of industrial activities, but minimum standards associated training and offices manufacturing or product assembly may
with their operation. Performance criteria may be tied to be either nonexistent or only a diminutive part of the overall
standards governing air pollution control; fire and explo- facility operation. The potential land-use conflicts and levels
sion; radiation hazard; electromagnetic radiation and inter- of incompatibility characteristic of traditional industrial activ-
ference; liquid and solid waste discharge; noise, vibrations, ity may be negligible. Building programs that reflect some of
and light source considerations among others. the more typical industrial arrangements found in the subur-
The nature, extent, and complexion of industrial land use ban market are illustrated in the following section.
has changed dramatically in the last several decades. The
expansive single-purpose facilities focusing on raw mineral 4.2.6. Development Design Guidelines
extraction, product manufacturing, and assembly has been This section identifies impacts that the entire development
overshadowed with the provision of more flexible space team, including the developer, should consider when pro-
that focuses on product distribution, research, and service gramming a project. When developing a potential site, the
industries. This transition has had a profound impact on team must consider the effect that each development type
the location requirements of industrial uses and the physi- has on the environmental, aesthetic, financial, operational,
cal characteristics of industrial facilities. It has also lessened and marketing characteristics of a project.
community resistance to a genre of uses that do not pose the The development team should understand the relation-
level of incompatibility historically associated with industrial ship between these characteristics and their effect on adjacent
activity, including potential air pollutants, hazardous waste properties and the community as a whole. The effects may
by-products, acoustical and vibration impacts, and height- range from the physical limitations a development has on its
ened fire and safety considerations. immediate site to the community's predisposition to a pro-
While heavy industrial, extractive mineral, and expan- posed development and its program. Following are some char-
sive processing facilities can be found in suburban locations, acteristics that warrant consideration due to their implications
escalating land values combined with new technologies, have on resulting land use patterns. Generally, there is a direct rela-
often prompted many of these types of industries to relocate tionship between the intensity and density of development
to areas where land cost and labor supply and use controls and its impact on the site and surrounding community.
are more conducive to their operations. Instead, activi- These development concerns focus on the following:
ties focusing on: research and development; smaller scale
electronic assembly, data processing, telecommunications, • Environmental impacts
product distribution, and warehousing have become more • Aesthetic impacts
significant "industrial" components of many metropolitan
areas. The noxious characteristics of traditional industrial • Financial impacts
activity located proximate to railroad lines has given way to • Operational impacts
expansive industrial and technology parks whose locations
are governed more by convenient access to interstate high- • Marketing impacts
ways, airports, and population centers.
Building programs associated with industrial activity Environmental Impacts
generally rely on a strong building to ground relationship. Site Disturbance. More clearing and grading is required
This is in keeping with their dependence on truck trans- as buildings, site improvements, and infrastructure occupy
port as a principal means of product delivery and assembly an increasing proportion ofland. There is normally a reduc-
operations, which rely on horizontal line arrangements and tion in the opportunity to retain natural grade as density
on-grade structural conditions to support machinery and increases. Opportunities to preserve existing wooded or
expansive storage and warehousing requirements. An exam- other natural areas are similarly reduced as building pro-
ple of an industrial flex-tech park is shown in Figure 4.2SS. gram coverage is expanded.
 4.2 ■ PRODUCT TYPES AND DEVELOPMENT PRINCIPLES 351

5,601 SF
I

Loading
Dock
Area

·· ... ·-r-- ··
Building #4 Building #6
Tenant Spaces From Tenant Spaces From
3,400 to 29,500 SF 4,800 to 89,000 SF

FIG uRE 4. 2 S S Example of a flex-tech park.

Lower building density does not in itself result in less construction costs associated with more expensive mitiga-
impact. It is the combination of existing conditions, proposed tion measures.
program, and resolution of program detail that eventually Green Development. Green development (also called sus-
delineates the degree of impact. An equivalent program in tainable or low impact development) is a term that is used
a more compact development envelope can have substan- loosely by local organizations or public groups to describe
tially less site disturbance impact than a comparably sized environmentally sensitive development characterized by
program dispersed over a greater amount of acreage. Simi- informed site selection, energy efficient design and con-
larly, building programs, which are tailored to unique site struction, mindful material selection, and waste reduction.
conditions, can have less impact on land than generic solu- These types of development practices might include green
tions. For example, a residential product type designed for a roofs, xeriscaping, passive heating, solar, thermal, or wind
steep site will have a better "fit" and require less grading than power, water conservation strategies including cisterns or
one originally designed for level terrain. rain barrels with reuse applications, or some combination
Stormwater Management. As the impervious surface thereof. All of these practices strive to achieve a similar
associated with a given development program increases so goal: to create an environmentally sensitive and sustain-
does stormwater runoff, along with the increased potential able community. During the conceptual design phase, deci-
for nonpoint source pollutants. Depending on the jurisdic- sions regarding street, lot, and building layout, effectively
tion's stormwater management regulations, there are a vari- the development pattern, can greatly influence the overall
ety of options employed to collect, treat, and detain/retain energy efficiency of the building( s) and the development as
runoff efficiently; structural controls are space efficient but a whole. Passive heating and cooling design is highly depen-
tend to be more costly whereas natural measures tend to dent on proper building orientation, see Figure 4.2TT.
consume more space but are generally cheaper to construct. The designer should utilize the results of the feasibil-
Higher density can assist in financially compensating for ity study and site analysis, in particular the climate and
352 i@Uhili F%MUMll·ili¥%:W:i\ili41iM
microclimate analysis, to site or layout the infrastructure Architectural Design. More intense development gener-
and orient buildings. ally requires more stringent architectural controls to ensure
Aesthetic Impacts. Compatibility with adjoining land overall visual coherence. Modest building elements on large
uses can become problematic as proposed development lots or parcels benefit from distance between improvements.
intensity increases. Careful site planning and design Individual units capture their own identity and are less visu-
can assist in mitigating this problem. Structural solu- ally and functionally dependent on their neighbor. As building
tions may be costly and buffering solutions may be land size increases or as parcel size decreases, increased proximity
consumptive. warrants greater attention to issues of compatibility.

COOL

Temperate Regions

~~
Ob~vea:
Maximize the warming effect of solar radiation In winter
months and maximize ■ hade In the summer months.
~eak Nonh
• Utilize deciduous trees for summer shade and winter warmth
• Orient active living spaces to the south for winter warmth ~ ~ I n a c tive Zones
• Design building overhangs to shield the high summer sun and
expose the area to the lower winter sun

Nor1h
W,ngWallS
ProvideMlclo
. ~

-·-\\\
Clima t e ~ t 17,S' Soulh•SouthEast 2·5H 10·15H
_9P«im um Orienlation South
Primary Outdoor
LM>g Zones
Blank Face
Reduce the Impact of winter winds but maximize summer breezes.
• Steeply pitched roofs on the windward side deflect wind and reduce the roof area
effected by the winds.
• Blank walls, garages, or storage uses on north exposure
• Protect north entrances with earth mounds, evergreens, and walls or fences
South • Allow for natural ventilation with prevailing summer breezes

Cool Regions
Objectives:
Maximize the warming effecta of solar radiation.
• Utilize south to south-west lacing slopes as much as possible North
• Orient active living areas to the south to take lull advantage of
the winter sun
• Utilize exterior walls and fences to capture the winter sun and
reflect warmth Into living zones
• Utilize darker colors which absorb radiation

Reduce the Impact of cold winter winda

• Locate buildings on the lee side of hills in the "wind shadow"
• Utilize evergreens, earth mounds, and exterior walls to protect
the nor1hem exposures
• Flat or shallow pitched roofs collect and hold snow for added
Insulation
• Structures can be built into hillsides or par1ially covered with ear1h
and planting for natural Insulation

FIG uRE 4. 2 TT Considerations for siting a building for different climate regions of the United States. (Courtesy of Gary 0. Robinette and Charles
McClennon, Landscape Planning for Energy Conservation, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1983.)
 4.2 ■ PRODUCT TYPES AND DEVELOPMENT PRINCIPLES 353

COOL

Hot-Arid Regions
Objectives:
Maximize shade for maximum late morning
and afternoon solar radiation.
• Orient active living areas to the south east 10 collect early
morning sun North
• Glass area should face south with properly designed overhangs
• East and west windows should be avoided to minimize rad iation Inactive Areas - h , .
with low sun ang les
• Clusler buildings and utilize solar panels for shade Ouldoor
Living Zones
MAXIMIZE DESIRABLE AIR MOVEMENTS
Maximize the humidity and cooling effects of ,s• Soo<a-soo,o:~
Orientalion Generally
evaporation across water bodies. Best for Hol Arid Regions
• Utilize the lower hillsides to benefit from cool natural air Bodies ol Waler Otter the
movemenls in early evenings and warm air movements in Oppo~unity lo Plan lor lhe
early morning Cooling Elfecls ol Evapora~on

Hot-Humid Regions
Objectives:
Maximize shade throughout the day. Interactive Zones Reduce the effects ol high humidity by
maximum exposure to air movements.
• Orient aclive living zones to south with properly designed
overhangs, trellis, or other sun control • Orient streets and structures to maximize
Minimiie East and
• East or west window should be provided to minimize radiation Wesl Fad ng Walls
cool breezes prevailing wind vary with
'wilh low sun angles regions and micro climates
• Minimize energy intensive paving and building materials • Ulilize the psycholog ical effects of falling
water of large water bodies but minimize the-
5° South•SouthEasl humidity of small water ponds and low areas
Primary Outdoor Optimum Orientation
Living Zone

FIGURE 4.2TT (Continued)

External Views. Larger buildings or more intense build- value benefiting both the home owner and the municipalities
ing programs may impact the extent and quality of exterior that tax the value associated with the home.
views. More dense development requires careful site plan- Operational Impacts
ning to ensure privacy and minimize the visual and noise Maintenance. Occupants realize lower per unit mainte-
impact of abutting uses. nance costs due to economies of scale associated with larger
Financial Impacts. In development there are many ways more intense development patterns.
one can develop a property in a financial and environmen- Energy. Per unit energy cost savings is generally realized in
tally responsible manner. While higher density development development that is more compact.
may require greater total infrastructure costs, depending on Marketing Impacts
the condition and capacity of existing facilities, it may also Market Exposure. Increased scale, intensity, or quality
result in lower construction, operation, and service costs on of development may foster a visual presence, which trans-
a per unit or square foot basis. Developing properties at a lates into greater market exposure. Depending on the actual
higher-density permits land costs to be distributed among a development program this may increase project appeal to a
larger development program resulting in lower per unit land broader spectrum of the market or provide increased aware-
costs. In terms of the tax benefits associated with develop- ness among targeted consumer groups.
ment, tax revenues generally increase on an acreage basis Community Identity. Larger-scale developments can provide
as a result of public and structural improvement, increased additional justification for amenities, which may, in turn, increase
density normally results in a higher average per acre assessed community identity and resident/tenant affinity with a project.
354 i@Uhili F%MUM\i,i/i¥%:W:i\ili41iM

THE SEVENS
Location: City of Orlando, Florida
Client: New Jersey Department of Transportation
Completion Date: Design-2014; Construction-October 2016
Case Study: The Sevens, located at 777 North Orange Avenue in Orlando, Florida, is one of the "Next Generation'' apart-
ments developed in the new "North Quarter" portion of Downtown Orlando. This site consists of 2.59 acres and is on
the north side of Colonial Drive.
The Sevens was developed by The Pizzuti Companies and has 48 studio units, 218 one-bedroom units, and 67 two-
bedroom units, totaling over 330 units. The Sevens also includes a rooftop pool, nineth floor clubhouse and gym, inte-
rior and exterior courtyards, 8000+ sf of retail, a dog park, a parking garage that accommodates over 600 on-site parking
spaces, off-site parallel spaces, an on-site loading/unloading zone, trash compactor enclosure, and an exfiltration system
for stormwater treatment and attenuation.
Dewberry's services included topographic and boundary survey, master site planning, civil engineering, final plat, and
construction administration, including permitting through the City of Orlando, St. Johns River Water Management
District, Orlando Utilities Commission, and the Florida Department of Transportation. Dewberry also provided con-
struction level survey services for staking of the building corners and as-builts for final certifications of some compo-
nents of the site. Construction administration was provided by Dewberry from the preconstruction meeting to the final
certificate of completion.
 CHAPTER 4.3
CONCEPTUAL DESIGN

4.3.1. Introduction identified during the due diligence and site analysis. The
Conceptual design represents the initial effort to satisfy the intent is focused less on sophisticated graphic technique
development program (introduced in Chapter 2.1) while and more on fostering dialogue, a preliminary review and
considering the constraints and opportunities identified dur- assessment, and confirmation of design direction among the
ing the site analysis process. It requires full recognition of design team participants.
the development program components, initial due diligence The conceptual design phase is the first refinement
(Chapter 2), and the site analysis (Chapter 3). to add more detail to the initial site diagram. This phase
The conceptual design utilizes the site diagram (intro- moves from general intent to actual physical diagramming
duced in Chapter 3.2) to begin the design process. The site of use arrangements. The conceptual design is reviewed in
diagram is representative of the due diligence and site analy- the context of their preliminary implications on infrastruc-
sis pre-design efforts. The conceptual design is performed by ture requirements and environmental impacts as well as
the site planner, which may or may not be the site engineer. economic, functional, and political feasibility. This level of
The responsibility of the planner depends on the size and conceptualization is generally completed in the conceptual
scope of work of the project. For example, a site engineer may design prior to the investment ofresources and time resolv-
be more apt to planning a residential subdivision, whereas ing more detailed levels of design.
a hospital campus may benefit from an architect and a site The conceptual design includes hand sketches, functional
engineer working together. Still other projects may warrant diagrams, or drafted plans that illustrate a framework for
a professional land planner. Advisory roles from the com - the given development program (Figure 4.3A). These help
munity or local jurisdiction will also influence concept plans. to depict the potential distribution of land uses and major
The role and scope of the professional that is involved in the circulation requirements. The effort melds all pertinent reg-
conceptual design will vary by project. ulatory information with site-specific considerations to illus-
The final product of conceptual design is a series of alterna- trate how the site might best be developed.
tive concept plans, or sketch plans. These may be used in the The site layout of the conceptual design should provide
entitlement review of the project, as described in Chapter 2.4. an aesthetic and functional layout for the site. Given there
It is common, however, for concept plan reviews to be optional are generally multiple solutions for the design of any one
or very informal. Nevertheless, concept plans are important site, it is common for alternative concept plans to be devel-
for internal review to make design and overall development oped. The ensuing discussion with other members of the
decisions. The preferred concept plan is then the starting point development team may prompt a dialogue as to the pros
for the schematic design (Chapter 4.4). This chapter focuses and cons of the various solutions and identify design syner-
on the development of the conceptual design to produce a gies or problems the planner alone may not have identified
series of concept plans. or anticipated. A site may have many technically correct
alternatives, but the best site layout comes from under-
4.3.2. Conceptual Design standing project requirements while also considering the
The initial cut at the design effort is often accomplished in design of the site. A balance of form and function is often
the site diagram, as described in Chapter 3.2. This diagram necessary: traffic access into a site should be convenient
depicts site constraints and opportunities for the project as but also safe; parking layouts should provide the required

355
35& i@Uhili F%MUMll·ili¥%:W:i\ili41iM
&4W(r ca<'"""',...;ne...
,,...,"'°'fiJ.'-
"•~..~... i"~~~l>+-i
.....r r.. .-r

1--/~ . ,J c,:~
a.mca.. ....11,~iri -

~ .)
+ s

FIG uRE 4. 3 A Example of a concept plan.

number of spaces but easy to navigate; and the location evaluated, and reworked multiple times until the developer,
and orientation of buildings should be appropriate to the development team, and stakeholders believe they have a via-
use and scale of the buildings. In all cases the site layout ble solution. As the design progresses and detail is refined,
should meet programing needs while also considering site additional layout revisions may be required in the later
impacts. These design goals should be coordinated with design stages. Understanding good engineering practices,
the entire development team. design principles, developer requirements, and what will be
The concept plans should be developed to communi- requested by the local jurisdiction will help to expedite the
cate the refined design intent without too much investment design process.
in time; however, a viable concept plan requires the design
team to have a strong understanding of design principles 4.3.3. Process
and development program requirements. It is easier to pro- The process for developing a concept plan will vary and the
vide useful concept plans with a holistic appreciation of the level of detail required will be dependent on project com-
land development process itself, which comes with time and plexity. Some projects may only need an informal meeting or
experience. discussion about various concept plans, whereas other proj-
While normally not a formal public submission docu- ects will warrant formal submittals, reviews, and discussions.
ment, concept plans do provide information suitable for A typical process for the conceptual design is outlined below:
early discussions with appropriate public officials. They
provide sufficient information to obtain an informal assess- 1. Outline development program requirements
ment of the development plan's compliance with public
2. Review the site diagram
comprehensive and land use policies and the local political
climate. 3. Confirm buildable area
As demonstrated in Chapters 2 and 3, due diligence and
4. Confirm access points
site analysis is an iterative process. The same is true with the
conceptual design process. Concept plans will be prepared, 5. Perform a yield study
 4.3 ■ CONCEPTUAL DESIGN 357

6. Design the site layout development, such as transitions from single-family homes
to apartments. Other infrastructure features, such as utili-
7. Refine internal circulation
ties and stormwater systems, might be depicted so that they
8. Identify parking requirements are considered throughout the later stages of the design
process.
Development Program. The concepts for the project will The conceptual design should arrange the distribution
be expressed by the developer in the development program of major land use elements by type. This may be simply
(as introduced in Chapter 2.1). The development program is illustrated by highlighting areas of the site for each land
the scope of work, the client's vision, and goals for the proj- use, without actual building locations. The delineation,
ect. Different developers will have different requirements though, should reflect the approximate area requirement
that they want to see achieved in the conceptual designs. For for each use. This will help to gauge the massing or relative
a public developer, they may require a specific size of school area requirements necessary to accommodate individual
based on student population. For a retail developer, they may program components. It is important to ensure that these
be interested in a concept that promotes walkability along a areas do not exceed the maximum yield allowed for the site.
main street or maximizes leasable retail space. All of these Additionally, if required, the location of major public facili-
inputs and requirements help to shape different concepts of ties such as parks, schools, and other reservations should be
the site plan. identified on the site layout as required by public planning
Site Diagram Review and Confirmation. As mentioned, documents.
the conceptual design process utilizes the site diagram that The conceptual design is focused on the macro arrange-
was produced in the site analysis stage. The site diagram ment of uses. Rather than focusing on individual lots or spe-
helps to identify and illustrate the constraints and opportu- cific buildings, the conceptual design may broadly define
nities of the property and determine the buildable area. locations of each use type. For example, the concept plan
The areas mandated as undevelopable or unbuildable may highlight areas for commercial development in the
based on the previously completed site analysis should front, townhomes in the middle, and single-family homes in
be reviewed and delineated on the concept plan. Refer to the rear. The layout will be refined with more detail in later
Chapter 4.1 for information on undevelopable and unbuild- stages of design.
able land types (yield study). The buildable area will deter- It is also important to ensure that the site layout is within
mine the limits of the site layout. Utility availability to the the boundaries of the previously defined buildable area of
site (as described in Chapter 3.6) may also influence density the site. All program components must be located in the
and development conditions. buildable area. The conceptual design should also provide
It is also particularly important to confirm the trans- notations concerning site setback and buffer requirements
portation access points (as described in Chapter 3.3) to be along property boundaries.
able to connect to the existing transportation network and An initial horizontal alignment of major vehicular circu-
to ensure adequate access to the site. The future transpor- lation routes should then be designed with the site layout.
tation plans within the local jurisdiction's comprehensive This should ensure connection from the site access points
plan (as described in Chapter 2.2) should also be reviewed. to the designated land use areas. Again, the internal road
New facilities and improvement may be required based on network should be developed in the context of any public
the access points or future transportation plans. A con - comprehensive plan policies or recommendations. Reserva-
sultant experienced with community policies will know tion for future transportation network may be required, and
whether site development will require turning lanes, accel- should be depicted on the concept plan.
eration or deceleration lanes, medians, or traffic control The relationship to the site of existing roadways, utilities,
devices. The plan should note dedications and reservations and other facilities should be shown with the site layout.
that the governing body will require in conjunction with Connections between the existing infrastructure and pro-
development. posed uses is important. Proposed internal roads should
Yield Study. Next, the conceptual design begins as plan- connect to the existing road network where applicable, and
ning is required to develop the site layout concepts for the utilities should connect land use areas to previously identi-
project. This should begin with the yield study (as intro- fied existing utilities.
duced in Chapter 4.1). Preliminary yield studies will help to Generally, a series of alternatives of concept plans are
determine the maximum number of units and/or building created for a project. Each alternative should try to maxi-
size that can be designed for a site. mize the development potential of the site. Sometimes
Site Layout and Internal Circulation. The site layout designs that modify the original development program may
should depict the proposed use(s) of the project, with simple warrant discussion. The actual concept plans themselves are
geometric illustrations. For conceptual designs, a proposed simple representations without much detail. They should
site road may be a simple line and an area of proposed shops be quick designs that illustrate what is intended for the site.
might be shown as a large box in a part of the site. On a large More detail and preliminary engineering will be required
site, it may be helpful to show zones of different densities of in schematic designs. Annotations should be included to
35a i@Uhili F%MUM\i,i/i¥%:W:i\ili41iM
underscore the advantages or disadvantages associated with may identify a preferred location of the building within the
the depicted design elements for discussion purposes and to site and access points for the site; however, based on infra-
memorialize for future reference. structure requirements the building and site access locations
At this level of detail, and because of the iterative nature may need to be negotiated. The design team should work
of the conceptual design, conversations regarding the dif- together to determine the best solution for the site based on
ferent concept plans should be documented for future refer- project requirements and site constraints.
ence-it is common to inquire about layout decisions during A building layout will often change throughout the design
later phases of design. process, which has impacts on all elements of the site design.
Parking. It is important to consider parking during the con- What may be a simple box during conceptual design will be
ceptual design because it often occupies large areas of the site refined with additional detail in schematic design (and change
and needs to be balanced with the development requirements. again in final design). Changes in building area will impact
Zoning (and tenant) requirements will define the minimum parking requirements and stormwater management. Door
parking requirements for each product type. It is important locations will modify grading and accessibility requirements.
to ensure that the proposed site layout can accommodate the Building utility connections may change the site utility layout.
required parking. The parking check should be preliminary at For a traditional suburban residential development proj-
this stage and typically does not warrant a full parking layout. ect, the coordination between an architect and site engineer
For traditional suburban residential developments, park- is minimal. For single-family homes, the site engineer will
ing can usually be accommodated by a garage or driveway. often establish a subdivision plan with mass grading of the
Units without internal garages, including multifamily build- site during the entitlement stage of the project. The site infra-
ings, will need to ensure parking. Parking can be accommo- structure (grading and roadways) often govern the site's yield
dated by either a surface lot or a structured parking garage. for developable area and number of lots. The site engineer
A surface lot will reduce the buildable area and could limit will establish home locations within the development based
the number of buildings on the site. A structured parking on a standard template of a proposed home. Later, when
garage is expensive but will allow more area for residential a home purchaser selects a lot and a model, the engineer
buildings. Presenting both options to the developer may be will coordinate with the builder and architect to locate the
required for the conceptual design, or the developer may selected model home within the lot and provide a detailed
prescribe the preferred parking option. lot grading plan. The lot grading plan will identify the exact
For commercial developments, it is important to find a setback dimensions of the specified model and determine
balance between the size of the building(s) and the amount the utility connections as well as grading, driveway, walkout
of parking. The larger the building (or use), the more parking basement condition, front steps, and other detailed elements.
that will be required. The amount of parking required will be For a nonresidential site, such as a shopping center, the
determined by the use of the building. If an occupant has site engineer and the architect are likely coordinated in early
not been determined, it is important to have enough park- stages of design. The architect and developer may prescribe
ing for multiple uses. It may take a series of design alterna- retail space sizes based on requirements for desirable ten-
tives to produce a satisfactory concept with an ideal building ants. Additionally, pad sites for banks or restaurants may be
and parking arrangement-potentially one that is flexible established and should accommodate potential tenants. In
enough to accommodate a variety of tenant configurations. many cases, the tenants for a shopping center are not identi-
Design Team Coordination. Conceptual design is a team fied until final design or even after initial construction has
effort at this stage of the land development design process. started. The infrastructure should be designed to accom-
The site planner will coordinate with the site engineer to modate varying uses within the site. For example, the util-
design preliminary site layout features, the architect to pro- ity demand for a restaurant use will be greater than that of
duce preliminary building layouts, the landscape architect a mattress store and the utilities should be able to support
for preliminary park layouts, all focusing on the placement those uses. The tenant may also change geometry of the
of horizontal attributes. Each design discipline on a project buildings based on standard storefronts or outdoor seating
will have their own priorities and responsibilities but the requirements.
entire development team should be aware of site design An initial layout from the developer may conflict with
conditions. The buildable area and site layout can be signifi- what is feasible for the site. The site planner will have to work
cantly impacted by site design requirements such as grading, with the design team if there is a conflict to ensure that the
transportation networks, parking, and utilities. Careful work conceptual design can be achieved. This may require provid-
and attention to detail will be required to optimize the site ing information to the developer about the design or sug-
to achieve all aspects of the developer's program within the gestions for next steps that may be required. Small changes
parameters of the site. to the development program may be necessary to ensure the
For example, the building team is working through an success of the site. Or, the site planner may need to work
iterative and incremental design process in the same way the with the developer to rezone the property if a different use is
site team is. During early design phases the building team desired. If the program simply cannot be achieved on a given
 4.3 ■ CONCEPTUAL DESIGN 359

site, the developer would then have to change the require- others. Site engineers are commonly requested to prepare
ments or find a new site. cost estimates as part of the land development design process.
Each step in the land development design process is iden- The estimate's intended use largely determines the level of
tified separately in this text. In reality, not only are they inter- detail and the information required. In turn, the level of
connected within each step, but also the steps themselves can detail determines the time, and hence, the cost of preparing
be overlapping or even repeated. If the initial site chosen for the estimate.
the project cannot achieve the development program, a new This section defines the possible purposes of estimates
site may need to be analyzed. The due diligence and site and identifies estimate types and their limitations. It is
analysis stages would have to be performed again. always important to state the assumptions that were made in
The site planner will present the concept plan alternatives the process of preparing the estimate. When preparing esti-
to the developer. The developer will ultimately choose and mates with more detail, the importance of including all ele-
work with the site planner to finalize one of the alternatives. ments cannot be overstated. Therefore, we have provided a
The preferred alternative of the concept plan will become the recommended checklist of elements that should be included
schematic design for the project and is eventually refined for in the detailed estimate. Methods of estimating are identi-
final design. fied, as well as sources of obtaining current information on
Example. In Chapter 3.2, an example of a base map and construction costs.
site diagram was included (Figure 3.2J) to show how the site Purpose of Cost Estimates. Although cost estimates are
analysis is performed. Figure 4.3B is the composite map show- prepared for both private and public sector projects, cost
ing constraints and opportunities from this site diagram. This estimates for private land developers differ from those for
composite map helps to make decisions for the conceptual public sector clients in a very basic sense: construction cost
design of the project. The development program is important estimates prepared for public projects are used to deter-
to consider when producing these designs. Figure 4.3C shows a mine the economic benefit of the project based on public
concept plan for this example project. This will be the starting need whereas cost estimates prepared for private develop-
point for schematic designs (to be introduced in Chapter 4.4). ment projects are first used to determine whether a project
is economically feasible. The economic feasibility analysis
4.3.4. Cost Estimate combines the market analysis and the marketability study
Costs are paramount in all land development projects and (performed by the developer and business team) with devel-
necessary for all team members to consider throughout the opment and construction costs garnered from preliminary
land development design process. This is especially true for designs, debt structure, and the required rate of return, then
the site engineer, who is involved in many different aspects tests the outcome in order to arrive at a "go or no-go'' deci-
of design. sion. For a small to mid-size local or regional developer the
Development projects often begin with the developer or decision is frequently based on the conjectures for the mar-
landowner approaching the land development team with a ket place, the cost estimates provided by the consultants, and
piece of property, and possibly a development program or previous success with particular project types. In all devel-
intended use. The following economic or cost questions are opment projects, location, timing, and cost control are the
likely to rise almost immediately and demand more precise critical elements that must be evaluated carefully and consis-
answers as the project advances: tently throughout the process in order to deliver a financially
successful project.
• Is the expense and effort involved worth the return, Later, if the decision is made to proceed with develop-
that is, is the site/project profitable? ment, a further refined cost estimate can be used to establish
• Can the development be completed in a reasonable price points or selling prices of the product(s).
amount of time? Public Project Cost Estimates. On a public project three
types of estimates are performed:
• How much risk and potentially hidden costs does the
development have? 1. Preliminary cost estimates
• Is the project a good investment-short term? Long 2. Detailed cost estimates
term?
3. Engineer's estimate or bid estimates
• Will people buy/rent/lease the product in a predict-
able period of time? It is important for the site engineer to understand the pro-
• Is adequate financing available to cover design and cess by which a cost estimate for a public facility is prepared
construction? since a publicly funded project is frequently an integral part
of the overall land development venture.
A cost estimate can directly respond to some of the ques- The preliminary cost estimate for public projects is pre-
tions above and facilitate finding the right answers to the pared prior to the development of detailed engineering plans
w
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en FIGURE 4.3C Conceptual design.
3&2 i@Uhili F%MUM\i,i/i¥%:W:i\ili41iM
and is used to solicit funding, generally from an annual capi- estimate provides the developer with the all-important part
tal improvement program, grants, or a voter referendum or of the development process: the cost to construct, and con-
bond issue. It is prepared with only a basic understanding of sequently, the amount that must be charged to recover these
the general scope and extent of the project. Additional con- costs and still achieve the desired profit.
siderations are included, if known, such as special structures Feasibility Estimates. Site engineers are frequently
that are required, additional studies that may be warranted requested by the client to assist in determining the initial
such as soil, wetland, or floodplain studies, land acquisition feasibility of a project. In this process, the general procedure
costs, and access considerations. The costs can be approxi- is to review such elements as availability of services (utility
mated using nationally published reference manuals (e.g., RS services and their easements, public services, schools), the
Means) or by using the local governing agency pricing guide- potential yield in terms of number of units or square foot-
lines. Often times, costs from recently constructed projects age of commercial or office space, potential environmental
of similar design are used as a source of cost data for such impacts and a host of other elements (boundary and topo-
considerations. The accuracy of the preliminary cost esti- graphical surveys, soil tests and bearing capacity, need for
mate hinges upon the availability of accurate existing infor- retaining walls and special structures), all of which can
mation and timely decisions regarding the details of the new impact the developer's "bottom line" (profit).
development program. Generally, a significant contingency Many of these elements involve substantial expenditures,
is included, as much as 30 percent, and frequently the cost of both in terms of fixed and capital costs. A well-prepared, all-
inflation is included since it may be several years before the inclusive cost estimate for the planned project is essential
project is actually constructed. for all projects. It can ensure that the project is worthwhile
The detailed cost estimate is performed after the project or can result in a decision to abandon the project before the
is funded and designed. It is based on actual quantities esti- incurring of any additional cost, including the development
mated from the design plans. It is very similar to the detailed of detailed plans. Investment decisions by both the developer
cost estimate for private projects. The detailed cost estimate and the lender rely heavily on these estimates; however, in
should have an accuracy range of 10 to 15%. early phases of design there is not enough information for
The engineer's estimate or bid estimate is prepared as the an accurate cost estimate and large contingencies (20% or
project is awarded for construction. This estimate is very more) are applied to the estimate. The economic or feasibil-
detailed and it should be as accurate as possible, within ±5% ity cost analysis will often determine if it makes sense for the
of the actual cost. It should be based on a thorough review project to proceed financially.
of the plans and specifications, the solicitation of prices from Many times, cost feasibility studies can be used to identify
suppliers and specialty contractors, and the most recent cost a better economical use of the parcel of land. For example,
of construction of the specific elements of the plan. in evaluating the different lot sizes that can be placed on a
Private Project Cost Estimates. For private land develop- parcel of land, one may attempt to maximize development
ment projects the types of estimates are lot yield by minimizing lot size. However, a feasibility cost
estimate can provide information on market potential for
• Feasibility cost estimates various home types, which may warrant the need to evaluate
• Preliminary cost estimates alternate concepts. A project may have options for building
single family homes by right or rezoning (adding time and
• Bond cost estimates risk) to develop with more density, such as townhomes. The
• Construction cost estimates developer may use the concept plans and feasibility cost esti-
mate to determine the preferred option.
The feasibility estimate is used by the developer in making The feasibility estimate is used for exactly the stated
a go or no-go decision. The preliminary cost estimate is per- purpose; that is, to determine the economic feasibility of
formed after a plan has evolved, but before the preparation of any given item. That item can be the entire project or, on a
actual construction drawings. It is used by the developer to smaller scale, a variation of a particular roadway alignment,
secure funding and to assist in developing alternatives before building layout, or utility extension. Feasibility estimates are
a final decision on product details. The bond cost estimate is often referred to as rough estimates.
used as bonds are prepared. The construction cost estimate Rough Estimates. Many times during the course of design-
is prepared to finalize loan commitment and to compare bids ing a land development project, an engineer is asked to give
from contractors. an informal estimate in order to determine if a particular item
In summary, while there are some similarities between pub- under discussion should be pursued or given further study. An
lic and private project cost estimates, the uses to which these accurate cost estimate (even a rough estimate) requires more
are applied varies. The purpose of the cost estimate for a pub- than just quantifying the infrastructure elements. Market con-
lic facility is to justify and prioritize the project components ditions, schedule, and construction process will heavily influ-
as well as determine the economic benefit or need as weighed ence construction costs-these variables may not be available
against the cost to public. The private land development cost to the site engineer. In some cases, the site engineer provides
 4.3 ■ CONCEPTUAL DESIGN 363

the quantities and allows the owner/developer to provide the Some infrastructure items such as this are lumped together
unit cost numbers. Alternatively, the engineer may have some in the ±50% allowable error.
current costing data on which to render an opinion. An engi- Timing of the project is a significant consideration: many
neer may also coordinate with local contractors for their input. projects have fallen victim to financial difficulty because of
In any case, it is important that the engineer document, changing markets, the inherent effects on interest and car-
in a memorandum, the assumptions and methodology. That rying costs, fluctuating cost of money, rework of improperly
memorandum can be given to the developer if appropriate designed or constructed features, and poor project manage-
or requested and should be placed in the project files as a ment. The safest solution is to identify, during the feasibility
permanent record. period, the greatest number of variables and learn as much
These types of estimates are also called "order of magni- as possible about their impacts on the project, then sched-
tude" estimates. Generally, they have a low level of accuracy ule and control the process in such a manner that, when the
and can vary as much as 25% to 50%. While accuracy is sac- surprises come, they do not destroy the overall profitability
rificed in these types of estimates, they can be useful since of the project.
one can evaluate a large number of alternatives in a short Rough estimates, when used appropriately, can aid in
period of time. One must always document assumptions and decision early in the design process. These estimates may
be aware of the inherent limitations of this process. support negotiations of development conditions (obligation
This rough estimating procedure presumes an "upper for the developer to construction public facilities) or to assist
end" average cost for the significant items of the project. One in continued feasibility analysis of the project. The estimates
might assume a certain dollar cost per linear foot for instal- should always show a range of cost to signify the uncertainty
lation of storm sewer pipe, even though the cost would actu- of the values. In later phases of design, such as schematic and
ally vary according to pipe size and depth. If, however, there final design, the estimates are refined and the contingency
is only a small amount of storm sewer on the project and this range should diminish.
cost, relative to other items in the project, is insignificant, More information about producing a cost estimate is
then it might not even be included in the rough estimate. included in Chapter 4.4 with preliminary cost estimates.
 CHAPTER 4.4

SCHEMATIC DESIGN

4.4.1. Introduction engineering tasks associated with the development of the

Schematic design occurs after the completion of the due dili- schematic design and producing the preliminary plan.
gence, site analysis, and the conceptual design. The preferred
alternative concept plan from the conceptual design (from 4.4.2. Schematic Design
Chapter 4.3) is the starting point for the schematic design During schematic design, it is necessary to refine the site lay-
efforts. Preliminary engineering (as introduced throughout out by validating the previous assumptions and performing
Chapter 3) is an integral component of schematic design as preliminary engineering analyses and evaluations. This is
designs are prepared. especially important if there are specific, measurable devel-
Schematic design focuses on the refinement of the con- opment objectives that are to be achieved in the design, such
ceptual design to result in a preliminary layout for subsequent as third-party green building certification. Extensive studies
detailed design efforts. During this phase of study, a selected are normally completed to ensure that the proposed devel-
concept plan is subjected to more detailed analysis of pre- opment program is realistic in terms of density, product
liminary engineering. As the site layout is evaluated in the yield, functional prerequisites, environmental, economic,
schematic design phase, it's common to revisit concept plans. and political feasibility. Furthermore, the relative placement
Preliminary engineering involves the refinement and of land uses and infrastructure considerations begin to pre-
development of the information obtained in the previous scribe the ultimate project character. Figure 4.4A depicts a
stages of the design process. This refinement ordinarily leads preliminary plan that might be produced during schematic
to the creation of a deliverable, often in the form of a graphic, design and represents an evolution of the concept introduced
such as a site plan or general development plan. This may in Chapter 4.3.
also include accompanying narrative reports, checklists, esti- Activity during the schematic design phase may include
mates, etc. for review by the developer and local governing a formal presentation to public bodies and regulatory agen-
agencies. Generally, preliminary engineering is performed by cies as part of the entitlement review to obtain concurrence
site engineers; however, other members of the development with the site design strategy. This phase represents a major
team, reviewers at the local governing agencies, as well as benchmark in the design process in its testing and confirma-
citizens may be contributors or stakeholders in this process. tion of development intent. Public review at this phase of the
The final product of schematic design is the preliminary land development design process is extremely important. If
plan, which may represent the 30% drawings for the project. there are to be political or procedural obstacles to the plan, it
The preliminary plan is the design document that establishes is best for them to surface early in the design process.
many of the controlling standards and design characteristics It is important to understand that the development pro-
for actual project level development. This is also required for gram is always subject to change, particularly when it is pre-
most entitlement reviews (as described in Chapter 2.4). With sented to citizens and/ or public review agencies or when a
the conclusion of schematic design, the site engineer is ready developer is faced with meeting budget constraints. Hence,
to initiate the last stage of the design process which is final the schematic design process is oftentimes an evolutionary
design, after necessary entitlement approvals are in place. The and iterative process that can last for months or even years as
preliminary plan is then the starting point for final design the development approval process (namely rezoning within
efforts (Chapter 5). This Chapter focuses on the preliminary the entitlement process) progresses.

364
 4.4 ■ SCHEMATIC DESIGN 365

If the local jurisdiction does not require a preliminary ambitions for the site, but if they do not meet design standards
plan for the entitlement review process, in many cases the or engineering practices, it may not be an effective design.
developer will still require this level of detail prior to incur- This step in the process may require the editing or reworking
ring the costs associated with developing the final design. of the conceptual plans, so again this is an iterative process.
The deliverables produced during the schematic design phase The engineering fundamentals described in Chapter 3
represent a validation of the development program before are used to analyze the site and are applied again during the
proceeding with the more detailed final engineering design. schematic design process. Each fundamental described in
Often, the developer will utilize the information prepared in Chapter 3 will be used to refine the conceptual design and
the schematic design phase to prepare initial construction produce the preliminary plan.
cost estimates to ensure the final design is achievable as orig-
inally envisioned. The preliminary plan may also be used to Site design: The site planner should have coordinated
identify adjustments to the design that must be made to meet between the disciplines to produce the layout of the
project budget constraints. site in the conceptual design process. The site engineer
During this stage of the land development design pro- should verify the layout to ensure it meets jurisdictional
cess, the developer might not be the owner of the property. requirements. Access points and intersection spacing
Instead, they may be the contract purchaser with contingen- for entrances to the site are important to ensure confor-
cies or options built in to the contract pending obtaining an mance and adequacy for the site. Parking should also be
approved rezoning or other related regulatory approvals. confirmed to meet the minimum requirements in the
The preliminary plans are often used to obtain the requisite design standards for each of the proposed uses.
approvals. Other contingencies may include a specific lot Transportation design: The adequacy of the existing and
yield, development density, green building rating, or desired proposed road systems should be verified. Any required
gross floor area of a building. If the developer is a contract transportation improvements should be included in the
purchaser, timing is important to ensure a decision about a design. The site engineer will need to ensure that the
project can be made quickly. Although on a tight time sched- internal road layouts are effective throughout the site
ule, the schematic design must be accurate. This is the foun- and meet the local jurisdiction's requirements. The types
dation for all future design efforts for the project. of streets, intersections, and the typical cross sections
Regulatory Permitting. Engineers, planners, and most should be selected before final design.
members of the design team appreciate the complexity
involved in the design and construction of even a simple land
Grading: Preliminary grading can be further refined
development project. Countless hours of planning, evaluation, from early grading concepts. This is one of the more crit-
drafting, reviewing, calculation, and design effort go into each ical steps in the schematic design process. The prelimi-
nary grades will ensure that the site is effective for the
project. It is important that the site engineer be cognizant of the
proposed uses. It is important to consider grades around
myriad layers of governing regulations, agency review, public
buildings, the appropriate road grades, and Americans
scrutiny, and other requirements once a project is designed.
with Disabilities Act (ADA) accessibility throughout
The regulatory approval process can often be the place where
the site. With challenging earthwork conditions, more
a project finds the most challenges (in terms of schedule and
expensive solutions may be required to ensure that the
cost) if not planned for and diligently, tactfully pursued.
site can be developed for the intended use. For example,
Every site engineer should work with their client to
if the site is too steep, walls may be needed and should be
develop a regulatory permitting strategy that considers all
identified.
the various regulations and layers of jurisdictional over-
sight related to the project. The review process is identified Stormwater: The stormwater management plan for the
in Chapter 2.4, and the submission and approval process site should be confirmed by the site engineer to ensure
is provided in Chapter 4.1. This permit strategy should be that proper drainage is achieved through the proposed
incorporated into the project schedule to set reasonable preliminary grades. The preliminary stormwater
time expectations and to identify potential roadblocks to management facilities must be located and sized with
commencing project construction. This may also facilitate adequate capacity for the proposed development.
the identification of ways to expedite the project approval
Utilities: The site engineer should ensure the layout of all
process and obtain permits, which is often a primary goal
utility systems is effective and clear of conflict. Adequate
of many developers. More information on final design and
capacity and proper sizing for all systems can be refined
construction permits is provided in Chapter 6.1.
during schematic design. It is important to coordinate
4.4.3. Process the storm drainage collection system with the stormwa-
Preliminary engineering is required to ensure the viabil- ter management to ensure proper outfall and the correct
ity of the preferred alternative of the conceptual design. The sizing of the stormwater management facility.
site engineer is responsible for ensuring that the conceptual Environmental: Possible impacts to previously identi-
plan can be constructed. The development team may have fied sensitive areas should be evaluated. Preservation,
 PEYROPMENT PROORAM
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EXISTING ZONING _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ A· 1
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TOTAL AREA OF FLOOOPVJN ~ ATTACHED
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PROPOSED DWELLING UNITS- - --c:-cc:c-.570
AVERAGE GAOSS DENS1TY= _ _ _ 7 .8 OUfAC
AVERAGt FLOOR AREA RATK> _ _ _ 0 . 18 FAA MITY REClleA'
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FIGURE 4.4A Example of a preliminary plan.

 4.4 ■ SCHEMATIC DESIGN 367

restoration, or mitigation efforts should be coordinated should be defined on the plan as both location and type (sig-
with site design. Sustainable design strategies should nalized, right in/out only, etc). Sight distance for all access
be refined and optimized as infrastructure systems are points should also be confirmed.
implemented with increased detail. Widths of proposed pavements should be developed based
on expected traffic volumes determined from completed traf-
Constructability review: Determine any phasing require-
fic studies, or as local requirements may dictate. Curbs, gut-
ments that may impact further site design and develop
ters, and sidewalks should also be depicted as appropriate.
a permit schedule for site, building, and environmental
The site access to adjacent roadways should be illustrated,
permits.
including any provisions for pedestrian and/or bicycle access
The actual preliminary plans that are produced are more improvements or signalization that may be warranted. Inter-
detailed representations of the concept plans. There may nal and external pedestrian networks should be represented in
be multiple preliminary plans to demonstrate the different the schematic design. These networks are often encouraged to
aspects of the preliminary engineering that was performed, connect to existing sidewalk and trail systems and should be
but during schematic design there should not be significant coordinated with the local department of transportation.
differences between layout options. Grading. The site engineer should develop a schematic grad-
Site Design. The first step in developing the preliminary ing plan to determine if there are any problem areas and to
engineering plans for a schematic design is to formalize the identify grading constraints which will need to be addressed
conceptual design layout into a geometrically accurate lay- through the design process. Developing a schematic grading
out. This layout may include the arrangement of buildings, plan consists of utilizing the schematic layout to confirm the
horizontal alignment and configuration of roadways, and placement ofbuilding footprints, set the building elevation(s),
formalization of parking areas. Building setbacks should road grades, and parking area grades. Spot elevations and
be established and building envelopes represented. All pro- sketching the 5 feet, or sometimes 2 feet, contour lines help to
posed on-site and off-site improvements should be shown determine the feasibility of the building elevations.
with this layout, including easements necessary for utilities Each site is unique and the process for developing a grad-
and ingress-egress (access). ing plan should not be considered prescriptive. The follow-
The site layout should also focus on the land use. The allo- ing checks should be performed on the preliminary grading
cation ofland uses in the layout should be annotated by use scheme to gauge functionality and aesthetic performance:
and area. Area is normally noted as the gross acreage of the
individual land units commonly referred to as "land bays:' 1. Understand requirements from the development
In addition, appropriate delineation of areas for public facili- and local jurisdiction for minimum and maximum
ties, including schools, public safety, libraries, parks and rec- grades (maximum slopes for parking, sidewalks, etc.)
reation facilities, day-care centers, church sites, and similar 2. Analyze the existing drainage patterns-develop a
facilities that have been determined necessary or desirable strategy for proposed drainage patterns and storm -
support components to the initial development program. water management
Identification of areas subject to development constraints
should be confirmed, including floodplains, wetlands, and 3. Study the available geotechnical information that may
environmentally sensitive areas; buildings or grounds con- identify areas of rock, poor soils, or other conditions
sidered historically significant; and other acreage that by that would influence how cut and fill is considered
unique circumstance has been mandated by public policy 4. Identify the grading conditions at the limits of the
to be subject to development limitations. These should be site (or work area) as well as potential pedestrian and
depicted on the plan. Figure 4.4B provides an example con- vehicular access points and the existing elevations
cept plan for a hospital that anticipates significant expansion
with future development. 5. Identify sensitive areas where grading is not permit-
Transportation Design. Major transportation systems ted, such as environmentally sensitive areas or his-
(vehicular and pedestrian) should be depicted on the plan toric areas
in conformance with the design standards of the local juris-
6. Establish building elevations based on grades from
diction and current comprehensive or master planning con-
the access points into the site
siderations. Traffic studies (introduced in Chapter 4.1) for
the site should be performed, and the information should be 7. Track cut and fill requirements based on different
used to validate site access requirements and the necessary grading scenarios and evaluate the impact on day-
transportation systems for the site. Existing roads adjacent light limits as well as retaining wall requirements
to the site that are inadequate for the new development and
require improvements should be identified at this stage. New During this process, several grading schemes may result,
entrances may require turn lanes and should be shown along each with its own advantages. Conferring with the developer
with any off-site work that may need to be performed (and may help in establishing the preferred grading scheme to
negotiated with adjacent landowners). Access into the site pursue in final design.
w
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WHITMAN INTERMEDIATE SCHOOL

fllilllOl"OIBtautilOE

26.37 ACRE AREA SUBJECT OF SPECIALE

AMENDMENT - 6
PROPOSED DEVELOPMENT PROGR

FIG uRE 4. 4 B Example of a preliminary site plan.

 SUMMARY TABULATION
USE.Aa.Ji ()l'(H I
LANOIIAY All(A SPACE LAKE UNITS/ OIIOSS NET
IACRfSI IACRfSI IACRfSI LOTS ACRfl Ylb.D
A 11.7 7.9 55 21.e 2.8 •
a 22.0 10.1 50 32.t 2.3 • •
C 2U , .o a1 31.1 2.1 •••
23.5 2.,
..,
D 141 23.5
E 10.3 .5 33 10.8 3.2
F I.I u 71 11.t 7.8
1.,
G
H
I
,.,
11.5
, .o
2.8
7.8 3.8
150
111
21.5
15.e
13.0
1.8 121 5.8
J 3.4 3.2 121 e.8
K 7.0 131 7.0
l 2.1 10.0 C'I 12.1
M 1.1 141 1.1
N ,.e .1 l!il ,.1
SUBTOTAi. 1'9.0 85.o 1'.7 '78 221.7 ,,..I
MAJOR ROAD R.O.W. {····--··
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NORTN OF ASHBROOK PARKWAY
SOUTH OF ASHBROOK PARKWAY
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1.0
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LANDSCAPE EASEMENT 3.0 )/:
0 ASHBROOK PARKWAY ,.2
0 IN'ltRNAI. CUL•OE·SAC 2.4
SU8TOTAI. 20,3
TOTAi. 131.2 8'.3 1'.7 2'9.0

w
m FIGURE 4.4C Schematic design.
310 i@Uhili F%MUM\i,i/i¥%:W:i\ili41iM
Environmental. As the site design progresses from the feasibility stage of the design process. It is good practice to
conceptual design phase to the schematic design phase, update and/or prepare new checklists and reports as part
the preservation or conservation plan should be developed of the schematic design process in order to document the
concurrently to detail clearing limits, preservation areas or design progression, in particular any noteworthy changes
protection zones, and protection techniques to successfully to the development program. An example of a preliminary
implement the desired preservation. Written detailed recom- engineering checklist is provided in Figure 4.4D.
mendations regarding site-specific preservation areas, tree Waiver Preparation. During the preliminary engineer-
preservation techniques, and remedial care of tree preser- ing stage of the design process, it may become apparent that
vation areas are incorporated into the refined preservation waivers and/ or modifications to local design standards and
plan. Refer to Chapter 2.5 for more information on environ- zoning ordinances may be required. Obtaining waivers or
mental (as well as historic) considerations. modifications may be critical in meeting the objectives of the
Example. In Chapter 4.3, an example of a conceptual design proposed development program, to facilitate the eventual
for a project was included. This concept plan was the start- construction efforts, or to speed up the design review pro-
ing point for the schematic design. Preliminary engineering cess. The review and approval process can take considerable
refined the design and produced 30% drawings. Figure 4.4C time and should be started early in the design phase, so the
shows the preliminary plan for this example project. This proposed layout can be validated. Unique or nonstandard
will be the starting point for final designs (to be introduced construction details should be preliminarily prepared and
in Chapter 5.1). analyzed during this stage of the design process.
Green Building Design and Sustainable Site Evaluation.
4.4.4. Schematic Design Deliverables Green Building and Sustainable Site design concepts imple-
At the end of the schematic design stage, the finalized work mented as part of the project should be reviewed, evalu-
product typically consists of a set of preliminary plans, a ated, and refined at this stage of the design process with the
design checklist, outline specifications and product data, pre- entire development team. From a site engineer's perspective,
liminary reports, preliminary construction cost estimates, and this step includes a review of the individual green building
value engineering recommendations. In contrast to the final metrics, in particular those related to sustainable site devel-
site plan content (defined in Chapter 5.1) the preliminary plan opment, and an evaluation of whether or not the site com-
provides about 30% of the final design content. The informa- ponents and design are evolving in a manner conducive to
tion at this phase is usually limited to horizontal design ele- meeting the established project goals.
ments with preliminary grading-additional content such as If the targeted green building goals, specifically the site
infrastructure details, full narratives, road profiles, and util- components, are not being attained then an assessment of the
ity profiles may not be produced until final design. The list specific site metrics as outlined above should be performed to
below should be contrasted to the comprehensive list shown determine what other measures or design principles should
in Chapter 5.1. be incorporated into the design during the course of final
This example organizes the plan into sections and consid- engineering. Changes to the design program are bound to
ers multiple disciplines through the prefix (G for general, C for occur. The site engineer should be aware of and attentive to
civil, L for landscape, B for geotechnical, R for reference, etc.). the various green building strategies employed on the project.
Some section numbers are not shown (utility plan and profiles) The site engineer should be able to adapt, refine, and innovate
and they are usually omitted from a preliminary plan. throughout the design process to optimize the site's potential,
developing strategies that are buildable and sustainable.
• Cover sheet (not numbered)
4.4.5. Preliminary Cost Estimate
• ClOl-Abbreviations, notes, and legend Feasibility cost estimates were described in Chapter 4.3 to
• C201-Existing conditions and demolition give an initial rough estimate of the cost of a project dur-
ing the conceptual design. Because more detail is put into
• C30 I -Site plan (with preliminary utility layout and the schematic designs, a preliminary cost estimate will give a
grading) more accurate and better representation of the cost.
• C701-Stormwater management (narrative and pre- Preliminary Estimates. Preliminary estimates are devel-
liminary sizing calculations) oped during the schematic design phase with the under-
standing that the plans have not yet reached sufficient detail
• C801-Erosion and sediment control (narrative) to derive final construction costs. These estimates are usually
o C802-Phase 1 erosion and sediment control made after a plan has evolved to schematic design but prior
to final design. They can serve as advanced budget estimates
o C803-Phase 2 erosion and sediment control and are usually accurate enough for making decisions regard-
• L101-Landscape plan ing the feasibility of a project or for a decision involving a
choice among alternatives within a project. The preliminary
Preliminary Engineering Checklist. Checklists and reports plans can be used to estimate several important design quan-
are often prepared during the site analysis, site selection, and tities, which when multiplied by the applicable unit costs can
 4.4 ■ SCHEMATIC DESIGN 371

Checklist
For Date:
Preliminary Engineering Study Prepared by:
---------
A. Basic Project Information

1.0 Project Name:

2.0 Project Location :

3.0 Client:

4.0 Project Manager:

5.0 Lead Engineer:

6.0 Planner / Other Team Members:

Yes No N/A Comments

7.0 Has Project Manager visited site?

If so, give date(s):

8.0 Has Lead Engineer visited site?

If so, give date(s):

9.0 Has Planner and/or Other Team Member(s) visited site?

If so, give date(s):

B. Street Design / Site Layout

1.0 Has the horizontal configuration of the roadways

been checked for geometric accuracy?

2.0 Are the pavements widths correct?

3.0 Has sight distance been verified both vertically and

horizontally?

4.0 Are sidewalks and/or trails shown in accordance

with the requirements?

5.0 Have the lots and/or land divisions been computed

and checked for geometric accuracy?

6.0 Are all setbacks and building restriction lines

shown?

7 .0 Are all existing on-site and off-site easements

shown?

8.0 Are proposed easements shown (approximate

widths and locations)?

9.0 Are off-site easements required for the project?

C. Storm Drainage

1.0 Have the horizontal placement and sizing of storm

sewer and storm structures been performed?

2.0 Has select profiling been performed to determine

possible vertical conflicts between utilities?

3.0 Have all existing storm drainage outfalls been checked

for adequacy?

FIGURE 4.40 Example of a preliminary engineering checklist.

312 i@Uhili F%MUMll·ili¥%:W:i\ili41iM
D. Stormwater Management

1.0 Has storm water detention facility(s) been sized to

achieve the required quality and release rate?

2.0 Has the spillway capacity been determined?

3.0 Has a preliminary dam break analysis been

performed?

E. Floodplain

1.0 Is there a floodplain present?

2.0 If so, has it been modeled using field-run topography?

F. Grading/ Earthwork

1.0 Has a grading study been performed?

2.0 Has an earthwork analysis been performed?

3.0 Have the soils been evaluated?

G. Wastewater Collection / Wastewater Treatment

1.0 Is public sanitary sewer available to the proposed

project?

2.0 If so, is there capacity in downstream sewer and

treatment facilities for the proposed improvements?

3.0 Have the horizontal placement and sizing of sewer been

determined?

4.. 0 Has select profiling been performed to determine

possible vertical conflicts between utilities?

5.0 If public sanitary sewer is not available, what method

will be used for wastewater treatment?

H. Water Distribution / Water Treatment

1.0 Is public water service available to the proposed

project?

2.0 If so, is there adequate pressure in the existing system

and are the fire flow requirements met?

3.0 If public water is not available, what method will be

used for water supply?

I. Erosion and Sediment Control

1.0 Has a general erosion and sediment control program

been determined for this project?

J. Cost Estimates

1.0 Have preliminary costs been determined for the

proposed improvements? If so, list them .

2.0 Have fees associated with the development program

been determined? If so, list them.

FIGURE 4.40 (Continued)

 4.4 ■ SCHEMATIC DESIGN 373

K. Miscellaneous

1.0 Are any waivers and/or modifications to local design

standards and zoning ordinances required?

2.0 Are there any wetlands and/or other environmental

constraints associated with this site?

3.0 Is gas service available to this project?

4.0 Is electric service available to this project?

5.0 Is telecommunication service available to this project?

FIGURE 4. 4 D (Continued)

provide a reasonable construction cost estimate. These esti- 6. Soils and geotechnical costs
mates should be accurate to within 10% to 15%, with better
7. Stormwater management systems
accuracy occurring during final design efforts.
After the preliminary development plans have been 8. Storm drain
approved, detailed engineering and preparation of construc- 9. Sanitary sewer
tion documents will commence. There are costs associated
with these procedures and they can vary greatly depend- 10. Water supply
ing on the type of project and client (private or public). An 11. Other utility (power, gas, communication)
estimate design cost (effort to completion of final design)
should be prepared as part of the preliminary cost estimate 12. Professional fees
in order to provide the developer with an accurate idea of 13. Financial fees
the project's cost to complete-both in terms of design and
construction. 14. Contingency allowance
A checklist should be prepared listing all cost items; the 15. Other miscellaneous
checklist for the preliminary estimates should be at least as
inclusive as that employed for the detailed feasibility estimate. Land Costs. Land costs are usually expressed in dollars
It is critical that the engineer and the client agree on the units per acre and are provided by the owner-or this information
of measure to be used for each of the elements included in the may not be shared with the design team. If provided, this
estimate. The unit of measure may be obtained from a source is the line item within the estimate where the initial cost or
such as the State Department of Transportation, Department price paid to the former owner for the parcel is accounted.
of Public Works, or any other public sector entity engaged in Since the price is usually determined on an area basis, it is
construction or bond review/approval. Private projects may critical that a complete boundary survey be done to deter-
not always coincide with public specifications. The devel- mine the exact parcel size. Boundary surveys were described
oper may require the units of measure in a certain format for in Chapter 3.2.
loan application purposes or for analysis by his contractors; For complete land cost calculations, the cost of the deed,
thus, it is important to have a mutual understanding of the title insurance and any transfer taxes should be included in
cost estimate format. the estimate. Real estate commissions are usually paid by the
The elements that should be included in the preliminary seller but this should be verified since they can be as high as
estimate are more detailed than those in the feasibility esti- 6% to 8% of the selling price.
mate. These estimates have categories for both hard costs Possible rezoning, special exceptions, and other amend-
(construction of physical features) and soft costs (consulting ments or planning processes that are required to permit the
fees, permit fees). The elements to be included are desired land use will be another cost component under the
land cost. For these actions, usually the new land owner's
1. Land costs legal team fees and the cost of any studies (soils, Phase I ESA,
etc.) and design fees through the entitlement approval will be
2. Clearing, grubbing, and demolition
the main cost considerations.
3. Roadway, sidewalk, trail, and bike path Clearing, Grubbing, and Demolition Costs. Typically, the
cost of clearing, grubbing, and demolition is usually a small
4. Lighting, traffic signals, and signage
portion of the total cost of construction. Most clearing quan-
5. Grading and earthwork tities may be estimated on the basis of square yards or for
374 i@Uhili F%MUM\i,i/i¥%:W:i\ili41iM
larger sites, even acres may be appropriate. Depending on the needed should be based on the type of features and place-
nature of the clearing and grubbing (light woods versus heavy ment required by the jurisdiction. Lights and traffic signals
forest versus developed areas such as parking lots) additional are typically priced on a per unit basis, while the associated
costs may be added. Soil remediation or removal to account conduits and wires in-between the units are estimated on
for organic or other unsatisfactory material should also be a linear foot basis. Signage may be priced by square foot,
included in this item. square yard, or in some jurisdictions on a per unit basis.
Where there are a number of structures to be removed, Guardrail and striping are linear foot quantities. Traffic sig-
reused, or salvaged, a demolition plan is recommended in nals and their related equipment should be priced by either a
order to provide direction and clarity for the contractor. The signal contractor or experienced traffic engineer.
cost of the demolition can be difficult to estimate because Grading and Earthwork Costs. Earthwork costs for the
there may not be a history of unit costs from which to draw; various infrastructure elements are usually included in the
there may be certain environmental regulations that require per foot cost of these elements; however, earthwork costs for
specific attention, for example, removal of asbestos, lead, things such as mass, rough, and final grading of the streets
or other identified hazardous and contaminated materials and lots should be estimated separately. The cost of grading
from the building or the site, consequently requiring a spe- for streets and building pads is based on cutting/filling to the
cial subconsultant/ estimator. Demolition costs of buildings desired elevation and compacting the soil to the specifica-
should be estimated based on the number and sturdiness of tions of the soils engineer. The cost of grading building pads
the buildings to be demolished. A contractor expecting to will be charged at a different rate than the rate for grading
be given the demolition contract may be willing to provide streets and parking lots, so it should be listed separately on
an estimate. the cost estimate. They are usually expressed in dollars per
When estimating clearing, grubbing, and demolition cubic yard and include cut, fill, topsoil, borrow, and excess
costs it is important for the engineer to have a thorough (earth hauled off the site). Refer to Chapters 3.4 and 5.4 for
understanding of the proposed construction process in order consideration of earthwork quantity calculations.
to determine the applicable disposal scenarios: waste mate- Earthwork costs can be significant, and earthwork engi-
rial may be hauled and disposed of in an appropriate landfill, neering is not readily understood by the developer. Care
it may be diverted, salvaged, or recycled on- or off-site. The must be taken during design so that, if possible, phasing of
disposal scenario will affect prices assigned to haul routes, construction can be done to construct first in areas of cut so
landfill dumping fees, and on-site sorting, storage, and treat- that earth can be moved to areas of fill without a secondary
ment of materials. For projects where green building certi- storage step or in the worst case, earth moved off-site only
fication is desired, waste management is one of the metrics; to be brought back later for fill. Also, considerations should
a waste management plan addressing the disposal scenarios be made if rock or groundwater is shallow on the site. The
should be scoped and developed by an experienced profes- engineer may consider raising the grade of the proposed
sional in order to accurately determine and effectively man- site to eliminate the need to rip or blast through rock and
age costs in this category. may need to include provisions for dewatering, groundwa-
Roadway, Sidewalk, Trail, and Bike Path Costs. Costs are ter diversion, or soil drying. Earthwork costs at this stage
usually expressed in dollars per linear foot for roads, streets, of plan development should be based on the most accurate
alleys, sidewalks, trails, and bikeways/multi-use paths, and earthwork model available and the available geotechnical
a lump sum or square yard cost for parking lots. The scope information.
of work included in linear features should be clarified since Soils (Rocks) and Geotechnical Fees. The type of soils
there could be many separate items included in a linear foot found on the project site can affect project construction
unit cost, including earthwork, pavement, aggregate for the costs. The types of soil can cause significant costs because of
base and subbase course, curb and gutter, and underdrains. the need to change the existing soil characteristics. If a sig-
In addition, if appropriate, the costs associated with street nificant portion of the soils cannot be made compatible with
and lot lighting, street trees and landscaping, and signs and the proposed development program or it needs to be treated
signals should be included if they are not accounted for as to make it compatible, the costs for replacing the existing
separate items. soils or treatment can be extreme. Excavation and the provi-
Pavement costs are usually expressed in dollars per ton sion of sufficient suitable backfill can also increase costs.
of asphalt pavement or per square yard per inch of depth for The presence of rock on the proposed site can also have a
concrete pavement and either cost is usually a considerable tremendous effect on the construction cost. If excavation of
portion of the roadway cost. The traffic count or anticipated rock is necessary, blasting may be required.
traffic load will dictate the street width and pavement design. Stormwater Management Systems Costs. Similar to ero-
It is important to verify the sidewalk or trail requirements of sion control, jurisdictions are adopting more stringent
the jurisdiction early in the design process. stormwater management system requirements. In some
Lighting, Traffic Signals, and Signage Costs. The cost of cases these systems can equal or exceed the costs of the
installing traffic signals, signing, lighting, guardrail, and traf- storm drainage system. Included in this item are the costs
fic markings should be included. An estimate of the number for both water quality and quantity control facilities. Given
 4.4 ■ SCHEMATIC DESIGN 375

the wide range of facility types from natural systems includ- Sanitary Sewer Costs. Sanitary sewer costs are usually
ing detention and retention ponds, bioretention gardens/ expressed in dollars per linear foot. In some cases a land
basins, and infiltration trenches to manufactured or tech- development project may require a sewage treatment facility
nology based systems such as sand filters, oil/grit separators, or an existing facility may require enhancements due to the
and filter inserts, pricing these facilities is highly specific and construction of the project. It may be necessary to install a
difficult to generalize. Dam construction for ponds or other sewer main with a capacity exceeding the need of the project
embankments may have specific geotechnical requirements to accommodate future development. In cases when excess
that might require importing material that meets applicable capacity is required, the responsible agency should partici-
specifications. pate in the cost sharing.
Natural systems must be priced to include excavation, The basic sanitary sewer costs include the piping, laterals
grading, and embankment construction as well as spillway to the property line (or building sewer), manholes, drop con-
and outlet structures, inlet and outlet protection, underd- nections, ejection pumps, and special structures. Restoration
rains and dewatering devices, landscaping, and access pro- costs such as seeding and/or sodding should be included
visions including roads, paths, fencing, gates, and signage. if the pipe is placed outside the hardscape section. As with
Most of these items are unit quantities; however, there is storm drains, costs for sanitary sewers can be reduced by
a wide range of data available for cost estimating specific keeping pipe lengths and sizes to the minimum, locating the
SWM facility types (bioretention, infiltration trenches, wet trenches at shallow depths, and minimizing the number of
ponds, etc.) on a cubic yard, square yard, or acre-foot basis. structures. Additional cost items include rock excavation,
When it is jurisdictional or client preference to estimate in roadway crossings, additional vertical depth (excavation and
this manner, the unit prices should be verified, if possible, structure section), and jacking/boring/tunneling. Existing
with contractors experienced in the construction of these utility crossings must be considered and accounted for as
types of facilities. described above in the storm drain section.
The costs for manufactured systems are best garnered Green building techniques have encouraged the on-site
directly from the vendor; the engineer should inquire about treatment and reuse of grey/black water thus reducing the
the system, delivery, and installation costs. Additional or demands on conventional sanitary sewer and sewage treat-
supplemental features such as manholes, inlets, underdrain, ment facilities. While the conventional costs including
signage, and maintenance access provisions may still need to impact or tap fees may be removed or avoided, it is equally
be cost estimated separately. important to accurately cost the new technologies imple-
Storm Drain Costs. Storm drain costs are usually mented to treat and reuse the wastewater; estimating the cost
expressed in dollars per linear foot of constructed pipe or of a green building sanitary treatment/reuse system requires
on a per structure basis for items such as inlets, manholes, the engineer to work with the MEP engineer to account for
and junction boxes. Quantities for storm drain items includ- all components and ensure the costs are assessed either with
ing inlet and outlet structures as well as conveyance items the site or in the building (and not double counted). Regard-
(pipes, swales, ditches) should be derived directly from the less of the design approach to sanitary sewer the design
preliminary plan. must be code compliant and accounted for in the estimate.
Included in this cost is the pipe itself, culverts, inlets, Depending on the technology, manufacturer input is likely
manholes, headwalls, endwalls or end sections, outlet protec- the best source for unit price information.
tion, energy dissipation devices, special drainage structures, Water Supply Costs. If the water supply company will be
underdrains, box culverts, rock excavation, and special pipe installing the water systems, the cost of providing water ser-
bedding if needed. Additional costs include backfilling and vices should be based on their estimates. If the responsibil-
any site restoration costs, hauling of excavated material, and ity for the design and construction of the water supply and
seeding (or sodding) if the pipe is placed outside a hardscape distribution system is with the engineering consultant, an
section. Costs of storm drains can often be reduced through estimate must be developed. As with sanitary sewers, costs
implementation oflow impact development (LID) techniques for water distribution systems are expressed in dollars per
including provisions for porous pavement or other infiltration linear foot. If a water supply and treatment facility, such as a
facilities, use of natural channels/swales, utilizing the mini- well, package plant, or a special pumping facility is needed, it
mum adequate pipe size, using the least number of drainage is recommended that the site engineer utilize the services of
structures, and pipe depths set as shallow as possible. a professional that is experienced in this specialty to provide
If the proposed storm drain crosses existing utilities the the cost estimate. Other items included in the water distribu-
vertical locations must be thoroughly investigated to ensure tion costs are valves, hydrants, water service line, firelines,
system compatibility. If there is a conflict in vertical loca - blow off and air releasers, and tees and pumps. Cost mini-
tions, redesign and/or relocation efforts must be scoped mization methods are similar to storm drains and sanitary
and included in the cost estimate. Utility relocation fees are sewer design, and the elements included in the estimate are
usually substantial, thus they should be identified during pipes, laterals services, fittings, water meters, thrust blocks
the planning and design process in order to be estimated and anchors, and special structures such as valve vaults. Tap
accurately. fees should also be accounted for in this cost item.
37& i@Uhili F%MUM\i,i/i¥%:W:i\ili41iM
Other Utility (Power, Gas, and Communication) Costs. Most plant material including trees, shrubs, perennials,
Other utility costs such as gas mains, fuel transmission and annuals are measured on a per unit basis. Seeding appli-
pipelines, electric supply, telephone, fiber optic, and cable cations are typically estimated based on an area of coverage
television should be included. There may be a requirement and/or the specified application rate. Hardscape including
(or desire) that overhead power and communication lines pavers (brick, concrete, or asphalt) is estimated based on
be relocated underground, thus requiring a conduit system. area; typically square foot or square yard depending on the
There may also be a need for equipment such as transformers application. Fences are measured in linear feet and retain-
and substations which may increase cost and require ease- ing walls or other decorative walls are usually included
ment provisions. Some utility companies pay for the instal- based on square face footage. Topsoil, mulch, and other soil
lation for their utilities (set transformers and pull cables), products are volume-based quantities-cubic feet or yards.
some look for the developer to pay costs either entirely or Specialty aesthetic features such as signage and lighting can
on a pro-rated basis depending on the foreseeable develop- vary greatly depending on the specific application and quan-
ment in the community. Given the great variation in prac- tity and may be measured as per unit or often lump sum for
tice amongst different utility providers, the first step in cost the installation. Quantities can usually be determined from
estimating this item is to determine design/construction the plant schedule and details and/or the preliminary plan.
responsibility: often the developer is responsible for design Quantities should be reviewed after construction documents
and construction of the "pathway" (i.e., conduit systems) are prepared to ensure accuracy.
subject to the utilities' approval as well as base and aesthetic In addition to the proposed construction items, the cost
features such as concrete pads, landscaping, fencing, or other estimate may need to include a cost for existing plant mate-
screening devices. Conduit is typically priced on a linear foot rial to be maintained and any special treatment associated
basis while structures in the conveyance system are priced as with the preservation effort (trimming, aeration, etc.) as well
"each'' or per structure. as repairs to any landscape items damaged during construc-
The utility companies themselves, which can be either tion or that die-off during the warranty period.
public or private companies, can best supply the cost esti- Recreational Facilities Costs. Many times the develop-
mates for their facilities. An estimate should be included ment of a project will include the cost of recreational facili-
for these facilities if feasible. There are often additional fees ties. These may be proposed by the developer to enhance the
beyond the infrastructure costs that need to be considered project's vitality or in an attempt to seek support for approval
(inspections, connection, bonds, etc.). Crossing these exist- of the development. In addition, the approving jurisdiction
ing utilities is typically easily accommodated since the cover may impose additional recreational facilities during the enti-
requirements, horizontal, and vertical offsets for these utili- tlement process. These facilities may serve only the proposed
ties are fairly flexible as they are not gravity driven. Regard- development or may serve additional users outside the proj-
less, relocation costs for other utilities should be examined ect. For example, the jurisdiction may require the dedica-
and accounted for especially when conduit systems are tion of land for a regional park and require the developer to
moved from overhead to underground installations. construct a pond. The jurisdiction could construct the park
Erosion and Sedimentation Control Costs. Cost ele- features such as trails, building and provide for future main-
ments include values for systems such as sediment traps tenance as the public commitment to the park's develop-
and basins, straw and maintenance bales, silt and super silt ment. In this example the pond could serve as the stormwater
fence, berms, gravel for truck wash facilities, inlet protec- detention facility for the project and recreational facility for
tion devices, riprap, dewatering and pumping facilities, seed the jurisdiction. As part of the cost estimating process, only
and sod, and erosion control matting. Similar to other ele- the developer's costs should be included in the cost estimate.
ments of design, proper phasing of construction activities A well-planned development could take advantage of these
can minimize the cost of these facilities. Many jurisdictions features through good initial planning and design.
require these items to be bonded similar to other public Elements which should be included in the recreational
infrastructure components because of the environmental facility costs are park development, sod and/or seeding,
and aesthetic importance of proper erosion and sediment earthwork such as mounding, tennis courts, swimming
controls. Thus in addition to the actual construction cost of pools, basketball facilities, fencing, and tot lots, and any
these facilities, an additional bond amount may need to be landscaping elements not previously included. If there is an
included in the estimate as well. excess of earthwork in the project, good landscape design
Landscaping Costs. Cost estimating in landscaping appli- through the creation of sound berms and mounds in the
cations is best approached by breaking down the landscape park can reduce the costs of hauling away excess, unsuitable
plan into components such as shade trees, ornamental trees, material. On the other hand, if there were a shortage of fill
shrubs, perennials, annuals, ground covers, sod, seeding, and material, sound landscape design would consider lowering
mulch. Other landscape architecture elements that are com- the future park site.
monly coordinated with landscape plans include hardscape Off-Site Costs (Special Costs). In order to serve the devel-
and architectural items such as, gravel, brick and concrete opment with adequate utilities or to adequately direct sew-
paving, fencing, custom signage, and lighting. age or stormwater away from the site, many off-site costs
 4.4 ■ SCHEMATIC DESIGN 377

can be required of the developer. Good engineering design company or at a minimum, involve lost interest for the con-
should identify the condition of downstream outfalls and struction period. Many jurisdictions now permit the poten-
determine any requisite improvements required to these sys- tial partial release of bonds as project phases are completed.
tems. Many times these enhancements are the responsibility While this does not affect cost estimates, it can substantially
of the developer and should be included in the estimated cost reduce the developer's cost and if the engineer can identify
of the project. Care must be used not to prematurely state this possibility and move promptly to get the partial bond
that these are 100% the responsibility of the project devel- release, the client can save in terms oflost interest cost.
opment. In some instances, the case can be made that these Professional Fees. As part of any project, professional con-
benefit adjacent future development or the public in general, sultant fees should be included in any cost estimate since they
and therefore, the costs should be shared. At this stage in the can represent as much as 15% of the project cost. These fees
development, the engineer preparing the cost estimate can include the engineer's, surveyor's, geotechnical, environmen-
make an assumption and use the assumption in his calcula- tal consultants, construction manager's, and architect's fees
tion, but footnotes should be made to identify the assump- as well as attorney expenses. Generally these fees are based
tion and a brief justification of the assumption. on the cost of the facilities, factored by the complexity of the
Special or off-site costs that should be considered are project. Attorney fees vary widely from a lump sum for the
streets and/ or street widening and reconstruction, traffic entire project to an hourly fee. Whatever method is chosen
controls, signalization, bridges, sidewalks, hike/bike trails, to estimate the cost, the assumptions should be clearly stated
stormwater management facilities (in particular, regional in the report that accompanies the estimate.
facilities), landscaping, lighting, and signs. The installation The engineering and architectural fees can be divided
of these off-site features may require temporary construction into two categories: (1) design development (usually up to
easement and permanent easements, which would need to and including the entitlement process, surveying, planning
be negotiated with the landowners-in some cases the cost efforts, and preliminary engineering) and (2) final design
could be minimal, but the landowner may also not be inter- and construction document preparation and permitting ser-
ested in granting an easement. This should be coordinated vices. Construction phase services are typically an "add-on''
early to determine if easement acquisition is cost prohibitive or separate category and should be identified as such in the
and the design should be reevaluated. cost estimate.
Permits and Bonds Cost. On most projects, permits Financial Fees. The inclusion of financial fees in the cost
from the local, and sometimes the state, governments must estimate is best left for the developer to estimate, based on
be obtained before construction can commence. Tap or his particular situation. Financial fees are usually based on a
"hook-up'' fees are common for most utilities and should percentage of borrowed money. Interest charges during the
be included under this item if not accounted for under the life of the project can be substantial if the project has a long
individual utility costs. Many kinds of construction activities history from purchase ofland to completion of construction.
require inspections both during and after construction which The cost of financing may range from 5% to 20% of the total
are intended to provide consistency in construction activi- project cost. These costs should be considered when balanc-
ties and to provide for safety during both construction and ing engineering design effort and time-a solution that has
in system use. a reduced construction cost but takes longer to design and
The permits associated with developing a tract of land construct may result in the developer spending more money
can be numerous. The cost associated with procuring the on loan interest, lost revenue, inflation, or other financial
required permits is one that must be accounted for. Permits impacts.
are usually required for grading, paving, drainage, sewer Contingency Allowance. Allowing for contingencies is an
connections, water connections, electrical and gas connec- elemental part of the estimate of project cost to allow for
tions, wetlands delineation and encroachment, and forest or unforeseen conditions and for variances in design elements.
tree stand delineation, clearing, and impacts. Additionally, There is no prescribed value defined by the industry. The
the local and state governments may have permit require- amount can vary by the complexity of the project and the
ments based on regional considerations. Generally, the fees anticipated time for completion. It is common to see con-
charged by the reviewing agency are structured to recover tingencies used from 5% to 30%. If the engineer is unsure of
their costs for review of plans and inspection, but some gov- the contingency to allow, it is recommended that a minimum
ernments use these fees as a way securing additional general of 15% be utilized. If the developer disagrees, the amount
revenue. In any case, it is the responsibility of the engineer to can be altered by the developer. However, it is recommended
carefully identify all fees for the required permits. that the site engineer's original contingency used by the engi-
On most projects of substantial size, the developer and/ neer be documented in the project files. If the project is to be
or contractor must post a surety bond and in some cases a phased over numerous years, the cost of escalation should
conservation bond (covering E&S, landscaping, and other affect the contingency, or alternatively a separate line item
natural site features to be installed or protected) to ensure can be included for inflation.
adequate construction quality. While this bond is returned at The notes to the cost estimate are particularly important.
the end of the project, it can involve a loan from a bonding Any assumptions used in making the estimate should be
310 i@Uhili F%MUM\i,i/i¥%:W:i\ili41iM
clearly explained, including indication if the costs used are at Construction Cost Index, and the Building Cost Index. Each
current value or include an inflation factor. index is widely used throughout the U.S. construction indus-
Other Miscellaneous Costs. Other miscellaneous costs try as a benchmark for measuring inflation. These indexes
should be included if pertinent. Consideration should be can also be used to contemporize and correlate aged cost
made to such items as marketing analysis, maintenance data with the base year of the estimate.
cost of project elements constructed but not accepted by the Additionally, some public agencies will publish the bids
operating agency until later and other costs not accounted from recent projects, which may provide insight into cur-
for in any previous section. These might include such items rent unit costs-but the format and scope of the unit cost
as environmental mitigation and special landscaping costs. items can vary across projects and should be considered. For
The site engineer should elaborate on the possible costs example, one contractor may establish a bid for pipe that only
that are not included, such as sound walls, environmental include the pipe material (with a separate unit price for trench
impact reports, and soil reports. Where the facilities required excavation, bedding, inspection, backfill, and stabilization)
are oversized, the jurisdiction may give partial reimburse- whereas another bid might show an all-inclusive installation
ment to the developer for improvements larger than what is price. Other sources for cost guides include specialized trade
needed to serve the project. When this is the case, the antici- associations such as the American Concrete Pipe Association
pated reimbursement should be described. Costs that con- and the Iron and Steel Institute, among numerous others. All
stitute refundable deposits, such as are sometimes required these guides are only that; the unit prices should consider that
for water meters until the building is occupied, should be conditions vary from region to region, and in fact, from proj-
listed. Other costs include meeting current fire safety codes; ect area to project area within the same jurisdiction.
handicapped access (current ADA requirements); other These costs may (and should) be refined again through-
building code requirements retroactively required for exist- out the design process, but thoroughness is necessary from
ing buildings which are part of the development subject to the beginning, as the economic success of a project is often
reconstruction/remodeling; temporary vehicle, bicycle and closely tied to the preliminary cost estimates.
pedestrian access modifications to accommodate construc- Value Engineering. An important part of preliminary
tion activities; parking modifications required to accom- engineering is determining the most economical approach
modate the contractor during construction. Restricted site to design and construction without significantly altering
access, limited material storage space, and a remote loca- the development program. The process of economizing the
tion may add to the cost of a project. For those projects that development program is termed "value engineering" and
require an archeological survey, up to 1% additional fee may should be accomplished before final engineering. For some
be needed to cover these costs. design teams, the value engineering work will continue into
Sources of Unit Cost Data. A developer may have histori- final design details and alternatives are evaluated.
cal cost data associated with prior development projects or The main purpose of value engineering is to identify
they may refer to the engineer to determine the appropri- cost saving opportunities to the developer. This effort may
ate cost data. While there are several sources of information, include members of the project team, such as the architect
a good cost estimate requires a thorough understanding and planner, public agency reviewers, the project attorney, the
of means and methods, market conditions, and schedule construction manager, and the developer/builder. During a
impacts. It is common for a contractor (or professional esti- typical value engineering review, it might become apparent
mator) to provide estimating and consulting services during that the site elevation should be raised or lowered to balance
this phase of work. the earth materials, based on the preliminary grading and
There is published information generally identified as earthwork calculations. Reconfiguring lots may reduce street
"Guides to Construction Costs:' These include Building lengths, and utility requirements. Perhaps regrading or add-
Construction Data by the R. S. Means Company, the Dodge ing retaining walls might preserve more open space and trees.
Reports published by the F. W. Dodge Company, and Performing a value engineering study during the pre-
Engineering News Record published by McGraw Hill. Engi- liminary engineering phase allows design and cost issues
neering News Record, as a service to its readers, compiles and to be reviewed and potential options to be identified prior
publishes an extensive amount of data on material prices to final design. This gives an opportunity to make design
and construction labor costs. A small amount of this data adjustments with less impact to the schedule and the effort
is then used to calculate two monthly index figures, the required to complete the design.
 CHAPTER 5

FINAL DESIGN

Chapter 5.1 focuses on the final design phase of the project, different tools used for developing a grading plan. Earthwork
which begins after the preliminary design phase (Chapter 4) methods and adjustment considerations are identified in this
has been completed. Until this phase, the design efforts have chapter; the earthwork values will often influence the grad-
focused on refining the layout to satisfy the development pro- ing strategies.
gram. During this final design phase, it's necessary to under- Chapter 5.5 uses the stormwater fundamentals from
stand how a site plan is organized and how design information Chapter 3.5 to provide detailed calculation processes and
should be formatted for a plan. Additionally, the process for example problems for hydrology and hydraulics. Both
plan submission, review, and approval is described. the rational and Natural Resources Conservation Service
Chapter 5.2 extends on the base map information pre- (NRCS) methods are detailed. The process for designing a
sented in Chapter 3.2. During final design, the base map stormwater management system, including a design example
information is refined with survey obtained specifically for of a detention pond, is included in this chapter.
the project (in contrast to the early base map data that likely Chapter 5.6 is separated into parts A, B, and C to focus
used GIS or other public information). This chapter identi- on utility system design of storm drainage, sanitary sewer,
fies what the design team should be evaluating when review- and water distribution, respectively. Building from the fun-
ing existing conditions and identifies survey processes. damentals of Chapter 3.6, this chapter focuses on computa-
Chapter 5.3 provides detailed roadway design informa- tions used for designing specific system components. Sizing
tion that builds from Chapter 3.3, which introduced parts computations for various utilities are provided for use in sys-
of the road system. This chapter includes design equations tem design.
used for horizontal and vertical road design. Additionally, Chapter 5.7 introduces erosion and sediment control.
strategies are identified to describe how to develop the best These controls are designed during the final engineering to
designs for roadway systems. focus on managing the site conditions (specifically storm-
Chapter 5.4 builds on the grading strategies introduced water) during the construction phase of work. To properly
in Chapter 3.4. The grading methods are separated into two design erosion and sediment control processes, it's necessary
categories: residential (or lot grading for subdivisions) and to understand the sequence of construction for the proposed
nonresidential (retail, office, etc.). This chapter identifies the project and consider intermediate construction conditions.

PRE-DESIGN DESIGN POST-DESIGN

CHAPTER2 CHAPTER3 CHAPTER 4 CHAPTER 5 CHAPTER 6

Due Dilligence Site Analysis Conceptual & Final Design Permits &
Schematic Design Construction

FIG uRE 5 . 1 A The land development design process.

379
 CHAPTER 5.1

COMPONENTS OF A SITE
PLAN AND THE APPROVAL
PROCESS

5.1.1. Introduction accurately and efficiently coordinate project interface points.

Final design is the phase where the project goals, intents, and Such interfaces occur between the building and the site
any sustainable or innovative design strategies (as identified systems, as well as private property and public rights-of-way.
in the development program in Chapter 2) are fully inte- Key design elements such as location, size, elevations, material
grated and detailed in the site plan. The collaborative effort preference, maintenance responsibility, and easement require-
required to detail, specify, and incorporate such strategies is ments must be reconciled among the various involved parties
extensive; however, efforts in this phase will improve plan to package all plans together in a single, coherent bid, permit
clarity and facilitate construction of the project. document, and/ or construction drawings. Other design team
The final design phase is predominantly a detailed engi- members will be responsible for producing their own design
neering effort. By this phase, most of the planning and documents for their work for the project that is included in
program work has been completed (during conceptual and this larger package, referred to as construction drawings in
schematic design efforts, as identified in Chapter 4). The this book (for more information see Chapter 6.2).
final design effort focuses on the technical details of the Traditionally, there was a strict divide between site and
project as the site plan (and related permit documents) is building design: the building team would design to 5 feet
prepared for submission and review. Each infrastructure outside the building where the site engineer would take
system (roads, grading, stormwater, utilities, etc.) must be responsibility. Today, these design divides are dissipating
accounted for, coordinated, and designed with respect to as building and site systems become more integrated; this
the requirements of the developer and the governing agency. integration has occurred largely because of sustainable or
Sufficient information in the form of drawings, computa- green design efforts. For instance, stormwater collection
tions, details, narratives, and specifications must be provided and treatment systems that support landscape irrigation
such that regulatory agencies can review and approve final efforts and/or building nonpotable water needs represent
site plan and contractors can implement the intended design. a co-mingling of site stormwater design with building
At this phase, major changes to the designs or requirements plumbing design. This type of system interaction is not
will trigger significant rework and often result in project uncommon for projects pursuing the higher levels of green
delays. The final design effort relies heavily on the research, building certification, and it extends beyond just storm-
communication, and design efforts of earlier project phases. water and plumbing systems to include nearly every infra-
During final design, it is important to maintain close structure system.
and constant communication with other design team mem- The product of the final design is an approved site plan.
bers [architects, MEP (mechanical, electrical, plumbing) The approved site plan is used for final cost estimating,
engineers, landscape architects, utility providers, etc.] to permitting, and construction. The information required

380
 5.1 ■ COMPONENTS OF A SITE PLAN AND THE APPROVAL PROCESS 381

for approval of a site plan (and ultimately a site permit that Survey plat: The survey plat (or plats) focus on the pro-
allows for land disturbance) can vary by jurisdiction. Some posed boundary and easement conditions for the project
jurisdictions may issue a permit for land disturbance based site (and possibly adjacent sites). The easement and
solely on the content contained with the site plan, while boundary lines depicted in the plat should match the site
others will require additional information (e.g., geotechni- plan information, but the plat is formatted for recorda-
cal report, traffic plans, survey plat, landscape plan, etc.) tion purposes.
before a permit is issued. More information about permits is
Specifications: Some projects may reference standard
discussed in Chapter 6.1.
specification from a local DOT or jurisdiction, but in
In addition to the final site plan, the following design infor-
many cases a set of specifications is developed and pack-
mation is often included with the construction documents:
aged separate from the drawings. Refer to Chapter 6 for
Photometric plan: A photometric plan, or illumination more information on specifications.
plan, is developed by a qualified professional that identi- Supplemental site design: Additional plan sheets may be
fies the fixtures for site lighting along with a photometric developed by the design team to provide additional infor-
analysis of the lighting levels. mation to a contractor or owner. This may include plans
Landscape plan: Often included in the site plan, but for a temporary sales office or construction trailer site.
prepared by a landscape architect, the landscape plan
Again, within this book, the site plan is referred to as the
identifies proposed vegetation and details in hardscape
design documents specific to site engineering, which are
features (patios and plaza) and site furnishings (seat-
reviewed by a local jurisdiction in the process of obtaining of
ing, rails, stair finishes, etc.). This plan may also include
a site permit. The final site plan is used for obtaining permits
tables of vegetation quantities, cover calculations, and
and may also serve as the only design documents for site work.
preservation plans.
In most cases, other information is included with construc-
Architectural and building plans: Plans prepared by tion documents (such as building plans, traffic management
the building team (architect, mechanical, electrical, plans, and geotechnical reports). In some cases, supplemental
plumbing, and structural engineer). These plans often site design information is also included with the construction
have their own specifications applicable to the project. documents to provide design information that is not necessary
The designs will be exchanged regularly with the site for permit but is necessary for construction. The supplemen-
engineer to ensure the building details are coordi- tal site design information may include enhanced landscap-
nated (grading, door locations, footprint, utility con- ing, details for site furnishings, interim phasing conditions, or
nections, etc.). other design information necessary for project completion.
Refer to Chapter 6.2 for more information.
Traffic studies and plans: These project documents
include additional information pertaining to the
maintenance of traffic during construction opera- 5.1.2. Components of a Site Plan
tions and studies used for the basis of proposed road A site plan set includes a series of design sheets that provide
improvements. the contractor with the information necessary to construct
the land development project. In contrast with the prelimi-
Signage plans: Specialty site signs (as opposed to nary plans (defined in Chapter 4.4), the final site plan includes
traffic signs) are often developed for retail cen-
100% of the information required for permit and construc-
ters, campus settings, and residential communities.
tion. Jurisdictions may have different permit titles for the site
These designs are often customized and developed
plan set, and the organization of a plan set may vary across
later in the design phase (often by architects or
firms, but generally a site plan set includes the following:
manufacturers).
1. Cover sheet
Geotechnical plan and report: A site plan will generally
include some geotechnical information to support 2. Abbreviations, notes, and legend
infrastructure design (such as pavement, walls, building
foundations, and slope requirements), but a geotechni-
3. Existing conditions and demolition plan
cal report is often authored separate from the design 4. Site plan
documents.
5. Water distribution
Utility reports: In addition to the computations
6. Sanitary sewer
provided with a site plan document, a drainage report
may be required to provide additional detail on pro- 7. Storm drainage
posed utility designs that are shown in the site plan.
8. Stormwater management
Similarly, computations for water and sewer service
may be required. 9. Erosion and sediment control plan
302 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
10. Landscape plan For large projects, it is common to see different chapters
in the plan and use the other sheet designators to separate
11. Geotechnical
groups of information related to the chapter. For instance,
12. Miscellaneous letters if Chapter 4 is meant for the road design sheets of a new
development:
Projects may include varying levels of information within
the plan set, and plans can range from a few pages to hun- • C4.101-Typical Sections
dreds of pages based on the complexity of the project and the
design requirements. Page numbers may be sequential, could • C4.102-Typical Sections
follow NCS (National CAD Standards), or follow a system • C4.201-Road Plan & Profile
prescribed by a design firm. A nonsequential numbering
system allows new information to be added in the middle • C4.202-Road Plan & Profile
of a plan set without changing the page numbers of all other • C4.203-Road Plan & Profile
sheets. An example numbering scheme is listed as follows:
This example is based on NCS guidelines and organizes • C4.301-Intersection Sight Distance Profiles
the plan into sections and considers multiple disciplines • C4.401-Turning Movements
through the prefix (G for general, C for civil, L for landscape,
B for geotechnical, R for reference, etc.): • C4.402-Turning Movements

• Cover sheet (not numbered) • C4.50 I -Marking & Signage Plan

• ClOl-Abbreviations, Notes, & Legend • C4.502-Marking & Signage Plan

• C201-Existing Conditions & Demolition • C4.601-Road Details

• C301-Site Plan When organizing a plan set, it's important to consider

o C302-Grading Plan how the information will be used. In most cases, a plan set
will be reviewed by different agencies that focus on one infra-
o C303-Site Details structure element, such as a water authority, a department of
• C40 I-Water Plan & Profiles transportation, or a fire marshal. During construction, the
plans will also be used by different subcontractors that may
o C402-Water Details specialize in one infrastructure element. It's often useful to
• CS0l-Sanitary Plan & Profiles organize the plan such that the layout, notes, and details are
within the same section. A site plan is not meant to be subdi-
o C502-Sanitary Details vided, but grouping specific infrastructure elements is often
• C601-Storm Drainage appreciated by reviewers and contractors. Most computer-
aided design (CAD) software includes a sheet management
o C602-Storm Details system, which is helpful in managing sheet references across
o C603-Storm System Computations pages.
Each jurisdiction may have requirements as to what
• C701-Stormwater Management constitutes a full set of plans and the format of the plan set.
o C702-Stormwater Details In general, construction-related information is assembled in
logical order toward the front of the plan set, and the noncon-
o C703-Stormwater Quality/Quantity struction information (administrative letters, calculations,
Computations etc.) is placed at the end of the plan set. The plan sheets in
o C704-Stormwater Outfall Analysis a typical site plan set will generally fall into five categories:
(1) cover sheet, (2) general information, (3) design sheets,
• C801-Erosion & Sediment Control (Narrative) (4) construction details, and (5) documentation information
o C802-Phase 1 Erosion & Sediment Control (derived from Engineers and Surveyors Institute, 1990).
Cover Sheet. The cover sheet will typically contain a
o C803-Phase 2 Erosion & Sediment Control location (vicinity) map, an index of all sheets, plan identi-
o C804-Erosion and Sediment Control Details fication (title and/or tracking number assigned by the juris-
diction), submitting engineer data, information considered
• L101-Landscape Plan
pertinent to someone seeing the plan for the first time, and
o L102-Landscape Details other general information. Some jurisdictions will require an
original engineer's seal and signature on the plan cover sheet.
• BlOl-Geotechnical Notes
Original seals from other licensed/certified professionals on
• RIO I -Miscellaneous Letters the design team such as the surveyor, geotechnical engineer,
 5.1 ■ COMPONENTS OF A SITE PLAN AND THE APPROVAL PROCESS 383

v·

0 0
0
0 0 0
::..

_:

1. Project title with jurisdiction/location information

2. Developer (or applicant) name and contact information
3. Engineer contact information
4. Sheet index for site plan set
5. Vicinity map with major roads shown/labeled and site location shown
6. Site information (zoning, size, ownership, etc.)

*A jurisdiction may have a standard cover sheet that is required to be used

FIG uRE 5 . 1 B Cover sheet plan content.

landscape architect, and/or arborist may also be required plans. It also would include the plan and profiles of storm
depending on the jurisdiction, scope of the project, and plan water management facilities and overall plans for such items
type. See Figure 5.lB for a sample cover sheet. as water meters, fire hydrants, street lights, street trees, sig-
General Information Sheets. These sheets contain all gen- nage, and other similar types of infrastructure design infor-
eral notes not shown on the cover sheet. Typically, general mation. All public facilities must be documented in the
information sheets contain the plan legend, a list of abbre- appropriate format. Samples of design sheets are provided
viations used, and general project notes. Information sheets throughout Chapter 5.
will also reference the construction applicable specifications. Construction Details and Supplemental Plans. Additional
Tabulations may also be included for such items as parking construction sheets would contain miscellaneous construction
spaces, loading spaces, building data, and other relevant site details such as typical road sections, utility material details,
information. See Figure 5.IC for a sample general sheet with and stormwater management details. It is a common practice
abbreviations, legend, and notes. to show details on the plan set even if they are available from
Design Sheets. Specific construction sheets consist of plan other publications (DOT details, water authority details, etc.)
and profiles of the infrastructure (such as streets, utilities, to help remove ambiguity when the construction team is read-
sidewalks, and trails) as well as grading details and grading ing the plans. The details and requirements from an authority
384 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii

M.,
~-----
-- . -~
--"'~- ......,.

B •- N - ....... _,...
..
. =-~·· 0 =- .L , _ _

..,_ -- <ll

0 0

IS.

' A
u
"
,,
I

1. List of abbreviations used throughout the plan set

2. Legend of line types, symbols, and hatch patterns
3. General notes for construction, survey notes and information, and other
applicable regulatory notes (City, County, DOT, etc).

FI GuRE 5.1C General information sheets plan content.

may change over time, and the record of the applicable details Documentation Information. Plans and documents needed
at the time of construction can provide a reference for future for plan approval include the detailed calculations and meth-
projects. Note that if a detail changes prior to construction, the odology used to design the construction plans. This would
authority will often require the most current detail (even if the include drainage area diagrams and storm water routing
plan was previously approved). calculations used to size the stormwater drainage and man-
Additional plan details associated with the erosion and agement systems as well as floodplain studies. Outfall nar-
sediment control plans, fire lane marking plans, landscape ratives, ditch cross section computations, and storm inlet
plans, traffic marking plans, and geotechnical information computations would also be included. Fire flow calculations
may be included in this category. The erosion and sediment would need to be provided to the fire and water authori-
sheets would include the narrative and notes, sequence of ties. Plan approval documents would also include sight dis-
construction, computations with sediment trap sizes and tance calculations and vehicle turning movement diagrams
siltation or drainage divides, and any details necessary at intersections and critical driveways. Geotechnical (soils)
for installation. The landscaping sheets would include the reports, and other geotechnical information, are also pro-
plant list and landscape construction details. The geotech- vided in plan form as well as in reports if not included in
nical plan sheets would show geotechnical notes, founda- previous sheets.
tion drains, or other geotechnical construction details and In some jurisdictions, verification that appropriate pub-
recommendations. A full geotechnical report is sometimes lic notices have been sent and permits from other agencies
necessary and often included in its entirety with the plan obtained is also needed. Other correspondence and sup-
submission. porting nonconstruction data sheets would include such
 5.1 ■ COMPONENTS OF A SITE PLAN AND THE APPROVAL PROCESS 385

information as construction waiver requests/approvals, record to or as a component of formal submissions facilitate plan
plats, easement plats, and supporting documents such as pre- consistency and the ability of jurisdictions to process plans
liminary plans and development plans already approved by efficiently as well as protects the professional integrity of
the jurisdiction. Proffer compliance narratives, or develop- the consultants and reviewers who sign, seal, or otherwise
ment condition narratives that may be warranted to describe authorize the plans. Further, the review and approval process
how the conditions have been met, may also be included in the is the official documentation of land use or built environ-
plans or a separate report. ment decisions. Plans, plats, and other documents are legal
instruments that are recorded and available to the public in
5.1.3. Plan Submission perpetuity. Thus the importance of clear, accurate, construct-
Final design efforts work toward producing a final site plan ible plans cannot be emphasized enough. More information
that is used for permitting and construction. Site plans must about quality control is discussed later in this chapter.
be submitted to the local jurisdiction (or other governing Projects pursuing a third-party review such as green-
agency) to obtain approvals through the review process that building certification (as described in Chapter 2.5) should
was introduced in Chapter 2.4. For many developers, an submit all design documentation at this stage of the process.
approved entitlement, as described in Chapter 4.1, is the first Submissions made at this phase allow for early review, and
critical path element of the review process: this is the deter- revisions (if necessary) can be incorporated prior to the con-
mining factor in terms of moving forward with the develop- struction process with minimal impact to overall costs and
ment program and detailed design efforts. The preliminary schedule projections. Depending on the certification sought,
site plan (produced with schematic designs in Chapter 4.4) additional submissions may be required during or after con-
will usually be the first submission reviewed by the juris- struction in order to verify design implementation. Docu-
diction. After entitlement (if applicable), the next critical mentation efforts should continue through construction in
path element is often an approved final site plan (or local order to ensure certification goals established at the start of
equivalent) and permits (to be introduced in Chapter 6.1) as the project are met.
these are required to commence construction.
Given this frontend emphasis on land development ser-
Preparing the Plan Submission. Guided by the jurisdic-
vices, the value of a qualified, local site engineer is evident. tion's administrative regulations and development ordinances
(as discussed in Chapter 2), the plan submittals are the devel-
For instance, some jurisdictions place requirements on when
a project can start (break ground) based on a condition oper's actual representation of the proposed development.
that the plans are available for public review and comment Comprised of drawings and other design information, the
for a set duration (for example, 30 days). If this condition plan sets and submissions show (with increasing detail) the
is missed, the project may be delayed, even if the plans are arrangement of property lines, lots, buildings, infrastructure,
technically correct and approved. and other features that will occupy the site. Plans and plats
Knowledge of the local review and approval process, identify the public and private facilities to serve the intended
refined negotiation skills, and a thorough understanding of uses and provide information on how those facilities will be
project schedules and permit timeframes are important in constructed from grading of the property to connection of
procurement of timely approvals. Depending on the juris- utilities to pedestrian and vehicle access arrangements.
diction, several iterations of plan submission and review Within their review process (as described in
Chapter 2.4), many communities have established three sub-
could be required after the preliminary plan. The number of
iterations is often based on size, complexity, public support, mission checkpoints:
opposition, and jurisdictional regulations. Consultants must • Concept plan (or pre-application)
be prepared to defend their work technically but also under-
stand the necessity to negotiate modifications requested by • Preliminary plan
review staff. In other words, the site engineer must success- • Final plan
fully adhere to project requirements and schedules while
simultaneously balancing jurisdictional working relation- The entitlement review requires a concept plan (optional
ships. It is possible that the requirements introduced during in some jurisdictions) and preliminary plan (as described
review can add cost to the project that will be opposed by the in Chapter 4). The final review then requires a final plan.
developer, but it's the responsibility of the engineer to fol- Therefore, these submission checkpoints generally corre-
low all regulatory requirements and have open discussions spond to the land development design stages of conceptual,
with the developer and review agencies about the impact of schematic, and final design efforts as described within this
changes. Therefore, even at the final design stage, it can be an book.
iterative process as the development review progresses. Before expending significant time and money for the
This phase of the design process is particularly important preparation of final layouts and detailed plans, the devel-
as it is the primary QA/QC (quality assurance/quality con- oper wants assurances that plans will be approved. The
trol) opportunity for the land development team, clients, and various plans submitted with the reviewing agencies during
review staff. Well-defined QA/QC checks (in-house) prior each design phase enables the development team to gauge
3a& i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
whether its interpretations of local policies, regulations, design requirements for the project. The preliminary plan
and standards match those of local government authorities. ensures that the project is in conformance with the local reg-
Otherwise, extensive redesign would be needed. ulations in their development ordinances. It's also possible
For example, some code requirements are subject to that there are other adjacent development projects or planned
interpretation, and different reviewers may enforce different public improvements that could impact the conditions of the
site. These discussions and design considerations should
occur as early as possible in the design phases.
PRELIMINARY Reports, studies, specialty plans, and other miscellaneous
PLAN documents (often reviewed and approved separately from
the plan they support) are needed in a certain sequence or
concurrent with the appropriate design plan submission.
The sequencing is dependent on the type of plan being
submitted and on the requirements of the individual juris-
diction. It's recommended that most of the content (even
backup calculations) should be included within the plan so
that a reference of the design information is compiled in a
single location.
Final Plan. The work for the final plan begins from the
designs that were developed during the preliminary engi-
neering phase of the schematic design. As the details of the
plan are refined, discussions about the project can occur
with more certainty and the project evolves one step further
from preliminary plans to final plans. The final design stage
is represented by the drawings and specifications created by
the design team. The final plan is commonly referred to as
the site plan or subdivision plan depending on the jurisdic-
tion, the proposed use, and other procedural factors. This
book uses the site plan terminology as it focuses on the site
engineering required for a project.
The site plan design document is developed with the
final design efforts that are described in Chapter 5. Addi-
tional information associated with each part of the site plan
(survey, demolition, transportation, grading, stormwater
management, utilities, erosion, and sediment control) is
defined throughout Chapter 5. This final site plan, once
approved by the local jurisdiction, is then used to acquire
permits and prepare for construction, which is defined in
Chapter 6.
Record Plat. In addition to the site plan drawings, the final
site plan design document submittal includes the final record
plat. This plat establishes a public record for the project by
which property will be sold or leased and identifies the final
location of property lines and easements. The record plat
contains extensive notes with respect to ownership, dedica-
tion, completion of public improvements and restrictions.
These affect the chain of title, use and enjoyment of the
property, and serve to notify future owners of their rights
and obligations. Typical information required to be shown
on the record plat includes the following:

• Project or subdivision name and section

BOND RELEASE
• Parcel boundaries, including bearings and distances
as well as the legal description
• Adjoining property lines, including ownership
FIG uRE 5 . 1 D Typical sequence of plan submissions. information
 5.1 ■ COMPONENTS OF A SITE PLAN AND THE APPROVAL PROCESS 387

• Street right-of-way boundaries, including surveyed judgment by design professionals concerning the site and
bearings and distances infrastructure design.
Regulations and procedures for submissions often change.
• Street names both existing and proposed
For this reason, it is beneficial to review the written proce-
• Lot lines, including surveyed bearings and distances, dures as well as to coordinate with the jurisdictional review-
lot and block numbers, lot addresses, building ers on the current process, forms, and requirements. In some
restriction lines jurisdictions, these procedures are typically included in a
subdivision ordinance, site plan ordinance, or within the
• Building footprint for certain types of uses
Development Standards Manual. As previously indicated,
• Existing easements and easements created as a part many jurisdictions welcome a presubmittal conference. It
of the development, including purpose and deed is good practice to take advantage of presubmittal meetings
references and to document discussions (in a Memorandum of Under-
standing, described in Chapter 4.1) and standards; many
• Location of survey monuments and markers
projects take years before the work is completed.
• Conservation and other building-restricted areas, The medium of submission can also vary by jurisdic-
such as septic drainfields tion; some jurisdictions will require several paper copies of
the plan sets, while others are willing to accept electronic
• Ownership declarations and dedications
(PDF or image file) submissions. The electronic submission
• Covenants and restrictions, included reference to is often encouraged as it's a more sustainable practice com-
separate documents in the jurisdiction's public land pared to (hundreds of) printed sheets. Many agencies allow
records (or require) digital professional license sealing of electronic
documents.
• Approval blocks for signature(s) of authorized gov-
It is necessary to adhere to the approval process and
ernment officials
understand the role of each agency that will be reviewing the
• Original seal and signature from the preparing engi- site plan submissions. Prior to submitting plans to a juris-
neer or surveyor dictional agency, it is recommended that the development
team perform an internal review to verify the submission
As-Built or Record Drawings. Although not identified as and design requirements have been met.
a primary checkpoint in the development review process, Internal Reviews. The review process by a public agency
it is important to note that most jurisdictions require the does not relieve the engineer of responsibility for the design.
development team to produce "as-built" drawings (officially The infrastructure codes and ordinances (commonly within
known as record drawings) upon completing construction. the Development Standards Manual of the subdivision ordi-
These drawings usually depict several modifications of the nance as described in Chapter 2.4) are generally viewed as
project's final site plan, intended to reflect field changes by minimal standards to be met. Conforming to these standards
construction activities. These drawings serve two impor- is essential to ensure continuity and compatibility with exist-
tant purposes. First and foremost, they present government ing and future infrastructure, but the responsibility of the
agencies with the final opportunity to verify that construc- project falls to the registered professional who seals the plan
tion complies with local regulations and standards. This is documents. As with all ethical decisions, the engineer sealing
necessary to ensure that systems will function properly and and signing the site plans must make the decision whether he
not cause unanticipated impacts to the larger community. or she is fulfilling their professional responsibility.
Second, the plans facilitate future maintenance and repair, The engineer seal on a set of plans certifies the adequacy
particularly for underground utilities whose location, sizing, of the design with regard to public good and safety. There
and method of construction is otherwise hidden from view. is no such thing as the perfect site plan; the significance
of the engineer's seal and signature is best defined by the
5.1.4. Plan Approval Process state licensing boards. State licensing boards are explicit in
As described within this chapter and in other parts of the the engineer's responsibility to the public: "Engineers shall
book, the site plans and accompanying documents are pre- hold paramount the safety, health, and welfare of the pub-
pared, submitted, and reviewed in a predetermined sequence lic" (National Society of Professional Engineers). They also
of increasing accuracy and detail. This staging of analysis are explicit in stating the engineer's obligation regarding
and design is important. Some jurisdictions require planning competency: "Engineers shall perform services only in the
commission review and approval of preliminary plans. Most, areas of their competence'' (National Society of Professional
but not all, jurisdictions consider final site plan approvals Engineers).
as an administrative act of the staff. Additionally, notifica- Maintenance expense of infrastructure is a major cost
tion of community members and stakeholders is often inte- to public agencies. This is an important reason why public
grated into the approval process. In addition, even the most agencies take a keen interest in adherence to their adopted
prescriptive ordinances allow and necessitate considerable standards and specifications. Even privately maintained
388 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
infrastructure systems influence the publicly maintained As an example case for the second area of focus, con-
system. Additionally, a jurisdiction is interested in projects sider the design of a storm drainage system. The capacity
that improve the quality and welfare of the community, even requirements (design storm analysis) for the system are often
if they are private systems. prescribed by the local jurisdiction. Additionally, each juris-
Quality Control. Quality control of the design of a project diction may have specific format requirements for reporting
is the responsibility of everyone taking part in that design. computations. While the design may be technically correct
Ultimately, the engineer who seals the site plans is account- based on the information provided by the engineer, the
able for the quality of the design. Errors and omissions in a reviewers may not approve the site plans if the format is not
design do not occur because of one team member's work, but in conformance with the applicable standards.
because the quality management system failed. Design firms Many firms will implement a way of tracking lessons
can improve the quality of the design, while also improving learned from project errors and omissions as a measure of
the public agency review process, by instituting a quality- preventing those conditions from occurring again. Addi-
control program. tionally, a list of common errors or best practices is helpful
There are several organizations, such as the Interna- when evaluating a project design.
tional Standards Organization (ISO), that provide guidance The timing of internal reviews can influence the effective-
on the development of quality management systems. Every ness of the review. In early phases of the design, it's best to
firm should have a quality management system. The sys- review the plans to identify opportunities for improving the
tem should be tailored to the firm to promote the use and layout or identifying areas of concern. By the final design
effectiveness. An effective quality management system often phase, a significant change in the layout is challenging (and
includes a reference checklist of critical and common errors costly) and may be resisted by the design team. Additionally,
or omissions, which is used by a designated reviewer. A com- major changes in the final design phase may result in the prop-
mon practice is for an internal plan review to be performed agation of errors throughout the rest of the design documents.
by someone who is not part of the design team; this estab- Schedule is a common enemy of quality if the sched-
lishes the perspective of an external reviewer of the plans, ule is not managed properly. Sacrificing quality to meet
which is a similar position for both the reviewing agencies a submission deadline often results in delayed approvals,
and the contractor. There is a tendency to rely upon the increased design cost for revisions, and additional cost of
reviewing agencies for the design quality control. When this construction rework. Most quality management processes
is done, more time is needed to perform the agency review. A cannot be rushed-adding more people to a project will
public agency should not be burdened with the quality con- often decrease efficiency and increase opportunity for
trol for a design firm. Each professional engineer should be errors. Implementation of a quality management system
responsible and accountable for the published documents. takes time, but the development and effective use will add
There are often two areas of focus for quality review: value to the design of a project, enhance the reputation of
(1) The plans are designed correctly and consider con- the firm, and ultimately result in a better product of the
structability and safety and (2) the plans adhere to the built environment.
requirements of the local jurisdiction. While both crite- Jurisdictional Review. The purpose and requirements for
ria may share common goals, there is a difference between each submission (concept, preliminary, final) differ consid-
them. With the first, there are fundamentals of infrastruc- erably from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. Plans must conform
ture that govern the design of many systems; this review to ordinance specifications for the phase concerning detail,
focuses on design practices that always fall under the required information, scale, number of copies, and support-
responsibility of the engineer, regardless of jurisdictional ing documentation. The site plan package is presented to the
oversight. With the second, there are requirements spe- coordinating office for distribution to the agencies that will
cific to a jurisdiction that must be followed; this process conduct the review. In some jurisdictions, a technician will
promotes expedited review and ensures the design is con- check the submittal to ensure that it is complete; that is, it has
sistent with local expectations. all the necessary information and studies required by the ordi-
As an example of the first area of focus for quality review, nance. In several jurisdictions, there are checklists associated
consider the design of a private roadways system within a with plan applications to ensure completeness of the package.
site. The local department of transportation (DOT) will not The number of reviews and submission can vary by juris-
govern the design of the private road, as they would with diction and plan complexity. In general, the early reviews will
the design of a public road; the engineer is responsible for likely take longer. Some jurisdictions can review plans within
designing a road system that is safe and follows best practices a few weeks, while others may only commit to a period of
of design [based on recognized standards of the industry, several months to turnaround for each submission. It's
such as the American Association of State Highway and likely that a submission will receive comments and require
Transportation Officials (AASHTO)]. The absence of juris- revisions as it's being reviewed, but the final plans should be
dictional comment is not an indication of approval, nor does submitted as if they will be used for construction.
it imply the engineer is relieved of their responsibility of the Many of the agencies involved in early design reviews
design. are also involved in final design review, but the review will
 5.1 ■ COMPONENTS OF A SITE PLAN AND THE APPROVAL PROCESS 389

be more thorough to ensure that all technical requirements use, density, and other dimensional standards requirements.
have been met. As all agencies review the final plans, they In addition, the submittal will be reviewed for compliance
will either approve the submission or issue comments that with the design guidelines and standards in the Develop-
require plan revisions. Comments are often issued as nar- ment Standards Manual of the subdivision ordinance for
ratives provided as a formal letter or as graphic notes on street and lot layout, environmental protection, and other
the plans. Any vague comments should be discussed with planning issues. School districts may also provide input with
the reviewers. When the plans are resubmitted, they should planning review as new demand from residential projects is
include a narrative (often referred to as a comment response evaluated.
letter) that describes how the comments have been addressed Engineering and Public Works. The public works depart-
through plan revisions. ment typically holds responsibility for local streets, storm
The typical agencies involved in the plan review process drainage facilities, sewer and water systems. However, in
include the following: some communities, streets may come under the jurisdic-
tion of a separate transportation department or a state-level
1. Planning transportation agency. Similarly, water and sewer systems
2. Engineering & Public Works may be run by a regional authority serving several jurisdic-
tions. A drainage district may also have a separate level of
3. Department of Transportation (DOT) authority. Other elements of a development may also fall
4. Stormwater within the department's purview, such as placement of sur-
vey monuments and markers.
5. Utilities Department of Transportation. The Department of
6. Fire & Safety Protection Transportation (DOT) will review new public road sys-
tems and the interface of private and public road systems.
7. Health Department The review will include geometric design conditions for
8. Parks and Recreation both new roads and adjustments (e.g., adding turn lanes)
to existing roads. Requirements such as intersection sight
9. Soil Conservation (Erosion and Sediment Control) distance will be verified by the DOT, and there may be
10. Building requirements to adjust other site features to accommodate
road safety (moving proposed trees, signs, etc). The DOT
The different agencies may review the plans concurrently. will also focus on public pedestrian improvements, such
One method for managing concurrent review is for one as trails, sidewalks, and curb ramps. At intersections, the
agency, usually the local jurisdiction, to assume the role of DOT may request exhibits to demonstrate turning move-
"lead review agency;' while other agencies assume the role ments for the vehicles anticipated to use new entrances. For
of "referral agency:' All comments from the referral agencies instance, a grocery store development may be required to
are sent back to the lead agency to generate a consolidated set check turning movements for large delivery vehicles. Other
of plan comments to the developer's engineer. This process reviews for traffic signage, markings, and signalization will
mitigates any conflicting comments. often be processed through the DOT.
In some municipalities, courtesy copies of a submission Stormwater. The review of stormwater systems will often
are sent to elected or appointed officials who represent the focus on the storm drainage network design as well as storm -
area in which the project is located. Occasionally, plans water management systems. This review may be combined
may be delivered to adjoining municipalities in areas where with public works or may operate as a standalone review
regional planning efforts are impacted. Public notices may or agency. As noted in Chapter 3.5, hydrologic calculations
may not be required. If notice is required, as with rezoning rely heavily on an engineer's judgment for variables such as
applications, it may be accomplished by mailing notices to land cover condition, time of concentration, and when run-
adjoining property owners and posting signs on the property off converts from sheet to shallow concentrated flows. The
describing the application. Each agency that receives a pack- review may request clarification of assumptions and state-
age is asked to review the submittal and return comments ments justifying the variables used.
or a marked plan by a certain date. In some municipalities, Utilities. If public utility connections or extensions are
the coordinating agency is required by law to complete its proposed, the local authority will be involved in the review
review and render a decision within a specified time. The of the design. In some cases, the utility provider will be the
engineer should coordinate with the agency to verify that all one to determine whether capacity is available for the pro-
applicable comments have been received. posed utility or whether upgrades are required. During the
Planning. Long-range planning review generally deter- review of the plans, the utility provider will often require
mines whether the street and system layout adheres to design changes based on the preferences or requirements of
development patterns proposed in the comprehensive plan. the utility system. For instance, the adjustment of a waterline
Personnel in zoning administration will determine compli- alignment may be requested to provide additional separa-
ance with zoning ordinance requirements, such as allowable tion from other utilities. An additional valve, vertical bend,
390 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
hydrant, or other utility components may be requested. The Engineer and Review Agency Relationship. Most
Local gas, electric, and telephone companies will be involved jurisdictions recognize the economic benefits of quality
in confirming system adequacy, connections, the placement development. There is generally a conscious effort on the
of utility easements, and coordination of construction with part of administrators to assist those in the land development
the street, water, and sewer contractor. profession. Administrators recognize that responsive staff,
Fire and Safety Protection. Fire protection officials are regulations, standards, review processes, and procedures
frequently involved in the review of site plans to ensure that that support and facilitate land development are more likely
clear and adequate access is provided for emergency vehi- to attract business in that jurisdiction. A simple, predictable,
cles. Placement of water lines, fire department connections, cost-effective, consistent, repetitive, and efficient regulatory
and fire hydrants may also fall under their purview as well process is seen as a prerequisite for attracting development.
as the monitoring of development activity to assist in locat- Even so, there should be a professional relationship between
ing future station facilities. In some jurisdictions, the plan public agency individuals charged with the responsibility to
approval from a water authority may require approval from review and approve site plans and those engineers designing
fire and safety to occur first. Building information is impor- and submitting plans. Many professional engineers believe
tant for fire and safety review to identify building access that their site plans need only be given superficial review in as
points, building heights, and means of egress. much as they are taking full responsibility for the adequacy of
Health Department. The health department reviews sub- their design. They believe that they have provided reasonable
missions generally involving wells, septic systems, swimming degrees of safety and adequate public protection (Bright, John
pools, and other facilities that propose a potential health risk K. 1992). On the other hand, the public agency plan reviewer
to the public. The review will focus on whether the appli- has been given the responsibility to decide when adequacy and
cable regulations have been adhered to. reasonableness have been met. Detailed specific design require-
Parks and Recreation. A local parks and recreation depart- ments adopted by state and local jurisdictions also require that
ment will review site plans to evaluate recreational needs of technical standards be accurately met. Despite potential con-
both the new development and impact on existing facilities. flicts, the goals of both the private and public sectors are the
In some jurisdictions, the subdivision regulations and site same-producing the best possible project for the community.
plan ordinances contain requirements for the provision of
such facilities through either construction or dedication. The 5.1.5. Plan Approval Processing Considerations
nature of any such provision would typically be determined Plan approval is a major step in the land development design
during the rezoning process and reviewed for compliance process. As previously stated, this is necessary before permits
during the entitlement review. This department may also be can be acquired and construction can begin. The final design
responsible for preservation and acquisition of important effort produces the final site plan that must be submitted
environmental areas, such as floodplains and wetlands, the to achieve this approval. This phase continues the iterative
control of which may be included in subdivision regulations. process, not only through the design and engineering work
Preservation of site vegetation may fall under this review as but also through the submission, review, and approval of the
well to evaluate impacts on existing vegetation and compli- project.
ance with landscape design requirements. Jurisdictional Organization for Review. The agency taking
Soil Conservation. The soil conservation district or simi- the lead role in performing plan review varies from jurisdic-
lar entity may review grading and other environmental issues tion to jurisdiction. In larger communities, the planning or
including erosion and sediment control plans. The review public works department is given this responsibility. In some
may identify the need for additional protection measures instances, a multipurpose agency established to adminis-
based on critical areas (steep slopes, nearby natural waters, ter building and environmental regulations will serve this
proximity to other developments, etc.). Based on the size and purpose. In small communities, an individual such as the
duration of the development, the review may also request town manager or engineer (sometimes contracted from the
additional details for sequence of construction. private sector) may be responsible for the review process.
Building. A building department is typically responsible The designated review agency is also generally responsible for
for reviewing grading, utility, and construction plans that coordinating the review of site plans by other governmental and
are included as part of the submittal package. Often, review quasi-governmental bodies. In a typical developing jurisdiction,
of the site plan is intended to ensure that applicable acces- the lead agency distributes copies of the site plan to other agen-
sibility criteria have been implemented along with common cies for review. Most agencies are asked to review submittals to
safety considerations for such things as handrail, fencing, identify the location, adequacy, and availability of services and
and certain material selections (i.e., no-slip surfaces where assess impact on systems for which they are responsible. These
appropriate). Additionally, the building department ensures agencies will also review site plans for compliance with ordi-
consistency between the site plan and building plans at util- nances and standards that they may administer.
ity connection points (building/site interface). This depart- Their role as the technical reviewer is challenging and is
ment will also be involved in project inspection as the project to ensure proper relationships among systems constructed as
proceeds through the construction phase. part of the new development and the community's existing and
 5.1 ■ COMPONENTS OF A SITE PLAN AND THE APPROVAL PROCESS 391

TYPICAL DEVELOPM ENT APPROVAL PROCESS

Planned Unit Development

or Conventional?

Planoed Unit Development

Concept Plan

Planning Commission
Public Hearing

Zoning Commission
Public Hearing

Site Development Plan

Negotiate Development
Agreement t
Traffic Study

Planning Commission
Publlc Hearing

Post Construction Bonds +-

I:

Submit Grading Plans,

Obtain Grading Permit

FIG uRE 5 .1E Generic flowchart for land development projects. (Modified from the National Association of Home Builders.)

proposed patterns and networks. Some agencies receive copies administrative requirements change frequently, it is the
to assist in monitoring developing activity, thereby aiding in responsibility of the engineer to check that the most current
planning and budgeting for workforce and facilities to service issue of the requirements is being used.
future users. Local ordinances frequently define the reporting Administrative requirements facilitate the review process
relationships for this review, specifying whether agency com - by standardizing information supplied with all plans. This
ments are advisory or mandatory to the lead department. The is most helpful in the review process of large jurisdictions
distinction is important to the development team as the differ- processing a multitude of plans from many engineers and
ent departments are responsible for individual programs that surveyors. Since fewer plans are being processed for review
have varied and sometimes conflicting priorities. It is impor- in smaller jurisdictions, there is less need for detailed admin-
tant to know who has the authority to resolve conflicts when istrative requirements.
competing demands confront the developer. Some jurisdictions require the submission of a checklist
Administrative Requirements. Administrative require- indicating the completeness of the plan submission. The check-
ments determine the manner in which plans are submitted list will list all the required documents as well as some items
for review. Typical administrative requirements will dic- that have been frequently omitted in prior submissions. The
tate the types of plans and number of copies needed, plan submitting engineer must check the items supplied and sign
sheet size and standard scale, format of the sets of plans, the checklist. This serves as a check for the engineer as well as
agencies participating in the review process, the sequence facilitates the review process by ensuring that important docu-
of review, required supporting documentation, and general ments that would delay the review have not been omitted.
information needed. Administrative requirements may also Some engineers discount the importance of complying
specify the need for a construction schedule, a cost estimate, with the administrative requirements. They have devoted so
and any time constraints associated with approvals. Since much of their time to ensuring that the project is designed
392 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
within the site constraints, complies with technical require- are often sent by the administrative staff or the developer's
ments, and considers economic constraints that the adminis- representative to interested civic groups, which are then
trative requirements seem trivial. It is important to remember invited to review the plans, discuss their concerns with staff,
that failure to adhere to these requirements can delay the and attend public hearings to place their comments and con-
review process and frequently will result in plan rejection or cerns on the record. In lieu of attendance at a public hearing,
disapproval. Not adhering to the time frames outlined in due interested parties may submit letters to the approving agency
diligence requirements can result in the expiration of the plan, for inclusion in the public record. Since the provisions of the
necessitating a resubmission or even a new legislative approval. subdivision ordinances and site plan regulations are rarely
The public agency rejecting a set of plans will comment free from interpretive discretion, citizen comments often
as to why the plan is being rejected noting the corrections serve to influence the review staff, as is the case in the rezon-
needed. These comments are usually written with a reference ing process. This does not suggest that the development team
to an applicable code. Meetings and conversations with the must employ the same intensity of community relations as
submitting engineer are helpful in establishing direction to for rezoning. However, the team should consider the poten-
secure site plan approval. Once again, failure to follow the tial impacts on adjacent property owners and attempt to
comment requirements of the reviewing agency can result reconcile them with the developer's own requirements. In
in the agency rejecting the plan. Following the suggestions practice, those familiar with the community must judge the
of the reviewing agency and maintaining good professional level of involvement that the residents will seek.
relations will increase the likelihood of site plan approval. Once site plans have been submitted, they can be subject to
Fees. Fees are usually attached to the review process. These review by citizen groups in the immediate area as well as citizen
can be a flat fee for each type of plan or study that is sub- groups set up for the specific purpose of reviewing develop-
mitted or, based on the acreage, number of lots or building ment plans. Jurisdictions see this process as being responsive
floor area, linear feet of roads, sanitary sewers, storm sewers to their citizens. It enables citizens to provide input to the proj-
and water lines, cost estimates of public improvements, or ect that could overcome objections if discovered later during
some other indicator. These fees contribute to the govern- or after construction. Opposition can become a major obstacle
ment agencies' administrative costs in performing submittal or result in delayed project approval; therefore, it is prudent
reviews. Practice also varies as to when the fees are collected. to resolve conflicts with neighboring property owners early in
Some jurisdictions require fees to be paid with each submis- the process. Frequently, careful consideration of the road sys-
sion phase while others require an upfront estimate of the tems, attention to environmental issues (particularly tree pres-
entire development process and maintain an actual account- ervation), additional screening and landscaping, setbacks, or
ing of time spent throughout the life of project. Reimburse- other aesthetic devices are sufficient to eliminate opposition.
ment of excess fees may be due from the developer, or However, it is not always this easy; ameliorating citizen con-
additional payment may be required at project completion. cerns requires communication-most citizens are not familiar
Interactions with Citizens. In most jurisdictions, the pub- with site engineering deliverables, processes, and terminology.
lic community has no formal role in the review and approval Additionally, the development team should consider that the
process. Nonetheless, the community has an important role citizens often hold a unique perspective on the needs of the
in the project, and many jurisdictions will promote commu- community. Many jurisdictions have an appeal period built
nity outreach. While it's often challenging (or impossible) into the approval process; developing a good relationship with
to satisfy all members of the community, it's important to stakeholders may diminish the likelihood that someone will
respect the opinions and views of the citizens. appeal the decision of the approving agency.
Many jurisdictions make notification of the public parties Some jurisdictions have effectively eliminated the subdi-
(adjoining property owners, municipalities, and commu- vision of land by right and have incorporated its review as a
nity associations) a requirement prior to or immediately special exception. Where this process has been implemented,
following submission to the agencies for review. Those the public's concerns have a much more direct impact and the
notices are sent by the applicants or their representatives subdivision process takes on an added dimension more closely,
via registered mail with return receipt request as proof of paralleling the discretionary review of a rezoning application.
notification. In addition to the written notification, some The significant weight accorded citizen comments in a public
jurisdictions require that signs be posted on the project site, hearing places a greater obligation on the development team
stating the project name, type of case and case number, and to identify concerns early in the design process.
a phone number for information. Notifications and postings The development team should be comfortable with
are means of ensuring that every developer interacts with the communicating the project design to non-engineers. This
immediate community on at least a very basic level by pro- requires sincere listening and then responding to (legitimate)
viding neighbors the information necessary to become more citizens' concerns. While communicating with the public it's
informed or involved in the process if they so desire. important to avoid industry jargon and provide graphics that
Frequently, jurisdictions will require the development can be easily understood by those outside the industry of
team to meet with citizens as part of the plan submission land development. The development team can benefit from
process. Some jurisdictions have set up formal processes for these meetings by not only adjusting the design to better fit
this. Notices of scheduled hearings and/or plan submissions into the community but to gain support for the project.
 5.1 ■ COMPONENTS OF A SITE PLAN AND THE APPROVAL PROCESS 393

Meetings with Review Staff. Jurisdictions that encourage these meetings and should have a clear understanding of his
communications between the site engineer and the review staff or her limitations with regard to agreeing to design changes.
prior to plan development recognize the benefit in attracting Of particular concern would be those changes that will have
quality development. The ability of the submitting engineer a financial impact or significantly alter the project.
to understand the regulatory process and subsequently being Incomplete Submissions. Under pressure to meet client
able to move plans through the process in a timely manner deadlines, some designers may be tempted to submit partially
benefits both the development team and the jurisdiction. The completed applications. In some cases, incomplete plans are
sequence of plan type submission, anticipated schedule, and intentionally submitted, and the design team expects the
other important elements can also be determined. reviewers to perform the quality check or essentially finish
A conversation or formal meeting prior to the prepara- the design through review. This practice is unprofessional,
tion or submittal of a site plan can be beneficial. If the design unethical, and burdens the public while also jeopardizing the
team is not familiar with the local process, a request to meet reputation of the design firm.
with the reviewing agency should be made. It is far better to Communities that make a point of checking for complete-
understand the process in advance rather than have to suffer ness before accepting submissions have done so for two rea-
through it by experience. sons: (1) fairness to other developers and (2) reduction of
Public agency reviewers must have a broad technical their own increasing workload. An incomplete plan, or one
knowledge as well as knowledge of the review process. They that suffers from poor quality management, will take longer
are responsible for making recommendations on rezoning to review and process; this requires more public resources
development plans, concept plans, preliminary plans, plat and slows down the processing of other plans. Some juris-
check sheets, grading plans, public improvement plans, waiv- dictions have institutionalized a partial design phase using
ers, subdivision plans, site plans, easement plats, and record a pre-application, which provides the favorable means of
plats. They also review and make recommendations on the reviewing a plan that is still under development.
environmental impact of proposed development, the need Addressing Review Comments. Site plans are distributed
for drainage studies, floodplain studies, and soil studies. They to the various agencies for review and a determination as to
determine street design and alignment requirements. They whether they are in compliance with all appropriate codes.
must have a thorough knowledge of the subdivision provi- In addition to narrative comments, review agencies often
sions, the zoning ordinance, road specifications, and other write comments directly on the plan documents. Following
technical and procedural texts. Consequently, a reviewer can all agencies' review, the site plans are returned to the engi-
reasonably be expected to be able to respond to inquiries of the neer for corrections. The consultant's task is to determine
submitting engineer. However, this does not relieve the engi- those review comments that are actual requirements directly
neer from learning the technical and administrative require- imposed by regulation versus those that are subjective rec-
ments of the jurisdiction in which the engineer is practicing. ommendations. Sometimes, the comments that appear are
Following the initial review of site plans, it is desirable to simply statements oflocal ordinance or policy often without
meet with the reviewing authority to understand the com - identifying the comment is applicable to the site plans.
ments. This will enable the engineer to know specifically what The consultant addresses the comments either by revis-
needs to be changed in the site plan in order to gain approval. ing the design and changing the drawings or by initiating
Some jurisdictions arrange to have a representative from all of discussions with the reviewer. Good access and rapport
the reviewing agencies present at one meeting to better coor- should be established and maintained with the lead reviewer
dinate comments. This allows all questions and concerns to at all times. Some comments may appear inconsequential,
be addressed in one meeting with the appropriate staff. Some but if each and every comment is challenged, the relationship
jurisdictions make these postsubmission meetings mandatory and future projects on which the consultant and reviewer
as they benefit both the development team (providing confi- may have to collaborate may be jeopardized. However, where
dence that the next submission will be approved) and the juris- some of the comments received appear to be improper inter-
dictional reviewers (ensuring the next submission adequately pretations of the regulations, it may be necessary to seek a
addresses the comments). decision from a supervisor or other authority.
These meetings between the submitting engineer and the After the land development team has addressed the com-
public review staff contribute to a strong relationship, even ments by all of the agencies, the site plans are resubmitted for
if it's often argumentative (hopefully while working towards another review. The resubmission gives reviewers assurances
a consensus). There should be mutual respect between the that the initial comments have been adequately addressed
reviewers and the development team. The reviewer has the and changes properly integrated into the original design.
responsibility to ensure that the desired plan changes are When all of the review agencies have had their comments
properly understood and that the design engineer is willing addressed, the final site plans will be approved and authorized
to make those changes. The design engineer has the respon - for the next stage. Noted here is the extent of the liability of
sibility not to compromise the design based on his or her per- the municipality and the site engineer who sealed the plans.
ception of potential harm to the health, safety, and welfare of Although the reviewing agencies have approved the site
the public in violation of the professional engineer's plan cer- plans, the liability of plan correctness still rests with the site
tification. The design engineer is the client's representative at engineer and not the review agency. A plan that is approved
394 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
does not necessarily mean that it is correct or complete, it As stated previously, record drawing plans must be
means the review agency has fulfilled the process require- approved prior to the release or partial release of the con-
ments for the plan-the design engineer is still accountable. struction bond. For this reason, there is usually a critical
Plan Revisions and Record Drawings. It is rare that final site time constraint on the development of the record drawings.
plans do not need changing once construction commences. Durability of Approvals. Completing and securing approval
Changing field conditions, discovery of previously unidentified for one phase of the development process typically means that
information affecting design, changes in the building design, the development team is entitled to proceed to the next stage;
and changing the project due to shifting economic conditions however, many jurisdictions place a limit on the length of time
all contribute to plan revisions. The submitting engineer must that an approval remains valid. This is done to prevent land
prepare a formal plan revision and submit the updated site development projects from spanning several years and be
plans to the local jurisdiction for approval. Since construction "grandfathered" from new ordinances and laws. In the course
may be underway, quick review and approval are essential. of administering its development regulations, local govern-
The schedule of these revisions is often challenging for ments often identify flaws or deficiencies in its regulations.
designers; the need for a plan revision may come with lim- When this happens, it usually takes steps to amend those reg-
ited information and an aggressive schedule (often within a ulations with new regulations being adopted to protect the
matter of hours). These conditions make it difficult to fol- health, safety, and welfare of community residents. Site plans
low quality management standards. The design team should already in the process are often protected against changes
communicate realistic schedules that consider the appropri- imposed by subsequently adopted regulations. By providing
ate time needed for design as well as review by the jurisdic- an expiration date on its approvals, the local government can
tion. Most jurisdictions give priority treatment to revisions of minimize the number of projects that are exempt or "grand-
already approved site plans. Some jurisdictions request that fathered" from new policies and regulations.
revision clouds be placed around items that have changed Another motive for providing for the expiration of devel-
from the approved plans and that all plan revisions be sum- opment approvals is to enable the jurisdiction to more
marized in some form of a narrative. This process makes it accurately monitor its rate and patterns of development. If
easy for the reviewing agency to focus effort on revised items approvals did not lapse, it would be extremely difficult to
and usually expedites the review process. make reasonable estimations of growth. Local government
Local jurisdictions will want some assurance that the actual would be unable to properly budget for the provision of pub-
construction performed is in accordance with approved site lic services, facilities, or staffing.
plans and revisions. For these reasons, a record drawing While the subdivision and other regulations establish
plan is usually required prior to the release of the construc- time limits, they also often provide for automatic exten-
tion bond. Record drawings show the boundary of the site, sions as well as extensions for extraordinary circumstances.
location of all buildings, horizontal and vertical location and These extensions must often be requested prior to the expi-
size of pipes and apertures, location of fire hydrants, width of ration of the approvals and will themselves have a time limit
streets, walks, trails, and other improvements as constructed. attached to their approval. Consequently, the land devel-
Since the engineer has created a revised plan in the form opment team must closely monitor the project calendar. If
of the record drawing, he or she is required to certify record circumstances indicate that a submittal will be delayed or
drawing plans in the same manner as the site plans. Some a subsequent approval is not feasible within the time avail-
agencies require that the engineer certify that the record draw- able, it should communicate these concerns to the appro-
ings conform to the approved and revised design site plans priate officials. A failed opportunity for an extension may
except as shown. Some difficulty may be experienced with result in an expired site plan and require a totally new sub-
this, depending on what is shown on the record drawings. mission and expose the plan to any and all regulations and
Usually the record drawing is created from the original design ordinance changes approved since the site plan was initially
documents: "It is the general contractor who is responsible for submitted. Compliance with new regulations could neces-
supervising the day-to-day work on the site; he or she is the sitate a costly redesign and project delay. Additionally, the
only one in a position to identify and record changes made developer and the land development team should be cogni-
during the course of construction'' (DeJarnette and Paul, Inc. zant of laws requiring that approved developments be con-
1991). These documents may contain information that was structed or that approved subdivisions be recorded within a
not a part of the record drawing survey requirement. In this specified period of time.
instance, caution is necessary with respect to what the engi-
neer is certifying to. A suggested precaution to be stamped on REFERENCES
each sheet of the record drawing, subject to review by attor- Bright, John K. 1992. Reader's Write, Civil Engineering. New York:
neys, would be as follows: American Society of Civil Engineers 62(8), August 1992.
"These record drawings have been prepared based on DeJarnette & Paul, Inc. 1991. The Professional Liability Perspective.
information provided by others. The Engineer has not veri- Richmond, Virginia.
fied the accuracy of this information and shall not be respon- Engineers and Surveyors Institute. 1990. Post Submission Confer-
sible for any errors or omissions which may be incorporated ence Format, Recommended Plan Format for Fairfax County.
herein as a result" (DeJarnette and Paul, Inc. 1991). Fairfax, Virginia: Engineers and Surveyors Institute.
 CHAPTER 5.2

EXISTING CONDITIONS
AND FIELD SURVEY

5.2.1. Introduction The process moves forward from the planning stage to
In the final design of a project, or preferably during con- the fieldwork. Field crews establish a survey control net-
ceptual and schematic design, the base map (described work with the required horizontal and vertical survey accu-
in Chapter 3.2) should be refined with site survey infor- racy requirements. These surveys require coordination with
mation. Survey information specific to a site provides a boundary surveys and in some instances they are combined.
verified source of information that has been certified by a Existing features are located including buildings, roads, utili-
Professional Land Surveyor (PLS)-base maps developed ties, waterways, vegetation, and other features that might
from public information do not have any certification (and have an impact on the development.
are not usually accurate). A developer may not be motivated Decisions on the size of plan sheets, scale ratios, labels,
to invest in a site survey in early stages of design, but final and necessary notes precede the mapping process. The
design requires the use of survey information that has been method for gathering the data used in a topographic map
certified by a registered professional. is a choice based on the circumstances associated with the
This chapter describes the site survey process in detail site to be mapped. Whether one chooses an electronic sur-
and identifies how the survey information is used through- vey system, photogrammetry, or other modern systems, the
out final design of the project. The site survey should replace concepts for determining what features will be mapped and
any base map information that comes from inaccurate or what other considerations are to be given remain consistent
unverified sources, which may have been acceptable to use and in accordance to the condition of the property.
during early design stages.
Topographic maps are an essential part of the design pro- 5.2.2. Existing Conditions
cess. A sample of a topographic map is in Figure 5.2A. The The plan sheet that depicts survey (topographic, planimetric,
construction phases of land development projects rely on and boundary data) is generally titled as the Existing
topographic maps for grades and location of important topo- Conditions sheet but is often combined with the Demolition
graphical features. If such maps are not of a high quality, they Plan sheet. The existing conditions for the site are carried
can cause costly mistakes and time delays. Time spent plan- through all other design sheets in the plan set, usually scaled
ning the fieldwork and mapping for these surveys reduce the back to a light gray color so the information is legible but does
likelihood of errors and omissions in the final product. not compete with proposed design information. The source
The time for making determinations concerning type or and date of the survey should be documented within the plan
combination of types of survey methods appropriate for col- sheet (usually on the cover or within the notes sheet).
lection of the necessary field data in the most effective and The existing conditions plan information for a site should
efficient manner is during the planning process. This is also have clear notes with standard symbols (defined in the site
the time for establishing a contour interval that will satisfy plan legend). The design team should study the existing con-
accuracy requirements. ditions plan to check any assumptions that were made prior

395
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 5.2 ■ EXISTING CONDITIONS AND FIELD SURVEY 397

to obtaining the site survey. New features may have been 2. No demolition can begin until the required erosion
identified, such as utilities, easements, signs of site contami- and sediment controls (and tree protection) have
nation, minor streams, or other site features that might not been installed and approved by the engineer (or
have been available from public sources of information. inspector).
Demolition Plan Content. The site demolition plan may
3. All work shall be performed in strict compliance
be incorporated into the Existing Conditions sheet (usu-
with the most current applicable federal, state,
ally titled Existing Conditions & Demolition), or may exist
and local laws and regulations. This includes,
as a separate sheet that focuses exclusively on demolition.
but is not limited to, Environmental Protection
A demolition plan provides information on which existing
Agency (EPA), Occupational Safety and Health
features should be removed, relocated, or abandoned. With
Administration (OSHA), National Emissions Stan-
greenfield development (new development within an unde-
dards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAPS),
veloped site), the demolition plan might be limited to only
and National Institute of Occupations Safety and
show removal of vegetation and minor road work at the site
Health (NIOSH).
entrance. For redevelopment projects, or work adjacent to
other developments, the demolition plan requires careful 4. Immediately notify the owner's representative
attention to scope and sequence of work. upon encountering any hazardous material dur-
If a utility system is required to be relocated for the ing demolition and/or construction activities.
proposed site, the plans should include notes about com- Document same to the owner's representative and
munication with the utility provider and customers. This obtain direction as to the appropriate action(s) to
communication is necessary to coordinate the service inter- be taken in accordance with project specifications.
ruption time and duration. When possible, the construction
5. Perform a utility designation for the site prior to
and demolition should minimize service disruption, which
any work. Coordinate with all utility providers for
is especially important for continuously active sites like a
payment of associated fees and procurement of all
hospital or college campus.
necessary permits.
Demolition work associated with transportation sys-
tems, like roads and pedestrian paths, will require plans that 6. Documentation of the condition of existing adja-
maintain and redirect traffic. These plans are referenced as cent areas is recommended prior to commencing
maintenance of traffic (MOT) plans and should be prepared work. Protect from damage all existing adjacent
by a professional familiar with traffic engineering require- areas. All adjacent areas damaged during demoli-
ments. Advanced warning signs, lane closure signs, and tion or construction activities shall be restored to
detours are common with an MOT. The FHWA Manual on the original or better condition.
Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD) also includes
7. Miscellaneous site items (including but not limited
provisions for temporary traffic control (TTC) plans (some
to signs, site furnishings, light posts wheel stops,
TTC requirements are modified by a local DOT).
etc.) that conflict with proposed conditions are to
Construction activity throughout the site, including the
be removed-if these items are not identified to
demolition work, requires management of stormwater (in
be demolished, they shall be replaced after work is
the same way the final development will require stormwa -
completed.
ter controls). During construction, the interim stormwa-
ter control devices are referred to as erosion and sediment 8. In all areas where new road and sidewalk (or trail)
controls-this information is provided in Chapter 5.7. construction meets existing facilities, a smooth,
While the means and methods for demolition are beyond clean, even transition shall be formed. All pavement
the scope of the design team, it's necessary to provide enough match lines shall be sawcut to full depth and prop-
information and design conditions that are feasible for a con - erly sealed.
tractor. For example, it may be necessary to include a detailed
9. Verify proper shutdown and termination of all
sequence of construction for utility relocations (building
utilities indicated to be removed or abandoned. All
a downstream storm system prior to connecting the new
termination shall be performed in accordance with
upstream system). The demolition work should be included
all applicable codes. Coordinate all required service
within the limits of work for the site, even if the area of work
outages with utility providers.
is meant solely for demolition. This ensures that the area is
included in the scope for clearing and environmental protec- 10. A safe work environment is required at all times.
tion requirements. Traffic and pedestrian circulation adjacent to the
Most demolition plans include a set of accompanying construction site shall be managed by appropriate
notes. A few standard demolition notes are listed below: traffic control standards.

1. No demolition can begin until the required demoli- These notes are meant to serve as an example of infor-
tion permits have been obtained. mation that can supplement the plan sheets and may not
39a i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
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to be vacated
2. Demolition notes for the project, including notes about phasing of
demolition
3. Legend for items to be demolished (linear features and large areas)

FIG uRE 5 . 2 B Demolition plan content.

be inclusive of all direction required to perform the work. requires information for hundreds offeet along the road-
A sample demolition plan with accompanying notes is shown way, and survey information would need to extend along
in Figure 5.2B. the roadway based on the design speed of the road (see
Chapters 3.3 and 5.3 for intersection sight distance).
5.2.3. Scope of Survey Additionally, if the site requires a new turn lane to be
The scope of survey required should be identified by the added to the highway it's important to have all informa-
design team. In some cases, the only information needed is tion of the road system.
within the limits of the property, but in most cases it's neces- Storm outfall (or other utility systems) should also be
sary to extend the scope of survey beyond the property. Some considered within the scope of the survey. The limits of
jurisdictions have a requirement for a minimum survey dis- analysis may extend beyond the site and connection points
tance beyond the site to identify potential impacts to existing to existing utilities may be offsite as well. It's common that
buildings, vegetation, drainage conditions, or other features additional survey work is performed during the design, but
of an adjacent site. The scope of work is usually requested a comprehensive scope of work can reduce costs of ordering
with a graphic depiction of limits, which could be depicted additional survey and the associated rework.
on the preliminary plan or base map. In some cases, the scope of work extends to an area that's
Survey may be required for large areas of the adja- not accessible (or escorted access is necessary)-a property
cent highway. For instance, intersection sight distance owner may not be willing to grant access, or the terrain may
 5.2 ■ EXISTING CONDITIONS AND FIELD SURVEY 399

create a physical hardship. In this case, it may be necessary to on when the survey work is ordered. The primary collection
supplement the site survey with public data. If other sources methods for land development projects are
of information are used, it's necessary to delineate where
the field survey limits end and other sources of information 1. Field conventional survey
are used. Notes about assumed accuracy from other sources 2. Photogrammetry (aerial imagery)
shall be identified in the plans.
3. LiDAR (remote sensing, Light Detection and
5.2.4. Planning the Survey Ranging)
Planning for topographic surveys includes consideration of The method selected for gathering data will influence
the site's physical features and condition, required scale and the specific details of how it is to be accomplished. Regard-
accuracy, contour interval appropriate for the type of project, less of the method chosen, it is critical that data is gathered
cost, schedule, and type of instruments available. All these so that compilation is done in a format acceptable to the
factors affect the survey methods and equipment used in the designer. This is particularly true when the data is to be
site survey. collected through a field-run survey. A part of the commu-
Among the most important aspects of planning a site nication mentioned earlier between designer and surveyor
survey is the communication between the site engineer and should focus on the type of equipment and processing sys-
those who will collect the field data on which the map will tem the surveyor will use, and the type of design software
be based. A proper level of understanding of the design con- the designer will use. Specific attention should be given to
cept by those who collect the data will result in a more com- what layering system or data library is required. Data accu-
prehensive survey and reduce the likelihood that numerous rately collected and processed is not very useful unless it is
data gathering exercises will be required. The responsibility presented in a format the designer can use. The reason this
for ensuring that this level of understanding is adequate lies aspect of the process is so important for field collection of
with both parties. Neither should make assumptions about data is that the coding system for data collection should be
whether the understanding exists, nor be timid about asking established prior to the survey in order to simplify adjust-
questions to clarify issues. ments that may otherwise be difficult during compilation.
When a comfortable level of understanding has been In the case of photogrammetry or similar methods of gath-
reached, a decision can be made concerning which ering data, the issues of proper coding and formatting are
method is most effective to conduct the data gathering addressed during compilation also.
survey. Surveys to gather topographic data, like all other Electronic and robotic total stations, real-time kinematic
surveys, must begin with an appropriate survey control (RTK) GPS networks, laser scanners, and unmanned aerial
network system. Therefore, the first step in planning for vehicles (UAVs, often referred to as drones) and electronic
the survey of a land development project is the comple- data collectors have replaced traditional instruments for field
tion of well-planned horizontal and vertical control net- run surveys.
works. These networks must be geometrically strong and Photogrammetry, which uses aerial photographs com-
must be well documented. bined with ground control points to generate topographic
The number and location of the control points depends maps, has become the preferred method for surveying
on the nature of the project and on the surveying method most large sites for land development design purposes.
used. As a matter of convenience during the design and The maps created using photogrammetry can be either
construction phases of the project, control points should be large scale or small scale. In some cases, the aerial photog-
interspersed throughout the site. It may be cost effective to raphy is conducted in such a way as to allow both large and
use traverse points previously established in the boundary small-scale maps to be created, thus providing a broader
determination as horizontal control stations for the topo- view of the project area while serving the preliminary
graphic survey. Establishing control points as part of the and final design processes. The photogrammetric survey
boundary traverse loop and cross-ties through the middle method is not appropriate for determining boundary lines
of the site provide a network convenient for use throughout although it may serve in an evidentiary capacity, allowing
the design and construction phases of the project. To do a broad overview of an area not available at ground level.
this, adequate forethought on traverse location is needed Small sites, particularly those with extensive features, are
at the time when the traverse is being set for the boundary still commonly surveyed using an electronic data collec-
determination. Provisions for the protection of established tion device. Both the electronically gathered field survey
survey monuments by contractors are necessary and cost data and photogrammetric survey data can be compiled
effective. into digital topographic maps to serve as the base layer
for design files.
5.2.5. Gathering the Data Field Survey. Field methods require that the surveyor
Data must be gathered and compiled in such a way that it accurately locate the positions of both the topographic and
can be used for (preliminary and) final design, depending planimetric features on the site. Field methods are necessary
400 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
in land development where detailed location of surface (and the tripod mounted prism if used) must be recorded
and subsurface utilities is required, where a limited area is in the data collector with other information required for
involved, or where slope and drainage are critical. In most the job.
cases, this requires the location of a large amount of data, Beginning an RTK survey is similar in that the surveyor
which must be presented on a large-scale map. sets up the base station on an existing control point; however,
Instrumentation formerly employed in the topographic as a check it is good practice to have another control point
surveying field has generally been replaced by what is known nearby. Staking to the check point with the rover ensures that
as the electronic total station surveying system, laser scan- everything is working correctly before the work begins.
ning, UAVs, and RTK Global Positioning System (GPS) The data collector usually has a series of user prompts
equipped with an electronic data collector (Figure 5.2C). This to begin collection at each station. Typically, the prompts
equipment has the greatest potential for producing high- begin by asking for a file name, a user's name, date, tem-
accuracy results with a minimum expenditure of time in perature, and barometric pressure, which is then followed
any area where detailed topography is required. The robotic with prompts for the setup: instrument base point number
total station and RTK GPS instruments allow one person to or traverse station number, height of instrument, back-
gather data for a topographic map rather than the typical sight point number in the case of a conventional job, and
two or three person field crew; however, it is sometimes still prism or receiver height. When the instrument operator
effective to have crew members performing activities such then backsights the prism, the data collector records the
as drawing sketches and measuring manhole depths while raw data, consisting of the horizontal angle, vertical angle,
the robotic station or RTK GPS "rover" operator is obtaining and distance. The distance and the difference in eleva-
other data. tions between the two known stations are verified with the
Additional information on the survey process was pro- known data.
vided in Chapter 3.2. With the internal data file initiated, the instrument ori-
Electronic Mapping Using Conventional and GPS Methods. ented, and the data collector initialized, the topographic data
To begin a conventional survey using a total station, the collection begins. Each type of feature usually has a numeri-
surveyor first occupies an existing control station. He or cal or alphabetic code. Codes may be augmented with a
she then orients the instrument to another station in the brief description. The data collector prompts the operator
network. Orientation is typically made by pointing on a for point number, description and code, prism height, and
tripod-mounted prism at the backsight station. Alterna- a choice of preset measurement sequences. The last of these
tively, sighting on a prism mounted on a plumbing pole can entries activate the total station instrument or rover, and the
be used (see Figure 5.2C). The height of the plumbing pole raw data is recorded. This information is displayed on the
data collector for the operator to approve, reject, or edit. If
approved, the collector advances to the next point number,
ready for the next shot. If rejected or edited, the bad shot is
retained and labeled as such, and the next point number is
utilized for the correct information. This is useful for cross-
checking the data. Sample codes and abbreviations for data
collector use are shown in Figure 5.2D.
For complex sites or features, a detailed sketch must be
prepared to accompany the collector printouts (Figure 5.2E).
The sketch should include outlines of buildings and struc-
tures, dimensions, measurements, types of materials, sizes
of pipe, descriptions, data collection point numbers, and
any other pertinent facts. It is imperative that the field crew
understand that the person that will draft the map may not
visit the site and the sketch is critical for the drafter to under-
stand the site. Therefore, the sketch must be clear, concise,
and complete.
Since surveyors must translate a three-dimensional (3D)
terrain to a two-dimensional (2D) map, the actual success of
a topographic survey depends upon the location of essential
points, which define the terrain. Every ridge, grade break,
toe or top of slope is studied carefully for the exact place-
ment of the location point that best defines the feature. Every
man-made feature is similarly interpreted and delineated by
FIG uRE 5. 2 C Total station, data collector, and prism. (Photo Courtesy a series of adeptly placed shots. Because a computer gener-
of Sam Dougherty and Steve Hall.) ates the contour lines, care must be taken to space the shots
 5.2 ■ EXISTING CONDITIONS AND FIELD SURVEY 401

01 . Horizontal Control II . Centerlines 33 . Electric

TRV CL. Centerline Road ELE
PXP • Panel Point ------·---·--
35 . Building
BLD

OS . Property/Boundary 17 • Pavement 37. Utilities Misc

IPF EP. Edge of Pavement UTL
EIP Existing Iron Pipe EPL EP Left OU Overhead Utility
EIR Existing Rod/Rebar/Pin GDR EPR EPRight PD. Tclephone Pedestal
EPT Existing Pinch Top UU. Underground Utilitv
EIO Other (Describe) 18 • Curb CTV Cable TV
MKT Marked Tree TC. Top of Curb MCI' Utility Marker Post
N Nonh TCL Top of Curb Left UMN Utility Manhole
s South TCR Top Curb Right VLT Utility Vault
E East BC. Back of Curb (Top) .. ----
w West FC. Face of Curb (Flow) 42 • Miscellaneous
MON Existing Cone. Mon. MIS
NIP New Iron Pipe 19 • Concrete MB. Mail Box
PK. P.k. Nail CON RS . Road Sign
RW Right of Way Mon. CCP Comer Concrete Pad GL Ground Light
STN Stone EC. Edge of Concrete
SW. Edge of Sidewalk

07 . Grade Elevations 20 . Shoulder 44 . Wetlands

SPT SHL WET
GR. Ground Spot Shot
GRP Pavement Spot Shot 21 . Parking Stripes/Paint Lines 58 . Break
GRC Concrete Spot Shot PRK BRK
GRG Gravel Spot Shot TB. Top of Bank
22 . Utility Poles BB. Botton of Bank
UPL ----------
GP. Guy Pole 60 . Walls
GW. Guy Wire WAL
LP. Light Pole cw. Centerline Wall
PP. Power Pole EW. Edge of Wall
SP. Service Pole
TP. Telephone Pole

08 . Stream/Pond/River 23 . Water 61 . Test Pit

STR Stream WAT TP.
DL. Ditch Line HYO Fire Hydrant -------------------------
WL. Edge of Water MW. Monitoring Well 62 . Unimproved
PIV Post Indicator Valve UNI
WL. Waterline PAT Trail or Path
WE. Well EG. Edge of Gravel
WM. Water Meter DT. Edge of Din
WV. Water Valve

09 . Vegetation 26 . Storm 63 . Railroad

VEG STM FR. Frog
OB Ornamental Bush BXC Box Culven PS. Point of Switch
OT Ornamental Tree CMP Corrug. Metal Pipe RR. Railroad
HOG Hedge CPP Corrug. Plastic Pipe IR Inside of Rail
WDL Woodline DIP Ductile Iron Pipe CL Centerline of Rail
DIG Drop Inlet-Curb Gn. --------------
TR Tree DIS Drop Inlet-Curb Std. Desc. Format for Point
A (Cherry), Size (In.) RCP Rcinf. Cone. Pipe
B (Beech), Siu (In>) SOM Storm Drain Manhole LL-PPPDS ..
C (Cedar), etc ... TCP Terra Cotta Pipe --Sub Desc.
D (Cottonwood) VIG Tard Inlet-Grate •··•Draw Code
E (Elm) VIS Yard Inlet-Std. •·······2 or 3 Char
F (Ash) N (Tupelo) I (lnven), Size (In .) Point Descriptor
G (Locust) p (Pine) T (Top), Size (In.) •• ,·, Das Character
H (Hickory) Q (Oak) - 2 Digit Layer Code
J (Burch) R (Dogwood) 29 . Sanitary
K (Sasafrass) s (Sycamore) SAN Use a" ." (Period) as a Place l loldcr Wh~n
L (Sweet Gum) T (Poplar) co. Cleanout There Is Only 2 Chars in the l'nint Descriptor
M (Maple) z (Misc.) SSM Sanitary Sewer Manhole and in Place of the Draw Code When Thcr~ Is
None.

10 . Fence 32 . GAS Draw Codes (7th Posi tion)

FEN Fence GAS L. Line
GDR Guard Rail GL. Gas Line C • Curve
GPP Guard Pipe Post GM. Gas Meter z . End Draw Sequence
GV. Gas Valve V. Close into Initial Point

FIGURE 5.20 Codes and abbreviations used for data collectors.

402 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
Sketch Sheet
Job Name £TMVCOZ Project Name a May,zc Caauw"i'.sacy
Date l?-17- 93
Notes CY'.1?7/000001,/09,tG ~/0071 Crew No. Root
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Sheet No. _L of _,/__

' ····-7op5ZZ
(M~sur~
----e;e, a:>wn 040)

soe ------

/ . _7ie8/0I 5.05
!3B 8 /0Z9" 75
Mz,d57q

z._7'(!8101 4.G9
1'5 8 IOZ 4(;G
Next (M-q

/'/0/
5..trzlch Showmq
Sfor/Tl StZ war Complex
South End of' Stle
I§'

/
/
/V. T,,!J.

FIG uRE 5. 2 E Sample field sketch to accompany data collection raw file.

in such a way that they do not appear to cross each other, continues to be developed that improves the field to office
particularly in curves (Figure 5.2F). In addition, the prism conversion of data into mapping. Purchasing the proper
handler must select obstruction-free sight lines to the instru- equipment and developing a system for field and office pro-
ment, change the height of the prism or rover as necessary, cedures that enhance ones ability to make those conversions
and maintain constant communications. faster and more efficiently is critical to the ultimate success
Many data collectors possess a feature which enables one of a land development project.
to reference a shot left, right, back, ahead, up, and down in The use of GPS equipment to collect topographic data
relation to the last instrument-shot point. has become more prevalent. Advances in the satellite con-
Topographic mapping using electronic data collection stellation, real-time computation of point positions, and the
has become the standard for field run surveys. Software reduction of equipment costs have led to a wider use of GPS
 5.2 ■ EXISTING CONDITIONS AND FIELD SURVEY 403

FIG uRE 5 . 2 G RTK rover and data collector. (Photo Courtesy of

Sam Dougherty and Steve Hall.)
FIG uRE 5 .2 F Data collection shot placement.
imagery and judging their significance through careful
and systematic analyses.
equipment for a variety of surveying activities. As the invest- Stereo photographs or stereo images are those taken of
ment in equipment decreases, and new technologies enhance the same area on the ground but viewed from two perspec-
the surveyor's ability to use the equipment, the use of GPS for tives. Aerial stereo photographs are commonly flown with
data collection related to topographic mapping may become each image having a 60% overlap with the preceding and
a standard practice. RTK surveying is the primary means of subsequent images; this enables 60% of each photograph to
gathering topographic data by GPS methods. It allows data overlap the same area shown on the preceding photograph,
gathering in essentially the same way as with a total station, 60% on the subsequent photograph, and 10% of each pho-
that is, via a data collector. The methods employed by the tograph to appear on three successive photographs. With
person operating the rover are the same as those of the per- stereoscopic viewing, much greater depth perception can be
son operating the prism pole or robotic rover. The major obtained. Stereoscopic viewing enables the formation of a 3D
consideration with using RTK is that it must have an unob- stereomodel for viewing a pair of overlapping photographs,
structed view of the sky. The GPS signal broadcast from the making accurate 3D measurements and mapping elevations
satellite constellation is relatively weak and cannot penetrate in addition to planimetric detail.
heavy leaf cover or buildings. It is also subject to multipath, Terrestrial photogrammetry follows the same general
the reflection of signals off of hard objects such as buildings, principles as aerial photogrammetry except that special
walls, or vehicles, which can distort the positions derived by metric cameras are mounted on tripods and the line of sight
the instrument, therefore provisions must be made to avoid is generally horizontal rather than vertical, but still photo-
these areas when surveying with GPS RTK and mark them to graphing the same area from two different perspectives.
be surveyed later by other means such as a conventional total A large percentage of photogrammetric applications have
station. A photograph of an RTK rover and data collector is traditionally pertained to topographic mapping, at various
shown in Figure 5.2G. scales, for planning and design of transportation features
Photogrammetric Survey. Photogrammetry is an art, (highways, railroads, rapid transit systems, airfields, bridges,
a science, and a technology. Aerial photogrammetry uses culverts), pipelines, aqueducts, transmission lines, flood con-
stereo aerial photographs or stereo digital images to cre- trol structures, river and harbor improvements, urban renewal
ate planimetric and/or topographic maps of features vis- projects, shopping malls and housing areas, for example.
ible on the imagery and to determine the relative location Two newer photogrammetric products, digital orthophotos
of points, lines and areas for determination of distances, and digital elevation models, are now often used in combina-
angles, areas, volumes, elevations, sizes, and shapes of tion to replace traditional topographic maps. An orthophoto
mapped features. Photo interpretation of such imagery is an aerial photograph that has distortions removed, has a
deals with recognizing and identifying objects on the uniform scale throughout, and has the metric properties of
404 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
a planimetric map; but unlike planimetric maps that show or paneled survey targets in the shape of an X, T, or Y, prepo-
features by using lines and symbols, orthophotos show the sitioned on the ground surface and surveyed prior to acqui-
actual images of features, making them easier to interpret. As sition of aerial photography. This process ensures that there
introduced in Chapter 3.2, a digital elevation model (DEM) is are enough photo-identifiable points with known coordi-
an array of points with x, y, z coordinates. DEMs model the nates. When there are already ample photo-identifiable fea-
3D topography or shape of the terrain from which contours, tures, photogrammetrists may instead rely on photo points
cross sections and profiles can be computed. Orthophotos that naturally appear at desirable locations on the overlap-
and DEMs are widely used in all fields where maps are used, ping photography, and survey those points after the photog-
but because they are in digital form, they are ideal for use in raphy has been flown and the images have been processed.
geographic information systems (GIS). One of the objectives of AT is to determine six exterior
Photogrammetry is often used to supplement land surveys. orientation parameters for each of the aerial photographs to
Although aerial photographs don't show boundary lines, aerial be used; these six parameters include x, y, and z coordinates
photos and/or orthophotos can be used as rough base maps for (in airspace) of the focal point of the lens when each pho-
relocating existing property boundaries. If the point of begin- tograph was taken, as well as the roll, pitch, and yaw of the
ning or any corners can be located with respect to ground fea- aircraft around the x axis (direction of flight), y axis (cross
tures that can be identified on aerial photos, an entire parcel direction), and z axis (vertical axis).
can be plotted on the orthophoto from the property descrip- When these photo control points are surveyed from
tion. All corners can then be located on the photo in rela- multiple control monuments surrounding the area, the AT
tion to identifiable ground features, which, when located in solution may be weakened by the fact that multiple control
the field, greatly assist in finding the actual property corners. monuments are often inconsistent relative to each other;
Aerial photos can also be used in planning ground surveys. then, AT residual errors are high. It is preferred that GPS
Through stereoscopic viewing, areas can be studied in 3D; procedures be used, with a single pair of GPS base stations
access routes to remote areas can be identified, and surveying of highest accuracy to obtain consistent results, a strong AT
lines of least resistance through difficult terrain or forests can solution, and maps that will be more accurate as a result.
be found. Photogrammetrists map areas without setting foot When this is done, then the AT residual errors are small.
on the ground, avoiding the need to gain access to private land Experienced photogrammetrists know how to examine these
for surveys, avoiding surveys in wetlands and terrain where residuals to determine if the survey control is strong or weak.
ground mobility is difficult, and avoiding surveys along high- Fully analytical aerial triangulation (FAAT) is generally con-
ways where land surveys are either unsafe to surveyors or slow sidered to yield the highest accuracy and lowest residuals.
the flow of traffic while surveys are in progress. Figures 5.2H and 5.21 both show an obvious variation in
Photogrammetry is especially important for highway the roll, pitch, and yaw of the aircraft between the left and
planning and design. Aerial photographs are used in prelimi- right photos. Whether variations in elevations or orienta-
nary planning for selection of corridors for new routes. Large- tions are major or minor, a strong AT solution is required
scale topographic maps, contours, and/or DEMs are used in
final design. To monitor construction progress, partial pay-
ments, and final payments are often calculated from photo-
grammetric measurements made on photographs acquired
during various stages of construction. Information collected
from photogrammetry is normally compiled in computer-
aided design and drafting (CAD) formats such as AutoCAD
.dwg or MicroStation .dgn formats. Other photogrammet-
ric applications include the mapping of building footprints,
preparation of tax maps, soil maps, forest maps, geological
maps, planning and zoning maps, and land use/land cover
maps. Photogrammetry is used in the fields of astronomy,
architecture, archaeology, geomorphology, oceanography,
hydrology and water resources, conservation, ecology, and
mineralogy, enabling the harsh outdoor environment to be
surveyed, mapped, and analyzed in the comforts of an office.
Aerial Triangulation. Aerial triangulation (AT) has tra-
ditionally been required to control a block of aerial photo-
graphs, to force mapped coordinates to fit surveyed ground
control, and to control other mapped coordinates for which
surveyed ground coordinates are unknown. This tradition- FIG uRE 5. 2 H With a strong AT solution, rays of light of features
ally has required many photo-identifiable, surveyed ground imaged on both photographs of a stereo pair will intersect and mapped
control points. Photogrammetrists often use painted symbols coordinates will be accurate.
 5.2 ■ EXISTING CONDITIONS AND FIELD SURVEY 405

as shown at Figure 5.21. With a weak AT solution, the 3D

coordinates of mapped points have larger error ellipses and
uncertainty in derived coordinates. Therefore, a strong AT
solution is the key to accurate topographic mapping.
Since the 1990s, aerial survey firms have regularly used
airborne GPS and inertial measurement unit (IMU) technol-
ogy to simplify the AT process, and for mapping projects over
inaccessible or environmentally sensitive terrain. Airborne
GPS can measure the x, y, and z coordinates directly in air-
space, and IMUs are capable of measuring the roll, pitch, and
yaw directly as each photograph is exposed. Some ground
control points are still used for the AT process, but the num-
bers are reduced significantly when airborne GPS and IMU
technology is properly used. However, this advanced tech-
nology is more relevant to large mapping projects than to
small projects for land development applications.

_ _ _ _ __
J ___, x
Photo Scale. Photo scale is a critical factor in planning
aerial photography. Photo scale is a function of the flying
height above the terrain, and the focal length of the map-
FIG uRE 5 . 21 With a weak AT solution, rays of light of features ping camera. With a mapping camera having a given focal
imaged on both photographs of a stereo pair will not intersect and mapped length, the required photo scale normally establishes the
coordinates will be less accurate. flying height to be used. Subsequent scale variations in a
photograph or between successive photographs are caused
to determine the six exterior orientation parameters for by variations in the terrain elevation, by variations in flying
each photograph. If the AT solution is strong, rays of light heights, or both.
from the left photo will cleanly intersect with rays of light Figure 5.2J depicts two photographs taken over terrain
from the right photo, as shown at Figure 5.2H. However, having an average elevation of 400 feet above the datum and
if the AT solution is weak, rays of light from the left photo a range in elevation from 175 to 600 feet. In each case, the
will not intersect with rays of light from the right photo, average photo scale is 1 inch = 200 feet.

H-hq,g=2400 ft
Averaqe Sfole:1~=200'

f=6in.
H=J600fl Scale
Vanaf1on
16% and 19'¼
H.-11,,,g:,, /200 II
Scale Average Scale: / "=200'
Vona/ion
30%ond42%

h=600' h=600'
ll,,v,1 = 400' ,
Datum M=J?S I
fa/ {b)

FIG uRE 5. 2 J The average scale of a typical 9 x 9-inch aerial photograph depends upon the focal length of
the camera and the variation in terrain elevations relative to the height of the aircraft above the terrain. This figure
shows two ways to acquire photographs with the same average scale but acquired with cameras having 6- and
12-inch focal lengths flown at two different altitudes.
4o& i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
With a 6-inch focal-length camera, the flying height
TA BLE 5 . 2 B Photo Scale and Flying Height
would be 1600 feet above mean terrain (amt). At an eleva-
tion of 175 feet, the scale would be 6 inches (0.5 foot) divided
for Desired Contour Interval
by (1600 - 175) feet, or 1 inch= 238 feet. However, at an DESIRED
elevation of 600 feet, the scale would be 0.5-foot divided by CONTOUR
(1600- 600) feet, or 1 inch= 167 feet. This is a relatively large INTERVAL PHOTO SCALE FLYING HEIGHT
variation in scale.
With a 12-inch focal-length camera, the flying height 0.5 ft 1:2000 1000 ft amt
would be 2800 feet amt. At an elevation of 175 feet, the scale 1 ft 1:4000 2000 ft amt
would be 1 foot divided by (2800 - 175) feet, or 1 inch =
219 feet. However, at an elevation of 600 feet, the scale would 2 ft 1:8000 4000 ft amt
be 1 foot divided by (2800 - 600) feet, or 1 inch = 183 feet. 4 ft 1:16,000 8000 ft amt
This is a relatively small variation in scale.
Normally, long focal-length/narrow-angle lenses are 5 ft 1:20,000 10,000 ft amt
better for planimetric mapping, allowing higher flying
heights to be used so that views are more straight down,
as looking from space. Lower flying heights with shorter then the photography should be flown at 2000 feet above
focal-length/wide-angle lenses are better for topographic mean terrain (instead of a higher elevation). Lower alti-
mapping where elevations are critical. The standard 6-inch tude photography yields more accurate maps, both hori-
lens is a compromise, and subsequent tables assume that zontally and vertically, but lower-altitude photography
6-inch lenses are used. will cost more than higher-altitude photography because
Map Scale. Table 5.2A lists the photo scale and flying height high-altitude photography covers a larger area per photo-
commonly used for planimetric mapping at specified map graph, requires fewer photographs, and has a simpler aerial
scale, assuming a standard mapping camera with a 6-inch triangulation.
focal length and assuming an analytical plotter or softcopy Digital Orthophotos. Whereas aerial photos have perspec-
workstation is used for the mapping. Mapping photography tive views of the terrain and normally include some uninten-
is normally flown with a forward overlap of 60% between tional tilt, digital orthophotos have orthographic views of the
successive photos to ensure full stereoscopic coverage, and terrain (as though looking straight down on each pixel of the
sidelap of 30% between adjacent flight lines to ensure con- image from infinity) with all tilt removed. Therefore, digi-
tinuous coverage. tal orthophotos have the appearance of an aerial photograph
Contour Interval. Table 5.2B lists the photo scale and flying and the metric properties of a map-with one exception. The
height necessary for topographic mapping at specified con- one exception is that all features at ground level are correctly
tour intervals, assuming a standard mapping camera with a positioned, but elevated features may be displaced outward
6-inch focal length. from the center of the photographs used to create the ortho-
The most demanding requirement from these two tables photography. When a tall building, for example, appears near
controls the flying height to be used. For example, if maps the center of a photograph, the orthophoto produced from
with a horizontal scale of 1 inch = 50 feet (see Table 5.2A) that image may look like a "true orthophoto" without build-
are desired with a I-foot contour interval (see Table 5.2B), ing lean; only the roof is seen. But if that same tall building
appears near the edge of a 9 x 9-inch aerial photo, the side of
the building is photographed and the roof is displaced out-
TAB LE 5 . 2 A Photo Scale and Flying Height
ward from the center of the photograph and is not located
for Desired Map Scale directly above the building's foundation.
DESIRED There are several different technical procedures for pro-
MAP SCALE PHOTO SCALE FLYING HEIGHT ducing digital orthophotos, but the three points most critical
for land development engineers and surveyors to understand
1 in= 20 ft 1:1680 840 ft amt are the following:
1 in= 30 ft 1:2520 1260 ft amt
1. Digital orthophotos are relatively inexpensive and
1 in= 40 ft 1:3360 1680 ft amt are widely considered to be ideal as the base map
1:4200 2100 ft amt for overlay of CAD and/or GIS vectors, points, and
1 in= 50 ft
polygons developed by land development engineers
1 in= 60 ft 1:5040 2520 ft amt and surveyors.
1 in= 100 ft 1:8400 4200 ft amt 2. Digital orthophotos contain no elevation data. They
consist of image pixels with x and y coordinates only
1 in= 200 ft 1:16,800 8400 ft amt
(no z values).
 5.2 ■ EXISTING CONDITIONS AND FIELD SURVEY 407

3. Digital orthophotos are orthographically correct correctly oriented digital image over a digital terrain
only for features at ground level, whereas elevated model (DTM) of the terrain. The DTM normally includes
features (tops of towers, tall trees, utility poles, breaklines for the top edges of bridges so that bridges are
rooftops) are displaced outward from the centers not distorted on the imagery. In mosaicing multiple ortho-
of the digital orthophotos, as demonstrated by the images together, care is taken to ensure that seamlines are
orthophoto mosaic at Figure 5.2K. Building lean as invisible as possible and to balance the radiometry of
is reduced by flying from higher altitudes using images so they appear to be continuous, as in Figure 5.2K
cameras with longer focal lengths and narrow-angle where the three orthophoto tiles were produced from 16
lenses; however, even satellite images show lean in different photos. However, seamlines in water are nor-
the Washington Monument, for example. mally obvious because of differences in sun glint at the
western edge of one image where it abuts the eastern edge
The three photos in Figure 5.2K were taken with a conven- of an adjoining image.
tional aerial mapping camera. All features at the ground Oblique Aerial Imagery. Oblique aerial imagery is deliber-
level are correctly positioned, but elevated features (e.g., ately acquired to look down at the terrain from an angle (as
towers, rooftops) are displaced outward from the centers though looking out the window of an airliner) rather than
of the individual photographs used to create the larger looking straight down for mapping purposes. Several com-
image mosaic. Near the southeast corner of this ortho- peting commercial firms specialize in oblique imagery, and
photo mosaic, the Washington Monument is shown with they normally fly with multiple cameras, each taking pho-
its dark shadow pointing to the northwest, indicating that tographs at set intervals of time and for which the positions
the photo was taken in the morning sometime around (x, y, and z coordinates) and orientations (roll, pitch, and
10:30 a.m. The top of the monument is displaced to the yaw) are recorded for direct georeferencing of each image.
southwest, whereas the monument base and ground fea- If four cameras are used, they are oriented obliquely looking
tures are correctly geopositioned. The center of the 9" x 9" northward, southward, eastward, and westward. Some have
photo that included the Washington Monument is located a fifth camera looking downward.
somewhere to the north-northeast of the monument itself, There are more aerial cameras used today in the
as opposed to the center of this image mosaic which is United States for taking oblique imagery than there are aerial
northwest of the monument. mapping cameras in use for taking vertical aerial photos.
Digital orthophotos are produced by digitizing imag- The reason for this is the relatively low cost and increased
ery, performing aerial triangulation so as to determine the interpretability of oblique imagery that make them popular
x, y, z coordinates of the perspective center of each image for public safety applications, tax assessments, and dozens of
as well as its roll, pitch, and yaw, and then projecting each other applications.

FIG uRE 5. 2 K This is a mosaic of three digital orthophoto tiles of the National Mall in Washington D.C.
4oa i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii

FIG uRE 5 . 2 L Orthophoto of a building in Los Angeles.

Figure 5.2L shows an orthophoto of a building in comparing pre-disaster images (see Figure 5.2N) with post-
Los Angeles, and Figure 5.2M shows an oblique image disaster images (see Figure 5.20). It is important to note that
of the same building. These images were produced by the reasonably accurate horizontal and vertical measurements
Los Angeles Region Imagery Acquisition Consortium can be made on such oblique imagery. In this example, insur-
(LAR-IAC) for which Dewberry performed independent ance claims were much better documented for rapid process-
accuracy and quality assessments. Note the improved ability ing and approval of payments.
to see and understand what the building really looks like from Photogrammetry Considerations
the oblique view. From the orthophoto alone (Figure 5.2L), • Photogrammetry is proven, mature, and well
the rooftop of this tall building could have been misinter- understood; results are consistent, predictable, and
preted as many different things, including a park, a parking verifiable.
garage, or a short building. The oblique image (Figure 5.2M)
• Stereo imagery is reused for multiple applications,
allows the number of stories to be counted. The oblique
that is, production of digital orthophotos, planimet-
image would have significantly more value to a fire depart-
ric mapping, and all forms of topographic mapping.
ment responding to an emergency at this address, or to a tax
Imagery can always be used to correct errors of com-
appraiser needing to assess taxes.
mission and omission at a later time.
Figures 5.2N and 5.20 show the value of oblique aerial
imagery for post-disaster damage assessment following • Steps such as editing and finishing can always rely
Hurricane Katrina. Those communities that have acquired upon a stereomodel to resolve discrepancies and
oblique aerial imagery are much better prepared to perform correct errors to the highest accuracy the system
accurate and rapid post-disaster damage assessments by provides.
 5.2 ■ EXISTING CONDITIONS AND FIELD SURVEY 409

FIGURE 5.2M Oblique aerial image of the same building.

FIGURE 5.2N Pre-Katrina image. (Courtesy of Pictometry.) FIGURE 5.20 Post-Katrina image. (Courtesy of Pictometry.)
410 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
• Digital imagery is commonly used for quality control LiDAR emits thousands of laser pulses per second to
and to validate data from LiDAR and other sources. accurately map features in three dimensions. Airborne
LiDAR uses the same basic technology that is used with ter-
• Using stereo photogrammetry, humans manu-
restrial laser scanners on the ground. Both technologies are
ally compile breaklines and contours so that con -
explained in detail in "Digital Elevation Model Technolo-
tours cross roads and streams in a manner to help
gies and Applications: The DEM Users Manual;' published
humans to interpret the topography. Such contours
in 2007 by the American Society for Photogrammetry and
are of cartographic quality and aesthetically pleas-
Remote Sensing (ASPRS).
ing, often preferred over engineering contours pro-
Airborne LiDAR sensors emit up to 150,000 laser pulses
duced by automated techniques that are irregular
per second in some form of scanning array as shown at
and difficult to interpret.
Figure 5.2P. Airborne GPS allows the x, y, z coordinates of the
• Using stereo photogrammetry, humans manually sensor to be known continuously. The inertial navigation sys-
compile planimetric features in 2D or topographic tem (NS) inertial measuring unit (IMU) allows the roll, pitch,
features in 3D that are very accurate. and yaw of the sensor to be known continuously. The LiDAR
sensor itself measures the laser scan angles and the times it
• The positional accuracy of digital orthophotos takes each laser pulse to travel to the ground and reflect back
depends upon the quality of the aerial triangulation to the sensor. The LiDAR "point cloud" data are postprocessed
process and the quality of the digital terrain model to classify each return as bare earth, water, vegetation, build-
(DTM) over which the imagery is orthorectified. ings, or other categories in a special laser (.LAS) file format.
Digital orthophotos have become the preferred base The most common scanning array goes back and forth
maps for all forms of geospatial data. sideways, relative to the direction of flight, providing a zigzag
• When automated image correlation is used for
generation of a digital elevation model (DEM), the GPS
resulting surface is a digital surface model (DSM) Satellne

rather than a DTM. It takes a human compiler

to compile photogrammetric mass points on the
z
ground only.
• Softcopy photogrammetry is ideal for compilation, x ~ GPS
superimposition, and display of 3D features on top
of base map imagery (digital orthophotos).
• Softcopy photogrammetry is also ideal for cut and
fill calculations and for topographic modeling of
future conditions (postconstruction).
• Photogrammetric mapping is commonly used in
land development design and planning to include
mapping of current and future conditions. Mapping
files are routinely produced in CAD format, or virtu-
ally any GIS format preferred. Architectural drawings
can be merged to depict future conditions in 3D and
for "fly through'' of a proposed development.

LiDAR (Remote Sensing). Remote sensing, or LiDAR

(Light Detection and Ranging), may be used to supplement
survey of surface features (topography, roads, buildings,
etc.), but a field survey will be required for subsurface fea-
tures. LiDAR may be collected from aerial, vehicles, or field
systems. The remote sensing techniques are beneficial when
collecting data in areas that are difficult to access, such as
active highways. The vertical information collected from
LiDAR scans can also benefit the design team when evaluat-
ing existing building conditions or other vertical features like
utility poles, overhead power, and vegetation. Additionally, FIG uRE 5. 2 P LiDAR sensors survey up to 150,000 points per
many scanning techniques can pick up enough detail to read second, collecting high-density, high-accuracy elevation points-often
traffic signage and pavement markings. several elevation points per square meter.
 5.2 ■ EXISTING CONDITIONS AND FIELD SURVEY 411

pattern of points measured on the ground. The scan angle, absorbed by the water so there are no returns; however,
flying height, and pulse repetition rate determine the nomi- sometimes there are returns from water, but those eleva-
nal point spacing in the cross-flight direction, whereas the tions cannot be trusted. No LiDAR returns are ever thrown
scan rate, flying height, and the airspeed determine the nom- away, but LiDAR returns over water are classified in a water
inal point spacing in the in-flight direction. Each laser pulse category so they are not confused with elevations that clearly
has a pulse width (typically about 1 meter in diameter) and a represent terrain elevations.
pulse length (equivalent to the short time lapse between the When the primary objective is to use LiDAR data for
time the laser pulse was turned on and off again); therefore, mapping the bare-earth DTM, then LiDAR data are acquired
each laser pulse actually is like a cylinder oflight with diam- during leaf-off conditions so as to better penetrate vegeta-
eter and length. Each laser pulse may have multiple returns tion. Whereas photogrammetry requires two (stereo) views
from features "hit" at different elevations, creating a "point of the bare earth terrain from two different perspectives
cloud" of elevation points including both treetop and rooftop (a major disadvantage in vegetated terrain), LiDAR needs
elevations, as well as elevations of bare-earth mass points. only a single pulse to penetrate between trees and/or to pen-
Several technologies must operate correctly in order to etrate through vegetation that does not totally block light
survey high-accuracy data points: from above (a major advantage).
Post processing of LiDAR data is now largely automated,
• Airborne GPS is needed to determine the x, y, z although manual editing is still required for quality control. The
coordinates of the moving sensor in the air, surveyed primary function of post processing is to classify each LiDAR
relative to one or more differential GPS base stations. return into one .LAS category, that is, a LiDAR data file format
This establishes the origin of each of the thousands established by the American Society for Photogrammetry and
oflaser pulses emitted each second. Remote Sensing (ASPRS) for classification of massive LiDAR
• The inertial measurement unit (IMU) directly mea- point cloud datasets. As of 2018, the LAS classifications were
sures the roll, pitch, and heading of the aircraft, as follows:
establishing the angular orientation of the sensor
about the x, y, and z axis in flight. • Class 0: Created, never classified

• The LiDAR sensor itself measures the scan angle • Class 1: Unclassified
of the laser pulses. Combined with IMU data, this • Class 2: Ground
establishes the angular orientation of each of the
thousands of pulses emitted each second. • Class 3: Low vegetation

• The LiDAR sensor also measures the time neces- • Class 4: Medium vegetation
sary for each emitted pulse to reflect off the ground • Class 5: High vegetation
(or features thereon) and return to the sensor. Time
translates into distance measured between the air- • Class 6: Buildings
craft and the point being surveyed. • Class 7: Noise
LiDAR sensors are capable of receiving multiple returns, • Class 8: Model key-point (mass point after
up to five returns per pulse. For a sensor emitting 150,000 thinning)
pulses per second, this means that the sensor must be capa-
• Class 9: Water
ble of recording up to 150,000 x 5 = 750,000 returns per
second while in flight. The "first return" is the top reflective • Class 10: Rail
surface, that is, the first thing hit by a single laser pulse; this
• Class 11: Road surface
could be a treetop, rooftop, ground point, or a bird in flight.
When a laser pulse hits a soft target (e.g., tree or field of • Class 12: Overlap/reserved
weeds), the first return represents the top or canopy of that
• Class 13: Wire-guard
feature. A portion of the laser light beam continues down-
ward below the canopy and hits a tree branch, for example; • Class 14: Wire-conductor
this would provide a second return. Theoretically, the last
• Class 15: Transmission tower
return represents the bare earth terrain; but this is often
not the case. Some vegetation is so thick that no portion of • Class 16: Wire-connector
the laser pulse penetrates to the ground. This is surely the
• Class 17: Bridge deck
case with sawgrass, mangrove, and dense forests where the
canopy is so thick that a person on the ground cannot see • Class 18: High noise
the sky above.
• Class 19-63: Reserved for ASPRS definition
A limitation of topographic LiDAR is that it normally
does not penetrate water. In most cases, LiDAR pulses are • Class 64-255: User definable
412 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
LiDAR sensors are mounted in both fixed wing aircraft
and helicopters. Fixed wing aircraft are used for larger project
areas; flight lines are straight and parallel, with occasional cross
flights. Helicopters are used for small project areas, including
narrow corridors that meander. In addition to mapping the
terrain (as well as forest canopy for some applications), LiDAR
is excellent for mapping and computing the volumes of stock-
piles, or for determining changes to the terrain as a result of
strip mining or construction activities, for example. Because
of the cost of deploying a LiDAR sensor on site, there is nor-
mally a fixed cost involved even if all data can be acquired in a
single day. Thus, for topographic mapping of a small construc-
tion site for example, it is normally more cost effective to use
photogrammetric mapping-so long as dense vegetation does
not disallow the use of stereo photogrammetry for mapping
the floor of a forest, for example.
LiDAR data also includes intensity imagery that looks (a)
similar to digital orthophotography but instead depicts the
brightness of each laser return. As indicated previously,
LiDAR returns on water are unreliable, and it is frequently
difficult to see the breakline at a shoreline. Whereas ortho-
photos may be used to generate 2D breaklines of shore-
lines (Figure 5.2Q), lidargrammetry is now largely used
to generate 3D breaklines from LiDAR intensity imagery.
Per the example at Figure 5.2R, 3D breaklines are required
for hydro-enforcement of streams to ensure that water
flows downstream in hydrologic and/or hydraulic models.
LiDAR "stereo mates" can be generated with base-height
ratios that provide vertical exaggeration; intensity image
stereo mates appear as though they are stereo photographs
for compilation of 3D breaklines and/or contours using the
very same softcopy photogrammetry tools used for compi-
lation from stereo photographs. Although lidargrammetry
is new, research has indicated that breaklines and contours (b)
produced from lidargrammetry are more accurate than
FIG uRE 5. 2 Q (a) LiDAR DTM does not clearly depict the shoreline
breaklines and contours produced from photogrammetry,
of the river; yet a digital orthophoto clearly shows such shorelines. (b) The
especially in terrain where vegetation obscures the stereo addition of 2D breaklines from digital orthophotos can be used to "burn in"
views required with photogrammetry. the water surface at elevations lower than the terrain.
The high-density, high-accuracy LiDAR mass points can
be a mixed blessing. For example, they cause contours to
appear very noisy and irregular. To overcome this limitation,
• LiDAR is the technology of choice for generation of
it is common to delete LiDAR mass points on road pave-
digital topographic datasets with accuracies equiva-
ments between edges of pavement breaklines. Also, when
lent to 1 and 2 feet contours.
breaklines are generated for road edge of pavement, curbs,
bottoms of drainage ditches, tops and bottoms of stream • Whereas LiDAR had previously been considered
banks, and shorelines, for example, it is common to remove/ weak for generation of breaklines, lidargrammetry
reclassify LiDAR points within 1 to 2 feet of those breaklines has caused a paradigm shift in such thinking.
so that the advantages of clearly defined breaklines are not
• Tools are rapidly evolving for increased automa-
offset by noisy LiDAR data points nearby.
tion in the processing of LiDAR data, causing costs
LiDAR Considerations
to lower significantly since 2000. This technology
• LiDAR has an advantage over photogrammetry is evolving rapidly, and potential applications are
in generating accurate elevation datasets in dense limitless.
vegetation.
• Whereas automation causes costs to decrease,
• LiDAR is ideal for generation of high-density, high- cost competition and demands for rapid delivery
accuracy elevation datasets oflarge areas. of products causes deliverables from LiDAR (and
 5.2 ■ EXISTING CONDITIONS AND FIELD SURVEY 413

FIG uRE 5. 2 R (a) High points on the shore on both sides of the river make this TIN look as though water cannot flow
through this reach of the river. (b) The addition of 3D breaklines from either photogrammetry or lidargrammetry are used to hydro-
enforce the TIN so that water continuously flows downstream.

photogrammetry) to be largely unseen by human roads, utility corridors, and streams. The baseline is sta-
eyes prior to delivery to the customer. This increases tioned along its length. For each feature, the station and
the need for independent quality assurance/quality the distance left or right of the baseline is noted, and an
control (QA/QC) to ensure that each client receives elevation obtained.
the quality data that it pays for. The baseline can be the centerline of a road, an offset line,
• Where possible, select the independent QA/QC a property line, or a traverse line, whichever is the most prac-
specialist and clearly define the acceptance crite- tical. The line is stationed in increments, such as 25 feet, with
ria before contracting with any vender to produce a hub or nail set at each one. Elevations are then established
LiDAR or photogrammetric mapping products. at each station.
Handwritten baseline field notes are unique in that
5.2.6. Baseline Topography they begin at the bottom and run up the page. As shown
A baseline topographic survey relates horizontal and verti- in Figure 5.2S, the notes are set up with the profile level
cal data to a known reference line, that is, a baseline. This run on the left page and the cross section notes on the right
method is particularly suited for long-line surveys, such as page. To accommodate the cross sections, plenty of space is
414 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii

! -

/ lt.50 ,

• + ~ i -- -·· ·---

: ~ey :Fzco~;zd £(et . -:~:=: :=:=

: ~ -- ,/f'ecl ,r~'2'0211_ __
,• = 0 /~f frq rn ,~ __ _:
1

,
. e - :t.oca'hon
.. .. :___ __ _

FIG uRE 5. 2 S Baseline field notes.

left between the profile stations. On the cross section page, commences. With elevations established at each baseline
a line is struck from top to bottom to represent the baseline. station, they can also be used for benchmarks. On pave-
Each location is written to the right or to left of the line, ment, concrete, storm or sanitary structures the rod is read
depending upon its location in the field. The data for each to the nearest hundredth of a foot. On ground shots, the rod
shot consists of a station along the baseline, a rod shot, a is read to the nearest tenth of a foot. After the levels are run,
distance off the baseline, and an abbreviated description. the rod shots are subtracted from the height of the instru-
The distances with the descriptions are obtained first, and ment (HI) and the elevations are written above the rod
the shots are marked with keel or flagging. When all the shot. In the office, the math is checked, and the profile and
horizontal measurements are complete, the leveling run cross sections are plotted to the appropriate scale.
 5.2 ■ EXISTING CONDITIONS AND FIELD SURVEY 415

CA_WEST COAST LIDAR_2016

Location: Complete western shoreline of the United States
Client: USGS and NOAA
Completion Date: November 2016
Case Study: The 2015-2016 El Nino global weather event significantly altered ground conditions along the west coast
of the United States, to the point that the past topographical maps are out of date. Dewberry was selected by the U.S.
Geological Survey (USGS), in collaboration with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association (NOAA), and the
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE), to collect and process new high resolution elevation models, using LiDAR, for
the narrow corridor stretching along approximately 1700 miles of the coastline.
The clients entrusted Dewberry to supply a solution which fit their tight schedule and fixed budget. A unique helicopter
solution was used instead of our standard fixed-wing solution to ensure the least amount of flight lines in the shortest
amount of time to follow the rugged coastline at an altitude of3000 feet. The project was completed within a 6-week time
window and met all the project requirements which delighted the clients. The updated elevation models are now being
used in various environmental and ecological studies, including a landslide in California in May 2017 which destroyed
a large portion of the Pacific Coast Highway near Monterey, CA.
41& i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii

BEAVER ISLANDS TOPOBATHY LIDAR

Location: Michigan
Client: National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration
Completion Date: November 2016
Case Study: Dewberry acquired and processed 205 square miles of airborne topographic and bathymetric LiDAR data
and developed LiDAR-derived elevation products for the Beaver Islands Archipelago and South Manitou Island in
Upper Lake Michigan. These data will be used by NOA.A's Office of Coastal Management to enhance coastal forecasting
for inundation, seiches, and flooding and provide accurate digital elevation models for modeling, engineering, and plan-
ning needs. The LiDAR intensity data are being used for aquatic vegetation and habitat mapping to support the National
Park Service's inventory and monitoring program.
Dewberry and its partner Leading Edge Geomatics acquired the LiDAR data with a Leica AHAB Chiroptera II sensor
which was selected based on its excellent nearshore depth penetration. Initially, NOAA expected depths of20 feet, however
Dewberry was able to achieve depths of over 65 feet. The final data also exceeded the vertical accuracy requirements of
19.6 centimeters by achieving a final vertical accuracy of 8.1 centimeters at the 95 percent confidence level (RMSEz =
4.2 centimeters). Furthermore, Dewberry exceeded the 2 point per square meter density requirement by delivering a final
LIDAR point cloud of over 9.7 points per square meter. We delivered data to that was twice as accurate, achieved data
density of 500 percent more than what was stated in the SOW and delivered data at depths 3 times deeper than what was
required, and still completing the project under budget.

Beaver Islands Archipelago

Topobathy Lidar
National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration I l ake Michigan
 CHAPTER 5.3

TRANSPORTATION DESIGN

5.3.1. Introduction geometry should also be considered against visibility and

The final design of the streets follows prescribed geomet- safety.
ric requirements for the horizontal, vertical, and inter-
5.3.2. Pavement Design
section design. The design speed of a road will generally
be the governing factor on the geometric design (note that Pavement thickness is subject to prevailing soil conditions,
the posted speed limit is sometimes lower by 5 mph than climate, vehicle design loadings, and type of pavement.
the design speed of the road). Higher design speeds require There are three basic types of pavement: flexible, rigid, and
larger horizontal and vertical curves. Most road designs and composite (Figure 5.3B).
transportation improvements associated with land develop- Flexible and composite pavements consist of two or more
ment projects will follow design criteria for 30 mph or less of the following layers:
but could be higher when designing highway improvements
• Subgrade-the natural soil material where the upper
associated with the development (such as a new turn lane).
layers rest.
Internal vehicle paths, even if not formal roads, should fol-
low road design criteria to the extent possible. • Subbase-optional layer used to augment the
The horizontal and vertical geometry should be con- strength of the sub grade. It consists of a compacted
sidered together when designing the roadway. Even when granular material that may be treated with admix-
following the design requirements established by governing tures to achieve certain strength characteristics
agencies, it's possible to create unpleasant or dangerous road required in specific conditions. Additionally, the
networks based on abrupt or disjointed transitions between subbase acts to reduce frost action or as a filter to
horizontal and vertical curves. For instance, if a vehicle is prevent intrusion of fine-grained roadbed soils into
traveling up a hill, the line of sight is limited and an abrupt the base course.
horizontal curve on the other side can create a dangerous
• Base course-constructed on top of the subbase or
condition (Figure 5.3A). Too many horizontal and vertical
subgrade. For flexible pavements, it consists of granu-
curves connected in series, even when following minimum
lar material such as crushed stone or gravel. The spec-
design criteria, can create unpleasant driving conditions.
ifications for the flexible pavement base course are
The designer should consider how a road will be used in
more rigorous than those for the subbase in terms of
addition to the design speed and geometric requirements. The
strength, hardness, gradation, and aggregate types. In
design speed of a road establishes minimum values for hori-
composite pavements, the base course consists of a
zontal and vertical geometry. The minimum values should
concrete base slab, typically unreinforced and placed
likely be exceeded during design, but using values that are too
directly on the subgrade without a subbase course.
large can also create an undesirable condition. For instance, if
a low-speed neighborhood road is required to have a mini- • Surface course-top course of the pavement sec-
mum radius of200 feet, using a value of2000 feet can influ- tion consisting of a mixture of mineral aggregates
ence driver behavior and may promote speeding. Inherent and asphaltic materials. The purpose of the sur-
traffic calming can be accomplished by introducing curvi- face course is to provide a smooth riding surface,
linear geometry with lower radii. As noted previously, this resist the wear and tear from traffic, provide skid

417
410 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii

1■1

Horizontal and vertical curves should be considered together. Horizontal curves that occur along a vertical crest
can create an uncomfortable, disjointed, and dangerous co ndition.

FIG uRE 5. 3 A Issues in road design.

resistance to vehicles, and prevent excessive water Rigid pavements typically consist of a pavement slab of
from penetrating into the base course. The surface Portland cement concrete and a subbase layer. However,
course may be further subdivided into binder and the subbase layer is omitted when the subgrade material is
top courses. The binder course typically consists of granular. Depending on the amount of steel reinforcement,
an asphaltic mixture with a larger aggregate size for rigid pavement can be classed as plain concrete, simply
additional strength, while the top course utilizes a reinforced concrete, and continuously reinforced concrete.
smaller aggregate mix to provide a smoother riding Subbase depths under reasonable conditions may range from
surface. 4 to 8 inches, and the concrete thickness can range from 6 to
12 inches.
Depending on the site conditions and the performance of In addition to the aforementioned pavement types, which
the subgrade, the reasonable range of thickness of the sub- are considered to be impervious surfaces (i.e., storm water will
base is 6 to 8 inches. Base course thickness ranges from 3 to run off rather than seep through), a porous pavement design
6 inches for flexible pavements and 6 to 9 inches for compos- could be considered under certain circumstances. Porous
ite pavements, while the surface course is 1 to 3 inches for pavements may be constructed of either porous asphalt or
lower-category-type roads. pervious concrete. In both cases, the finished pavement is
 5.3 ■ TRANSPORTATION DESIGN 419

Seal Coat site conditions. Not all pavement designs require all types of
Binder Course Surface Course pavement materials. For example, an intermediate course is
often included for strength during interim traffic conditions
Prime Tack Coat
(e.g., a subdivision has some homes built but some under
construction). The total thickness of pavement can vary but
is typically between 6 and 24 inches for site roads.
The composition of the layers is referred to as the pave-
ment section. The selected materials and thickness of the
materials are designed to accommodate the projected traffic
volume and type of traffic. The soil beneath the pavement
also has an influence on the pavement materials used for the
proposed roadway. A single project can include several dif-
ferent pavement sections for different uses such as parking,
Natural Subgrade driveways, roads, highways, dumpster pads, sidewalks, and
a) other transportation surfaces.
The pavement design can have a significant impact on
the infrastructure cost of the project. Even similar road types
may require different pavement sections, which could double

. .•
the cost of pavement between projects. The pavement design
should be specific to the project. An estimated pavement
• design is usually developed in the early stages of design and
• • Portland;:-Ceme11t Concrete
.. C, .. "t> • refined once geotechnical studies have verified the soil con-
ditions of the site (usually during the construction phase).
-=-=- =-=-=-=-=-=-= Base Course (Optional) .-=-=-=-=-=-=-
------------------- ------- ---- Most jurisdictions will provide guidance on how to estimate
b) the pavement section during the design based on typical soil
conditions of the region and how to finalize the design dur-
FIG uRE 5.3B Typical pavement sections. ing construction.
Pavement Design Plan Content. A typical plan sheet for
pavement design will include the applicable conditions for
placed over an infiltration bed consisting of open-graded
the pavement design, such as the vehicles per day, vehicle
gravel with a high percentage of voids. The advantages of
distribution type (passenger, trucks, buses), and the geotech-
utilizing porous pavement include the following:
nical information. A section view of the road is often shown
• Filtering of storm water runoff with notes identifying the various pavement depths and sec-
tions of pavement.
• Fewer pipes/inlets need be constructed
5.3.3. Horizontal Alignment
• Better skid resistance (due to the open-graded nature
of the surface and the fact that water does not sit on The street layout is constrained by such things as topogra-
the pavement surface) phy, needed connections to existing street networks, and
required access to adjacent land. The optimal layout of the
However, in order to be successfully implemented, care development must produce maximum development yield
must be taken in site selection and construction. Porous (such as subdivision lots or retail areas) with consideration
pavements are not recommended in areas with poor geol- for aesthetics and market attraction. Additionally, required
ogy (i.e., high groundwater tables or low permeability improvements to any existing streets may affect the proposed
underlying soils); in areas that would be susceptible to a street layout. These constraints factor into the horizontal
high incidence of contaminant spills (such as a refueling alignment of the proposed streets. The geometric consider-
station); in high traffic areas; or in areas that might be ations of site roads can also be applied to internal transporta-
coated or paved over (such as private driveways). In addi- tion networks such as long driveways and parking areas.
tion, to maintain effectiveness, porous pavements should Circular Curves. Horizontal alignment of streets and
be vacuum swept and/or power washed twice per year, and roadways is critical in land development projects, espe-
sand or gravel should not be used for de-icing/traction in cially subdivisions and town centers. For arterial streets and
cold weather climates. For these reasons, porous pavements highways, this alignment has an effect on design speed and
are most applicable for use in parking lots and low-volume sight distance. The horizontal alignment is comprised of a
access roads. series of two basic types of geometric sections: straight tan-
Some local criteria may provide a range of alternative pave- gents and curves. The curve used on local streets is a simple
ment designs for local and residential streets that can be used circular curve. This is a section of a circle having a constant
directly or modified, if necessary, to accommodate specific radius, as opposed to spiral curves, which are curves of
420 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
External distance Eis the distance from the PI to the mid-
point on the curve.
Deflection Angle
(ti)

(5.30)

Middle ordinate (MO) is the distance from the midpoint on

the curve to the midpoint on the long chord.

MO=R (1-cos (%)) (5.3E)

The length of arc of a simple curve bears the same proportion

to the circumference of a full circle of same radius as the cen-
tral angle subtended by the arc bears to 360°.
Simply stated,
A-8 D (5.3F)
2,rR 360°
The degree of curvature, like the radius, is a measure of the
FIG uRE 5. 3 C Elements of a circular curve. sharpness of curvature. The degree of curve by arc definition
is the amount of central angle Ll subtended by 100 feet of arc
(Figure 5.3D). Letting the arc distance A - B = 100 feet in
varying radius. Figure 5.3C shows the basic elements of the Equation (5.3G) defines the degree of curve Das
circular curve that are important to street design.
D= 5729.58 (5.3G)
Two tangents of different direction are joined together by
R
a circular arc of constant radius (R) at two points. The point
at which the tangent ends and the curve begins is labeled the As an example, a curve with a 1637-foot radius is equivalent
point of curvature (PC). The point at which the curve ends to a 3½ 0 curve (i.e., 5729.58/1637). A smaller 572.96-foot
and the next tangent begins is labeled the point of tangency radius would require a 10° angle to create a 100-foot arc
(PT). The tangents intersect at the PI, point of intersection. length, that is, D = 10° (Figure 5.3E). Notice that according
The deflection angle (Ll) is the exterior angle formed between to Equation (5.3H) and the preceding example, as the radius
the two tangents at the Pl. The angle formed by a tangent and decreases the degree of curve increases.
a line from the PC or PT to the curve center (CC) is always There are two things worth noting regarding degree of
precisely 90°. Any angle other than 90° produces a flaw in curvature. First, the definition described previously is appli-
the geometry and is not a true representation of the circle- cable for streets and highways and is known as the "highway
tangent relationship. definition:' (A separate definition based on a 100-foot chord
There are seven basic components of the circular curve. length instead of arc length defines degree of curve for
Two have been identified: radius (R) and deflection angle railroad curves and is known as the "railroad definition:')
(Ll). The remaining components are as follows: Second, degree of curvature is restricted to English units of
Length of curve (L) is the arc length from PC to PT.
100'
L = '1(in radians) X R or L = ,1(in degrees) X ,rR (5.3A)
B
180

Tangent distance Tis the distance from the PC or PT to the

PI (both distances are equal).

T =Rtan( %) (5.3B)

Long chord C is the distance measured along a straight line

from the PC to PT.
Cl.lrve Center
C= 2R sin ( %)= 2T cos ( %) (5.3C)
FIG uRE 5. 3 D Degree of curve by arc definition.
 5.3 ■ TRANSPORTATION DESIGN 421

TAB LE 5 . 3 A Minimum Curve Radii Based on

Design Speed
DESIGN SPEED MINIMUM RADIUS

15 50
20 107
25 198
-
,..._ 30 333
,,,
CD

II
35 510
a::
40 762

computing elements of the compound curve with respect to

the nomenclature of Figure 5.3F.

~=~1 +~s
T. = Rs -R1 COS~+ (R1 -Rs) COS ~s
1 sin~
T. =R1 -RsCOS~-(R1 -Rs)COS~1 (5.3H)
s sin~
tan(~1J= Tssin~-Rs (1-cos~)
2 7;_ + Tscos~-Rssin~
tan(~sJ = R1(1-cos~)-7;_ sin~
2 R1sin~-T1cos~-Ts
SCALE (ft)
u, ,,,. I
0 100
FIG uRE 5 . 3 E Comparison of degree of curvature with radius.

measure. In the metric system of measurement, degree of

curve is not defined and not used.
The minimum radius of a horizontal curve (at the center-
line) is established by the design speed of a road as well as the
superelevation. A table of minimum curve radii is provided
in Table 5.3A for a normal crowned roadway, which is typical
for neighborhood and urban streets. Note that a road with
a normal crown (typical of subdivision and urban roads)
should be considered as a -2% superelevation. In practice,
the radius used in design is usually proposed with incre-
ments of 10 or 25 feet. For example, if the minimum radius is
132 feet, a radius of 140 or 150 feet may be proposed.
Compound Curves. The connection of simple curves of
different radii in series with the centers on the same side of a
common tangent forms curves known as compound curves.
Each curve has a different radius and connects at a common
point of tangency referred to as the point of compound cur-
vature, PCC. As shown in Figure 5.3F, the two curve cen-
ters and the PCC are collinear. In a compound curve, there
are three pairs of tangents: the tangents, t1 and t2, associated
with each individual curve, and the long tangents, T, which
OL
includes both curves. Unlike the simple curve, the long tan-
gents may not be equal. The following equations are used in FIG uRE 5 .3 F Elements of a compound curve.
422 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
Compound curves are typically used near at-grade inter-
sections and to accommodate the desired street alignment,
especially in difficult topographic areas and in high-density
developments where the road alignment may be constrained
by other physical features. At the speeds encountered on
local streets, the effects of a sudden change in curvature at
the PCC may not be as pronounced as on high-speed high-
ways. To decrease rider discomfort through a compound
curve, the radii of the two curves should not differ consider- r
ably. The American Association of State Highway and Trans-
portation Officials (AASHTO) recommends that the ratio of
the two radii be less than 2:1 at intersections.
Reverse Curves. Two consecutive curves with centers
on opposite sides of the common tangent are known as a
reverse curve. These curves join at a common point of tan-
gency called the point of reverse curvature, PRC. To be
geometrically correct, the two curve centers and the PRC
must be collinear. Reverse curves are not recommended
on high-speed highways or roads where superelevation is
required. In such cases, it is desirable to insert a minimum r
tangent length of 100 feet between curves to allow for tran-
sition of superelevation between the curves. This is also a oc
safer design for the driver to negotiate the vehicle through Wv 2
the directional change. When installed with the tangent sec- gr
tion between curves, the result is two simple curves used
to change the direction of travel. Figure 5.3G shows a sche-
matic of a reverse curve.
Superelevation. Superelevation is the tilting or "banking"
of the roadway around a horizontal curve to counter the sinoc
outward centripetal forces on a vehicle as it travels along the
curve (Figure 5.3H). Superelevation is an important element FIG uRE 5 . 3 H Example of a superelevated roadway.
in the design of arterial streets and highways but is rarely a
design requirement for minor roads such as local streets and
collectors. The reason is that in its attempt to improve riding non-superelevated pavement is not significant. However,
comfort, superelevation promotes speeding and hence can others might argue that superelevation is needed on low-
be a safety liability on residential streets. At design speeds speed streets for the safety of the vehicle and occupants.
of 25 mph and below, the reduction in riding comfort for Rather than superelevate the road beyond normal section
cross slopes, a compromise is to superelevate the road only
to the extent where the outside cross slope equals the cross
slope of the inside lanes at normal section. In practice this is
referred to as reverse crown. On some roads, such as major
collectors and minor arterials, superelevation is a require-
ment and the design must conform to the applicable criteria.
For more detailed information regarding superelevation,
refer to AASHTO's A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways
and Streets.
Stopping Sight Distance. Roadway design should ensure
that both the horizontal and vertical alignments of the road-
way provide adequate lines of sight for drivers. These lines
of sight and associated sight distances should provide driv-
ers with the lengths required to see, stop, and/ or maneuver
their vehicles with enough time to avoid striking objects, dis-
abled vehicles, and even pedestrians in the travel lanes. As
Pl 2
can be expected, pavement conditions, speed, fixed objects
on the side of the road, horizontal curvature, gradients,
FIG uRE 5.3G Elements of a reverse curve. sag, or crest vertical curve conditions all influence stopping
 5.3 ■ TRANSPORTATION DESIGN 423

sight distances (SSDs). On roads that may involve passing, trees planted along the side and median of the road-all
sight distance is also affected by the need for enough time to site features should be considered when determining if
maneuver back from the opposing travel lane. adequate SSD is available. Other factors impacting sight
Some types of sight distances to be considered during distance include barriers to the line of sight such as ground
roadway design are the following: slopes, signs, buildings, and vertical grades in combination
with horizontal curves.
• SSD on horizontal curves Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves. SSD for a horizontal
• SSD on crest vertical curves curve is the chord length of the centerline of the inside lane of
the pavement with the stopping distance measured along the
• SSD on sag vertical curves arc length of the curve. This is the actual distance the vehicle
• Passing sight distance, not typically a component travels during the reaction and stopping time. Figure 5.3I
with land development projects (see AASHTO illustrates the location of the sight distance line and the stop-
resources for information) ping distance. The relationship between the middle ordinate
distance, stopping distance, and the curvature is obtained
Note that SSD is different from intersection sight distance, from Equations (5.3E) and (5.3F).
which was defined in Chapter 3.3. Intersection sight distance
focuses on the line of sight from a vehicle that is maneuver-
(5.31)
ing an intersection (approaching, crossing, or turning). SSD
focuses on the driver in motion and the ability see far enough
along the road to stop. where HSO is the horizontal sight line offset (feet), S is the
In residential and urban areas, there is a tendency for a stopping distance (feet), and R is the curve radius (feet). One
high density of pedestrians and numerous unmarked loca- must recognize that Figure 5.3I shows how to determine
tions where road crossings occur. Such common situations adequate sight distance in the horizontal plane. Vertical
emphasize the need for adequate SSD. Assessing adequate alignment of the street is also a factor, and this method is
SSD is further complicated by on-street parking as well as not applicable if the horizontal curve is near a vertical curve.

__ ... ··· ·····~:~···- ···- .....

. -~<·- - ~L-------------------~---~ ~~~~-. . . . _

1/ • .,, ~
•

FIG uRE 5 . 31 Sight distance along a horizontal curve. (.)

424 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
Horizontal Design Plan Content. The site plan should show The profile of the roadway follows geometric requirements
the road alignment with stations. The alignment location that are established by the design speed of the roadway.
should be coordinated with a typical section to identify if the Vertical Curves. The vertical profile of streets is accom-
alignment is at the centerline or a separate baseline (such as plished by connecting straight tangent sections with para-
edge of existing pavement). Geometric labels for the align- bolic curves (rather than circular curves used in horizontal
ment should be identified, which often include horizontal geometry). Parabolic curves allow the street alignment to
curve radii, length of tangents, and associated stations. The better adapt to the topography while providing a constant
bearing and distance of each geometric element should be rate of grade change for a smooth, safe, and aesthetically
shown to adequately describe the proposed design; the start- pleasing design. In all but very rare, unusual cases, street
ing or ending point may be noted with a northing and easting. design uses equal tangent vertical curves, called symmetrical
In some cases, it's helpful to provide a sheet with all relevant vertical curves.
road geometry across the entire project at a larger scale. Figure 5.3J shows four types of vertical curves possible
with different combinations of positive and negative grades.
5.3.4. Vertical Design Crest vertical curves have entrance grades algebraically
Ideally, the vertical geometry of a roadway will try to fol- greater than the exit grades, while in sag vertical curves the
low existing topography to reduce the earthwork required to exit grades are algebraically greater than the entrance grades.
construct the roadway; however, in many cases the geometry Figure 5.3J shows crest vertical curves at the top and sag ver-
is established by access requirements throughout the site. tical curves below.

CREST VERTICAL CURVES

,. /
....

,,
, -- ,..

-,

TYPEl TYPE 2

SAG VERTICAL CURVES

... .... ,.
,. ,.
'
' ,.

TYPE 3 TYPE 4

G, and G2 = Tangent Grades in Percent VPC = Vertical Point of Curvature

A = Algebraic Difference in Grade VPT = Vertical Point of Tangent
L = Length of Vertical Curve K = LIA
E = Vertical Offset at the VPI

FIG uRE 5. 3 J Various types of vertical curves.

 5.3 ■ TRANSPORTATION DESIGN 425

V2

>
w
N
X
...J
w <l;;l

X
-
Cl MO
PVC
ELEV. PVC
X
~ 91
y 1

STATION
FIG uRE 5. 3 K Schematic diagram for symmetrical vertical curve.

A vertical curve consists of two straight tangent segments

E=MO=AL (5.3K)
with grades designated as g1 and g2, and the connecting verti- 8
cal curve (Figure 5.3K). The curve is tangent to the straight
segments at the PVC (point of vertical curvature) and PVT The relationship between the tangent offset d at any point
(point of vertical tangency). The tangents intersect at the on the vertical curve and the external is given as
point of vertical intersection, PVI. The length of the vertical
curve is the horizontal distance between the PVC and PVT. It
is not measured along the curve itself. For symmetrical verti-
d= 2(~(
2 L x
2 )) =f (_!__)
L/2
2
(5.3L)

cal curves, the horizontal distances from the PVC to PVI and
PVI to PVT are equal. If x is the distance measured from the PVC, d is the
The general equation for any vertical curve is vertical distance measured from the connecting tangent.
On the other hand, if x is measured from the PVT, d is the
distance measured from the tangent connecting the PVT.
Y=2(g
2
2 -g 1) x 2 +g x+PVC
L , Elev
(5.3J)
Note that the offsets from the two tangents are symmetrical
with respect to the PVI.
where y is the elevation of the point on the vertical curve The distance from the PVC to the high point of a crest
located at a horizontal distance x away from the PVC. Fre- curve (or low point of a sag curve) is
quently in highway design manuals the algebraic difference
of grades, g2 - g1> is designated as A.
(5.3M)
Figure 5.3K shows the application of the mathematical
terms. The first term, the tangent offset = Ax2 /2L, represents
the vertical distance from the point on the curve to the tan- Substituting this value into Equation (5.3J) sets the eleva-
gent represented by g1 • The g1x term is the vertical distance tion at the high or low point. Equation (5.3M) shows that for
between the point on the tangent and the PVC, and the sum- types I and III curves, if g1 =g2 the high/low point location is
mation g1x + PVCElev gives the tangent elevation. in the middle of the curve, and if g1 '# g 2 the high/low point is
The center of the parabola is midway between the ver- located on the side of the PVI with the flatter grade.
tex, that is, PVI, and the long chord. The middle ordinate Sight Distance on Crest Vertical Curves. Design of crest
(MO), the vertical distance from the long chord to the curve, vertical curves includes the provision for safe stopping dis-
is equal to the external E, the vertical distance from the curve tances, rider comfort, and general appearance. However,
to the PVI, and is given as in nearly all cases, SSD is the controlling factor. The safe
42& i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii

Height
_,....-"",...- - - - t - Of
:.....;.---=-----L---=:!.:--=:~ --4- Object
l-leight
Of -l---Ct~~
Eye

Stopping Sight Distance

(S)

Length of Vertical Curve

(l)

Stopping Sight Distance for S<L

FIG uRE 5 . 3 L Stopping sight distance when S < L.

stopping distance requires a minimum length of curve fitted Case II (shown in Figure 5.3M) occurs when the
to the given tangents and design speed. The greater the required sight distance is greater than the length of the
algebraic difference in grade between the tangents, the longer vertical curve, that is, S > L:
the vertical curve must be to provide adequate sight distance.
Two cases exist with regard to sight distance and the CASE II: Where S > L:
length of a vertical curve:
L= 2S _ 200 (,./fi;+Jfi;.)2 (5.30)
Case I exists where the required sight distance S is less A
1329
than the length of the vertical curve L, as shown in L= 2S - -A- (for H, = 3.5 ft, H2 = 0.5 ft)
Figure 5.3L. The applicable equation is

where L = length of the vertical curve

CASE I: Where S < L:
S = sight distance (ft)
AS 2 (5.3N) A= algebraic difference in grades where A= G, - G2 (grades
L=-----~
200 ($, + -Jij";_) 2 are given in percent)
AS 2 H, = height of eye and H2 = height of object (AASHTO recom-
L = --(for H, = 3.5 ft, H2 = 2.0 ft)
2158 mends H1 = 3.5 ft and H2 = 0.5 ft)

l-leight
Of
Eye

Length of Vertical Curve

(L)
Stopping Sight Distance
(S)

Stopping Sight Distance For S>L

FIG uRE 5 . 3M Stopping sight distance when S > L.

 5.3 ■ TRANSPORTATION DESIGN 427

Finding a minimum curve length given g" g2 , and the design should check the local design criteria to determine the mini-
speed requires knowing the SSD obtained from mum vertical curve requirements.
v2 In addition to SSD on crest vertical curves, another type of
SSD =1.4 7tV + 30(f (5.3P) sight distance is passing sight distance. In general, passing sight
distance is required only for two-lane arterial streets and high-
ways. Sometimes it is more economical to create no-passing
where SSD = stopping sight distance (ft)
zones near crest vertical curves, with proper signing and strip-
t= reaction time (s)
ing, to keep costs manageable. For more detailed information
V= initial travel speed (mph)
regarding passing sight distance, refer to AASHTO's A Policy
f = coefficient of friction between ties and road
on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets.
G= longitudinal street slope (ft/ft)
Sight Distance on Sag Vertical Curves. Factors control-
Assume either the S < L or S > L case and use the appro- ling the lengths of sag vertical curves include sight distance
priate equation [Equation (5.3N) or (5.30) according to the related to vehicle headlights. Equations for determining
assumption] to find curve length L. If the computed curve sag vertical curve lengths for minimum sight distances are
length is contrary to the assumed condition, use the other based on the illuminated area from the average car head-
equation to recalculate the correct length. light beam. The headlight beam is assumed to be 2 feet high
A frequently used parameter for relating SSDs to the length and directed 1° upward from the longitudinal axis of the
of a vertical curve is the ratio of the length of curve to the alge- vehicle. Equations (5.3Q) and (5.3R) are for use on sag ver-
braic difference in tangent grades, K =LIA.Parameter K is a tical curves.
measure of curvature in that the ratio represents the horizon-
tal distance required to generate a 1% change in grade and A AS 2
L=---- (5.3Q)
is the algebraic difference of the tangent grades in percent (%) . 400+3.5S
In lieu of using the equations to determine the minimum When S< L.
length of vertical curve, AASHTO provides K values for
various design speeds. These K values can then be used to
determine the minimum length of vertical curve required L= 2S- 400+3.5S (5.3R)
for the given conditions. K values are derived from A
Equation (5.3N), which can be written as L = KA where When S>L.
K = S2/2158. Table 5.3B shows design K values (values are
rounded up to depict design values). For convenience, Table 5.3C shows design K values
Most design standards maintain absolute minimum dis- (values are rounded up to depict design values). These are
tances for the length of a vertical curve when S is greater notably different than crest vertical curve K values because
than L. For local and collector streets this minimum may the controlling factor is headlight distance.
typically be between 50 and 200 feet. Local ordinances or On sag curves drainage is a more critical factor than for
state highway criteria may require additional increases crest vertical curves. AASHTO guidelines suggest providing
in stopping distance based on development density, local a minimum grade of 0.3% within 50 feet of the low point to
climatic conditions, and other experiences. The engineer ensure adequate drainage. This corresponds to a preferred

TABLE 5. 3 B Crest Vertical Curve KValue TABLE 5. 3 C Sag Vertical Curve KValue
SPEED MINIMUM K VALUE (CREST) SPEED MINIMUM K VALUE (SAG)

15 3 15 10
20 7 20 17
25 12 25 26
30 19 30 37
35 29 35 49
40 44 40 64
45 61 45 79
50 84 50 96
420 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
maximum K value of 167. Sag vertical curves with K values stop sign conditions, the design speed is negligible for the
of 167 and greater are an indication that the curve may be PGL design.
too flat in the sump area to properly drain. This can create Ideally, the longitudinal approach grade of the inter-
safety and drainage problems, especially on curbed streets. secting street should be the same as the cross slope of the
The 167 value is not a maximum, but rather a guide indicat- through street. However, this is rarely accomplished, due to a
ing that attention to grade and drainage is warranted. mismatch of the main roadway cross slope with the site and
Profiles at Intersections. At the intersection of multiple design constraints that may impact the approach grade of the
streets, the vertical geometry of the roads should be carefully side street. It is often necessary to provide smooth transition
evaluated. If the grade of a road is steep as it crosses another between the PGL of the side street with the cross slope of
road (with a normal crown), it can influence the geometry of the through street. For practical considerations, there are
the crossing road. Ideally, the grade of the roads at an inter- three basic methods in establishing the profile grade line
section is minimized to avoid difficult intersection topog- for the intersecting street, as illustrated in Figure 5.30. The
raphy. If one of the roads is determined to be the primary design standards for the review agency dictate the method, if
roadway and the other is secondary roadway (e.g., a boule- any, and the acceptable values permitted.
vard acts as the primary road to smaller roads that branch Figure 5.30(a) shows the transition as just a grade break,
off), the crown of the primary roadway may be held across that is, the algebraic difference of the grades. This method is
the intersection. This minimizes the change in vertical geom- typically used for stop conditions and extremely slow speeds
etry along the roadway with the most traffic volume. In other through the intersection. This also includes the speeds of the
cases, the crown can be matched between the two roadways vehicles turning from the through street onto the side street.
if there is no clear primary road. Figure 5.3N depicts both An algebraic difference of about 4% to 5% may be permitted.
crown condition options as holding a primary road crown or Higher values of the grade break have been used; however,
merging the crowns of the two roadways. the bouncing effects of the car over the grade break could
The profiles of curb returns are often evaluated to deter- cause riding discomfort and the underside of some vehicles
mine the grade across the intersection and evaluate the to scrape the pavement.
potential for low points (where stormwater may not be able As shown in Figure 5.30(b), a short vertical curve of 50
to drain). Accessible routes along a roadway can often be to 100 feet provides a smoother transition when the grade
compromised by intersection geometry. The sidewalk loca- break becomes too large. For slow speeds through the inter-
tion following the corner of an intersection has a shorter section, the vertical curve sight distance as dictated by
distance than the road centerline, which may create grades Equations (5.3N) and (5.30) is negligible.
above the accessible 5% even if the roadway centerlines don't Figure 5.3O(c) provides the best way to connect the two
exceed the accessible grade. PGLs for the combined conditions of higher design speeds
Proper alignment of street profiles at intersections pro- of the side street, for signalized control, and for grades with
vides a smooth transition through the intersection. The large algebraic differences. A section of nearly level roadway
profile requirements of the intersecting side street vary sig- at the side street provides a staging area for stopped vehicles,
nificantly depending on the type of intersection control, that improves sight distance, and allows the stopped vehicles to
is, whether the intersection is signalized or has a stop sign, begin their movement without drifting backward or having
and, to a lesser extent, the design speed of the side street to hold the brake pedal too stiffly to keep the vehicle from
and whether it's a three- or four-leg type of intersection. If rolling during the red indication. Additionally, this method,
signalized, a portion of the traffic will arrive on the green with appropriate vertical curves, provides a smoother ride
indication and continue through the intersection without through a four-leg intersection. Although not specifically
significantly slowing down. In this case, the design speed addressed in most design manuals, the length of the stag-
through the intersection will affect the profile design. With ing section should be based on intersection conditions, good

---
· ,,

0 ,.. .... -~
., "'
-~:::•:~~
',,.
'•.

Primary Road Crown Maintained Merged Crown Condition

FIG uRE 5. 3 N Intersection crown condition options.

 5.3 ■ TRANSPORTATION DESIGN 429

<i It is good design practice in such situations to plot the

I ~~;1_:·-=·~
profiles of the curb returns. This helps in setting stakeout
grade for construction, ensures positive drainage around
_9 - s • or the return, and permits a smooth continuous curb return.
2-. - - j__ Selecting a mathematical vertical curve to the curb return
-g, profile is desirable, but for the cases where a true mathemati-
a) Grade break may be permitted for small values cal fit cannot be accomplished, the designer draws a smooth
af (g 1) and (g 2 ) and law design spuds
curve using a parabolic shape. The best-fit curve is com-

l
monly known as a spline curve. The curb return elevations

--~1 should be shown on the plans.

-g2=s.
ei1
-< I
l.so·-100·.I --_J_
or
Vertical Design Plan Content. The vertical design of a road
is shown in a profile, often with the relevant horizontal plan
view on the same sheet (but it may be published as two dif-
vc I ferent sheets). The profile is often exaggerated for clarity,
b) Provide short vertical curve for maderat• values
in many cases 5 or 10 times the normal vertical scale-this
af (g 1 ) and (g 2 ) and low design spHds means that the stations on the x axis are shown at 1 inch =
50 feet while the elevations are shown on a grid of 1 inch =
Ci. 5 feet for an exaggerated view. The existing grade should be
shown for reference. The proposed vertical geometry should
be labeled with grades and vertical curve information (length
of curve, K values, elevation of high/low point, station of PVI).
The profile view often shows the stations of other intersec-
I tions, driveways, or entrances. The stations of curb returns
c) Provide adequate vertical curve and staging length
and the respective elevations are often shown to provide
for larg• values (g 1 ) and (g 2) information on transitions between different streets. The sta-
tions of medians, turn lane tapers, and turn lanes should be
FIG uRE 5. 3 0 PGLfor connecting streets.
provided. The labels for road features, such as curb returns
and medians, require a note about offset distance from the
alignment (centerline). This is usually designated as "L" or
engineering judgment, and, possibly, stopping distance for "R'' based on left and right offsets, respectively. For example,
the design speed. Finally, note that as a minimum, the tan- if the curb return is 15 feet from the centerline, the note may
gent point of the vertical curve should be located outside the include "STA 12+32, 15' (R) = CURB RETURN:'
edge of pavement (EP) of the through street. In some cases, other utilities (such as water, sanitary, and
Matching the PGL alignment becomes more difficult storm) are shown in a road profile. This is common when
when a superelevated through street must be matched to a the utility systems follow the same alignment of the roadway.
side street with a longitudinal slope in the opposite direc- Because the road profile is usually shown at the centerline, the
tion. Factors such as sight distance, design speed, tangent utility systems are noted with elevations and offsets; for instance,
gradients, intersection control, and other items must be con- a waterline shown in a road profile may include a note that iden-
sidered to determine a safe and cost-effective design. Fre- tifies the waterline is proposed 6 feet to the left of the centerline.
quently, a short vertical curve connecting the two opposing When a utility is offset from the centerline but shown in the
slopes does not allow for sufficient sight distance or does not profile it is important to note that the proposed centerline grade
provide a suitable landing area. Use of a longer vertical curve will not reflect the actual grade above the offset utility.
may require extensive grading. A reference for the existing and proposed grade is often
The situation becomes more complex for skewed inter- shown along the length of the profile at set intervals (25 or
sections, or if the intersecting street is on a curve that con - 50 feet). These elevations describe the vertical difference
nects to a through street in superelevation or transition. For between profiles.
this reason, 90° intersections are strongly recommended to Figure 5.3P depicts a sample plan and profile sheet. The
reduce the design complications associated with these situa- vertical road design content is depicted in the bottom of the
tions. Furthermore, review agencies are less receptive to such sample sheet shown in Figure 5.3P.
irregular designs.
Another recurring problem in intersection design is 5.3.5. Traffic Calming Measures
matching the curb returns, especially when the radius is very Traffic calming refers to any number of measures used to
large and the arc length is long. It is not uncommon for the reduce the speed and/or volume of vehicles using a street
contractor to have to warp the pavement at the intersections or roadway network. It is defined by the ITE (Institute of
to match pavements and slopes. For the most part, a good Transportation Engineers) as "the combination of mainly
alignment design minimizes the amount of warping done in physical measures that reduce the negative effects of motor
the field to accommodate matching pavements. vehicle use, alter driver behavior, and improve conditions for
430 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
I Dewberry

____ .._ ___ __ _

ii~
"\.,

- - - -.,:-;;. ,. / - -,- - - =-
/
I . _,--
' ~ / ;;,=--
:...,
~=---;::
-:i..-:-~ ,._, ;_;.;;;..- -·-

',. . . ' '"""""''"""""'' '"""""''. 0 . . . . ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '"
~
-~ o i==_-o
·1 0 0 00
0 ~
E

-!
~
~
~
---
Fi 1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111~

1. Existing and proposed grade elevations shown at grid intervals

2. Profile grid e levations shown at right and left of grid
3. Stations shown along bottom of profile grid
4. Existing and proposed grade lines shown
S. Vertical profile geometry information shown from start to end of curves
6. Point of vertical intersection (PVI) symbol shown for curves
7. Longitudinal road slope shown
8. Utilities shown in profile when parallel to road alignment, or as requ ired

FIG uRE 5.3P Vertical road design plan content.

non-motorized street users" (Lockwood, 1997). A large vertical measures, horizontal measures, and narrowings. In
variety of measures is available for implementation, rang- addition, one significant traffic calming measure is particu-
ing from speed humps and tables to street closures. Many of larly effective as both a volume and speed control measure-
these measures are intended for implementation on an exist- the modern roundabout or community traffic circle.
ing street network to modify existing driver behavior, and are Volume Control Measures. Volume control measures are
frequently installed at the request of residents in response to those intended to limit the amount of through traffic utiliz-
what is perceived as unduly high volumes or speeds through ing the streets in a community. More so than speed control
a residential neighborhood. However, there are several mea- measures, most traditional volume control measures are
sures which can be utilized in the design stage for a new sub- intended as "retrofit" solutions to disrupt travel through an
division to prevent the unwanted driver behavior in without existing street grid. However, two of these measures do have
the need for specific traffic calming devices. analogous designs that could be implemented in the design of
Traffic calming measures are grouped into two primary a grid pattern for new developments. The use of cul-de-sacs
categories: volume control measures and speed control mea- achieves the same effect as full road closures, creating a dead
sures. Speed control measures are further subdivided into end, while loop roads are essentially equivalent to diagonal
 5.3 ■ TRANSPORTATION DESIGN 431

Horizontal Measures. There are several horizontal speed

control measures that can be easily and effectively imple-
mented in the design of a new subdivision or develop-
ment. These include chicanes, lateral shifts, intersection
alignment, road narrowing, and intersection bulb-outs or
neckdowns.
Chicanes involve the construction of a series of reverse
curves, as shown in Figure 5.3T. While these can be effec-
tive in restricting driver speed, care must be taken during the
design to prevent drivers from being able to take a straight
line through the curves. The offset between the curves
should be at least one full lane, and preferably the entire
roadway width. In addition, the deflection angles should be

FIG uRE 5 .3Q Median barrier. (©1999 Institute of Transportation

Engineers, NW.)

diverters, forcing drivers to circle back to the original street

they turned in from. In addition, the construction of median
barriers (Figure 5.3Q) through an intersection is an effective
method of restricting through traffic.
Speed Control Measures. Speed control measures are
those intended to reduce speeding through a neighborhood
by using physical forces to induce drivers to slow down (ver-
tical and horizontal measures) or by using a sense of confine-
ment to inhibit speeding (narrowings).
Vertical Measures. There are essentially three different
vertical traffic calming measures that are utilized to control
speeds. The two most common of these are the speed hump
and speed table (Figure 5.3R). These are areas of pavement
3 to 4 inches high and 12 (speed hump) or 22 feet (speed
table) long. While humps and tables are effective in reducing
speeds, there are concerns regarding their installation, par-
ticularly pertaining to emergency vehicle access; additional
noise due to vehicle acceleration, braking, and the jarring
effect, particularly of humps; and the potential for acci-
dents if a driver approaches the hump or table at too great
a speed and loses control of the vehicle. For these reasons,
----a--
these measures are not recommended for use in new street ,!ES
development.
The third vertical measure is the raised intersection,
where an entire intersection is raised several inches above
the elevation of the approaching streets, usually to the level
of the sidewalks at the corners (Figure 5.3S). Raised inter-
sections are effective at slowing traffic on all intersection
approaches, thereby making the intersection more pedes-
trian friendly, although their effect on midblock speeds is FIG uRE 5 . 3 R Speed hump and speed table. (©1999 Institute of
much less pronounced. Transportation Engineers, NW.)
432 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
I Lateral shifts involve introducing a horizontal offset into
a straight alignment. Properly designed, lateral shifts can be
m: I
used not only on local roads but on collectors and arteri-
als as well. The degree of the lateral shift and the angle of
I the deflection are both factors that determine the degree
I of speed reduction obtained. As with chicanes, a lateral shift
I of at least one lane and a deflection of 45° are required. In
addition, the issue of drivers cutting across opposing traf-
fic lanes to circumvent the lateral shift can be a concern.
However, there are design measures to discourage such
---- - ---- behavior (see Figure 5.3U).
CJJ!J Realigned or modified intersections are an effective mea-
sure for controlling speeds along the through street of a "T"
intersection. In the realigned intersection, the intersection is
designed as more of a "Y" than a "T;' by introducing curved
sections that effectively eliminate the straight through move-
ment (Figure 5.3V).
Road narrowing and intersection bulb-outs or neckdowns
are speed control measures that both operate on the princi-
ple of reducing the width of pavement available to motorists.
A bulb-out involves extending the curb lines at the intersec-
tion into the parking lanes (Figure 5.3W). As a speed control
measure, bulb-outs are primarily effective on local streets
FIG uRE 5. 3 S Raised intersection. (©1999 Institute of where there is only one travel lane in each direction. How-
Transportation Engineers, NW.) ever, bulb-outs are also effective at enhancing pedestrian
safety, particularly on wider, multilane streets, as they reduce
the distance that must be traversed to cross the intersec-
at least 45° in order to be sufficient to induce lower speeds. tion. The addition of a median island can provide additional
Properly designed, chicanes can be one of the most effective pedestrian safety at wider intersections by providing a ref-
methods of speed control, as can be a continuous feature of uge, particularly at signalized intersections where the cycle
the roadway, eliminating the driver tendency to speed from length might make it difficult to complete the crossing before
one traffic calming measure to the next. the signal changes.

0
FIG uRE 5 . 3 T Chicanes. (©1999 Institute of Transportation FIG uRE 5 . 3 U Lateral shifts. (©1999 Institute of Transportation
Engineers, NW.) Engineers, NW.)
 5.3 ■ TRANSPORTATION DESIGN 433

slow turning movements by forcing vehicles to stay within

their own lane and not swing into opposing traffic, while
along curved roadway segments, the island prevents drivers
from attempting to "flatten the curve" by crossing the road-
way centerline. Curb extensions, meanwhile, are utilized
primarily on tangent roadway sections. Curb extensions
typically restrict the width of the travel lanes in each direc-
tion (sometimes in conjunction with a median island). While
in some areas curb extensions are designed to reduce a road-
way to single-lane operation, this implementation is gener-
ally discouraged in the United States due to the perceived
increased risk of head-on collisions.

FIG uRE 5. 3 V Realigned intersection. (©1999 Institute of

Transportation Engineers, NW.)

Other road narrowing measures include the construction

of median islands or curb extensions in the middle of the
block to "pinch'' the roadway width and induce motorists to
reduce their speed (Figure 5.3X). Median islands are particu-
larly effective near intersections and along curved roadway
segments. At an intersection, the median island serves to

I
I
I
l

m
- tit:tu. - - - - " - - _SEJI.._ _

l
,I
I

@i
I
FIG uRE 5 . 3 W Bulb-outs. (©1999 Institute of Transportation FIG uRE 5 . 3 X Median island and narrowings. (©1999 Institute of
Engineers, NW.) Transportation Engineers, NW.)
434 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
5.3.6. Traffic Control Devices 2. Prepare a profile view of the existing topography of
Traffic control devices (TCDs), such as traffic signals, road- the PGL for the road and include all vertical con-
way signs, and pavement markings, are used to regulate, straints such as culvert and utility crossings. With
warn, and guide drivers. In theory, the rules for installing a profile of the existing ground elevation, draw a
TCDs are generally well defined and are explained in the series of straight lines that represent the proposed
Manual of Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD); the longitudinal grade of the street. The maximum and
state laws and regulations; and local governing body (town, minimum gradients selected should comply with
county, etc.) rules, regulations, and statutes. In practice, local requirements.
placing and maintaining TCDs requires diligence and good 3. Select vertical curves to meet sight distance and
management practices to emphasize public safety. drainage constraints. Set the vertical curves on the
An effective TCD should meet four basic requirements profiles using appropriate curve length with the
as follows: required vertical curve sight distance. Label the sta-
1. Be warranted (based on traffic study, as introduced tions of the PVCs, PVTs, and high and low points.
in Chapter 4.1) Show the length of the vertical curve and the K value
(or SSD). General guidelines for establishing vertical
2. Command attention alignment include the following:
3. Convey a clear, simple message a. Avoid long lengths of steep grades.
4. Be located to get the proper response from the driver b. Place steeper grades at the beginning of an ascent
It is essential that intersection design be accomplished followed by flatter grades at the peak.
simultaneously with the development of signal, signing, and c. Reduce gradients at intersections.
pavement marking plans to ensure that sufficient space is
provided for proper installation of TCDs. Additional right- 4. Determine and depict the right-of-way widths of
of-way, signal easements, or temporary construction ease- the streets as per local regulations based on the final
ments may be required for the construction of new signals. alignment.
Additionally, new traffic signals often require work within 5. Repeat as necessary to optimize the site layout, the
the pavement (installation ofloop detectors) or lane configu- earthwork balances, and other constraints.
rations, which should be considered during design.
Many internal road networks, such as access roads The horizontal and vertical geometry should be evaluated
through a shopping center, may not be required to follow simultaneously during the various design iterations. Con-
national standards like the MUTCD, but consistency in siderations for ensuring that the horizontal alignments are
TCDs can promote safety within a site. The pavement mark- compatible with the vertical alignment are as follows:
ing and sign configurations in public roadways are familiar
• Flatten profiles at intersections to allow for better vis-
to drivers, and using similar marking and signage is recom -
ibility, starting, stopping, and turning movements.
mended. Some developers may prefer custom sign styles
(different pole materials or road name font), but the stan- • Avoid a series of short vertical curves that give a
dards should be followed when possible. rollercoaster effect regardless of the horizontal
For further guidance on Pavement Markings and Striping, alignment.
in addition to the MUTCD, refer to NCHRP Report 356 • Avoid a sag vertical curve at the beginning or end of
"Pavement Markings-Design and Typical Layout Details:' a sharp horizontal curve.
5.3. 7. Design Considerations • Avoid short vertical curves through compound
The road alignments should be initially established dur- curves.
ing preliminary design efforts (Chapter 4), but refinement • Avoid a sharp horizontal curve at the bottom of a
may be necessary during final design. Detailed vertical long grade (especially a steep grade).
road geometry is not always considered during preliminary
• Avoid a crest vertical curve on a short tangent
design efforts and may influence the horizontal alignment
between two horizontal curves.
of the road. The following is a general procedure for street
layout. • Avoid a sharp horizontal curve near the top of a crest
vertical curve.
1. Verify that the road alignment shown on the pre-
liminary plan meets the physical constraints of the Each site is unique, and all the above guidelines cannot
site, and that horizontal curves are appropriate based always be implemented. Compromises will have to be made,
on speed. The radius of the curves must comply with and it is the design team's responsibility to devise a layout
the given criteria regarding curvature, design speed, that is safe, aesthetically attractive, and economically viable,
design vehicle, and street category. while optimizing land use.
 5.3 ■ TRANSPORTATION DESIGN 435

5.3.8. Typical Street Plan and Profile where the transition to superelevation begins and ends, and
The plan and profile of the road drawings (Figure 5.3Y) should the limits and rate of full superelevation.
be at an appropriate scale. The PGL reference line (usually the Elevations along the PGL are shown on the profile view
centerline of the street) shows the stationing at 100-foot incre- every 50 feet along longitudinal tangents. Through vertical
ments. This same stationing is used both in the plan and profile curves the elevations are shown in shorter increments-every
views. Station equalities at intersections are delineated in both 25 feet in normal circumstances and less for short vertical
views along with the stations where the proposed roads meet curves. In addition, elevations are frequently shown for the left
the existing roads or end at boundary limits. Many times this and right EP or for top of curb (TC). In complex situations,
same reference line and stationing are used to locate proposed elevations might be shown every 10 feet and at locations in
utilities, storm sewers, and other construction related features. addition to the PGL, for example left and right EP or TC.
In the plan view, basic horizontal curve information Many contractors construct the curb and gutter section
includes stationing of the PC and PT points, radius, arc before placing the pavement. It is helpful to provide the TC
length, and delta angle. Tangent length, chord length, and elevations and especially at all curb return points. The curb
chord bearing are helpful but not necessary. The vertical return points are often referenced to the centerline stationing.
curve information in the profile views shows the tangent
grades and the stationing of the PVC, PVT, and PVI, with REFERENCE
elevations with respect to the PGL. If the road is superel- Lockwood I. M., "ITE Traffic Calming Definition;' ITE Journal,
evated, the profile should show where normal crown ends, Vol. 67, July 1997, pp. 2224.

I Dewberry·

0 0
,I
J
I -
I
, I .E

0 '
IE
I •

r
!~
L

.I 0 -

1. Plan view showing horizontal road geometry with centerline stations

2. Existing and proposed grade elevations shown along top of profile grid
3. Profile grid elevations and stations shown
4. Vertical road geometry shown along proposed grade line
5. Station notes to identify PC/PT of curbs, intersection points, start/end
locations of tapers, changes in typical section, etc.

FIG uRE 5 . 3Y Typical street plan and profile.

43& i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii

INDEPENDENCE PARKWAY STREET REHABILITATION

Location: Plano, Texas
Client: City of Plano
Completion Date: November 2017
Case Study: ARS Engineers developed the strategy and prepared the plans to rehabilitate 3.7 miles of major six-lane
divided thoroughfare in Plano, Texas. The street was constructed in sections between the mid-1970s and the early 1980s.
It began as a two-lane, two-way street that was widened incrementally to the six-lane street it is today. Increases in traffic
volume, heavier vehicles, and expansive soils contributed to significant cracking, faulting, heaving, and spalling of the
street and sidewalk pavement. The deterioration was significant; however, it was cost prohibitive to totally reconstruct
the street.
An evaluation was performed to chart cracked/broken/spalled concrete curbs, street pavement and sidewalk pavements.
Detailed plans and specifications were prepared to replace the deficient concrete, to resurface a portion of the street with
an ultrathin bonded hot-mix wearing course (UTBHMWC), and to replace the pavement markings.
UTBHMWC (original brand name Novachip®) is a relatively new technology (1990s) and was initially applied to
highways in the United States and more recently to major thoroughfares. The material is a polymerized asphalt with
¼- to ¾-inch-sized aggregrate, no fines. It is applied ¾ to ½ inch thick with a specialized spray machine. The spray
machine is larger than an asphalt lay-down machine, which makes it impractical for residential street applications. The
UTBHMWC has the following benefits over traditional hot-mix asphalt overlays:

• Improves skid resistance

• Does not pothole
• Provides a surperb sealant for cracks and joints
• Reduces over spray of water when it rains

The effective life of UTBHMWC can be expected to exceed 15 years as evidenced by application of the UTBHMWC on
many high volume highways and thoroughfares in the Dallas area since 2003 (Pioneer Parkway, Scyene Road, Midway
Road, Webb Chapel Road, President George Bush Tollway, Dallas North Tollway, and IH-35E).
 CHAPTER 5.4

GRADING

5.4.1. Introduction preliminary engineering; however, it's possible that during

The grading of a complex site can be challenging for the final design the detailed grading identifies the need to revisit
designer, as there are no definite solutions. While some the site layout. As the grading progresses, the development
computer optimization algorithms can analyze the site to team has more information to evaluate earthwork and infra-
estimate the most economical grading solution it is not nec- structure costs, which may influence the site design. Some
essarily the preferred solution. The aesthetics and character grading work, such as lot grading for homes within a subdi-
of the site are often shaped by the topography and should be vision, may not be investigated until later in the design phase.
considered when creating appropriate design for the project. As stormwater management systems are designed, such as
This chapter includes sections for residential grading consid- ponds or bioretention systems, the final size and shape may
erations as well as non-residential grading. Each project site require adjustments to the preliminary grading. Computer
and developer will have unique grading requirements. models of the site, including 3D perspectives, can also influ-
Detailed grading during final design should focus ence the decision on how the site should be graded based on
on refinements to the grading strategy identified during aesthetics or visibility of buildings (Figure 5.4A).

FIGURE 5.4A Exampleofa3Dmodel.

437
43a i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
The strategy for developing a grading plan can vary based A residential lot can be categorized according to the direc-
on the designer and the project requirements. Many design- tion of the ground slope using the front property line as ref-
ers prefer manual drafting of contour lines while others focus erence. A downhill lot is one in which the ground slope falls
on computer surface modeling. This chapter introduces sev- away from the front property line. An uphill lot has ground
eral considerations for site grading, but there is no standard sloping upward from the property line, while a side to side
process for grading a site. lot has slopes across its width. Efficient land use includes the
selection of a house type that is compatible with the terrain.
5.4.2. Grading for Residential Purposes Proper design and siting of the house minimizes earthwork
Consumer appeal for a subdivision or a particular house type and reduces the disturbed area, which reduces environmen-
depends on numerous factors, one of which is appearance. tal impact and saves on construction costs.
The layout of the lots and houses, the style and type of house, The development types that are described in Chapter 4.2
as well as their spatial arrangement affect the overall appear- provide context to the different residential configurations.
ance of the development and combine to form its charac- For grading purposes, it is useful to categorize the myriad of
ter. The subdivision roads will often set the main grading housing styles with the following characteristics:
parameters of the development. The individual lot grading
is usually secondary to the subdivision roads, but equally 1. Single level or split level
important and should be considered during the initial layout
2. No basement or basement
of the subdivision.
Frequently, residential land development projects incor- 3. Attached or detached single-family home
porate several different house types and styles within a simi-
lar price range. This practice accommodates the varying These characteristics help determine how the lot(s) will be
needs and the aesthetic tastes of buyers. The various house graded.
designs attract a wider range of consumers, thereby enhanc- Single Level or Split Level. A single-level unit is con-
ing sales. Additionally, the variation of home styles can take structed so that the finished floor elevation will be the same
advantage of the varying topographical features of the lots. everywhere. Floor elevations of a split entry house are stag-
This provides the developer flexibility in the layout of the gered such that their access from a preceding level is less than
houses, which reduces some of the construction costs. the full flight of stairs typical of the common two-story unit.
It is imperative that the engineer developing the grad- Split-entry houses and their variations are ideal for hilly lots.
ing plan know the house types available in a subdivision. These houses work best when the grade difference across
The engineer must also know the location and elevation of the lot is 2 to 4 feet. Houses in this category are frequently
entrances, windows, garages, decks, patios, and rooflines. referred to as split levels and split foyers. Split-level houses
Each lot should be considered individually as well as collec- have a combined slab and basement foundation system as
tively to determine the optimal spatial arrangement of the shown in Figure 5.4B. Similarly, the basement of a split foyer
houses along the street and within the development. In many is partially exposed. Figure 5.4B shows the basic house types
suburban developments, the cost of land and the demand and their corresponding foundations.
for greater living space results in building larger houses on No Basement or Basement. No basement type buildings
smaller lots. The higher density produces a higher yield for are built on a concrete slab or crawl space and are best suited
the developer, which in turn keeps housing costs down by for flat areas with high water tables or where extensive rock
reducing infrastructure costs on a per unit basis. However, lies near the surface. They are generally less expensive on
smaller lots put houses in closer proximity, making house lots with mild slopes due to savings in excavation and con-
orientation a very important consideration. The designer struction costs. They are less suitable for hilly sites, since
must consider the views from one house to another, avoid- they require more grading to accommodate the building
ing direct lines of site from one house into intimate areas of footprint. The no basement unit is common in many regions
another house when possible. Although grading can be used of the country, and virtually every style of house can be
to diminish the effects of poor siting, a good layout is para- constructed without a basement (elevated homes in coastal
mount to a development's success. regions that do not have a basement are not considered in
Spatial arrangement is part of what is known as the this categorization).
streetscape. Setbacks, rooflines, utility corridors, street trees That part of the house that is wholly or partially bur-
and landscaping, sidewalk and trail locations, and signage ied is the basement. Basement units are useful on hilly lots
further define the streetscape. These elements work with the because of their ability to accommodate grade differences.
grading to lend the development a uniform character and For instance, the house shown in Figure 5.4B(b) has a grade
create a cohesive, unified design. change of about 8 feet from front to back, which may enable
House Type and Foundation Type. Classification of a home the proposed grade to tie-in with existing grade sooner,
by the arrangement of floor elevations, location of entrances, thereby reducing the disturbed area.
location of walls, and relationship to property lines (e.g., In addition to enabling the house to blend in with the
one-story, two-story, basement walkout, and single family site better, the use of basements can also generate small
attached and detached) is common. amounts of excess dirt that can be used elsewhere on a
 5.4 ■ GRADING 439

Rambler or Ranch:
Built on slab or crawl
space. Living quarters
all on same level. May
be L or U shaped.

Two-Story:
Usually with basement
under main area, walk-
out optional. Side
wings & garage are
built on slab or crawl
space.

Split Foyer:
Entrance is between
floors. Lower level is
partially exposed base-
ment.

Split Level:
Side wing is between
levels. One wing is par-
tially exposed. Single
(c) i.2!!2~5;11!~._~~ level wing is on slab or
crawl space or may be
over buried basement.
FIG uRE 5. 4 B Basic house types and their foundations.

project. If a site is slightly deficient in fill dirt, basements with adjacent units (e.g., rooflines, wall framing, etc.). The
can be incorporated to make up the deficiency. The use minimum or maximum variations in horizontal and ver-
of basements also increases the living space of the house. tical relationships may be dictated by local ordinance and
This living space is enhanced by the presence of natural building codes. Restrictions on staggering and vertical ori-
light, so often a partially buried basement that allows for entation will be limited to the structural and architectural
window space is better than a completely buried basement. design.
Another design element that enhances basements is the From an engineering aspect, the units have to coincide
walk-out, which provides direct access outdoors from the with the site constraints. Yet, from a sales perspective the
basement. The typical site layout for a walkout is depicted units have to be appealing to the consumer. For this rea-
in Figure 5.4C(2). son, the layout and design of a townhouse project requires
Attached or Detached. Townhouse developments consist extensive communication and coordination between the site
of parking areas, private streets, open space, and blocks of designer, developer, and architect.
"attached" residential units. Typically, the blocks, or sticks of Setting the floor elevations for townhouses is more
residential units contain approximately three to nine homes. involved than single family detached houses. A certain
The interior units share a wall with either neighbor, while limited structural relationship, evident from the archi-
the end units have only one wall common with an adjoining tectural plans, exists among the units of a block. In some
unit. Typically, the property line runs down the center of the townhouse designs there exists the flexibility to adjust the
common wall. stagger distance and the vertical relationship of floor eleva-
Although a block of townhouses may have several house tions of adjacent units. This flexibility is needed to allow for
types, variations in architectural style, and different lengths, better coordination between the housing units and the site
usually they have a constant width. These variations help conditions.
avoid the visual monotony that would occur if all the houses To set the townhouse elevations properly the engineer
aligned and had the same style (Figure 5.4D). Other varia- needs a complete current set of architectural plans. From
tions include vertical and horizontal staggering, which pro- these plans, the site designer determines the relative loca-
vides flexibility in the layout and helps the sticks conform to tion of the units in a block. As with single-family homes,
sloping sites. a template of the townhouse block may simplify the pro-
Since each unit is attached to another unit within a cess. This template shows the relative floor elevations of the
block, there must be coordination in the structural design units and the location of stoops, patios, decks, and other
440 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
HOUSE TYPE COMMENTS

~EVEL UNIT

Qa 2-Story House
JSlc.Y
1) Used on Flat or
Mildly Sloping Lots.

With Slab on 2-Story House

Grade or With Full Buried
Crawl Space Basement

FULL WALKOUT LOWER LEVEL (FRONT OR REAR)

~ -
g =·
2) Used to Make Up Grade
Difference on Lots With
Severe Front to Rear
Slope Conditions.

2-Story House 2-Story House

With 8' Drop With Basement
and Basement . Entry from Front
Walkout From and 8 ' Rise to
Rear Rear of House

SPLIT ENTRY UNIT (± 4' UP OR DOWN)

Gu Q£h
3) Used on Lots With
± 4' Fall or Rise
Front to Rear
' -
'

2-Story Split 2-Story Split

Entrance Entrance
With Rear With 4'
Walkout From Rise to Rear
Lower Level of House

SPLIT LEVEL WITH SIDE

TO SIDE DROP IN GRADE

h ,..J§.10 4) Used on Lots With

Side-to-Side Grade
·- · ·-- - ~ ½i!hJ.9, Differences of
2' to 4'
Side Split With Grade at
One End of House 4'
Higher Than the Other and
Walkout From Lower Level

FIG uRE 5. 4 C Selection and location of building types to fit natural land forms.

appurtenances. When vertical adjustment between units is is then sent to the architect, who then develops the block
necessary, it is recommended, and usually mandatory with designs. Whether the site engineer suggests the initial unit
brick veneer, to raise or lower floor elevations in 8-inch requirements to the architect first, or vice versa, communi-
increments. This recommendation is based on the dimen- cation between the site engineer and architect (through the
sions of masonry units used for construction. Using 8 inches developer) is imperative to exchange the interdisciplinary
or a multiple of 8 simplifies the construction while still pro- information necessary for design.
viding flexibility to the designer. Another problem encountered in setting townhouse ele-
Depending on the experience of the site engineer and vations is the number of risers (steps) from the street to the
architect, the site engineer may be the one who sets the door. The site designer needs to verify the horizontal and
pad elevations and staggers the setbacks. This information vertical distance necessary to accommodate the full run of
 5.4 ■ GRADING 441

-,"-,~ -~~"Ir .
. ,'\',),/">/ ... .
b) · ,., .. ·<-..: . - ·

FIG uRE 5. 4 D Townhouse block showing vertical stagger.

the stairs. Zoning ordinances may not allow the steps and In most residential single-family detached subdivisions of
stoop to encroach into the building setback limits. The site moderate density, siting a house is limited to the lot layout
designer must verify that the vertical distance from the door of the subdivision and the orientation of the street. Presum-
(or stoop) to the ground, and the horizontal distance from ably, solar exposure and compass orientation was considered
the door (or stoop) to the property line, is capable of accom- when the lot and street layout were established in the concept
modating the required number of risers. A safe assump- and schematic design stages, since there is not much practi-
tion is to allow a tread width of 1 foot, therefore if 10 risers cality in orienting the house for energy efficiency if it contra-
are needed, the minimum setback to the stoop is 10 feet. dicts with the street and lot layout.
Furthermore, additional distance may be needed between Further, the topography of the lot and any (aesthetic)
the sidewalk and the start of the steps. Although riser constraints by the client play a part in selecting a house type
heights can vary, the maximum height is typically limited (see Figure SAC).
to ±7½ inches; building codes require the riser height to be In addition to size and the type of lot (corner, flag, etc.),
constant for the run of steps. Therefore, the vertical distance its applicable setbacks play a part in how a house is sited.
from the sidewalk/street to the entrance must be a multiple Usually, the engineer portrays an exact footprint of the
of the riser height. builder's house on a proposed lot, precisely measures its dis-
Siting the House. When siting a house on a lot, one must tance to the property lines, and produces a lot grading plan.
position the house horizontally and vertically in a manner Grading the Lot. There are two types of grading schemes;
harmonious with the surrounding structures and terrain, lot grading and block grading. Lot grading involves only one
while ensuring compliance with all appropriate codes and building and one lot. Grading is limited to the constraints
ordinances. at the boundaries of the lot and any grading beyond the lot
442 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
requires permission from that owner. Typically, lot grad- The driveway design should consider some of the con-
ing applies to infill projects and commercial projects. Block cepts of vertical road geometry (described in Chapter 5.3)-
grading involves grading a group of lots, a frequent occur- abrupt grade transitions can create challenges with vehicle
rence in residential subdivision projects. Block grading is not maneuverability. The grade calculation should consider a
bound by the rigid constraints oflot grading since the whole transition length. The driveway slope should not be calcu-
group of lots is owned by one entity. Additionally, the spa- lated simply by measuring garage elevation, road elevation,
tial arrangement and the drainage pattern can be integrated and driveway length. Landings with mild grades, around
much easier. 2%, should be considered at the garage entrance and at the
Using generic building footprints, the engineer produces roadway. Such points of potential concern are illustrated in
the block grading plan, which defines the general grading Figure 5.4E.
patterns for groups of lots. This plan verifies the site's feasi- Utility Services. In addition to the relationship of the
bility regarding a fairly specific program, and is often used by house to its lot and surroundings, another relationship that
a developer to market the lots to builders. effects the siting of a house is the elevation and location
Drainage. A controlling factor for setting the house eleva- of the sanitary sewer. As shown in Figure 5.4F the house
tion is the street elevation. Typically, the first floor elevation should be sited in such a manner as to provide a gravity
should be above the street, but limitations on driveway grades sewer for the lowest level of the house. A quick way to
may also control the maximum elevation of the house. The determine approximate finished floor based on the sewer
relationship of the house to the street is a major factor in line elevation is
its "curb appeal;' and any deviation from general standards,
that is, a very steep driveway, lowers the curb appeal and cre- • Determine the invert of the sewer main at the con-
ates drainage challenges. Steep grades (approaching 20%) nection point
will often cause erosion issues as water is conveyed through • Multiply the distance from the connection point to
swales, which then requires engineered conveyance systems. the farthest point of the house by 0.0208 (¼ in/ft), and
Generally, lots are graded such that drainage is directed away add to the invert elevation (the fall fin Figure 5.4F)
from the structure toward the street or other runoff convey-
ance systems such as swales or channels that may be incor- • Add the diameter of the sewer main (distance d in
porated into the proposed grading plan. Figure 5.4F)
The grading for drainage should be evaluated for each lot, • Add an allowance for clearance under the foundation
but it is also necessary to consider a larger site program for (shown as * in Figure 5.4F)
drainage. It is rare that a lot is not affected by the adjacent lots
or other site features. For example, one lot may be graded to Typically, the house sewer runs under the footing for
convey runoff through an adjacent lot. The lot that receives the shallow footings and foundations. Therefore the elevation of
runoff would need to consider the source of stormwater con- the lowest level should be raised an additional 6 inches to
veyance and the capacity required to adequately convey the 1.5 feet (depending on local construction practices) to allow
runoff. When possible, the drainage from a lot should not rely for clearance beneath the footing and floors. In situations
on the condition of an adjacent lot because there are inherent where it is not feasible to run the house sewer line under the
challenges with ensuring an adequate drainage condition. A footing, the house sewer line can be run through the footing.
homeowner may decide to install a fence, patio, or landscape Figure 5.4G shows this concept.
element that compromises the drainage path. Some jurisdic- When a basement, because of its depth related to the
tions may require an easement when one lot provides storm- sewer main in the street, cannot be sewered using a gravity
water conveyance for other lots. Using the common space of a line, the sewer is referred to as a hung sewer. A pump may
subdivision and pre-defined conveyance alignments can miti- be installed to eject sewage from the basement to the sewer
gate drainage challenges during the final lot grading. main if it will not flow by gravity, but this practice may come
Driveways. A house set 25 to 35 feet from the street under special regulations in many jurisdictions. Other solu-
typifies the private suburban driveway entrance, but this tions, such as lowering the sanitary main, may be feasible,
distance can vary dramatically based on the neighborhood but the engineer must consider the impact of such a solution
design. The slope of the driveway should be kept in the range on the rest of the project. Careful planning while designing
of 2% minimum to about 8%, with 14% as a maximum in the grading strategy will help avoid awkward situations such
mountainous terrains. As noted in Chapter 3.4, an accessible as basements that won't sewer by gravity.
route is considered at 5% (or up to 8.3% with landings and Grading Around the Home. The development of any grad-
rails) and is a comfortable range. In regions that experience ing scheme includes the assimilation of other existing data
snow and ice conditions the steep driveways can be danger- and identifying the constraints it imposes. These existing con-
ous for drivers and pedestrians. Walkways from the home to straints are combined with the data available on the proposed
the street will often be challenging if the elevation difference building structure. Ideally, these constraints are obtained
is too severe. from the approved architectural and mechanical drawings.
 5.4 ■ GRADING 443

Illustration of grading
. strategies for subd1· v1s1ons.
..

·=::Ia
•
....
~ Min. agrade ta be 2.08%
for -4"
1.0-4% fo/~~sttlcl lateral and
spu s ron
r. Max grad
-4. 17% for ~II Ia terals.
e to be
Basement or
Lowest Level to
be Sewered
Concrete
Cradle

Gravel bedding

Compacted
L Distance
Rear of HFrom Sewer Main To H
Fall - ouse If House Connec~~~• p~fn~n~ct~n or to
- .0208 x L + {All s nknown
owance fo 1
Dlameter of Sewer Main r c earance b eneath footing)
d

Clearance Beneath f" oolln9 Varies {6"± to 1'±)

FIGURE 5.4f Sewer line from house to sewer main.

.
444 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
iOPl:S'RI
r---~,
1 OPT. DK I
I - 3.0' I Type A
4- , OPT.
', CHIM .
F.FEL.- 0
r--- .I

1 GAR. - I. 3 1
I OPT.
I S/R B.F. EL. - 8 .6 1
I -1.0'
L__ - .J
-2.7 0.A-r: - 54.0'
0/W

Type A
* OVERALL LENGTH

Type B
FF EL. - 0
OPT. LIB ., .
rr---i"-- GAR. - 1.31
1I '
2 .7' I I -1.5° B.F. EL.- 8.6'
+I t.:to' +OPT. SIDE
I ,- ENT. GAR.
L-~__J 0.A-'!'° - 54.0'
OPT. S/R _,:
OPT. POR.j
W/ COLS.

Type B

r --,
10PT. OKI
I I
Type C
+-2.5

F.F. EL.- 0
GAR. - 2.0'

B.F EL.- 9. I'

0.A-'!' - 43.3'
OPT.
BAY +
WIND. ./

FIG u RE 5. 4 G House template.

 5.4 ■ GRADING 445

The location and relative elevations of doors, garages, and require expansive fill slopes, the size of the back yard may be
windows, other appurtenances such as decks, patios, stoops, reduced, with perhaps a large deck proposed to provide the
walkways, and any utility connections are necessary to outdoor living space.
develop an effective grading plan. This information becomes Mass Grading. In the case of subdivisions a developer
part of the constraints for grading. From this architectural may only be involved with the initial infrastructure design
information, it is possible to develop a footprint of the build- and construction and the lots for homes are sold to a home-
ing showing all entrances, windows, and other appurte- builder (often a different company). In this case, no homes
nances at or near the ground level that affect the grading, are built and the individual lots are generally graded slightly
often called a template. The relative elevations of these items lower than final grade. This is referred to as mass grading.
with respect to the floor elevations are labeled on the tem- When a lot is sold and a home is built, spoil from the exca-
plate. Figure 5.4G depicts examples of house templates for vated basement is spread on the lot to raise it to final grade.
three different house types used on a project. The building This not only eliminates the need to remove excess soil from
template is placed on the grading plan and oriented such that the site when the home is constructed, but also avoids adding
it best suits the topography, ordinance setback requirements, fill to the site unnecessarily. Therefore, the grading plan for
and utility constraints. The specific footprint of the desired a subdivision should include mass grade elevations for each
house is then transferred onto the grading plan after the best unit in addition to finished grade elevations.
orientation of the template is obtained. Since a typical sub- The process of determining how much lower than final
division has several house styles, the use of templates allows grade a lot should be constructed is one of trial and error.
the designer to shuffle the house types around the lots for A given "drop'' in grade is chosen and then the volume of
quick analysis. spoil and the amount of fill required to bring the lot up to
Additionally, siting of buildings on corner lots must allow grade are calculated and compared. Several drop values will
for site distances of the intersecting streets. This includes need to be evaluated to determine the ideal drop-the one
high walls and steep slopes resulting from the grading that that will result in the volume of spoil and required fill being
might impede on the required intersection sight distance the closest to equal. Mass grade elevation is determined by
(defined in Chapter 3.3). However, in most cases the required Equation (5.4A).
zoning setbacks and minimum radius of curvature allow for
adequate sight distances. Mass grade = finished grade - ideal drop (5.4A)
The height of the earth fill around the house depends When calculating the volume of basement spoil, the
on the exterior surface and type of foundation system. Soil designer needs to consider how the lot is to ultimately
and accompanying moisture accelerates decay of some types be graded. More specifically, will the grade get lower
of construction materials and provides a haven for insects around the rear of the unit to provide a walkout or half
that can damage the house. Figure 5.4H shows the relation- walkout basement? Both of these instances will result in
ship of the exterior grade for selected foundation systems. less spoil, as less of the basement will be buried. When
The architectural plans should be consulted for the relation- calculating the volume of spoil, it is important to remem-
ship of the flooring to the foundation wall, since setting the ber that the depth of the basement (depth that the base-
first floor elevation dictates the maximum ground elevation. ment will be buried when final grades are achieved) needs
The ground elevation around the perimeter of the house is to be adjusted by the amount of drop being considered.
adjusted to account for windows, doors, garages, and other Approximate spoil volume can be determined by using
architectural features, all of which are indicated on the house one of the following equations:
template.
Once the house is positioned on the lot, the elevations a. Non-walkout
at all critical points are shown with spot elevations. Typi- SV = (DB -Drop)·A
cally, stoop, patio, and ground elevations outside of doors
are 6 inches (minimum) lower than the first floor elevation.
b. Half walkout
Additionally, elevations are shown at windows located near
ground level to ensure they are not buried. Walkways leading
from the front door to the driveway or street should not be
SV = [f (DB -DB1 -Drop)-A] + (DB1 ·A) (5.48)

steeper than 5%. If walkways become too steep and steps can-
not be used, then the overall house elevation may have to be C. Walkout
raised or lowered to account for such constraints. 1
SV = -·(DB -Drop)·A
Rear Yard. When grading out a rear yard, the designer 2
should seek to provide an area sufficiently level as a place
for lounging and family recreation. A space of 15 to 20 feet where SV is the volume of spoil, DB is the full buried depth
by 30 to 40 feet, graded to a maximum of 5% to 6% slope, of basement (portion of full basement buried at final grade),
immediately behind the house is reasonably adequate. In A is the area on basement and DBi is the half buried depth of
areas of steep slopes, where a flat yard of this size would basement (portion of half basement buried at final grade).
44& i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
LOAD BEARING
8" BLOCK WALL
W/ EXTERIOR FRAMED WALL W/
MASONRY VENEER EXTERIOR SIDING
GRADE
LINE FINISH FRAMED FLOOR W/
SHELF' FOR VENEER FLOOR 2x12 JOISTS
BELOW GRADE
en (1 COURSE MIN.)
w "!'
ii: "!'I N
FINISH < 4" CONCRETE iio I
> GRADE .I ;..
FLOOR SLAB LINE -
l"-....,OfRRAWL SPAC~
BASEMENT

WATERPROOFED
FOUNDATION WALL

Typical Masonry Veneer-type Typical Wood-Framed and -Sided

Exterior Wall Wall with Crawl Space or Basement

FRAMED WALL W/ FRAMED WALL W/

EXTERIOR SIDING MASONRY VENEER
: z
U) ::IE
-
WATERPROOFED
GRADE CONCRETE OR 4" CONCRETE SLAB
LINE BLOCK WALL - ON GRADE W/
HT. VARIES W/ TURNED DOWN FOOTER
GRADE GRADE
LINE
FINISH 4" CONCRETE
FLOOR SLAB

FOOTER

Typical Wood-Framed Wall With Typical Slab Construction

Exterior Siding Set Into a Slope With Masonry Exterior Wall

FRAMED WALL W/
MASONRY VENEER

FINISH FRAMED FLOOR W/ FRAMED WALL W/

FLOOR 2x12 JOISTS EXTERIOR SIDING
4" CONCRETE SLAB
"!' ON GRADE W/
"!'I N
iio .I TURNED DOWN FOOTER
GRADE .I
LINE - GRADE
LINE

WATERPROOFED
FOUNDATION WALL

Typical Veneered Wall With Typical Slab Construction With

Crawl Space or Basement Frame Wall and Siding
FIG uRE 5. 4 H Foundation systems.
 5.4 ■ GRADING 447

The process for determining the volume of fill required to next should be measured. However, the area of the
raise the lot to final grade is as follows: basement footprint is excluded from each measure-
ment because no fill will be spread in this location.
1. Draw three "contours" on the lot. Draw the first
(referred to as the 0.0 contour) just inside the prop- 3. Use Equation (5.4C) to calculate the required fill
erty line or edge of disturbance. The depth of fill volume.
will be equal to zero foot in this location as this is
where the finished grade meets existing. However, F, = [iAa.o + Ao.s + A.o] ·Cl (5.4C)
the mass grade elevation at this location is assumed
to be 0.5 foot below the finished grade elevation for
where Fv is the required fill volume, Ao.o is the area inside the
the purpose of these calculations. The purpose of
0.0 contour (minus the area of the basement), A 0 _5 is the area
making this assumption is to account for the depth
inside the 0.5 contour (minus the area of the basement), A1.o
of topsoil that will be spread on the lot. Draw the
is the area inside the 1.0 contour (minus the area of the base-
second (referred to as the 0.5 contour) midway
ment), and CI is the contour interval as shown in Table 5.4A.
between the 0.0 contour and the house footprint. At
this location, the fill depth will be equal to one-half 5.4.3. Grading for Nonresidential Sites
the difference between the considered drop (at the
Nonresidential projects (e.g., office, retail, industrial,
unit) and the 0.5 foot assumed drop at the 0.0 con-
schools, etc.) mainly consist of buildings, parking areas, and
tour. Draw the third (referred to as the 1.0 contour)
access points. Note that multifamily buildings are analogous
just outside the perimeter of the house footprint. At
to these building types more than suburban residential grad-
this location, the fill depth will be equal to the con-
ing described in the prior section. A single developer is often
sidered drop. Figure 5.4I illustrates the placement of
focused on both the infrastructure and the buildings but in
the 0.0, 0.5, and 1.0 contours.
some cases an area of the site might be leased to a specific
2. Measure the area within each contour. For the area tenant with their own development requirements.
of the 0.0 and the 0.5 contours, the entire internal When siting the building( s) and any other structures on
area and not just the area from one contour to the the property, one must position them in a manner that opti-
mizes the area, promotes public safety, is harmonious with the
adjacent properties and ensures compliance with all appro-
priate codes and ordinances. In most cases the lot layout is
created during preliminary design. Refer to Chapter 4.2 for a
complete discussion on planning a nonresidential property.
Site Characteristics. Each type of development has its own
features and needs associated with those features. Prior to
final grading of the site it's important to identify any require-
ments from potential tenants. In some cases, the tenant may
limit the minimum and maximum slopes within a parking
lot (e.g., no less than 1% and no more than 3%). There may
also be requirements for the finished floor elevation relative
to the roadway to allow for visibility.
A pad site is usually associated with a larger development
and is generally established for smaller retail uses such as a

TAB LE 5 . 4 A Contour Intervals for Mass

Grade Calculations
DROP CONTOUR INTERVAL (Cl)

1.0 0.25
1.5 0.50
2.0 0.75
2.5 1.00
FIG uRE 5. 41 0.0, 0.5, and 1.0 contours for mass grading Note: Both drop and contour interval have the same unit associated with them
calculations. (e.g., a 1-foot drop has a 0.25-foot Cl, etc.).
44a i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
bank for a fast food restaurant. These sites may exist within runoff away from the building and reduce opportunities for
a larger retail center or be a standalone pad, but in either potential flooding. Loading docks often create a localized
case the access should allow for a clean transition into the site sump condition and should consider special drainage and
(less than 6% total grade change might be ideal). The uses overflow condition. The grading should direct the runoff
within a pad site are anticipating frequent traffic with rapid away from the ramp areas, while inlets at the bottom of the
turnover. A fast food restaurant might also require the design ramps carry the small amount of runoff that does fall in the
of a drive-through facility which would require that steady ramp and loading area. For many sites, there's an inherent
grades are held around the building. challenge to provide adequate drainage while also adhering to
Additional considerations include mild grading requirements of the development. Many com-
mercial buildings have ramps that lead to underground park-
• Commercial developments will usually have some ing or to loading areas.
type of dumpster pad/enclosure located on the lot Additionally, the designer should locate inlets in areas
that requires mild grades for access. where people can access their vehicles without stepping
• Commercial sites by nature of being public will have around the inlet. Figure 5.4J shows recommended place-
a certain amount of space that must maintain suit- ment of inlets in parking areas. A curb inlet at the head of a
able grades to provide handicap accessibility accord- parking space, as opposed to the side of a parking space, is
ing to the ADA Accessibility Guidelines. recommended because it prevents a passenger from stepping
near the inlet that is often prone to ponding. Similarly, drop
With a retail strip, a row of storefronts along a street should inlets should be located away from pedestrian travel ways
ideally have a constant elevation, but this condition is chal- when they are located between parking stalls. In parking
lenged by providing drainage within the street. The adjacent drive aisles, it is preferred to avoid inlets but if they are nec-
roadway will likely have a grade that deviates from the store- essary they should be located in the center and the localized
fronts, and the area (sidewalk and landscaping) between the depression should be minimized to maintain driver comfort.
road and the storefront will need to accommodate the grade Another consideration is that long runs of sheet flow on
difference. The threshold of the slopes between the store- steep slopes in parking areas should be avoided, especially
front and roadway should be monitored to ensure accessibil- in colder climates where the sheet flow can freeze and cre-
ity is provided (maximum 2% cross slope) and that drainage ate hazardous conditions for pedestrians and drivers. Addi-
is always directed away from the storefront. In some cases, tionally, runoff should be directed away from sidewalks and
the roadway will be designed with a series of mild vertical pedestrian travelways as this not only makes it easier for
curves to create a near-flat condition. walking, but also reduces the splash from passing traffic.
Siting the Building. The location of the buildings should Parking Lots. The necessity for large expanses of paving on
be established during the preliminary design phases (unlike commercial projects leads strategies that are unique to this
house siting, which generally occurs in later design phases) genre. From the site entrance, recommended pavement slopes
as described in Chapter 4. As the grading is refined, the loca- in the travel lanes vary from 1% to 5%. The pavement is sloped
tion of buildings and internal circulation may warrant the
need to revisit the layout-any proposed changes should be
Curb Inlet Curb Inlet
coordinated with the design team and developer. The final Preferred Location
grading may identify conditions that were not apparent dur-

=J7 I I I
Location Not
ing the preliminary design phase. A detailed grading study
may identify the need for additional walls or indicate chal-
lenges associated with providing an accessible route to the 1 '"~meodod
main entrance. These conditions may require minor adjust-
ments (horizontally and vertically) to the building. In some
cases, a few extra feet can alleviate a steep grade condition Drop Inlet <:J==
and provide a more comfortable site condition. om Acceptable
Location
Grading the Site. The controlling factors for grading
include drainage, slopes in parking and pedestrian areas, and ==t>
access points to the building structures. From an aesthetic
point of view, the grading concept for commercial sites is
Dro Inlet
often tied to the visual goals the architect (and developer) set Loco ion
for the proposed building.
Not
Drainage. The topography of the site plays a big part in Rec mme ded
establishing the site layout. For example, the site would be
configured such that stormwater facilities would be located at mme ded
a lower point of the property for ease of drainage. Further, it
is desirable to have the building on higher ground to convey FIG uRE 5 . 4 J Recommended inlet locations.
 5.4 ■ GRADING 449

to direct runoff to curb inlets, sump areas, or ditches off The variation in building and development type does not
the edge of pavement. Placement of all drainage structures cater to a prescribed grading method. Each site will need to
should take into consideration the movement of pedes- be evaluated to determine the best configuration that meets
trians and vehicles. Inlets should not be placed in areas the applicable accessibility requirements and developer
of heavy pedestrian use, such as crosswalks and curb-cut requirements.
ramps or where.
5.4.4. Grading and Design Software
Accessible parking spaces are required to adhere to spe-
cific grading conditions. In general, the maximum slope The process of grading has transitioned over many years;
in any direction is 2% and should be carefully evaluated most of the concepts presented in text have been in use long
when establishing the parking lot grades. The location of before the advent of computers. These concepts change very
the accessible parking spaces should conform to the Ameri- little, and they must be thoroughly understood before trying
cans with Disabilities Act (ADA) recruitments and should to grade a site. Only when the designer has this understand-
be generally located as close to the main entrance as pos- ing should electronic tools be employed. Moreover, it should
sible. Therefore, the grading should consider both mild be remembered that, in many ways, grading is an art. Com-
slope conditions and direct access to the buildings. The puters should be considered a valuable grading tool, but not
route from the ADA spaces to the building should conform a substitute for the designer's experience and skill.
to accessible route requirements. Multiple ADA spaces Computer aided design (CAD) software is typically used
should be placed throughout the parking lot that serves in production of site plans, including grading plans. While
multiple buildings. The adjacent sidewalk will often have CAD can be used for traditional drafting techniques (draw-
a depressed (or flush) curb to provide a continuous curb ing contours), the basis of contour information can also come
ramp and should be considered with respect to grade tran- from a 3D terrain model. The process of creating models for
sitions for adjacent pedestrian routes. use in design, plan production, and construction is referred
When devising the grading scheme in larger parking areas, to as building information modeling (BIM). A surface model
consideration should also be given to paving operations. is the foundation for infrastructure models.
Large area of mild slopes often result in localized depres- Digital Terrain Models. A digital terrain model (DTM) is
sions from construction challenges. These depressions (often a database of points that each have three spatial coordinates
referred to as bird baths) create a drainage nuisance and are (x, y, and z) as described in Chapter 3.2. These points are
prone to icing. Parking areas that have extensive wash-board connected to form a series of adjacent triangles representing
effects are difficult to pave, especially if there are numerous an irregular surface, often referred to as a triangulated irreg-
grade breaks and relatively steep slopes. ular network (TIN). Figure 5.41 is an example of a DTM.
Utility Services. In the description of residential develop- As discussed in the Chapter 3.2, survey points are com-
ments, it was noted that it is best to set the building eleva- piled to create a DTM of the existing ground surface. This
tion to provide for gravity drainage to an existing sanitary DTM is then used to generate the existing contours using
sewer. The same is true in non-residential applications. This one of the surface modeling software packages. By creating
is because gravity drainage of the site's wastewater is the most a proposed DTM (proposed surface), proposed contours can
economical solution. Many buildings also have a series of be similarly generated. This takes away the tedious task of
roof downspouts to convey stormwater runoff-these may hand drawing contours after interpolating their configura-
below grade and would connect to the site storm drainage tions based on spot elevation locations and intended drain-
system. These utilities and the associated depths should be age patterns.
considered in grading and utility design. Creating the Proposed Surfaces. BIM process and the
associated software have automated most of the traditional
Grading Around the Building(s). The grades around
workflows associated with grading plans. There is an array
the perimeter of a commercial building do not typically
of specific grading tools being developed within the differ-
vary unless the existing terrain has slopes that dictate it.
ent surface modeling software packages to model roadways,
Figure 5.4K illustrates a possible grading scenario around a
ponds, berms, parking areas, etc. However, there are basi-
commercial building. Below are examples of possible areas
cally three types of information use for a DTM to define the
around the building that may require special grading:
proposed surface. These are
Entrances: In lieu of steps, walkways may be graded
1. Points: A single point would be input directly into
toward the building to meet the finished floor elevation.
the DTM to define such things as the high point of a
Loading docks: Pavement ramps (with possible walls) hill, the low point of a pond or the top of a drainage
may need to be designed/graded to provide access to inlet.
either raised or lowered entries to the building.
2. Breaklines: Breaklines are lines that reside in 3D
Drive-throughs: Special care must be given when grad- space. They represent continuous, defined edges
ing a drive through where an access road has its edge of such as top of ridge, bottom of swale, crest of road,
pavement/curb almost touching the face of the building. face of building (at ground surface), walls, etc.
450 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
I
I

I
I
i
I
I
I

I
I

I'
' I

I I

I'
' I

I
'
I' I
I

I
I

I
'
i
I
I

I'
I
I
/ f f I 6
I
I

i I

'
: . Il . ,!
-~·
PQl~CIJ"llal!T

''
FIG uRE 5. 4 K Commercial building grading plan.

Grading tools used to model roadways and parking site. This is because the surface model typically only reflects
areas typically generate a set ofbreaklines, com- finished grades. The contractor, however, is interested in
monly centerline or proposed grade line (PGL) the mass grade configuration as well as finished grades. The
as well as top of curb and flow line, that define the contractor will first mass grade the site to install roads, utili-
features. The elevation along the line will vary. ties, foundations, and so on. Therefore, information about
3. Contours: Contours are 3D lines where the z coor- road boxes, trench configuration, basement depth, subbases,
dinate (elevation) is equal for all combinations of etcetera, are the main concern for initial construction of the
x and y. Contours are input into the DTM to define
site. The contractor must use profiles and details included
such things as berms, ponds or to define any area in the plan set in addition to the grading plan. Following
that cannot be adequately defined by points and this same logic, the proposed surface (DTM) would also be
breaklines. Technically, a contour is also a breakline. insufficient.
A mass grade surface DTM can provide a contractor with
Using BIM and DTMs for Construction. As technology all the required mass grading information in one place and
has advanced, contractors have obtained the ability to input can be used by the designer to better estimate earthwork
digital information into their equipment to facilitate the con- quantities. The requirement to produce detailed earthwork
struction of a site. quantities is often the responsibility of the contractor, but
For the most part, the proposed grading plan itself does the design team can also prepare accurate quantities with
not provide a contractor sufficient information to grade a a detailed DTM. Most software can calculate the volume
 5.4 ■ GRADING 451

FIGURE 5,4L DTM.

between existing grades and proposed grades, including spot elevations at critical points. Slope arrows with labels are
identification of cut and fill areas, but this calculation is from often used to track minimum and maximum slope require-
top of ground to top of ground for each surface model. ments or define key slopes such as driveway grades. In many
While a DTM provides value during design and can be cases, some areas of the site will warrant a detailed grading
used for construction, the site plan, sealed by a registered plan (at 5 or 10 scale) to depict features such as ADA parking
professional, still serves as the contract document. If a con- grades, loading areas, or curb ramp elevations. As defined in
tractor chooses to use the DTM for estimates for construction Chapter 3.4, the contours and elevations will define the grad-
the contractor will be responsible for how the information is ing requirements for the site-if information is not depicted
used. (even if it is modeled in the DTM) it will not be constructed
Feasibility and Liability. A proposed DTM is an approxi- as intended. Figure 5.4M depicts a sample grading plan with
mate representation of the surface that is to be constructed. relevant information
It is defined by the amount of information it contains. The
more information provided, the closer the approximation 5.4.6. Earthwork Takeoff
is. Consideration must be given to whether or not a DTM Calculating the amount of displaced earth material is referred
contains adequate information to be used for construction to as an earthwork takeoff (ETO). Although rarely the case,
before providing it to a contractor. the ideal scenario is to have a balance of earthwork, where
However, on cooperative project construction where the all of the required excavation is used to backfill and to bring
engineer and contractor work together there may be a ben- the lot to finished grade. In order to attain any semblance
efit for the design team to work with the contractor to use of an earthwork balance, the excavated material must be of
the DTM. Client cost savings have been shown on projects adequate quality to be reusable. In projects with excessive
where the contractor is included in the design process to rock, loam soils, or expansive soils, an earthwork balance, in
check and validate construction techniques for earthwork all likelihood, is unattainable. Additional considerations for
balancing that account for bulking and shrinkage of materi- soils and balancing the site are described in Chapter 2.5 and
als typical for the area to be constructed. The contractor's Chapter 3.4.
knowledge, if leveraged in the design process, can signifi- A grading plan may have to go through several itera-
cantly improve the cost savings to the client and the speed tions before an acceptable earthwork balance is obtained.
to complete the project. Frequently, a rough grading plan is developed as a first
approximation during preliminary engineering (as described
5.4.5. Grading Plan Content in Chapter 4.4). This rough grading plan shows the build-
A grading plan will depict the proposed grades (usually at ings, streets, and parking areas with spot elevations at crit-
the same contour interval as existing grades) with proposed ical points and contour lines with 2 feet or 5 feet contour
452 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
__
I Dewberry
...
~=

0
0 0 0 0
i•
lj
h
0
C ,

0 0
0
'

i!
I
d
,;
I.
.ri•
A

0 \N

T,'f'"

,1
·-
1. Proposed contours with contour labels at regular Intervals
2. Existing contours shown. Labels provided throughout
3. Spot elevations shown at curb corners and along curb as needed
4. Spot elevations at low points, adjacent to inlets
s. Spot elevations at high points
6. Spot elevations where proposed grade meets existing grade
7. Spot elevations near building doors and around perimeter as needed
8. Spot elevations within plaza and specialty landscape/hardscape areas
9. Spot elevations at sidewalk curb ramps (detailed view often required)
10. Grading notes to identify slope limitations, standard cross slopes, etc.

FIG uRE 5. 4 M Grading plan content.

intervals. An ETO is performed to determine the net earth- net amount of cut and fill material. Therefore, to get a final
work quantity. Since this rough grading plan serves as an quantity, cut and fill values must be adjusted for such things
unpolished first guess for design, the earthwork analysis can- as topsoil, pavement thicknesses, undercut, large conduits,
not be extraordinarily detailed. As the rough grading plan is soil shrink-swell, and other factors (as defined in Chapter 3.4).
refined and approaches final design, the detail and accuracy Grid Method. The grid method for computing earthwork
of the earthwork analysis increases. quantities averages the cut or fill depths over a unit area.
Most earthwork calculations are performed with the The product of the averaged depths with the unit area is
aid of software, although occasion does arise when manual the net incremental volume of cut or fill. A summation of
methods are effective early in the design process before all incremental fill volumes and cut volumes gives the total
surface models have been created. The method selected for the site.
depends on the type of site and the way the project is set up. Figure 5.4N shows a proposed ground surface and the
For many projects, the ETO is developed from the contour existing ground surface for a unit area. (Note that the inter-
grading plan, or in the case of roads, the cross section draw- section of the two surfaces establishes the zero cut and fill
ings. Of major interest to the developer or contractor is the line). The depth of cut or fill is written at each corner of the
 5.4 ■ GRADING 453

F=2' C=5'
Unit Area
Proposed
Ground Surface

Exisiting
Ground Surface
12

10 5'

8
.c
~ 5'
0 6

Average = _ (2_+_5_)_+_(_-2_-_5_) x Unit Area =0

CuVFill (4 )

FIG uRE 5. 4 N Ground surfaces for unit area of the grid method.

unit area. For this particular unit area the average cut/fill is The accuracy of the computed volume is a function of
zero. That is, the volume of material in the cut area is equal the size of the unit area and how close the representative
to the volume of material in the fill area. planes for the existing and proposed ground approximate
However as shown in Figure 5.40, the computations the true ground surface. As the undulations of the actual
presume that the actual ground surface is a plane ground surface increase in number and deviate from the
representing a linear ground surface. The areas which straight line approximation the precision of the com-
contribute to the error in the actual volume are shaded. puted volume decreases. To compensate for the irregular

~ -+- Plane for

Average
Existing Ground

Area of Material -+-----'~

Excluded from
Fill Computations

L - -- - Plane for
Average
Proposed Ground

Area of Material Area of Material - - ~

Included in Fill Computations Excluded from Cut Computations

FIG uRE 5. 4 0 Average ground surface by linear approximation.

454 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
topography, the unit area can be reduced to increase pre- amount of cut or fill at that point. A positive value
cision. The penalty for this is the increase in number of indicates fill and a negative value indicates cut.
grids and the computing time to perform the method. In 3. For each square the cut/fill values are averaged and
some instances decreasing the unit area may not be the written in the center of the square the incremental
solution either. On extremely flat sites decreasing unit area volume is the averaged cut/fill depths multiplied
size decreases the precision. For each unit area an inter- by the grid area. Only the corners of grid squares
polation between contours is necessary to determine the within the grading limits are used to obtain the
elevations at each corner. Each interpolation calculation average cut/fill values.
has an error associated with it. The propagation of this
error contributes to the precision of the volume. In these 4. Any corner outside the grading limits is not
extreme cases the grid method may be abandoned in favor included in the computational process. The incre-
of an earthwork method that is more accommodating. mental volume is the averaged cut/fill of these
The mechanics of the method are grid corners in the graded area multiplied by the
fraction of the area of the grid within the grading
limits.
1. Obtain the grading plan of the site and create a
grid of uniform sized squares over the graded area. 5. Summing all averaged values within the grid
Using analog methods, the procedure is facilitated squares is the net amount of excess/deficiency
if the grid is created on transparent material and dirt. Summing all positive and negative num-
overlaid on the grading plan. For reasonably bers separately is the amount of cut and fill,
precise earthwork quantities the grid squares respectively.
should be 1 inch squares for plans with scales of Figure 5.4P shows the grid method for the same grading
1 inch = 100 feet and larger. plan with I-inch grids. The cut or fill depths are written at the
2. The grid is overlain on the grading plan. At each corners of each square (negative values indicate cut, positive
corner of a square a value is entered to identify the values indicate fill). The value written in the center of the grid

1
--~
----7 I

30· o· 30• 60'

/
I
I
/
I
\
/
'\ /
I

./
,/
-------------~/.1/
Q
FIG uRE 5. 4 P Grid method for ETD.
 5.4 ■ GRADING 455

is the average cut or fill depth for that grid, that is, the sum of The low value for the fill volume (430 yd3) is due to the
the values at the corners divided by the number of summed large grid size relative to the small fill area of the plan.
values. The volumes of cut or fill for each grid are determined Cross-Section Method. The cross-section method is used
by the product of the averaged cut or fill and the area of each to calculate earthwork quantities for roads, utility trench-
grid. Some squares are not entirely within the grading area. ing, and other linear projects. A contour grading plan is not
The volume of cut or fill for these squares is found by mul- necessarily needed to use this method since cross sections
tiplying the averaged cut or fill depth by the fraction of the for streets and prismatic channels can be obtained from the
area of the grid within the grading area. An estimate of the sections and the profile.
fractional area should suffice in most cases. If the cross-section method is used for a building site, the
The grid on Figure 5.4P has four rows and eight columns. grading plan is used to develop the cross sections. A baseline
The incremental volume for each grid is given in Table 5.4B. or reference line is drawn on the plan. Although the location
Summing all of the fractions of the cut values and all of is arbitrary, it is usually down the center or along one edge
the fill values multiplied by the area of a grid gives the total of the project. The baseline does not need to be straight.
volumes. The sum of the fractions of the cut and fill are 38.3 Slight curvature or angles can be used when the situation
and 3.2, respectively. This corresponds to warrants. Lines perpendicular or radial to the baseline are
drawn where the cross sections are desired and the sections
38.3 ft(60 ft x 60 ft)= 5100 yd 3 of cut are then plotted. Distortion of the topography as it appears
27 ft3 per yd 3 on the cross section plot increases when the section line is
significantly skewed relative to the prevailing land slope:
3.2 ft (60 ft x 60 ft) 430 yd 3 of fill (5.40) this contributes to errors in the cut and fill values. On the
27 ft 3 per yd 3 other hand, the distance is not uniform between two section

TA BLE 5 . 4 B Incremental Cuts and Fills for ETO Grid Method Example
GRID AVG. CUT OR FRACTION FRACTION OF GRID AVG. CUT FRACTION FRACTION OF
(Row X COLUMN) FILL DEPTH OF GRID CUT OR FILL (Row X COLUMN) OR FILL DEPTH OF GRID CUT OR FILL

(A,1) 0 0 0 (A,5) +1.4 1 +1.4

(B,1) -1.8 0.8 -1.4 (B,5) +1.3 1 +1.3
(C, 1) -2.0 -2.0 (C,5) -0.4 1 -0.4
(D, 1) -2.6 0.5 -1.3 (A,6) -1.8 0.8 -1.4
(A,2) -0.6 0.4 -0.2 (B,6) -3.1 -3.1
(B,2) -2.4 1 -2.4 (C,6) -2.3 0.9 -2.1
(C,2) -3.2 1 -3.2 (A,7) -3.9 0.6 -2.3
(D,2) -2.0 0.4 -0.8 (B,7) -4.5 1 -4.5
(A,3) -0.9 0.7 -0.6 (C,7) -5.1 0.7 -3.6
(B,3) -2.1 1 -2.1 (A,8) -0.1 0.3 -0.3
(C,3) -2.2 1 -2.2 (B,8) -1.1 0.6 -0.7
(D,3) -1.7 0.4 -0.7 (C,8) -3.0 0.3 -0.9
(A,4) +0.5 0.9 +0.5
(B,4) -0.3 -0.3 ~ Cut = 38.3 ft
(C,4) -1.5 1 -1.5 ~ Fill = 3.2 ft
(D,4) -1.6 0.2 -0.3
45& i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
lines if they are not perpendicular to the baseline which also I
adds to the error in the ETO. Judgment and experience dic-
tate the orientation of the section line relative to the baseline I Begin
and prevailing land slope in order to obtain reasonably pre- Construction
cise ETO quantities.
Section lines do not have to be at constant intervals. They
are located where the cut and fill does not substantially change
and at points where there is an abrupt change between cut
and fill. For example, cross sections located before and after
foundation walls will not account for the excavated volume.
Additional cross sections should be included just inside of
the foundation walls. Precision of the ETO depends on judi-
cious selection of the cross section location and their orien- - c---1---- Incremental
Volume
tation to the baseline.
Once the existing and proposed grades are plotted on
the cross sections, thicknesses for pavement, concrete slabs,
and subbase depths are then added to the drawings. The
gross cut and fill quantities are adjusted according to these
depths. The incremental volume of cut and fill between suc-
cessive cross sections is equal to the averaged area of the cut FIG uRE 5 . 4 Q Wedge-shaped volume.
or fill multiplied by the (average) length between the cross
sections as given in Equation (5.4E), where Vine is the incre-
mental volume of material between two consecutive cross
sections, A; and A; + 1 are the areas of cut or fill on the two The accuracy of this method is determined by the varia-
consecutive cross sections, and L is the average horizontal tion of cut or fill areas of subsequent cross sections. Although
distance between the sections. Summation of the incre- most cross sections are taken at constant intervals, interme-
mental cut and fill volumes determines the total cut and fill diate cross sections may be necessary. If one cross section is
volumes for the site. in total fill and the following cross section is in total cut, an
intermediate cross section is necessary for a higher degree of
V
inc
= A; +A+1
2 X
L (5.4E) accuracy. The intermediate cross section is located where the
fill section transitions to the cut section; the point where the
cut and fill areas are nearly zero. The accuracy of this method
The volume from the average end area [Equation (5.4E)]
can be increased if the interval length is reduced. The trade-
significantly overestimates the volume at the end sections. As
off for this increased accuracy is the time to evaluate more
shown in Figure 5.4Q the solid segment L is wedge shaped.
cross sections. Another factor affecting accuracy is the cost
The volume for a wedge (pyramid) is
for cut and fill. An extremely high cost associated with the
A cut or fill operations will necessitate that the computed
V =-XL (5.4F)
w 3 earthwork quantity be considerably more accurate. Consider-
ation for additional cross sections through a curve is neces-
where A is the area of the first cross section, in this case sary if the length parameter is longer than the arc length of
station A;. A comparison of the volumes for the wedge seg- the curve. In general the average end area equation tends to
ment as computed by the average end area and the wedge overestimate volumes.
equation shows that the average end area volume is 50% A variation of the average end area method considers the
greater. The volume due to this error in this segment must average of the areas within a closed contour loop. The aver-
be weighed against the total volume of earthwork. Since age area is multiplied by the difference in elevation between
the error applies only to the two end segments it is left to the contour lines to obtain a volume. This method is best
the judgment of the engineer which equation is used for the suited for computing volumes oflakes and mounds.
wedge shaped segments. Comparing DTMs. When surface models are used to
Cross-Section Method Example. Figure 5.4R shows three develop the grading plan, typically a proposed and an exist-
cross sections of a roadway where C and F designate the ing DTM have been developed. Rough earthwork quanti-
cut or fill area on the cross section. Table 5.4C shows the ties can be obtained by comparing the two DTMs, which
tabular organization of the data to determine the earth- provides a rapid calculation that be updated as the model
work quantities using the cross-section method. (Assume is refined. The way these volumes are computed may vary
stations O + 50 and 2 + 50 are the begin and end points of depending on what software is being used and each software
construction). package may offer more than one method for computing the
 5.4 ■ GRADING 457

Prop. Grade

--- I h /2
Exist. Grade

-~ -

C=250 ft 2 C=150 ft 2

STA 2+00

I -
~~v / -,- C=200 ft 2
F=3oo tt 2
STA 1 +so

STA 1 +00
FIG uRE 5. 4 R Earthwork example: cross-section method.

volumes. One possible method is illustrated in Figure 5.4S. 5.4. 7. Adjustments to Earthwork Quantities
In this example, the triangles of the proposed (upper) sur- The ETO methods previously explained calculate the gross
face are projected onto the existing (lower) surface, forming quantity of cut and fill. That is, the quantities are computed
a series of 3D columns. The volumes of these columns are based on the existing topography and the proposed finished
then calculated and summed by the computer. grades. Computing final earthwork quantities includes adjust-
The accuracy of the result will vary based on the details ments to the gross values of cut and fill to account for soil char-
of the models used. A surface model of the proposed site acteristics, topsoil, subbase allowance, foundations, and other
may only have enough detail so that the resulting contours items that affect the amount of displaced soil. Since earthwork
provide enough information to the contractor. When using is a major expense for a project the adjustments are necessary,
a surface model it's also necessary to understand how the considering that the adjustments may affect the computed
model accommodates features like buildings, ponds, stairs, gross quantity by 10% to 30%. Frequently the client requests
and walls. In some cases multiple surface models are used to the adjustment quantities separate from the gross quantities.
consider the adjustments required for earthwork quantities. These adjustments are shown as separate volumes in a tabu-
For instance, one model may use an elevation in the pave- lated format. This can be helpful when determining causes for
ment areas that represents the subgrade as opposed to the excess or deficient volumes. After all adjustments are made the
top of pavements. results are the net volumes of cut and fill.
45a i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
TAB LE 5 . 4 C ETD by Cross-Section Method
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
STATION LENGTH (FT) AREA (FT2) AVERAGE AREA (FT2) INCR. VOLUME (FT3) ACCUM. VOLUME (FT3)
FILL

0 + 50 0 0
50 425 21,250
1 + 00 850 21,250
50 575 28,750
1 + 50 300 50,000
50 300 15,000
2 + 00 300 65,000
50 150 7,500
2 + 50 0 72,500
CUT

0 + 50 0 0
50 0 0
1 + 00 0 0
50 100 5,000
1 + 50 200 5,000
50 600 15,000
Column 1: STATION-the stationing along the street that identifies the location of the cross section.
Column 2: LENGTH-the length between the two cross sections. Notice this value is written on a line between the two cross sections of column 1.
Column 3: AREA-the total area of the cut or fill for the section. The first and last stations are the stations where the grading begins and ends. Here the cut and fill areas are zero.
Column 4: AVERAGE AREA-the average of the cut or fill area as determined by Equation 23.9.
Column 5: INCR. VOLUME-the volume of cut or fill between the two cross sections. This is equal to column 2 x column 4.
Column 6: ACCUM. VOLUME-the accumulated volume of cut or fill. Equal to the preceding value of column 6 added to the current value of column 5. The last value in this
column is the total cut or fill for the total number of cross sections.

-----,sED
- 1CE

-
_ EXISTING
SURFACE

FIGURE 5. 4S Comparing DTMs.

 5.4 ■ GRADING 459

Topsoil. Before any major grading operations begin (on When using computer modeling to determine earthwork
greenfield sites), the site is stripped of the topsoil. The topsoil quantities, it makes sense to create a DTM that represents
is stockpiled and used for planting and landscaping purposes the surface that will result from mass grading of the site. For
when the project is nearly complete. In high density resi- example, the elevations defining the roadway would be set
dential projects and many commercial sites very little area is at the bottom of the roadway box and not at finished grade.
available for landscaping. The resulting excess topsoil must This would also hold true for concrete pads and build-
be either hauled away or disposed onsite. ing foundations. In the case of mass grading for residential
Topsoil depths generally range from 6 to 18 inches. Esti- subdivisions-where the lot is initially constructed lower
mates for topsoil depths can be determined from the soils than finished grade-the mass grade elevations would be
report and the soil boring logs of the site. If the soils report incorporated into the surface.
indicates a nearly uniform depth of topsoil, calculate the This DTM, would for the purposes of earthwork calcula-
topsoil volume assuming a constant depth over the graded tions, be considered the proposed surface. This DTM would
area. Some sites may have a large variation in topsoil depth then be compared to the modified for topsoil stripping sur-
over the site. The engineer decides whether to use a uniform face (as described above) to determine the earthwork quanti-
depth or to divide the site into areas of nearly uniform ties. This eliminates the need to make manual adjustments to
topsoil depth for calculations. The topsoil volume is the esti- the cut and fill quantities.
mated depth multiplied by the graded area. In most of the cases Utilities. Accounting for soil volume for relatively narrow
the earthwork quantity will not be adversely affected if the top- shallow trenches is not typically done. As an example, the
soil depth is assumed uniform over the entire graded area. volume of a trench 6 feet deep and 3 feet wide is equal to
The gross volume of topsoil to be stockpiled is equal to 0.67 cubic yard (CY) per linear foot. The volume of a 15-inch
the topsoil stripped from both the cut and fill areas. The conduit with 6 inches of bedding material is 0.10 CY per lin-
stripped volume of topsoil from the cut areas is subtracted ear foot. If a 15% shrinkage factor is assumed, then the addi-
from the gross cut volume. tional amount of soil required for backfill is compensated for
Conversely, the volume of topsoil stripped in the fill areas by the volume of conduit and bedding.
is added to the gross fill volume. The sum of these two values is However, when the size of the trench becomes larger
the volume of stockpiled topsoil. Topsoil reused in vegetated or deeper than the shallow example described above, the
areas is replacement topsoil. The vegetated areas are deter- amount of trench backfill should be accounted for. The back-
mined for both the cut and fill areas of the site. Calculated fill volume is the volume of the trench less the volume of
replacement topsoil volumes in the vegetated areas of the cut conduit and bedding plus allowance for shrinkage. This con-
areas are added to the gross cut quantity and the replacement sideration may be necessary on projects that have significant
topsoil volumes in fill areas are subtracted from the gross fill quantities of large utility systems.
quantity. The stockpiled topsoil volume less the replacement Undercut. Another adjustment to the ETO must account
topsoil volume is the net topsoil remaining. for the inadequate bearing capacity of the underlying soil
When using computer modeling to determine earthwork or other bad soil conditions (e.g., high shrink/swell char-
quantities, the existing grade DTM is modified to represent acteristics) or underlying rock layers. Although a thorough
the site after the required topsoil has been stripped. The subsurface investigation performed during early planning
modified DTM is the surface that will then be compared stages usually alerts the design team of these undesirable
to the proposed surface. This eliminates the need to make conditions, small pockets of poor soil conditions and rock
manual adjustments to the cut and fill quantities. layers may not become evident until excavation exposes
Subbase and Concrete Pads. Roads, concrete slabs, and them during construction. Nonetheless, the removal
building pads consist of different layers of gravel, coarse (undercut) and replacement of this unsuitable material
aggregate, concrete and wearing surface. The total thick- must be accounted for in the earthwork quantities. If such
ness of these layers depends on the bearing capacity of the conditions cover wide areas and extend to great depths, the
soil and the type of structure and ranges from 8 inches to removal and replacement with acceptable material becomes
2 feet in typical situations. In extreme cases the thickness may costly. The undercut quantity is added to the cut volume as
be double these depths. Concrete pads and the subbase for well as the fill volume.
residential houses have a thickness of 8 to 12 inches. Concrete When using computer modeling to determine earthwork
pads and subbase for parking structures and high-rise com- quantities, making adjustments to the earthwork quanti-
mercial buildings typically are 18 to 24 inches thick. The ties to account for undercut can sometimes be facilitated by
pavement structure for roads may be 12 to 24 inches thick. usingDTMs.
To account for subbase and concrete thickness the earth- Take for example a site that has bedrock so close to the
work quantity is based on the subgrade elevation rather than surface that rock will need to be removed to achieve fin-
the finished grade elevation. Therefore in cut areas the base ished grade. Further, assume that there is also rock exposed
volume of cut must be increased by the total volume of the at existing grade. In this scenario, the amount of cut would
subbase, pavement, and concrete. In fill areas the pavement need to be adjusted by the amount of rock removal and the
and subbase volumes are subtracted from the base value of topsoil stripping quantity would need to be adjusted per the
the fill volume. surface rock. Figure 5.4T illustrates this concept.
4&o i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
_ _ _ _ n------..J r __ _._

FI GuRE 5 . 4 T Cross section of site with rock.

By comparing the proposed (mass) grade DTM to a DTM (a) If a site requires 10,000 yd3 of fill at maximum den-
representing the surface of rock, the volume of rock removal sity, how much borrow material should be excavated?
would be determined (equal to the cut quantity generated by To compute soil volumes in going from borrow
that comparison). The site earthwork cut quantity would be to fill or fill to borrow recognize that density is
adjusted by subtracting the rock removal quantity. inversely proportional to volume. The relative ratios
If there are areas on the site where bedrock is so close of the borrow and fill densities and volumes can be
to the surface that there is a thinner layer of topsoil or no expressed as
top soil at all, the topsoil stripping quantity would need
to be adjusted per the amount of rock encroachment. In Db =!'.t.. (5.4G)
Figure 5.4T, area B represents the volume of rock encroach- 01 vb

ment and can be determined by comparing the rock surface where the b and f subscripts refer to borrow or fill.
DTM to the DTM that represents the existing surface after Therefore, the required borrow volume is
the topsoil has been stripped. The amount of rock encroach-
ment would be the fill volume for this comparison and would 90 pcf 10,000 yd 3
be subtracted from the topsoil stripping quantity. 110 pcf l1i, (5.4H)
Shrinkage. Soil volume increases when it is displaced from or l1i, ""12,200 yd 3
its natural state due to the increase in the amount of voids.
Relative to soil in a natural state, soil used as compacted fill has (b) How much volume will 10,000 yd 3 of borrow mate-
a higher in place density in most cases. If the same dirt exca- rial occupy if placed at maximum density?
vated from a 1 CY hole is placed back into the hole without any
compaction efforts, there will be excess dirt. Later a depression 90 pcf
(5.41)
appears in the hole area due to natural settlement. If the dirt is 110 pcf 10,000 yd 3
placed back into the hole at a density higher than its natural or V, "" 8200 yd 3
state there will not be enough dirt to fill the hole. With the
added compaction, the amount of voids is less than the amount (c) What is the relative change in volume in parts a and b?
of voids of the naturally consolidated soil. Hence the reason
for the deficiency in excavated soil volume. This apparent Part a:
decrease in volume of excavated soil is referred to as shrinkage. 12,200 yd 3 -10,000 yd 3 = 22 %
The ratio of the remaining volume of the excavated hole after 10,000 yd 3
the original dirt has been replaced (with compaction) to the Part b: (5.4J)
total volume of the hole is the shrinkage factor. The amount of 12,200 yd 3 -10,000 yd 3 = 18 %
shrinkage can be measured relative to the volume of excavated 12,200 yd 3
material or relative to the volume of required fill.
To illustrate this last statement consider a soil with a den- Part c shows that relative to the required fill volume 22%
sity of 90 pounds per CY with 21.2 % water content in its more borrow material is required and relative to a given
natural state. Laboratory test results show that this same soil borrow volume the material reduces only 18% in volume
has a maximum density of 110 pounds per CY at optimum when placed at maximum density. Notice that the borrow
moisture content (OMC). volume reduces by the same amount in both cases, that is
 5.4 ■ GRADING 461

(12,200 - I0,000)/12,200 = 18% and (10,000 - 8200)/10,000 = amount of fill that is reusable. This accounts for the increased
18%. Careful attention is warranted when specifying vol- amount of soil required as a result of compaction.
umes for fill and excavation projects. Payment for fill dirt
is typically based on the amount required to fill the hole (as 5.4.8. ETD Plan Content
shown in part a above) and not the volume of the hole itself. The earthwork plan can be developed as a cut/fill color map
However, in most cases the cost of doing the work is based on with color banding, which is easily accomplished through
the amount of soil excavated. Since the density of excavated software processes. A cut/fill color map allows for a quick
soil is less than its natural state density, allowances must be interpretation of the site's cut and fill locations. The map
made for computing haul quantities. should have a legend with appropriate ranges of cut and
Typical shrinkage factors may range from 10% to 30% fill depths-cut areas are usually depicted as shades of red
depending on the type of soil, the amount of compaction, whereas fill areas will be depicted as shades of blue. A mid-
and the amount oflosses expected in hauling. In the previ- dle range from ±1 foot will show areas of minimal (or no)
ous example, the natural soil density is known. In most cases earthwork. Additionally, a map with numeric values may be
the natural soil density is unknown and the engineer must provided for detailed descriptions of the cut and fill condi-
use judgment in estimating the shrinkage to make an adjust- tions-this deliverable is similar to one that may be gener-
ment. This adjustment is typically made by increasing the ated with the grid method for ETO (Figure 5.4U).

I Dwwbwar·

D
- .,-~~---------- ,::-:-- ~ ~ . ~
..~o ·: - ~

I ../ • _,..,. • ,•"- •J J~?~ r --

0
I- ::_

I~ .:
l
0 0
1. Plan view showing existing and proposed grades with color-coded hatch
to identify areas of cut and fill. Cut and fill numeric values may be shown.
2. Corresponding legend for intervals of cut and fill depth (typically shown
as red for areas of cut and blue for fill).
3. Notes for total quantities of cut and fill , with qualifies and assumptions
listed
4. Exhibit, as required, to note any assumptions about topsoil depth,
pavement depth, undercut conditions, etc.

FIG uRE 5.4U Cul/fill map plan content.

 CHAPTER 5.5

STORMWATER

5.5.1. Introduction 5.5.2. Hydrologic Runoff Computations

Each refinement to the site layout can impact the stormwater Stormwater management system design is determined by
management strategy and design requirements. The storm- first evaluating the pre-development and post-development
water management strategy, developed in early phases of runoff conditions. In the pre-development condition, the site
design, should be monitored throughout the design process is evaluated to determine the existing outfall points based on
to verify the proposed systems are still suitable. the drainage divides of a site. At each outfall point the storm-
As identified in Chapter 3.5, stormwater systems focus on water runoff rate and volume is evaluated. The analysis often
management of stormwater, quality of stormwater, or both. focuses on the outfall points of a site because each outfall
For stormwater management the goal is to reduce the post- system will have a different baseline condition and capacity.
development runoff condition to match (or improve upon) For instance, one outfall point might be a storm pipe convey-
pre-development conditions for both flow rates and volume. ance system that has been engineered to convey a specific
Best management practices (BMPs) focus on the quality amount of runoff. A separate outfall point might be a natu-
of the runoff and are provided to reduce the pollutants in ral stream that requires additional protective measures with
stormwater runoff. Some systems can provide both manage- more stringent criteria on how the runoff rate and volume
ment (rate, quantity control) and quality benefits. can be changed.
The design of these systems is directly influenced by the In the post-development condition, the drainage areas
development of the site; the land cover conditions and drain- are often evaluated when sizing the stormwater conveyance
age areas will determine the final design of each system. network (refer to Chapter 5.6). In most cases, the drainage
After determining the proposed strategy, in earlier phases of area for each collection point (inlet or channel) is used to
design, the final design will refine any assumptions to model size the conveyance network. The aggregate of all smaller
each proposed system. The final design effort for stormwa- drainage areas can be used to determine the total drainage
ter systems is often reserved for the last phases of design if area and land cover condition to the proposed stormwater
the layout of the site is still being modified. Even minimal management systems. Ideally, the design of the conveyance
changes to the building size, number of parking spaces, system uses a model that includes the stormwater manage-
or amount of sidewalk can influence the system design ment system. Large conveyance networks can influence the
requirements. hydrology and hydraulics of a stormwater management sys-
The stormwater infrastructure of a project is part of a tem. For instance, the time of concentration to inlets is likely
much larger network. The changes to land cover conditions, 5 minutes, but the total time of concentration from all inlets
even when mitigated in accordance with regulatory require- and pipes in a project may be 10 minutes or more because of
ments, will still impact the regional hydrologic and hydraulic the travel time.
conditions. Many jurisdictions will require an analysis of the Additionally, some stormwater management systems and
impacts from the site to a downstream point, often defined conveyance networks are often used in series. A series of
by a ratio of total drainage area compared to project limits. systems may be designed to first treat the runoff for quality,

462
 5.5 ■ STORMWATER 463

before conveying water to a larger detention system. There

TA BLE 5 . 5 A Roughness Coefficient for
may also be multiple stormwater management systems that
discharge to the same outfall point with varying times for the Sheet Flow
peak discharge, which would influence the total peak rate of SURFACE DESCRIPTION N*
runoff to an outfall.
Time of Concentration Calculation. The time of concentra- Smooth surfaces (concrete, 0.011
tion variable tc is important to compute for both hydrologic asphalt, gravel, or bare soil)
methods (rational and NRCS). With very small drainage area
computations (e.g., area of an inlet on a road), the minimum Fallow (no residue) 0.005
time of concentration of 5 minutes is used. For larger areas, the Cultivated soils:
NRCS method for determining tc consists of computing the
Residue cover ~20% 0.06
travel times associated with runoff over three distinct types of
Residue cover >20% 0.17
flowpaths (sheet, shallow concentrated, and concentrated) as
described below, but there are several acceptable methods for Grass:
calculating the time of concentration. Short grass prairie 0.15
1. Sheet flow is the initial phase of runoff character- Dense grassest 0.24
ized as flow over plane surfaces. The flow depth is Bermuda grass 0.41
very shallow (less than 0.1 foot), and consequently Range (natural)
the Manning's roughness coefficient is modified to
reflect the increased effects of drag from surface Woods:+
irregularities. Sheet flow is assumed to occur for Light underbrush 0.40
distances less than 200 feet. The NRCS has guid- Dense underbrush 0.80
ance suggesting that 100 feet is the likely maximum
distance for sheet flow calculations. The travel time *The n values are a composite of information compiled by Engman (1986).
11ncludes species such as weeping lovegrass, bluegrass, buffalo grass, blue grama
is given as
grass, and native grass mixtures.
1When selecting n, consider cover to a height of about 0.1 ft. This is the only part of
7: = 0.007 (nL) 08 (5.5A) the plant cover that will obstruct sheet flow.
t (~)05 504
Source: USDA, TR-55.

which is the kinematic solution to Manning's

equation. In Equation (5.SA) T 1 represents the travel
urban drainage conditions (inlets and pipes), runoff
time in hours, n is the effective Manning's n as given
to a drainage system is immediately converted to con-
in Table 5.SA, L is the flow length in feet (less than
centrated flow in a pipe. Travel time in open channels
200 feet), P2 is the 2 year-24 hour rainfall (inches)
is determined from the average velocity at bank-full
derived from local rainfall data, and S is the slope
flow. Manning's equation for open channel velocity is
of the hydraulic grade line that is assumed to be the
same as the average land slope (ft/ft).
(5.5C)
2. Shallow concentrated flow occurs after sheet flow.
The travel time for shallow concentrated flow is where Vis the average velocity (fps), Sis the slope of
the hydraulic gradient (channel bed slope in the case
T=-L- (5.5B) of uniform flow) (ft/ft), and n is Manning's rough-
3600V ness coefficient (values are found in most hydraulic
handbooks). The hydraulic radius R is defined as
where V = 16.1345(s) 05 for unpaved sufaces the cross-sectional flow area divided by the wetted
20.3282(s) 05 for paved surfaces perimeter (AIP). The travel time for open channel
flow is determined from Equation (5.SB) using the
where Vis the average runoff velocity (fps), Lis the velocity obtained from Manning's equation.
flow length (ft), and the travel time Tis in hours.
When computing the various components of the time of
3. Concentrated flow occurs when runoff collects into concentration, the values of the velocities must be carefully
defined open channels, which, according to NRCS, reviewed to determine if they are realistic. Many assumptions
are visible on aerial photographs, appear as blue lines made about the land characteristics (e.g., roughness coeffi-
on USGS quadrangle sheets, where surveyed cross- cient, uniform ground slope, vegetation height, and stream
section information begins, or field verification. For channel geometry) may give unrealistic values. For example,
4&4 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
given the same slope and distance, the time may be com- Rational Method Example. Using the rational equation to
puted as 10 or 15 minutes depending on whether the grass is determine peak runoff rates involves a systematic method
classified as short prairie (n = 0.15) or dense (n = 0.24). of determining a time of concentration to the design point,
There are several acceptable alternative methods for finding the corresponding rainfall intensity, and applying the
computing time of concentration beyond what it presented rational equation. For each new design point, a new tc and
in this text (some are introduced in Chapter 3.5). For large intensity are computed to determine the corresponding peak
drainage areas, where it's difficult to confirm land cover and discharge. As noted in Chapter 3.5, the rational method for
conveyance systems, a more general approach to the calcula- determining the peak flow is given by
tions may be acceptable.
Time of Concentration Plan Content. Depicting the flow Op= CiA (5.50)
path and computed time of concentration can justify the
intensity values used for the associated hydrologic method. where Qp is the peak discharge in cubic feet per second (cfs),
A map of pre-development conditions with the time of con- A is the drainage area in acres, C is a runoff coefficient char-
centration flow path is often shown (a schematic version is acteristic of the ground surface (0 < C < 1), and i is the aver-
shown in Figure 5.SA). Assumptions about the associated age rainfall intensity (in/h). While the range of the runoff
variables, such as Manning's coefficient and when the tran- coefficient extends to 1, most impervious areas use a maxi-
sitions from sheet, to shallow, to concentrated flow can be mum value of 0.95.
shown. In the post-development condition, a flow path can In this design example (schematically shown in
be shown for large areas, but generally it isn't necessary for Figure 5.5B), the rational method is used to determine
smaller drainage areas into inlets. Additionally, in the post- both the pre-development and post-development peak
development condition, the storm drainage computations flow condition. The site is 10 acres, with an existing ground
may be referenced when identifying time of concentration cover condition of both forested area and grass fields. In the
based on velocity and pipe length. developed condition, the site is primarily developed, with

CONCENTRATED FLOW
500'
Slope= 7%
n = 0.03

__... ..,

l POINTOF
ANALYSIS
FIG uRE 5 . 5 A Time of concentration plan content.

EXISTING 10 AC SITE PROPOSED 10 AC SITE

A B A B

3AC 2AC SAC

FIG uRE 5. 5 B Sample plan for example.

 5.5 ■ STORMWATER 465

some open space. The site has two primary outfall points:
TAB LE 5 . 5 C Post-Development Rational
AandB.
To determine the applicable intensity values, the intensity Method Analysis Example
duration frequency (IDF) curves, or table, should be used. In OUTFALL A OUTFALL B
this example, the IDF curve published in Chapter 3.5 will be
used to determine the intensity for 5-, 10-, 15-, and 20-minute Area 2 acres 8 acres
time of concentration values (storm duration). The values for
Runoff coefficient (c) 0.80 0.80
the respective times are 6.8, 5.8, 4.8, and 4.0 in/h.
In the pre-development condition, 3 acres of grass Time of concentration 5 min 5 min
groundcover drains to outfall A, while 7 acres of forested area
drains to outfall B. A runoff coefficient of 0.30 is assigned to Corresponding rainfall intensity 6.8 in/h 6.8 in/h
outfall A and 0.20 to outfall B. The time of concentration
to outfall A is computed at 15 minutes, and to outfall B it is
computed at 20 minutes. These conditions are summarized post-development peak flow rate to a pre-development peak
in the Table 5.5B. flow rate. To achieve a reduction in the peak flow rate, the
These values result in the peak flow calculation of stormwater must be detained, reused, or infiltrated with a
stormwater management system.
QAPre= (0.30)(4.8)(3) = 4.3 CfS
Rational Method Limitation Example. To reiterate the
QBPr, =(0.20)(4.0)(7)=5.6 cfs (5.5E)
limitations of the rational method (usually restricted to a
Next, the site is evaluated under a post-development con- site with a homogeneous land cover condition) the following
dition. The proposed topographic conditions are designed example shows how a nonhomogeneous site can influence
to honor the natural drainage divides as much as possible, the peak flow calculations. Consider the situation given in
but outfall A has a modified drainage area of 2 acres while Figure 5.5C and determine the peak discharge at the outlet
outfall B takes the remaining 8 acres. The proposed devel- using the rational method.
opment is homogeneous in the land cover condition with a In this example the total site area is 6 acres, with half of
runoff coefficient of 0.80 for both outfall drainage areas. In a the site as undeveloped woods and the other half as a devel-
developed condition, with buildings, gutters, pavement, and oped site with parking. The site is sloped such that water
pipes, the time of concentration is significantly reduced to flows through the forested area to the developed part of the
the minimum 5 minutes. This information is summarized site. Assigning a runoff coefficient of 0.20 to the forested area
in Table 5.5C. and 0.85 to the developed area gives a combined total runoff
These values result in the peak flow calculation of coefficient for the site of

C= (0.20)x3 Ac+(0.85)x3 Ac _ 0 (5.5G)

QA Post = (0.80)(6.8)(2) = 11 CfS 6 Ac - ·53
QB Post= (0.80)(6.8)(8) = 44 CfS (5.5F)
Based on the region of the site, the 10-year storm event has
varying intensities based on the time of concentration, such
In this example, the development has created a condi-
that for 5, 10, 15, and 20 minutes, the intensity is 6.8, 5.8, 4.8,
tion in which the peak flow for outfall A is almost tripled
and 4.0 in/h, respectively.
from the pre-development condition. Outfall B receives a
The time of concentration is based on the hydrologi-
peak flow of almost eight times the original peak flow rate.
cally most distant point, the forested area. For the first
The difference in peak flow will likely need to be mitigated,
100 feet of shallow concentrated flow, the time is computed
which will require a stormwater management system. In
as 12 minutes, before transitions to shallow concentrated
most jurisdictions, the requirement is to match or reduce the
flow for the next 100 feet, which adds 3 minutes. The time
within the developed site and the pipe conveyance system
adds another 5 minutes to result in a total time of concentra-
TA BLE 5 . 5 B Pre-Development Rational tion of 20 minutes.
Method Analysis Example Analysis 1 will compute the peak flow by evaluating the
OUTFALL A OUTFALL 8 entire site as one large area with the time of concentration
previously identified. By the rational method, this results in
Area 3 acres 7 acres a peak flow of
Runoff coefficient (C) 0.30 0.20 O=CiA
0=(0.53)(4.0)(6)=12.7 cfs (5.5H)
Time of concentration 15 min 20 min
Analysis 2 will calculate the peak flow by evaluating the
Corresponding rainfall intensity 4.8 in/h 4.0 in/h
site as two separate areas: (a) the forested area and (b) the
466 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
POINT OF
e 1
ANALYSIS

15M IN SMIN
Time of Concentration Time of Concentration

FIG uRE 5.5C Example site.

developed area. The time of concentration for the forested manual computations suggests that computer models are the
area remains at 20 minutes whereas the time of concentra- most effective way to use the NRCS method, but it's important
tion for the paved area is 5 minutes. to understand the underlying assumptions and equations.
NRCS Runoff Volume. The fundamental equation in the
oa = (0.20)(4.0)(3) = 2.4 cfs NRCS hydrologic method for computing the volume of run-
Ob= (0.85)(6.8)(3) = 17.3 cfs (5.51) off from a catchment area is
The peak flow, just from area (b ), is significantly more than
O= (P-1.)2 (5.5J)
the peak flow when the site was computed as a single area.
P-!a+S
The condition occurs because the site is nonhomogeneous,
and the time of concentration significantly influences the where Q is the runoff (inches) over the entire watershed, Pis
rainfall intensity used to compute the peak flow condition. rainfall (inches), Sis the potential maximum retention (i.e.,
The peak flow at the outfall point is not a combination rain not converted to runoff) after runoff begins (inches),
of the computed peak flows (2 + 17) because those values and Ia is the initial abstraction (i.e., losses before runoff
represent two different time of concentrations, and therefore begins). Values for I. depend on characteristics of the soil,
two different times at which the calculated peak flow occurs land use, and vegetation. Empirically, Ia is taken as equal to
(the actual peak flow is about 18 cfs). 0.2S where Sis given as
This example begins to demonstrate some of the limita-
tions of the rational method. Additionally, the volume of S= 1000 _ 10 (5.5K)
runoff is not easily computed using the rational method. CN
Stormwater quality systems (BMPs) are often designed to
and CN is the curve number that relates the runoff to land
provide quality control for a given volume of runoff.
characteristics. Using these relationships, the runoff can be
Rational Method Plan Content. With final design plan
expressed in terms of S:
sheets, it's important to document the computations, includ-
ing any assumptions that have been made. A map of the pre- O= (P-0.2S) 2
development and post-development conditions is helpful P+0.8S (5.5L)
(especially when shown on the same plan sheet) in identi-
fying the changes to land cover and drainage divides. The While the variable Q is shared between the rational and the
outfall points in the pre-development and post development NRCS method equations, the variable with NRCS is used to
should also be clearly identified. A narrative should clearly define the depth of runoff as opposed to the peak flow condi-
explain how the pre-development and post-development tion. The runoff depth is computed as a linear measurement,
conditions (outfall points, time of concentration, outfall which can be multiplied by the drainage area to determine
condition, etc.) were evaluated. Any corresponding compu- the volume of runoff. This equation only provides the run-
tations and tables should be clearly formatted. off depth in a single storm event; a different methodology is
NRCS Method Example. As compared to the rational required to determine the annual runoff volume (an annual
method, the NRCS methodology is significantly more com- runoff volume calculation may be required when sizing
plex. The computation of total runoff volume for a given storm stormwater reuse systems).
is relatively straightforward, but the determination of peak In this design example, the NRCS method is used to
flow requires more than a single equation. The complexity of determine both the pre-development and post-development
 5.5 ■ STORMWATER 467

runoff volumes. Like the rational method example, the pre-

TAB LE 5 . 5 E Post-Development NRCS
development site is 10 acres with an existing ground cover
condition of both forested area and grass fields. In the Methodology Analysis Example
post-development condition, the site is primarily impervi- OUTFALL A OUTFALL 8
ous, with some open space. The site has two primary outfall
points: A and B. Area 2 acres 8 acres
In the pre-development condition, 3 acres of grass
groundcover drains to outfall A, while 7 acres of forested
curve number (CN) 92 92
area drains to outfall B. The hydrologic soil group for the Time of concentration 5 min 5 min
site is B; the land cover conditions are "good:' Based on
these characteristics, the CN value is 61 to outfall A and 55
for outfall B. The time of concentration is not relevant for
the total volume computation, but the total precipitation runoff, only peak flow calculations). This information is
depth is needed. Based on the NOAA Atlas 14 precipitation summarized in Table 5.5E.
data (available online), the precipitation depth of a 10-year, The CN values are converted to S and runoff is calculated
24-hour duration storm is 5.6 total inches. This information from Equation (5.51) with the given inputs:
is summarized in Table 5.5D.
The CN values are converted to S and runoff is calculated Q = (5.6-0.2x0.9) 2 = 4 7 in
from Equation (5.51) with the given inputs: APoS! 5.6+0.Bx0.9 .
(5.6-0.2x0.9) 2 .
Q = - - - - - = 4 ?in (5.5N)
Q (5.6-0.2x6.4) 2 1 . BPoS! 5.6+Q.8xQ.9 .
= -'------_:_ = 7 in
APre 5.6+Q.8x6.4 .
Q _ (5.6-0.2 X 8.2) 2
(5.5M)
The runoff depth in the post-development condition
1.3 in
BPre - 5.6+0.8X8.2 for each area is identical at 4.7 inches, or about 84% of the
rainfall depth is converted to runoff. While the depth is
The result in the example identifies the total depth of identical (because the CN values are identical), the volume
runoff as compared to the total rainfall depth of 5.6 inches; will vary based on the different size drainage areas. The vol-
roughly 23% to 30% of the rainfall is converted into runoff in ume is computed by multiplying the runoff depth and area
the pre-development condition. The volume is computed by (2 acres to outfall A, 8 acres to outfall B) for a value of roughly
multiplying the runoff depth and area (3 acres to outfall A, 34,000 cubic feet to outfall A and 136,000 cubic feet to outfall
7 acres to outfall B) for a value of roughly 19,000 cubic feet B (about 1,270,000 gallons total).
to outfall A and 33,000 cubic feet to outfall B (about 382,000 The post-development volume is more than three times
gallons total). as much as the pre-development condition. This differ-
Next, the site is evaluated under a post-development ence identifies the importance of stormwater management
condition. The proposed topographic conditions are systems that reuse water onsite (often for irrigation) or
designed to honor the natural drainage divides as much infiltrate the water. Some stormwater management systems
as possible, but outfall A has a modified drainage area of are designed to match a post-development peak flow to pre-
2 acres while outfall B takes the remaining 8 acres. The development peak flow rates, but this additional volume
proposed development is homogeneous in the land cover creates a condition where the peak flow rate is sustained for a
condition with a new CN value of92 for both outfall drain- larger duration. The extended duration often creates erosive
age areas. In a developed condition, with buildings, gutters, conditions for extended periods of time.
pavement, and pipes, the time of concentration is signifi- NRCS Graphical Peak Discharge. A peak discharge
cantly reduced to the minimum 5 minutes (note that the can be obtained from a direct runoff hydrograph. When
time of concentration does not influence the volume of only a peak discharge is needed, the NRCS's graphical
peak discharge method can be used instead of develop-
ing an entire hydrograph. NRCS's graphical method for
determining the peak discharge, appropriate for homoge-
TA BLE 5 . 5 D Pre-Development NRCS
neous (i.e., uniform CN) watersheds and for 0.1 hour ::0: tc
Methodology Analysis Example ::0: 10 hours, is found by
OUTFALL A OUTFALL 8
(5.50)
Area 3 acres 7 acres
where qp is the peak discharge (cfs), qu is the unit (hydro-
Curve number (CN) 61 55 graph) peak discharge (ft3/mi2 /in), Am is the drainage area
(mi2), Q is the runoff [inches, from Equation (5.5J)], and Pp is
Time of concentration 15 min 20 min
the pond and swamp adjustment factor (Table 5.5F).
4&a i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
NRCS Dimensionless Unit Hydrograph. The NRCS and
TA BLE 5 . 5 F Adjustment Factor (Fp) for
others have developed natural unit hydrographs from data
Pond and Swamp Areas That Are Spread collected from catchments of widely varied size and locations
throughout the Watershed that were then converted to an "average" synthetic curvilin-
PERCENTAGE OF POND
ear dimensionless unit hydrograph shown in Figure 5.SE. To
AND SWAMP AREAS Fp simplify calculations, the curvilinear UH may be approxi-
mated by a triangular UH with similar characteristics. The
0 1.00 base of the triangular UH is 813 of the time-to-peak com-
pared with 5 for the curvilinear hydrograph. However, the
0.2 0.97 area under the rising limb of both hydrographs is identical.
1.0 0.87 The unit hydrographs are normalized (made dimensionless)
by expressing the discharge as a fraction of the peak dis-
3.0 0.75 charge (qlqp), and the time values as a fraction of the time
to peak (t!Tp)-
5.0 0.72 With respect to the triangular UH, the total runoff volume
Q (inches) is
Source: USDA, TR-55.
1
Q= 2.q P (Tp + T,) (5.5R)
Before engaging in this method, consider the following
limitations: where qp is the peak discharge (in.Jh), Tp is the time to peak
(hours), and Tr is the recession time (hours), which can be
• The watershed should be homogeneous with respect rewritten as
to the CN.
• The weighted CN should be greater than 40, 0.1::::; tc (5.5S)
::::; 10 hours and 0.1::::; I.IP:=;; 0.5.
where qp is the peak discharge for the unit hydrograph, A is
• The watershed should have only one main channel. If
drainage area in square miles, and 484 is included to place
there is more than one, all channels must have nearly
¾ of the area under the hydrograph under the rising limb.
equal t/s.
Changing the rising side of the UH to reflect watershed
• The method cannot perform reservoir or channel topography requires a change in the 484 peak rate factor. The
routing. peak rate factor has been known to vary from 600 for moun-
tainous regions to 200 in very flat swampy areas.
• The Pp factor is applied only for ponds or swamps not
From the relationship of the triangular hydrograph to the
in the tc flow path.
storm, duration Tp can be expressed in terms of duration of
To compute the peak discharge for a watershed unit rainfall excess and the time of concentration as

1. From appropriate maps, obtain the 24-hour rainfall (5.5T)

P for the design storm

2. Determine the CN for the watershed With proper substitution into Equation (5.5S), qp can be
expressed in terms of tc as
3. Determine I. from
726AQ
qp=-t- (5.5U)
Ia =0.2 ( 1000
CN J-10
(5.5P) c

NRCS Method Plan Content. Similar to the plan con-

4. The unit peak discharge (qu) in cubic feet per square tent described with the rational method, the pre- and post-
mile per inch of runoff is determined from development drainage information should be provided within
the plan sheet. Depicting the pre- and post-development land
log (qu) =Ca+ C, log (t c) + Cilog(tcll 2 (5.5Q) cover condition provides a record of the assumptions and
variables used in the NRCS calculations. The CN values used
where coefficients for C0, C1, and C2 are given in Table 5.SG with the computations are influenced by the hydric soil con-
for I.IP ratios. Figure 5.SD shows the graphical representation ditions, so it's often necessary to reference a soils map. For
ofEquation (5.SQ) for the NRCS type II rainfall distribution. the NRCS method, it's also beneficial to depict the pre- and
post-development hydrographs (if a computer model is used
5. Determine the pond factor Pp, if applicable.
for the computations). The hydrographs provide a record of
6. Use Equation (5.50) to find the peak discharge. how the peak flow rate has been determined based on the
 5.5 ■ STORMWATER 469

TA BL E 5 . 5 G Coefficients for Determining qu

RAINFALL TYPE '2/P Co Ci ~

0.10 2.30550 -0.51429 -0.11750

0.20 2.23537 -0.50387 -0.08929
0.25 2.18219 -0.48488 -0.06589
0.30 2.10624 -0.45695 -0.02835
0.35 2.00303 -0.40769 0.01983
0.40 1.87733 -0.32274 0.05754
0.45 1.76312 -0.15644 0.00453
0.50 1.67889 -0.06930 0.0
IA 0.10 2.03250 -0.31583 -0.13748
0.20 1.91978 -0.28215 -0.07020
0.25 1.83842 -0.25543 -0.02597
0.30 1.72657 -0.19826 0.02633
0.50 1.63417 -0.09100 0.0
II 0.10 2.55323 -0.61512 -0.16403
0.30 2.46532 -0.62257 -0.11657
0.35 2.41896 -0.61594 -0.08820
0.40 2.36409 -0.59857 -0.05621
0.45 2.29238 -0.57006 -0.02281
0.50 2.20282 -0.51599 -0.01259
Ill 0.10 2.47317 -0.51848 -0.17083
0.30 2.39628 -0.51202 -0.13245
0.35 2.35477 -0.49735 -0.11985
0.40 2.30726 -0.46541 -0.11094
0.45 2.24876 -0.41314 -0.11500
0.50 2.17772 -0.36803 -0.09525

Source: USDA, TR-55.

varying runoff rates throughout the storm event. The hydro- shape of the outflow hydrograph and the position of the peak
graphs may also identify how the time at which peak flow outflow. Perhaps the most widely used method of reservoir
occurs has changed, which could affect the analysis of other routing, where the relationship between the rate of outflow
connected systems. and amount of storage is nonlinear, is the storage indication
method, also known as the modified Puls method.
5.5.3. Stormwater Management System Design To employ this method, the known parameters must
When considering the design of any stormwater manage- include (1) inflow hydrograph, (2) stage-storage relationship,
ment detention facility, it is important to understand that the and (3) stage-discharge relationship.
critical volume of storage needed to detain the flow back to Underlying assumptions behind this routing method are
a certain release rate is based on a simple premise: as flow that the reservoir water surface is always level and that the
enters the facility (inflow, I), it needs to be either stored outflow from the facility is a unique function of storage.
(storage, S) or released (outflow, O). The procedure is based on the repetitive application of the
More specifically, as a flood wave passes through a stor- conservation of mass equation. The difference between the
age facility, it is both delayed (time) and attenuated (peak) as inflow I and the outflow O during an incremental element of
it spreads over the pool surface. The amount of attenuation time Mis the change in storage t:.S. This continuity principle
depends on the stage-storage characteristics of the facility is mathematically expressed as
and the stage-discharge characteristics of the outflow struc- 1-0 = A.S (5.5V)
ture. The amount of attenuation and delay is reflected in the M
410 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii

800

600
500

400
1,1,1
1::1
ai::
:cc 300
CC-
u::::
!!!E
Cl Ill
:.::~ 200
...
CC...;
:,

=--
II, O"

z
:::,

100

80

60

so~----------------------------------------"""""ll'""'"'l,_
.1 .2 .4 .6 .8 1
....
8 10 2 4 6

TIME OF CONCENTRATION
(Tc), (HOURS)

FIGURE 5, 5 D Unit peak discharge (qJ for NRCS type II rainfall distribution. (Source: USDA, TR-55.)

1.0

.9

.8
C,
0 .7
C,
a: .6
0
Cl.
.5
I
.4

.3

.2

.1

0
4

t-----=======-T
~Tp -b-- Tr ___. .,:,
VTp
FIG uRE 5. 5 E Dimensionless curvilinear UH with NRCS's triangular UH. (Source: USDA, NEH-4.)
 5.5 ■ STORMWATER 471

Inflow Vol = 1" \ 1"+ 1At

Outflow Vol =0"1"+ 1At
Q Q
In+1----,
In-+--.1.1

In+1

In
ft
j
On+1
On

tn tn+1

b) Tim•

FIG uRE 5. 5 F Storage change (a) in a reservoir (b) from inflow-outflow hydrographs.
(Courtesy of Haan, C.T., and B.J. Barfield, Hydrology and Sedimentology of Surface Mixed Lands.
Copyright© 1978 by the Office of Continuing Education and Extension, College of Engineering,
University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, 40506.)

With reference to Figure 5.SF, the equation in discretized for- indication variable. The increment of l::i.t is selected such
mat where the subscripts n and (n + 1) represent the values at that the hydrograph shape between the values of In and In+I
the beginning and ending points of the M increment is and On and On+i is approximately linear. The graphical rep-
resentation of this equation is shown in Figure 5.SF. In the
( ln+ln+1 _ On+On+1)M=S -S (5.5W) calculation process, the stage-storage and stage-discharge
2 2 n+1 n
relationships are used to develop a storage-indication dis-
Rearranging terms to get the known quantities on the left charge relationship; this curve is then used to find the value
side of the equality gives ofOn+I·
Note that these calculations are often performed by com-
puter models, but the site engineer should understand the
(5.5X) methodology used. Additionally, the documentation of the
system design should show stage-storage and inflow/outflow
where I is the inflow, 0 is the outflow, S is the storage, and t conditions. This information provides a record of the origi-
is the time, and the right side of the equation is the storage nal design parameters.
412 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
Principles of Hydraulic Design. A stormwater manage- against the condition where the head over the top of the
ment facility usually consists of an impoundment area, a riser becomes so large that the riser begins to act as an ori-
principal spillway structure, and an emergency spillway. fice instead of a weir. If the top of the riser acts as an orifice,
The impoundment area may be a natural depression, dam and the riser and outlet pipe are flowing partly full, surging
embankment, a completely excavated impoundment, a struc- and vibration can occur. This unstable situation can result
tural (constructed facility such as a vault with a clearwell), in damage to the spillway, as well as excessive noise during
or some combination thereof. The principal spillway usually operation. To prevent this, the riser should have a larger
consists of an outlet conduit through the embankment or cross sectional area than the outlet pipe. To determine if
from the clearwell, draining to the outfall channel. Often, the the top of the riser is flowing as a weir or an orifice, the
principal spillway incorporates a control structure referred discharge is computed for a given water surface elevation
to as a "riser" structure, with a combination of orifice open- using both the orifice equation and the weir equation. The
ings and weirs to regulate the amount of flow passing through equation that gives the lesser amount of flow is the control-
it. The emergency spillway may be a channel cut around/ ling equation.
through a portion of the dam embankment or an overflow Depending on the hydraulic characteristics of the cul-
mechanism built into the clearwell. vert, there may be certain water surface elevations where the
The design of these control structures is based on the fun- potential flow through the riser exceeds the capacity of the
damentals of hydraulics. culvert. The flow through riser is then restricted by the out-
For the spillway configuration, a stage-discharge relation- flow pipe of the riser structure. In such cases the actual flow
ship, that is, rating curve, is developed. To develop the rating through the riser-culvert system is dictated by the capacity of
curve, one must understand how water flows over weirs and the culvert at those specific water surface elevations. This is
through orifices and culverts. referred to as culvert control, and the stage-discharge curve
Discharge through an orifice is given by (i.e., the rating curve) must reflect this condition.
The inlet control nomographs or equations from HDS-5
0= C X AX ✓2 X gx H (5.5Y) may be used to check inlet control, but it should be noted
that these nomographs were developed for highway cul-
where C is a coefficient (typically= 0.6), A is the area of ori- verts; attaching a riser or other clearwell control structure
fice opening (square feet), g is the gravitational acceleration to the end of the culvert will likely alter the flow conditions
that is equal to 32.2 ft/s2, and His the height of water (feet) in somewhat. The configuration and relative sizes of the riser
the pond above the centroid of the orifice, or the difference and outlet pipe will determine how closely the riser and out-
in water surface elevations on the upstream and downstream let pipe resemble a highway culvert in terms of hydraulic
sides of orifice. function.
Discharge over a weir is computed as Multiple Stage Riser Design. Depending on the design
objectives for the facility, the outlet structure may consist of a
O=C XL X H312 (5.52)
simple culvert through a dam or it may consist of a drop inlet
where C is a weir coefficient (usually C = 2.5 to 3.3), Lis the spillway with a more complicated weir/orifice riser structure.
weir crest length (feet), and H is the height (feet) of water Figure 5.SG shows a riser structure designed to meet several
above weir crest. objectives. Table 5.SH shows a spreadsheet set up to calcu-
If the weir is submerged (water elevation on downstream late the discharge from a multistage riser, specifically the one
side of the weir is above weir crest), the effect of submergence detailed in Figure 5.SG.
on the computed discharges should be checked. Values of the Riser Calculation Example
orifice and weir coefficients and the effects of submergence
Orifice: Columns Q 1 and Q2 represent the discharge
on weirs can be obtained from hydraulics manuals such as
through the 6- and 12-inch-diameter orifice, respec-
Brater and King (1976).
tively. The discharge is computed using Equation (5.SY).
For flow through a pipe or open channel, use Manning's
equation. For a culvert, use the equations and nomograph Column Q3 is the discharge through the top of the riser
from the publication Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts, as computed using Equation (5.SY). This is used as a
Hydraulic Design Series No. 5 (HDS-5) by the Federal High- comparison with Q3 of the weir to determine whether
way Administration (FHWA) or the FHWA software HY-8 the spillway is under orifice flow or weir flow control.
can be used. HDS-5 provides methods for analyzing and
For example, the discharge through each orifice for water
designing pipes of all different sizes, shapes, and materials,
surface elevation 111 feet is
to determine the energy or head loss associated with a given
discharge for both inlet and outlet control conditions. (See
Chapter 5.6 for procedures on culvert design.) 01 =(0.6)(0.196J-/2g(111-100.75) =3.0cfs
A drop inlet spillway should be designed so that full flow (5.5AA)
Q2 = (0.6)(0.785).f2g(111-105.5) = 8.9 cfs
is established through the culvert and riser at as low head
over the riser crest as practical. This should be measured 03 = (0.6)(28.27).f2g(111-110) = 136.1 cfs
 5.5 ■ STORMWATER 473

TOP OF DAM EL.=116' TOP or RISER

WEIR EL.=110'
EMERGENCY SPILLWAY
3' WEIR INV= 109'
CREST EL.=113'
12" DIA. ORIFICE
INV=105'
6" DIA. ORIFICE
INV=100.5'

0 in
ci ci
0 0
II II
> PRINCIPAL SPILLWAY >
:!: :!:
PROFILE
NOT TO SCALE

RCP

n 6'0

.....-r---.--..
I I
TOPor RISER,
__/ WEIR EL=110'
3' WEIR INV=109'
TOP or DAM
- -~
I
I
O I 12" DIA. ORIFICE
INV=105' ~ ---------------------
SPILLWAY---- ,~~-----~T1
. ,. Exist.

I
EMERGENCY
CREST EL.=113' 3- 1.. 20' .. I
Ground

~
6" DIA. ORIFICE
INV=100.5'
LENGTH
FRONT [L£VATION PLAN VIEW EMERGENCY SPILLWAY
NOT TO SCAL£ NOT TO SCAL£ CROSS SECTION AT CREST

FIG uRE 5 . 5 G Riser structure schematic details.

Weir: Columns Q1 and Q2 represent the discharge Chapter 5.6 for storm drainage design). The culvert
through weirs at elevations below the top of the riser (in discharge analysis is given in Table 5.51.
this case there is no weir for Q2 column). The discharge
Q P.S. W. (discharge through the principal spillway) is the
is computed using Equation (5.52). Q3 is the discharge
lesser value of either the riser flow column or the culvert
over the riser crest as computed using Equation (5.52).
capacity column.
As example, the weir discharges for water surface eleva-
tion of 111 feet are Q E.S. W. (discharge through the emergency spillway)
is computed using Manning's equation with the control
01 =(3)(3)(111-109)312 = 25.5 cfs section.
Q3 = (3)(15.85)(111-110) 312 = 47.5 cfs (5.5BB)
Total flow is the sum of columns Q P.S. W and Q E.S. W
Riser flow is the total discharge through the riser without
To summarize the preceding discussion, the spillway sys-
consideration of culvert capacity. The riser is assumed to
tem consists of the principal spillway (culvert and riser) and
act as either orifice control or weir control, depending on
the emergency spillway. The total flow through the system is
the discharges computed for Q3 (orifice) and Q3 (weir).
the sum of the principal and emergency spillway flows. The
The lesser of these values dictates the type of control. If
flow through the principal spillway depends on the control-
Q3 (orifice) is less than Q3 (weir), the total flow through
ling component-either riser or culvert. The greatest flow
the riser is Q1 (orifice) + Q2 (orifice) +Q3 (orifice). If the
through the system can be no greater than the capacity of
top of the riser is weir control, the total flow through the
any single component for the given water surface elevation.
riser is Q3 (weir) + Q2 (weir) + Q3 (weir)+ Q2 (orifice)
For example, at elevation 110, the flow through the riser
+ Q3 (orifice). The riser flow for water surface elevation
is 19.9 cfs while the capacity of the culvert is 88.3 cfs. The
111.0 feet is
culvert would convey 88.3 cfs, if the riser structure were
Riser flow= 3.0 + 8.9 + 25.5 + 47.5 = 84.9 cfs (5.5CC) not there to limit the flow to the culvert. At elevation 111.5,
the reverse is true. The potential flow through the riser is
Culvert capacity is the maximum discharge that the 135.3 cfs while the capacity of the culvert is 96.8 cfs. Since
culvert can convey for a given water surface (see the culvert is the limiting component, the culvert controls.
474 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
TA BL E 5 . 5 H Spillway Rating Curve for Riser Structure
PROJECT: EXAMPLE RATING CURVE ENGINEER/DATE: GLC/11-19-O3
ORIFICE FLOW CULVERT RATING CURVE
CENTROID SIZE: 36 11 DIA. RCP
ORIFICE No. ELEV. AREA C DESCRIPTION ELEVATION DISCHARGE
1 100.75 0.196 0.6 6" dia. orifice 100.5 0
2 105.5 0.785 0.6 12" dia. orifice 102.6 20
3 (riser top) 110 28.274 0.6 72" dia. riser 103.8 40
105.55 60
WEIR FLOW 108.53 80
CREST EMERGENCY 112.07 100
WEIR No. ELEV. LENGTH C SPILLWAY FLOW
114.06 110
109 3 3 Crest Elev. = 113
Width= 20 116.18 120
2 118.08 130
Z=3
3 (riser top) 110 15.850 3 C= 120.11 140

ORIFICES WEIRS
RISER CULVERT O..sw TOTAL
ELEV. 01 ('2 ('3 ('2 Oa FLOW CAPACITY (CoNTROL) Oesw FLOW COMMENTS

100.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 °'

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
102 1.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.1 14.3 1.1 0.0 1.1
103 1.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.4 26.7 1.4 0.0 1.4
104 1.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.7 42.3 1.7 0.0 1.7
105 1.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.9 53.7 1.9 0.0 1.9
107 2.4 4.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 7.0 69.7 7.0 0.0 7.0
108 2.5 6.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 8.5 76.4 8.5 0.0 8.5
109 2.7 7.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 9.8 82.7 9.8 0.0 9.8
109.5 2.8 7.6 0.0 3.2 0.0 0.0 13.5 85.5 13.5 0.0 13.5
110 2.9 8.0 0.0 9.0 0.0 0.0 19.9 88.3 19.9 0.0 19.9
110.5 3.0 8.5 96.3 16.5 0.0 16.8 44.8 91.1 44.8 0.0 44.8
111 3.0 8.9 136.1 25.5 0.0 47.5 84.9 94.0 84.9 0.0 84.9
111.5 3.1 9.3 166.7 35.6 0.0 87.4 135.3 96.8 96.8 0.0 96.8 culvert control
112 3.2 9.6 192.5 46.8 0.0 134.5 194.1 99.6 99.6 0.0 99.6 culvert control
113 3.3 10.4 235.8 72.0 0.0 247.1 249.5 104.7 104.7 0.0 104.7 culvert control
113.5 3.4 10.7 254.7 85.9 0.0 311.3 268.8 107.2 107.2 22.9 130.1 culvert control

(Continued)
 5.5 ■ STORMWATER 475

TAB LE 5 . 5 H Spillway Rating Curve for Riser Structure (Continued)

ORIFICES WEIRS
RISER CULVERT O..sw TOTAL
ELEV. Oi Ch Ch Oi Ch Ch FLOW CAPACITY (CoNTROL} Oesw FLOW COMMENTS

114 3.4 11.0 272.3 100.6 0.0 380.4 286.7 109.7 109.7 68.0 177.7 culvert control
114.5 3.5 11.3 288.8 116.1 0.0 453.9 303.6 112.1 112.1 130.9 242.9 culvert control
115 3.6 11.7 304.4 132.3 0.0 531.6 319.6 114.4 114.4 210.6 325.0 culvert control
116 3.7 12.3 333.5 166.7 0.0 698.8 349.4 119.2 119.2 420.8 539.9 culvert control

Note that the flow through the emergency spillway begins c. From site investigations, the 1000-foot length
at elevation 113.0. The total flow through the system is then of stream is rectangular in shape with average
the sum of the flow of the controlling component of the dimensions-bottom width = 4 feet and depth =
principal spillway (riser or culvert) plus the flow through 2 feet. Manning's n "" 0.03 and S = 0.004 ft/ft.
the emergency spillway. The composite rating curve of Using Equation (5.SC),
Figure 5.SH is obtained from the last column of Table 5.SI.
This curve represents the combined hydraulic effects of the V= 1.49 ( (2)(4) )0.61 (0.004)1'2=3.1 f s
individual spillway components. 0.03 2(2) + 4 p
Detention Pond Design Example. A SO-acre parcel covered
T, = 1000 = 0.09 h (5.5FF)
with brush and woods is projected for development into 40 I (3600)(3 .1)
acres of I -acre residential lots and 10 acres of commercial/retail
development. The site is located in southeastern Virginia. The d. The pre-development tc = (0.51) + (0.09) +
HSG is type B (fair condition). Using SCS hydrologic meth- (0.09) = 0.69 hours.
ods, determine a preliminary size of the detention pond and
the spillway to detain the 10-year-24-hour design storm and e. The CN = 65 is obtained from Table 3.SF
to pass the 100-year-24-hour storm without overtopping the for woods-grass category under HSG B (fair
embankment. Allowable discharge rate from the spillway for condition). Using Equation (5.SK),
the 10-year storm cannot exceed the pre-development peak
5= 1000 -10=5.4 (5.5GG)
runoff. Site constraints dictate that the maximum allowable 65
height of the embankment is 10 feet. A schematic diagram of
the project site is shown in Figure 5.SI. f. The 10 year-24 hour rainfall is 6 inches.
Substituting for P and Sin Equation (5.SL), the
1. The time of concentration and CN is needed for depth of runoff is
pre-development conditions to compute the pre-
development peak runoff rate. Q = {6-(0.2)(5.4)}2 2.3 in (5.5HH)
6+(0.8)(5.4)
a. The 2 year-24 hour rainfall depth is 4 inches,
and from Table 5.SA, n = 0.4. From topographic g. Since Ia= 0.2S, Ia= 1.08 and Ia!P = 1.08/6 =
maps of the site, the average ground slope for 0.18. Use Figure 5.5D [or Equation (5.SQ) with
the first 150 feet flow path of sheet flow runoff appropriate coefficients] to obtain qu = 305 cfs.
(shown A to Bin Figure 5.51) is 0.014 ft/ft. From Using Equation (5.50), the peak discharge for
Equation (5.SA) the travel time is pre-development conditions is

= (0.007)[(0.4)(150)] 08 = 0 _51 h
T,
I (4)05(0.014)04
(5.50D)
°
qP = (305{ 6540 }2.3) = 55 cfs (5.511)

b. The travel time for 700 feet of shallow con- 2. An inflow hydrograph, that is, direct runoff
centrated flow (B to C on Figure 5.51) over an hydrograph, is needed to design the principal spill-
average ground slope of 0.02 ft/ft (from a topo- way. To determine the inflow hydrograph, the CN
graphic map of the site) from Equation (5.58) is and tc for post-development conditions is needed.
The weighted CN value is
V = (16.1345)(0.02) 112 = 2.3 fps
700 CN = 92(10 ac) + 68( 40 ac) = 73 (5.5JJ)
T, = 0.09 h (5.5EE)
I (3600){2.3) 50
 TAB LE 5 . 51 Discharge through the Culvert
PROJECT: EXAMPLE RATING CURVE STATION: CUL\I
SHEET: DESIGNE

HYDROLOGICAL DATA CULVERT TYPE: RCP

METHOD: RATIONAL ENT. TYPE: SQ. EDGE WITH HEADWALLS
DRAINAGE AREA: 40 ACRES
DESIGN FLOWS/TAILWATER NO. OF PIPES = 1
R.I. (YEARS) FLOW (CFS) TW (FT) DIAMETER= 3
0 100
MANNING'S n = 0.013
20 101
Ke= 0.7
40 102
80 104 Eli= 100.5 ~ I-----

120 106 Ela= 100

160 106.5 EL1r=116 top of dam elev.
200 107 ELsh = 113 emer spillway crest
250 107.2 L = 80
300 107.3
400 107.4
600 107.5
 HEADWATER CALCULATIONS
INLET CONTROL OUTLET CONTROL
CULVERT DESCRIPTION: TOTAL FLOW PER CONT
MATERIAL-SHAPE-SIZE FLOW Q BARREL Dc+D HI
ENTRANCE (CFS) QIN HW,/01 HW/- EL(H1) 3 TW4 De 2 ffo 5 KE ff& EL(Ho)7 ELEVA

1,3' dia. RCP, sq. 20 20 0.70 2.10 102.60 1.45 2.23 2.23 0.7 0.28 102.51 102,
edge with headwalls
II
30 30 0.90 2.70 103.20 1.5 1.80 2.40 2.40 0.7 0.64 103.03 103,
II
40 40 1.10 3,30 103.80 2 2.08 2.54 2.54 0.7 1.13 103.67 103,
II
50 50 1.33 4.00 104.50 2.5 2.32 2,66 2.66 0,7 1.77 104.43 104,
II
60 60 1.62 4.85 105.35 3 2.53 2.76 3.00 0.7 2.55 105.55 105,
II
70 70 1,96 5,88 106,38 3.5 2,68 2.84 3.50 0,7 3.46 106,96 106,
II
80 80 2.36 7.08 107.58 4 2.78 2.89 4.00 0.7 4.53 108.53 108,
II
90 90 2.82 8.45 108,95 4.5 2,86 2.93 4.50 0,7 5,73 110,23 110,
II
100 100 3.32 9.97 110.47 5 2.90 2.95 5.00 0.7 7.07 112.07 112,
II
110 110 3.88 11.63 112.13 5.5 2.93 2.97 5.50 0.7 8.56 114.06 114,
II
120 120 4.48 13.45 113.95 6 2.95 2.98 6.00 0.7 10.18 116.18 116,
II
130 130 5.16 15.47 115.97 6.125 2.97 2.98 6.13 0.7 11.95 118.08 118,
II
140 140 5.92 17.75 118.25 6.25 2.97 2.99 6.25 0.7 13.86 120.11 120,
II
150 150 6.81 20.43 120.93 6.375 2.98 2.99 6.38 0.7 15.91 122.29 122,
II
160 160 7.89 23.68 124.18 6.5 2.98 2.99 6.50 0.7 18.10 124.60 124,
1HW; based on plynomial best-fit equations from the FHA publication entitled Calculator Design Series #3.
2HW; may not be accurate for values <0.5D and >4.5D.
3EL(hi) = HW; + EL; (invert of inlet control section).
4 7Wbased on downstream control or flow depth in channel.
5h, = TW or (d, + D)/2, whichever is greater.
6H= (1 +K,(n'2L)/W1.33)V'2/2g.
7EL(ho) = E/0 + H+ h0.

........
,II,
41a i@U4ii ifodi41Mli
STAGE VS. DISCHARGE
116
....

r
- ~
114
...
112

E 110 :r ~
z
2 108
~
~
~ 106

104
)'

102

II
100
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
DISCHARGE (CFS)

FIG uRE 5. 5 H Typical spillway rating curve.

The increase in impervious area for the post- Assume the preliminary plans show that the length
development condition results in a decrease in tc and for post-development conditions is 100 feet and also
consequently an increase in peak runoff. It is reason - that there is little change in ground slope. The post-
able to assume a decrease in the length of flow path development travel time for shallow concentrated
for both overland flow and shallow concentrated flow flow is
due to the increase in imperviousness and addition
of pipes and inlets. For overland flow computation V= 20.3282(0.02) 112 = 2.9 fps
estimating L = 100 feet and assuming there is nominal
change in ground slope, the overland flow time for
0 100
(3600)(2.9)
= 0.01 h (5.5LL)

post-development conditions (assuming n = 0.24, i.e.,

dense grasses listed in Table 5.5A) is In computing the travel time for post-development
open channel flow, based on a preliminary layout, part
= (0.007){(0.24) (100)} 08 of the flow path will be in pipes and also part of the
T. 0 _13 h (5.5KK)
t (4) 112 (0.035) 04 existing stream will be improved to increase capacity.
Refined calculations for pipe design and capacity are
The initial 700-foot length used for shallow concen- provided in Chapter 5.6. If the length of flow path in
trated flow travel time will undoubtedly be changed. pipes is estimated to be 450 feet with an average diam-
eter of 2 feet, the travel time in the pipes is

A
0 67
V = ~(~) - (0.02) 112 = 10.2 f s
P 0.013 4 p
B
• 0 450 =0 .01h (5.5MM)
(3600)(10.2)
C
•
The preliminary design projects, the improved
stream to be increased in size to 5 feet wide and
3 feet deep (n,.,, 0.02) with a new channel length of
700 feet. The corresponding travel time is

V. = 1.4 9 ( (5) (3) )(0.008) 112 = 8.2 f s

Proposed st 0.02 2(3) + (5) p
SWM Facility
T. (700) = 0.02 h (5.5NN)
FIG uRE 5. 51 A 50-acre parcel for detention pond design. t (3600)(8.2)
 5.5 ■ STORMWATER 479

The tc for post development conditions: tc = (0.13) + For example, since the embankment height is limited
(0.01) + (0.01) + (0.02) = 0.17 hours. to 10 feet, the maximum depth of the water is 9 feet
(if 1 foot is allowed for freeboard). Allowing for
3. The inflow hydrograph is computed using
2 feet of depth (as a first guess) over the crest of the
TR-55 tabular method. As with the pre-
weir for the 100-year storm sets the weir elevation
development peak discharge computations,
at 147. This limits the depth of water over the low-
values of S, Q, Ia, and I.IP are required. The results
flow orifice to 7 feet. Based on these assumptions,
are shown in Figure 5.5J. (Note that the tabular
the diameter of the orifice is
method only applies to 24-hour storm durations.)
From the inflow hydrograph, the runoff peak dis-
55 cfs = (0.6)(A)( ✓2g 7)
charge is 190 cfs.
or (5.500)
In order to get an initial estimate of the storage A= 4.3 ft 2
volume needed, draw a line from the point where
significant runoff begins to the target discharge which corresponds to a diameter of 2.3 feet.
release rate on the falling limb of the inflow A 27-inch-diameter hole is selected.
hydrograph. This line represents the rising limb
of the outflow hydrograph. The area between By the same procedure used to determine the pre-
this line and the inflow hydrograph represents development peak discharge for the 10-year storm,
the storage of the pond. For this example, the the 100-year-24-hour post-development peak dis-
initial estimate for storage is about 4 acre-feet charge is found to be 362 cfs. (Use P 100 = 9 inches,
("" 170,000 cubic feet). This methodology is ben- weighted CN = 73, and tc = 0.17 hours.) Using a
eficial in both preliminary design efforts and depth of 2 feet over the crest of the weir determines
final design efforts. the length of weir needed to pass 362 cfs.

Before the pond is graded using this as the target 362 cfs = 3.0(L)(2 312 )
volume, the site is assessed as to the controlling con-
or L "' 43 ft (5.5PP)
straint, area or depth, or perhaps other limitations.
To verify the orifice diameter, weir elevation, and
length, the inflow hydrograph is routed through the
pond. Hydrologic routing using Equation (5.SX)
is found in most hydrology textbooks. Long-hand
200 Paok Inflow = 190 eta
calculations are tedious, and although it is good
practice for an engineer to have performed such
175 calculations at least once, routing calculations are
typically done using computers and appropriate
software.
150
Figure 5.5K shows the outflow hydrograph for the
Estimate of Storage
.. 170,000 f!J routed 10-year inflow hydrograph. Note that the
'.!° 125 peak discharge of 51 cfs is less than the maximum
~
•e' allowable peak discharge of 55 cfs. The orifice size
Q and/ or weir length would have been modified if
.
-£
i5
100
the outflow peak discharge had been substantially
higher or lower than the maximum allowable 55 cfs.
75
Allowable RalaoH Raia Similar procedures are followed if the detention
55 cf• facility is required to attenuate peak discharges for
Approximated
Rl1lng Limb other storm events. Multistage riser structures (those
50 Of Outflow
Hydrograph
with multiple weirs and orifices) can be designed for
this purpose.
25
Note this example did not consider any factors that
might reduce the flow through the spillway. In the
analysis, consideration must be given to downstream
11.0 11.5 12.0 12.5 13.0 13.5 tailwater effects that may cause a culvert to function
Tim• (hrs)
as outlet control rather than inlet control or may
submerge a weir structure, thereby reducing the
FIGURE 5,5J Inflow hydrograph. effective discharge coefficient.
4ao i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
exiting the spillway. Riprap lining or energy dis-
200 sipators may be necessary. The FHWA's Hydraulic
Peak Inflow =190 efs
Engineering Circular No. 14, Hydraulic Design of
Energy Dissipators for Culverts and Channels gives
175 examples and procedures for design.

The slopes of the embankment must be such that the

150 allowable foundation pressure is not exceeded but is flat
enough to prevent sloughing. Generally, 3H:1V or 4H:1V
Actuol Storage
= 174,240 Ac-ft. slopes are adequate and are flat enough that maintenance
125 (mowing, etc.) can be accomplished.
The minimum recommended dam top width is 8 feet.
•~ Table 5.5J, excerpted from TR-60, lists minimum dam
100
0
I:
top widths for varying dam heights as recommended by
u the NRCS. However, the dam top width may need to be
II
i5
75
increased to meet local standards, allow for different zones
Peak Outflow =51 efs of material within the embankment, or to allow traffic to
cross the dam. A typical profile of a dam embankment is
50 shown in Figure 5.5L.

5.5.4. Stormwater Quality Calculations

25 As discussed in Chapters 2.5 and 3.5, the Clean Water Act
(CWA) regulates the restoration and maintenance of the
chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the nation's
waters. BMPs are systems designed to mitigate pollution.
11.0 11.5 12.0 12.5 13.0 13.5 14.0 Each jurisdiction will prescribe a threshold of development
Time (hrs)
size (or type) that warrants the need for a BMP. A variety of
FIG uRE 5. 5 K Inflow-outflow hydrograph. systems are available with different mechanisms for pollut-
ant removal, as outlined in Chapter 3.5.
Pollutant Loads. As a result of laws such as the CWA,
Some items to be considered in designing a spillway designers are often required to reduce the amount of pol-
structure include the following: lutants leaving a development area to some percentage of
pre-development levels. This generally involves quantifying
e Reinforced concrete outlet pipes are recommended the pre- and post-development pollutant loads from some
and must be of sufficient strength to support the key pollutants (frequently nutrients). The engineer then
embankment fill. attempts to reduce the post-development loads by imple-
e All joints in the riser and outlet pipe should be made menting some form of BMP.
There are several methods for estimating the quantity
watertight. This is especially important for a wet
of pollutants generated from a site. One method involves
pond, but it is also good practice for a dry pond.
using the event mean concentration (EMC) to calculate
e The riser should be designed to withstand buoyant
forces, with a minimum factor of safety of 1.3.
e Vortex action at the top of the riser should be con-
trolled. An anti-vortex plate or a headwall may be TABLE 5.5J Top Width of Dam versus
used to prevent a vortex from forming as the water Embankment Height
enters the riser. Anti-vortex devices can often be
incorporated with a trash rack. TOTAL HEIGHT OF MINIMUM
EMBANKMENT (FT) TOP WIDTH (FT)
• Trash racks or other debris control devices should be
used to prevent the spillway from becoming clogged. <14 8
The FHWA's Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 9,
Debris Control Structures gives examples and guide- 14-19 10
lines for design. 20-24 12
• The outfall channel downstream of the spillway
should be protected from erosive velocities of flow
25-34 14
 5.5 ■ STORMWATER 481

Typical Dam Embankment Profile

(Not To Scale)

Dam Core (for

Normal zoned embankment
Pool only)

Pervious
Foundation

/II r, /I fl

Impervious
Stratum

FIG uRE 5. 5 L Typical dam embankment profile.

the mass of runoff pollutants for each rainfall event and

L = ( (P)({~(R,) )cA(2.72) (5.5RR)
then summing the average number of rainfall events per
year. Other methods for estimating the pollutant runoff
from non-point sources involve the use ofUSGS regression where Pis the rainfall depth (inches) over the desired time
equations. interval over which the loading estimates are desired. For
EMC is the average concentration of pollutants per annual loading estimates, P is the average annual rainfall. For a
storm event. The mass of runoff pollutants for each storm load estimate for a specific design storm, Pis the rainfall for that
event is the product of EMC and rainfall excess, as given in storm; Pj is correction factor for P that accounts for storms that
Equation (5.SQQ). produce no measurable runoff. For individual storms Pj = I; R,
is a runoff coefficient to convert rainfall to runoff, equal to the
L= Rx EMC (5.500) ratio of the storm runoff to storm rainfall. NURP data from 44
small urban catchments show that Rv = 0.05 + 0.009(1), where
where Lis the total mass load per rainfall event (mass/rainfall I is the percent of site imperviousness; C is the flow weighted
event), R is the runoff per average storm event (volume), and mean concentration of the pollutant in urban runoff in mg/L as
EMC is the event mean concentration (mass/volume). given in Table 5.SL; and A is total site area in acres.
To determine the yearly mass load of pollutants, L is Each jurisdiction will have a prescribed removal rate and
multiplied by the average number of storm events per year. procedure. The EPA maintains a summary list of state stan-
Table 5.SK lists the median EMCs by land-use category. dards for stormwater, and localities may modify state require-
A variation of the EMC, or the mass-loading principle, ments based on local watershed characteristics.
is outlined in Schueler (1987). This methodology calcu-
lates pollutant yield, in pounds, based on the concentration REFERENCES
of that pollutant per volume of stormwater runoff. Thus, Brater, E.F., and H.W. King. 1976. Handbook of Hydraulics for the
knowing the concentration of any water-borne pollut- Solution of Hydraulic Engineering Problems, 6th ed. New York:
ant in mass per volume of water and knowing the volume McGraw-Hill.
of stormwater runoff to be expected from a site over any Schueler, T.R. 1987. Controlling Urban Runoff A Practical Manual
described period of time, a corresponding pollutant export for Planning and Designing Urban BMPs. July. Metropolitan
value is easily determined by Washington Council of Governments.
402 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
TA BL E 5 . 5 K Median EMCs by Land-Use Category
RESIDENTIAL MIXED COMMERCIAL OPEN/NONURBAN

POLLUTANT MEDIAN CV MEDIAN CV MEDIAN CV MEDIAN CV

BOD (mg/L) 10.0 0.41 7.8 0.52 9.3 0.31
COD (mg/L) 73 0.55 65.0 0.58 57.0 0.39 40 0.78
TSS (mg/L) 101 0.96 67.0 1.14 69.0 0.35 70 2.92
Total lead (µg/L) 144 0.75 114.0 1.35 104.0 0.68 30 1.52
Total copper (µg/L) 33 0.99 27.0 1.32 29.0 0.81
Total zinc (µg/L) 135 0.84 154.0 0.78 226.0 1.07 195 0.66
Total Kjeldahl nitrogen (µg/L) 1,900 0.73 1,288.0 0.50 1,179.0 0.43 965 1.00
N0 2 - N+ N0 3 - N (µg/L) 736 0.83 558.0 0.67 572.0 0.48 543 0.91
Total P (µg/L) 383 0.69 263.0 0.75 201.0 0.67 121 1.66
Soluble P (µg/L) 143 0.46 56.0 0.75 80.0 0.71 26 2.11

(Source: Wanielista, Martin P. Stormwater Management. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)

TA BLE 5 . 5 L Urban C Values for Use with the Simple Method {mg/L)
NEW SUBURBAN OLDER CENTRAL NATIONAL HARDWOOD
NURP SITES URBAN AREAS BUSINESS DISTRICT NURP STUDY FOREST NATIONAL URBAN
POLLUTANT (WASHINGTON, DC) (BALTIMORE, MD) (WASHINGTON, DC) AVERAGE (NORTHERN VA) HIGHWAY RUNOFF

Phosphorus
Total 0.26 1.08 0.46 0.15
Ortho 0.12 0.26 1.01 0.02
Soluble 0.16 0.16 0.04 0.59
Organic 0.10 0.82 0.13 0.11
Nitrogen
Total 2.00 13.6 2.17 3.31 0.78
Nitrate 0.48 8.9 0.84 0.96 0.17
Ammonia 0.26 1.1 0.07
Organic 1.25 0.54
TKN 1.51 7.2 1.49 2.35 0.61 2.72
COD 35.6 163.0 90.8 >40.0 124.0
BOD (5-day) 5.1 36.0 11.9
Metals
Zinc 0.037 0.397 0.250 0.176 0.380
Lead 0.018 0.389 0.370 0.180 0.550
Copper 0.105 0.047
(Source: Courtesy of Schueler, Thomas R. 1987. Controlling Urban Runoff: A Practical Manual for Planning and Designing Urban BMPs. Washington, DC: Metropolitan
Washington Council of Governments, 777 No. Capital St. NE, Suite 300, Washington, DC 20002-4226. 202/962-3256)
 5.5 ■ STORMWATER 483

BROOKFIELD PARK WET POND RECONSTRUCTION/IMPROVEMENT

Location: Springfield, Fairfax County, VA
Client: Fairfax County Department of Public Works and Environmental Services
Completion Date: November 2014
Case Study: The project is within a public park in urbanized Springfield, Fairfax County, Virginia. The pond was built in
the 1950s and was rehabilitated once in 1982. Since then, the dam embankment had become overgrown with trees and
was at risk of failure, and the pond was plagued with algae blooms and poor water quality. Fairfax County's goals were
to stabilize the existing dam, increase water quality benefits, improve plant and aquatic habitats, and enhance the quality
oflife for the surrounding suburban community while educating the community on the project's positive impacts to the
environment and water quality.
Dewberry performed conceptual and final design, prepared final construction plans and specifications, and per-
formed construction administration services. Fairfax County desired to test and showcase new, innovative, and
sustainable stormwater treatment practices such as wetland cells (high and low marsh zones), floating treatment
wetlands (islands), a regenerative step pool stormwater conveyance (SPSC) outfall, and porous paving for the park-
ing area and maintenance access road. In addition, the spillway riser was designed to discharge base flow from below
the normal pool level to reduce temperature impacts to the downstream receiving channel and to detain/attenuate
discharges from more frequent storm events to reduce downstream channel erosion. Together these practices result
in a much more sustainable stormwater management system within Brookfield Park which will provide significant
environmental benefits.

Grasscrete
Access Road Forebays/
Micropools
(sediment and
nutrient removals)
Habitat
Logs

Porous Pavement
(Nutrient removal)

Outfall

In addition to the environmental benefits resulting from the sustainable design practices described above, one of the
design intentions was to improve the aquatic environment within the pond area so aquatic inhabitants can thrive-the
floating treatment wetland islands, high and low marsh zones and constructed underwater habitat provide cover, forage,
and spawning areas which will provide long terms benefits to the overall pond ecology.
The project's design and construction was considerate of the existing aquatic inhabitants and the surrounding suburban
community. Prior to construction, care was taken to relocate fish and other aquatic life from the existing Brookfield
Pond to nearby Lake Accotink. Several structures and features associated with the pond retrofit enhanced habitat for
fish and other aquatic inhabitants. The Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries restocked the pond with fish
in 2015.
Both the floating wetlands and the regenerative step pool stormwater conveyance system were relatively new concepts
and Dewberry worked closely with Fairfax to understand the critical design components of these practices and design
484 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
these features to insure successful implementation by the contractor. To assist Fairfax County with public outreach,
Dewberry's key staff supported Fairfax County in arranging and conducting a public information meeting and provided
appropriate information for sharing with the various stakeholders throughout the planning, design, and construction
phases of the project. An interpretative sign was developed that is displayed in the park to inform and educate the public
on the various water quality features of the project.
Dewberry co-presented the project with Fairfax County staff at the 2015 Virginia Lakes and Watershed Association
annual conference. In 2015, the project won 2nd place in the Chesapeake Stormwater Network's Best Urban BMP in the
Bay Award (BUBBA) in the "Best Habitat Creation in a BMP" category.
 5.5 ■ STORMWATER 485

SUMMERFIELD MULTI FAMILY PHASE II

Location: Tallahassee, Florida
Client:
Completion Date: 2016
Case Study: Dewberry was hired to investigate an existing stormwater management facility (SWMF) that was nonper-
forming for a large multifamily development project in Tallahassee, Florida. The site has known bad soils and a high
water table. There was pressure from the client to close out the first phase Leon County Environmental Management
Permit (EMP), to allow for the design and permitting of additional phases of the project.
The primary issue was that the constructed pond did not recover the required volume of stormwater in the required
amount of time. The water quality volume (WQv) of the pond should be recycled within 30 days following a 100-year
storm event. Dewberry monitored the SWMF for 18 months. The WQv of 570,805 cubic feet was unable to drawdown
using infiltration due to the clayey nature of onsite soils and the seasonal high groundwater table influenced by nearby
Lake Jackson.
Dewberry determined that pursuing nontraditional methods can remove and recycle the WQv. The solution was to
connect the SWMF to an existing irrigation system for the 26-acre multifamily development. Stormwater manage-
ment calculations submitted showed that through the combination of (1) limited infiltration, (2) natural evaporation,
(3) evaporation through the use of fountains, and (4) the application of reuse irrigation of 1.5 inches per week over
13.42 acres of pervious area will drawdown the WQv in 28.75 days.
The proposed system essentially adds a new reuse pump that will draw from the SWMF and supply the existing and
future irrigation systems. The proposed pump will provide nonpotable water to the irrigation systems as long as the
pump float switch is ON. When the pump switch is OFF the controller will turn on the existing pump at the existing
well to serve the irrigation system. When the irrigation system is served by the existing well a series of irrigation control
valves will close the proposed pump mainline, and vice versa.
Dewberry's solution successfully met the client's needs as well as set an example of water conservation by considering
the proposed irrigation reuse system.
 CHAPTER 5.6

UTILITY DESIGN

5.6.1. Introduction the trench and the characteristics of the fill material and
The horizontal layout of site utilities (as described in the pipe bedding conditions (Cv is obtained from tables or
Chapter 3.6) requires consideration of the site design con- charts), w is the unit weight of the fill material, lb/ft3 (nor-
straints to provide the corridors necessary for utility distri- mal earth material may be taken as 130 lb/ft3), and Bv is
bution. In final design, the sizing of the system components the width of the trench, feet (note that load increases as the
(pipes, structures, appurtenances) is determined based on square of "B'').
calculations associated with demand and capacity for each The engineering design can mitigate the load on the con-
utility system. The calculations associated with each major duit by keeping the trench as narrow as practical as the load
site utility system are defined in this chapter. Sample calcu- varies as the square of the width and by requiring good bed-
lations and customary plan production information is pro- ding and backfill conditions. Figure 5.6A shows the type of
vided for reference. forces effecting the load on the conduit.
This chapter is separated into three parts: (A) Storm Note from Figure 5.6A, the load on the conduit is related
Drainage, (B) Sanitary Sewer, and (C) Water Distribution. to the weight of the soil in the area ABDC. The upward shear-
Dry utility design in not included in this chapter (like it was ing forces "F" reduce the load on the conduit. If the fill below
in Chapter 3.6) because final design of dry utility systems is the top of the conduit is not well compacted, the load on the
established primarily by each utility provider and will vary conduit is increased as the material settles. It is sometimes
based on individual requirements. That work will be per- necessary to slope the ditch walls for construction safety
formed by, and will have to be coordinated with, the utility and convenience. Figure 5.6A(b) and (c) show two construc-
provider. In addition to the pipes and structures associated tion means of widening the trench without increasing the
with each utility system, the installation and associated earth load on the conduit. It is important to keep the trench
trench detail should be considered. This information is as narrow as practical from the top of the pipe to the bottom
included in the following section. of the trench because the load on the conduit increases as
Buried Conduits. The theory for loads on buried con- the square of the width "B:' "B'' is taken as the width of the
duits states that the load on a buried conduit is equal to the trench at the top of the conduit.
weight of the prism of earth directly over it, plus or minus the There are four classes of bedding as shown in
frictional shearing forces transferred to that prism by adja- Figure 5.6B. The engineer is required to select a bedding type
cent prisms of earth-the magnitude and direction of these based on field conditions. Class B or C are suitable except
frictional forces being a function of the relative settlement where unusual loading conditions exists. Class D bedding
between the prisms. The equation for calculating the load on should not be used for sewer line construction. This class
a rigid buried conduit as developed by Marston at the Iowa bedding is only used for small diameter pipe.
Engineering Experiment Station in 1913 states:
• Class A-concrete cradle-bedding in which the
(5.6A)
lower part of the exterior of the conduit is set in a
where w;, is the load acting on the conduit after settle- plain or reinforced concrete foundation of suitable
ment has taken place, lb/ft, Cv is a dimensionless coeffi- thickness extending upward on each side for not less
cient related to the diameter of the conduit, the width of than 25% of the height of the conduit.

486
 5.6 ■ UTILITY DESIGN 487

p
A B

•Ir
H We lood on pipe
•I
•

o) b) c)

FIG uRE 5. 6 A Typical trench conditions for a rigid conduit. (From Design and Construction of Sanitary and Storm Sewers, manual of Practice
No. 9, ASCE 1969. Reprinted with permission from the American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, New York.)

• Class B-first class-bedding where the conduit is Figure 5.6C gives an illustration of the embedment
set on fine granular materials in an earth foundation zones and the forces acting on a buried flexible pipe. As
shaped to conform to the lower part of the conduit shown by Figure 5.6C(a), the vertical load on the pipe is
exterior for a width of at least 60% of its exterior distributed evenly over the width of the pipe. The verti-
diameter. The trench is then backfilled with granular cal reaction acting on the bottom of the pipe is distributed
materials, hand placed and tamped in 6-inch layers evenly over the width of the pipe subtended by the bedding
to fill completely all spaces under and adjacent to the angle. The parabolically distributed side forces act through
conduit for a distance of at least 1 foot above the top the middle 100° of the pipe. The maximum pressure, found
of the conduit. at the pipe's springline, is passive resistance of the back-
fill around the pipe. Using suitable backfill material and
• Class C-ordinary-bedding in which the conduit
proper compaction is very important in establishing the
is placed with ordinary care in an earth foundation
field strength of a flexible conduit, as the vertical diameter
shaped to fit the lower part of the conduit to the
cannot shorten (deflect) without a corresponding length-
spring line. The ditch is then backfilled with granular
ening on the horizontal diameter. The embedment zones,
materials, shovel placed and tamped to fill all spaces
as shown by Figure 5.6C(b), illustrate the proper bedding
to a height of at least ½ foot above the top of the
conditions and the common nomenclature associated with
conduit.
pipe installation.
• Class D-impermissible-bedding in which little or The terminology associated with the trench system is
no care is exercised to shape the foundation to fit defined as
the pipe.
Foundation: A foundation is required when the trench
The engineer also should specify the embedment material bottom is unstable. Any foundation that will provide
to be used with the installation of the conduit. This informa- continuous support without causing loss of grade or
tion should be included in the specifications and also shown flexural deformation is suitable.
on the plans. Table 5.6A provides information on the standard
Bedding: The bedding directly underneath the pipe
material classification system. The soil types are standard
is required to bring the trench to grade. The bedding
under the United Soil Classification System (ASTM D2487).
should be shaped to fit the conduit, with a depression
The materials are grouped into categories that are considered
formed to receive the bell of the pipe so the pipe rests on
to be most suitable for embedment use.
the pipe barrel for its entire length. The labor to manu-
A flexible pipe yields under an external load by deflecting.
ally shape the bottom of the trench is expensive, so it is
This deflection results in a shortening of the vertical diam-
common practice to over excavate a couple of inches and
eter because the load on the pipe from the fill material on
bring the trench bedding to grade with granular mate-
top of the pipe. Excessive deflection results in failure through
rial, such as crushed stone. The bedding should be firm
openings at the joints and a reduction of internal area for
to support the pipe.
flow even though the pipe has not collapsed. In conservative
design the allowable deflection is limited to 5%, although Haunching: The haunching area is most important in
deflections up to 7.5% are used in design. providing good pipe support. The contractor must
488 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
Be+B" min. Plain or
Reinforced
1 ¼Be Concrete

Plain or 12"
Reinforced
¼ D,
Carefully 4" min.,
Concrete 15" max.
Temped
Backfill

Compacted
¼ D, b Granular
4" min.,
Materiel
15" max.
Concrete cradle Concrete arch

CLASS A
Load Factor 2.2 - 3.4

6"
Carefully-,~ ..., 12" Lightly ,
Compacted~ Compacted,
Backfill , Backfill :-<

Compacted
Compacted Granular
b Materiel
Granular
Material
Compacted granular bedding Granular bedding

CLASS 8 CLASS C
Load Factor 1.9 Load Factor 1.5

Note:
Bedding thickness under
pipe barrel, b, shall be
Flat bottom
¼ Be, 100 mm (4") min.,
150 mm (6") max.

CLASS D
Load r actor 1. 1
Classes of bedding for rigid sewer pipes in trench. NOTE: In rock
trench, excavate at least 15 cm (6 in.) below bell of pipe where
concrete cradle is used (in. x 25.4 = mm).

FIG u RE 5. 6 B Bedding methods for trench conduits. (From Design and Construction of Sanitary and Storm Sewers, manual of Practice No. 9,
ASCE 1969. Reprinted with permission from the American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, New York.)
 TAB LE 5 . 6 A Classes of Embedment and Backfill Materials
PERCENTAGE PASSING SIEVE SIZES ATTERBERG LIM
SOIL GROUP
SYMBOL 1½1N, No.4 No.200
CLASS TYPE D 2487 DESCRIPTION (40 mm) (4.75 mm) (0.075 mm) LL PL
IA Manufactured None Angular, crushed stone or 100% ~10% <5% Nonplastic
aggregates: rock, crushed gravel, broken
open-graded, coral, crushed slag, cinders or
clean shells; large void content,
contain little or no fines
1B Manufactured, None Angular, crushed stone 100% ~50% <5% Nonplastic
processed aggregates; clean (or other Class 1A materials)
dense-graded, and stone/sand mixtures with
gradations selected to minimize
migration of adjacent soils;
contain little or no fines
II Coarse-grained soils, GW Well-graded gravels and 100% <50% of <5% Nonplastic
clean gravel-sand mixtures; "Coarse Fraction"
little or no fines
GP Poorly graded gravels
and gravel-sand mixtures;
little or no fines
SW Well-graded sands >50% of
and gravelly sands; "Coarse Fraction"
little or no fines
SP Poorly graded sands
and gravelly sands;
little or no fines
Coarse-grained soils, e.g., Sands and gravels 100% Varies 5%-12% Nonplastic
borderline clean to GW-GC, which are borderline
w/fines SP-SM between clean and G
with fines
,II,
OQ
ca
 TABLE 5. 6 A Classes of Embedment and Backfill Materials (Continued)
PERCENTAGE PASSING SIEVE SIZES ATTERBERG LIM
SOIL GROUP
SYMBOL 1½1N, No.4 No.200
CLASS TYPE D 2487 DESCRIPTION (40 mm) (4.75 mm) (0.075 mm) LL PL
Ill Coarse-grained soils GM Silty gravels, 100% <50% of 12% to 50% <4 or
with fines gravel-sand-silt mixtures "Coarse Fraction" <"A" Li
GC Clayey gravels, <7 and
gravel-sand-clay mixtures >"A" Li
SM Silty sands, >50% of >4 or
sand-silt mixtures "Coarse Fraction" <"A" Li
SC Clayey sands, >7 and
sand-clay mixtures >"A" Li
IVN Fine-grained soils ML Inorganic silts and 100% 100% >50% <50% <4 or
(inorganic) very fine sands, rock flour, <"A" Li
silty or clayey fine sands,
silts with slight plasticity
CL Inorganic clays of low to >7 and
medium plasticity, gravely >"A" Li
clays, sandy clays, silty
clays, lean clays
IVB Fine-grained soils MH Inorganic silts, 100% 100% >50% >50 <"A" Li
(inorganic) micaceous or diatomaceous
fine sandy or silty soils,
elastic silts
CH Inorganic clays of
high plasticity, fat clays >"A" L
V Organic soils OL Organic silts and organic silty 100% 100% >50% <50 <4 or
clays of low plasticity <"A" L
OH Organic clays of medium
to high plasticity, organic silts
Highly organic PT Peat and other >50 <"A" L
high organic soils
Reprinted with permission from American Society for Testing and Materials. ASTM Standards in Building Codes, Vol. 4.
 5.6 ■ UTILITY DESIGN 491

the trench at the top of the conduit in feet, Be is the external

horizontal diameter of the conduit in feet.
The ratio of the external load for rigid versus flexible con-
duits is given by the ratio ofEquations (5.6A) and (5.6B), and
is equal to Wv!Wc = Bv!Bc. This ratio shows that the load
Side Fill 1-----u on a flexible conduit is significantly less than that for a rigid
Soil
Reoction i - -- - t:l conduit installed under the same conditions (Cv = constant).
This is because the load on a buried conduit is modified by
the response of the conduit. A minor deflection of the flex-
ible conduit can materially reduce the load if the conduit has
been properly installed. "Properly installed" means the con-
duit has been placed in a relatively narrow trench, properly
Vertical Reaction
bedded and that the backfill has been properly compacted
a) Forces On A Buried Conduit above the conduit. Where the trench is sufficiently narrow,
a part of the backfill load is transferred to the sides of the
trench by shear action. Where the backfill is not properly
"'
I
placed and compacted to the top of the conduit, the consoli-
dation of the fill material alongside the conduit results in an
i:o
additional load being placed on the conduit as the fill settles.
0
.:
.!
., -~ ,---- Initial The specifications and field inspection must insure that the
a C Backf ill
::I N
0
Spring Line
trench width is limited, the pipe is properly bedded and that
c ., of Pipe the backfill is properly placed and compacted to 6 inches
•E a:a. above the top of the conduit. This will mitigate problems
"0
•
.ll
Bedd i ng ,
Mox . 6" with failing conduits and infiltration .
...E --:-.:i.oc.~ Foundation While it is desirable to keep the trench width as narrow
. L - - - - - ---"+,",,-;.-;...;;..;,...,..;;..,;...;;..,;,....~ (Moy Not
Be Requ ired) as possible, it is necessary to provide space for the workers to
install the pipe. Also, room must be allowed for a trench box.
b) Embedment Zone Normally a 42-inch trench is suitable for sewer diameters up
FIG uRE 5. 6 C Forces on a buried conduit (a); embedment zones to 16 inches. Above 16 inches, the trench width should be the
(b). (Reprinted with Permission from College of Engineering, Utah State pipe diameter plus 24 inches (allows 12 inches on each side
University.) of the pipe for the trench box and the workmen). Figure 5.6D
provides a graphical means for determining Cv for use in
Equations (5.6A) and (5.6B). His the height of the fill from
insure that the haunch area under the pipe is com- the top of the conduit to the surface. Other parameters are as
pletely filled and that the area is compacted to the defined above.
specified density. Most of the pipe support comes from An embankment condition, as opposed to a trench condi-
this area. tion, exists when a conduit is installed in a trench that is so
wide that the sides of the trench have no effect on the load
Initial backfill: The initial backfill begins at the spring- to the conduit. A transition width is where there is no addi-
line and continues to 6 or 12 inches above the top tional load imposed on the conduit, as the ditch becomes
of the conduit. When the conduit is properly installed wider. This transition width depends on the depth and diam-
to this level, problems related to pipe bedding should eter of the conduit. Conduits installed in trenches wider than
not develop. If proper compaction is not provided the transition widths are said to be installed in a "projection
above this point there may be problems with surface condition:' Conduits should not be installed in this manner.
settling for some time. Even in fill, the fill should be placed and a trench excavated
for the conduit. However, where it may be found necessary to
The equation for determining the load on flexible con-
install a conduit under a projection condition, Marston has
duits installed under a ditch condition, as developed by
provided the following equation for determining the result-
Marston, is
ing load to the conduit.
(5.6B) (5.6C)

where Wc is the external earth load on the conduit in pounds where Cc is the coefficient for a projection condition
per linear foot, Cv is the load coefficient for conduits installed (replaces Cv as shown for trench condition) and wand Be are
in a trench condition (suitable charts are available for deter- defined above for Equations (5.6A) and (5.6B).
mining Cv, as shown by Figure 5.6D), w is the unit weight of A suitable chart has been developed for use in determin-
backfill material in pounds per cube foot, Bv is the width of ing Cc as shown by Figure 5.6E.
492 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
3J~·o_ _ _1T.s_ _2~._o_ _,.,_3T.o--r-n4._o-r-~5._o_~....,...-,-~~--- -,
Cd (graph on left)

10 1.0
9 0.9
8 0.8
7 0.7
ti::1r4'
0
6 0.6 :i::lr4'
XI 0
:::, 5 0.5 XI
-.; :::,
>
~
4 0.4

3 0.3

Cd for kJL and kµ, 1

2 i - - - - ~ -~ - , r i - - - ; -- -i------ ..,.,....-i------ A= 0.1924 for granular materials 0.2
without cohesion
B=0.165 max for sand and gravel
1.51----MSS'--f---l-----+- + - - - + - - C= 0.150 max for saturated top soil 0.15
D= 0.130 ordinary max for clay
E= 0.110 max for saturated clay
Cd (graph on right)
--------------~-~----~~~---~0.1
0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.91.0 1.5
Values of coefficient Cd

FIG uRE 5 . 6 D Values of C0 for trench conditions. (From Design and Construction of Sanitary and Storm Sewers, manual of Practice No. 9,
ASCE 1969. Reprinted with permission from the American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, New York.)

Vclues of coefficient Cc

FIG uRE 5. 6 E Values of Cc for positive projection conduits. (From Design and Construction of Sanitary and Storm Sewers, manual of Practice No. 9,
ASCE 1969. Reprinted with permission from the American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, New York.)
 5.6 ■ UTILITY DESIGN 493

PART A-STORM DRAINAGE DESIGN 5.6.2. Procedure for Storm Sewer Design
Storm drain design requires two types of analyses: the hydro- Successful design of storm drain systems is contingent upon
logic aspect of estimating runoff and the hydraulic aspect thorough understanding of the outfall conditions, the con-
of sizing the conveyance system. An illustration of a storm tributing watershed characteristics (size, topography, land
drainage systems is shown in Figure 5.6F. There are numer- use, soils) and hydrology (discussed in Chapters 3.5 and 5.5).
ous techniques to estimate runoff, the one selected for design Chapter 3.6 identified strategies and sequence for the initial
of a component depends on layout considerations of a storm drain network. Generally,
the outfall locations are identified, inlets are located, and
• Input data available then conveyance systems are design to connect inlets and
• Output data required stormwater management systems to the outfall.
After the initial layout, the hydrology is evaluated and the
• Size of watershed drainage areas to each catchment are determined. The drainage
• Accepted design standards of the approving area is used to determine runoff values directed to an inlet and
agency(s) the inlet is sized accordingly. Once the runoff enters the convey-
ance system the cumulative flow value is calculated throughout
Generally, the design of minor system components the system to provide capacity of all collected runoff.
only requires the determination of peak runoff dis- Capacity of the system is primarily determined by the size
charges, whereas major system components require not and slope of the channel. As noted in Chapter 3.6, it is rec-
only the peak discharges but the time variation of run- ommended that preliminary profiles of the pipe network are
off for an effective design. Analysis of major systems may evaluated during early design phases. The preliminary pro-
include detailed hydrology and hydraulic modeling using files provide guidance to the design team on possible slope
one and two-dimensional modeling software. Most storm conditions. In some cases, minimum slopes are required
drainage computations are solved with the aid of com- to meet an outfall elevation. Steeper slopes can be used on
puter software, but the user must understand the selected conveyance systems to increase pipe capacity, but excessive
method of analysis. Most software systems have numerous depths can significantly add to infrastructure costs. Estab-
computation methods with a multitude of variables that lishing the profiles during final design may also reveal util-
can be adjusted. Chapter 5.5 identifies the methods for ity crossings including sanitary sewer, water main, and duct
determining stormwater runoff and hydrology-the ratio- bank crossings. The purpose of this profile is to ensure the
nal and Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) pipes have sufficient cover to prevent excessive excavation,
methodology. and to avoid utility crossing conflicts. In most cases, the

Detention/Retention
and BMP Pond

- -

--
FIGURE 5.6F Typical urban drainage system.
494 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
vertical design of the system will follow the grade as much as slope of the gutter concentrates the flow towards the gutter
possible to minimize construction costs. to improve inlet efficiency and minimize the width of the
As the vertical design of the storm drain is being evalu- runoff as it encroaches on to the travel lanes (spread).
ated with profiles, the sizing of the system can be calculated. There are some examples, such as on the inside (left) lane
The size requirement of each pipe can be initially estimated adjacent to a raised median where composite gutters are not
by adding the flows from each inlet upstream of the inlet at provided, and the roadway surface and slope tie directly
the design point. This analysis approach would only consider into the face of the curb. These are sometimes referred to as
individual system components-capacity of a single convey- header curbs, and the engineer should consider the lack of
ance element at a time, which is not accurate. It's possible for the gutter section when calculating flow along curb and gut-
pipe to have capacity to convey the design flow but could be ter sections. The Federal Highway Administration's HEC-12,
insufficient because of other conditions (e.g., a downstream Drainage of Highway Pavements, is the basis for many local
stormwater pond may be filled at the same time as the peak guidance design standards and criteria.
flow condition, which backs up water into the upstream Flow conveyed in gutter sections with uniform cross
pipe). Ultimately, models (or manual calculations) of the slope is
entire drainage system are required for a holistic evaluation
of the entire network. The system design can be influenced Q = 0.56 55135112p13 or
n X
by energy losses in the system, velocity and travel time, as
well as stormwater management systems throughout the T = [(Q x n) I (0.56 x S/67 x 51o 51ia375 (5.6D)
network.
which is a modification of the Manning equation and
Hydraulic grade line (HGL) computations should be the
accounts for the disproportionate ratio of depth to top width
last step in the design to evaluate energy losses through the
of water surface. In the equation Q is the discharge [cubic
system. Although the pipe size and slope may be indepen- feet per second (cfs)], n is the Manning's n coefficient, Sx is
dently capable of conveying flow through, the energy losses
the pavement cross slope (ft/ft), Sis the longitudinal slope of
through structures and other appurtenances may cause pres- the gutter (ft/ft), Tis the width of flow or spread (ft), which
sure flow in the system. In most cases, where pipe velocities
is the distance from the face of curb to the water line limits
are less than 5 feet per second (fps), energy losses through
in the pavement. Values for Manning's n coefficient for vari-
manholes are less than 0.5 foot; however, in systems with
ous pavement types are given in Table 5.6B. The nomograph
numerous manholes or in those pipes where velocities are
of Figure 5.6G is the solution to this equation for either
10 fps and higher, the head losses accrue very quickly. For
V-shaped or triangular gutter configurations.
systems with these characteristics, the potential for pressur-
izing the system becomes very likely. Even though a specified
design storm is used to design the system, local criteria may
require the HGL be checked for other storms. Considerable TA BLE 5 . 6 B Manning's n Values for Street
engineering judgment is required throughout the storm drain and Pavement Gutters
design process in assessing the applicable regulations, deter-
RANGE OF
mining and analyzing a myriad of solutions, and ultimately
reviewing the final design to ensure public safety and welfare. TYPE OF GUTTER OR PAVEMENT MANNING'S n
Concrete gutter, troweled finish 0.012
5.6.3. Pavement Drainage
The conveyance of runoff from pavement is affected by the Asphalt pavement:
geometric characteristics of the roadway, such as; longitudi- Smooth texture 0.013
nal slope, cross slope, type of curb and gutter section, and Rough texture 0.016
ditch section. These geometric characteristics dictate the
location and spacing of inlets and catch basins. Concrete gutter with asphalt pavement:
Flow in Curb and Gutter. Most urban and suburban land Smooth 0.013
development projects, of moderate to high density, use curb Rough 0.015
or curb and gutter. For drainage purposes, the gutter is con-
Concrete pavement:
sidered as that part of the pavement width. In many cases,
streets are constructed with composite gutter and pavement Float finish 0.014
sections, where the gutter portion has a greater cross slope Broom finish 0.016
than the pavement. A composite gutter section results in a For gutters with small slope, where
decrease in elevation of the flow line at the face of curb rela-
sediment may accumulate, increase
tive to where the flow line would be if the pavement were
above values by n of 0.002
extended to the face of curb at the designed cross slope. In
these instances, the gutters typically vary between 1 and Note: Estimates are by the Federal Highway Administration.
3 feet wide depending on local standards. The steeper cross Reference: USDOT, FHWA, HDS-3 (1961 ).
 5.6 ■ UTILITY DESIGN 495

Q =o.~6 5 ~.67 5o.5 T2.67 -

~
d
!

s
EXAMPLE : GIVEN:
n=0.016; Sx=0.03
S=0.04; T =6 FT 0.8
--
a
0

0.2 FIND: 40
0 .6
Q =2.4 FT 3ts
an =o.038 FT ~s
0 .4
0. 1 LaJ
z 20
0 .08 _, T ( FT)
0.06 (!)
z
z 30 0.2
,0.04 a::
Sx
'''
'
'' 0.01
::,
....
20
-....
CIJ
;;- 8
10

''
0.02
''
'
'' 0.02
-
LL

C:
0.1
0.08
6

O.OJ '' 0
0.06 4
' 10
0.008 ''
'' o.~
0.006 '
0.0~
8
--- --- --- ---
'' __ 6 -- --- 2

-- - -- -- --
0.004
0.06 ''
0.08 0.02·
4
0.002 0.1
3

0.001 0.0 1

______________
,..._1- T j
I ) For
2

V-Shape, use the 1"10ffl09raph with

0.008
0.006
0.4

Sx = Sx1 Sx2 /( Sx1 + Sx2)

0.004
2) To determinedtschoroe In outter with 0.2
composite cross slopes, f ind Os usino
Ts and Sx , Then, use f ioure 14.28 to
find Eo. The total dischoroe Is
Q =Q 5 /(1-Eo), and Ow=0- 0 1 .

FIG uRE 5 . 6 G Nomograph for flow in triangular gutter sections.

49& i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
Face of
Curb
Pavement ·1
~ - - -- -- - ------
Extended

r -----

w
FIG uRE 5. 6 J Flow in gutter section.
FIG uRE 5 . 6 H Composite gutter section nomenclature.

The cross slope of the depressed gutter section measured the gutter flow ratio (Qw!Q) = E WIT, and SwfSx has been
0,

relative to the pavement cross slope is designated as S' w and developed. Figure 5.6K is a nomograph depicting this rela-
is equal to the depression divided by the width of the gutter: tionship and assumes that the Manning's roughness coeffi-
cient for the gutter and pavement are the same.
5'=~
w w
(5.6E) In most urban areas, the allowable spread of the flow
into the street is given in local design manuals-often
Hence the actual cross slope Sw is limiting the spread to ½ the lane width as measured from
the curb. Some primary road designs, such as Interstates,
5w= 5'w + 5x (5.6F)
require that the spread does not encroach at all on the travel
The relationship between these terms is illustrated in lane. The spread is a function of the longitudinal and trans-
Figure 5.6H. verse slope of the pavement. Typically, drainage design of
Flow in composite gutter sections is computed by separat- streets involves the sizing and spacing of the inlets based
ing the flow into two prisms: (a) the flow in the pavement on limitations of the spread, with a given geometry of the
section and (b) the flow in the depressed gutter area. The street. A common error for inlet design is to increase the
flow in the pavement section is size of an inlet to decrease spread for inlets on grade-but
the inlet size only changes how much water is captured in
Os= 0.56 d~'3 5112 an inlet. The spread is a function of the characteristics of
(5.6G)
n5x the roadway as runoff is conveyed to the inlet. To deter-
mine the spread, T, for a composite gutter section involves
where d2 = (T- W) Sx as shown in Figure 5.61, d2 is the depth a trial and error procedure since no direct solution for T
of flow at the break point of the gutter-pavement interface is available from Equations (5.6G) and (5.6H)-software is
and Wis the width of the gutter. also available to determine spread calculations.
The flow in the gutter section is given as
Ow= 0.56 (d~'3 - df3) 5112
(5.6H)
n5w
where d1 is the depth of flow at the curb and Sw is the cross
slope of the gutter. Note that Equation (5.6H) computes the
flow in prism ABCD' by subtracting the flow in triangle
CDD' from the flow in triangle ABCD of Figure 5.6J.
Because of the numerous variables involved in the compu-
tations of flow in composite gutters, a relationship between

11 0.2 - - - - - - w-
f--W --1
0 _ __..___.__ _.__....__...____._ _.__ _.__.......___,
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
WIT

FIG uRE 5. 6 I Flow in pavement section. FIG uRE 5 . 6 K Ratio of frontal flow to total gutter flow.
 5.6 ■ UTILITY DESIGN 497

Spread Calculation Example. Find the spread of flow the T/W scale gives a value of 4.0. This translates to a spread
for a street section with a gutter width ( W) of 2 feet, curb of T= (2)(4.0) = 8.0 feet.
height = 6 inches, Sw = 1 in/ft, pavement cross slope of
¼ in/ft (Sx = 0.0208), longitudinal slope of 3%, and a 1. Check the depth at the curb:
design discharge of 3.5 cfs (assume n = 0.015 for both d1= TS,+W(Sw-Sx)
pavement and gutter).
= (8.0)(0.02) + 2(0.083-0.02)
Equations (5.6G) and (5.6H) can be used simultane-
=0.29 ft (5.61)
ously to solve for the two unknowns T and Ow (recall that
0 = Ow + 0,). Because a direct solution is difficult due to Since 0.29 < 0.5 foot the design flow will not overtop
the exponential form of the equations the nomograph of
the curb.
Figure 5.6L can aid the computations.
Extend a horizontal line from 0.053[from 3.5 x 0.015] on 2. Often the values for Sx, Sw, and S must be interpolated
the On to intersect the S = 0.03 line. From this point draw a on the nomograph which may contribute to some
vertical line to intersect the W = 2 feet line. Continue hori- error in reading the T/W scale. In these situations the
zontally and intersect the Sx = 0.02 at the bottom left quad- estimated value for T can be used as a beginning trial
rant of the nomograph. Extend a vertical line to SwlSx = value to substitute into Equations (5.6G) and (5.6H).
0.083/0.020 = 4.1. A horizontal line drawn from this point to The value for Tis adjusted to get O, + Ow= O.

I
0.8
0.8

0.4
0.3

0.2

GIV£N; T•8 FT , W•2 FT

Sx•0.02 ,
s ■ O.Q.4 I
s.•O.oe
n •0.016
-....
u,
~
0. 1
0 .08
o.oe

-
0.04
e

5
....~
....
FIND: an• Q.061 lL 0 .05

O• 5.81 FT!yS 0.02

C
0 0,01
0.0011
0.008

0.004
0.003

I 0,002

FIG uRE 5. 6 L Flow in composite gutter sections.

49a i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
Inlets. Inlets intercept surface runoff and transfer it to the of a sump inlet (in both directions of the sump) to reduce
pipe network. The three basic types of inlets used with pave- the flow directed towards the sump and provide additional
ment drainage are the curb opening inlet, the grate inlet, and capacity during a sump flow condition. This recommenda-
the combination of the curb and grate inlet. The curb open- tion is based on the desired depth at the curb and the vertical
ing inlet collects runoff through a vertical opening, along curve length defined by K = LIA, whereas L is the length of
the face of curb. These inlets consist of a manhole structure the vertical curve and A =g2 - g1 is the algebraic difference of
with a throat and concrete slab fitting on the top. An opening the tangent slopes of the vertical curve (refer to Chapter 5.3
in the slab allows access to the structure. A gutter (or grate) for more information on vertical road geometry).
inlet lies flat in the pavement or gutter and allows runoff to As an example, entering Table 5.6C for depth at curb
fall directly down and into the system. Figure 5.6M shows value = 0.4 foot and K = 50 gives a distance of 63 feet for
these various inlets (as introduced in Chapter 3.6). flanking inlets.
An inlet's flow capacity is the maximum amount of run- Additionally, the designer should limit the carryover
off that it can intercept as determined by the combined flows in pavement areas where the cross-slope of the road
effects of longitudinal and transverse slopes of the road, changes directions, this is to avoid creating an unsafe situa-
roughness of the pavement, depth of flow at the inlet and tion due to flow crossing or icing of the travel lanes.
the configuration of the inlet opening. Flow through an The physical characteristics of the street and inlet affect
inlet is either orifice flow or weir flow depending on the the flow velocity at the inlet. As gutter flow velocities increase,
flow depth at the opening. Under either case, the capacity the depth at the curb decreases and the amount of bypass
of the inlet is a function of the depth of flow forcing the flow increases. This is equivalent to a decrease in both inter-
water through the opening. For a given street geometry and ception capacity and efficiency for curb opening type inlets.
flow conditions (i.e., flow depth) a given inlet has a specific The effective flow depth at a curb opening inlet is increased
interception capacity. When the flow exceeds the capacity by depressing the gutter along the throat length. Most inlets
of the inlet, a portion of the flow is not intercepted. The have a 2- to 3-inch depression to improve interception
ratio of the intercepted flow to the total gutter flow, Q/Qr, capacity. Everything else being equal, increasing depth at the
is the efficiency of the inlet. Any flow not intercepted by curb (by increasing pavement cross slope) increases both the
the inlet is termed "carryover" or "bypass" flow. This bypass interception capacity and efficiency. Although grate inlets
flow must be added to the runoff computed for the next may be more effective on higher longitudinal slopes they
downstream inlet in the analysis. present more of an obstruction to pedestrians and bicycle
There can be no carryover from inlets located in sump traffic and are susceptible to clogging.
(low point) areas, but a greater emphasis is placed on capac- The type of inlet used is governed by the standards of the
ity of the inlets in a sump condition. Table 5.6C is the Fed- local jurisdiction. The department of transportation and the
eral Highway Administration's recommendation for spacing local department of public works can be particular about the
of the flanking inlets. Flanking inlets are located upstream types of inlets allowed in right-of-ways.

SLOTTED DRAIN INLET

FIG uRE 5. 6 M Various types of curb inlets and gutter inlets.

 5.6 ■ UTILITY DESIGN 499

TAB LE 5 . 6 C Distance to Flanking Inlets in Sag Vertical Curve Locations Using Depth at Curb Inlets
SPEED (MPH): 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
K(= LIA): 20 30 40 50 70 90 110 130 160 167 180 220
Depth @curb
0.1 20 24 28 32 37 42 47 51 57 58 60 66
0.2 28 35 40 45 53 60 66 72 80 82 85 94
0.3 35 42 49 55 65 73 81 88 98 100 104 115
0.4 40 49 57 63 75 85 94 102 113 116 120 133
0.5 45 55 63 71 84 95 105 114 126 129 134 148
0.6 49 60 69 77 92 104 115 125 139 142 147 162
0.7 53 65 75 84 99 112 124 135 150 153 159 176
0.8 57 69 80 89 106 120 133 144 160 163 170 188
Reference: USDOT FHWA, Drainage of Highway Pavements, HEC-12, 1984.

Inlet Capacity. Typically, the design standards for a local- The efficiency E of a curb opening inlet is given as
ity include capacity charts, nomographs, or equations for
the inlets accepted by the review agencies. Manufacturers
(5.6L)
of inlets often perform their own tests on grate inlets and
provide the capacity information upon request. In some
conditions, the jurisdiction may require that the inlets are
assumed clogged (reducing the effective opening by 50%) or
in the case of combination inlets, grate inlet capacity may Q
be ignored completely. This evaluation considers the practi- (FT~)

cal condition of the inlets as they are clogged by road debris

50
(sand, trash, vegetation, etc.) FOIi COl,l'OIITE CIOOSI Sl..Of'U, 1M s_ FOIi S,. 40
Curb-Opening Inlets on Grade. For curb opening type s. ■ s., +~t. ~ s~,a/w
30
inlets, the length of curb-opening necessary for 100% Ly
( FT)
efficiency in a street section with undepressed gutter, and 20
8_0
constant cross slope is TO
60
s 0 .01

)o. -·- ........ _

so 10

I:~--·" '. - - - - ;
~
1 5 n 0.00! _••• --··· ~ ....... ........... 40
8
Lr=0.6QOA2 s0,3 ( - (5.6J)
nSx 6
io·-----. 5
···-,r
20
where Lr is the curb opening length required for 100% 0 .08 :,

interception (ft), Q is the gutter flow (cfs), Sis the longitu- 0.02 ~ 2
dinal street slope (ft/ft), Sx is the cross slope (ft/ft), and n is 0 .1
10
Manning's n coefficient for the pavement. The nomograph 0 ,2 9
of Figure 5.6N can be used in lieu of the equation. 8
1
For a depressed curb-opening inlet the length of open- 6 0 .8

ing is the same as Equation (5.6J) with the Sx term replaced 5 0,6
0.5
by the equivalent cross slope term, S,. This term is used to EXAMPI..£: 4
GIVEN: n•0.018 ; S•0.01 0 .4
account for the gutter depression. The equivalent cross slope S,.•0.02 ; Q• 4 F~/S
0.3
is given as FIND: L1 • 54 FT

FIG uRE 5. 6 N Curb-opening and slotted-drain inlet length for total

(5.6K) interception.
500 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
situation. There are a few practical considerations in this
example though:

1. The computed inlet length is larger than most man-

0.8 ufactured inlets and could not be specified as com-
'-. E= I- 11-L/Lrl'.e puted (20 feet is a common maximum length).
2. Very large inlet lengths are often challenging to
0.6
... construct because they require a constant grade. An
>
inlet proposed along a vertical curve would create
u
•u
Ill
installation issues .
0.4
......
;;:
3. When large inlet lengths (over 14 feet) are
computed, it's worth evaluating the option to
propose multiple smaller inlets. A large inlet length
0.2 computation may indicate an issue with gutter
spread-multiple inlets will reduce the total flow in
the gutter and decrease spread. In this example, the
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
spread is 7.6 feet and may not be permitted based on
road geometry.
l/LT
4. The inlet efficiency is exponential, as identified in
FIG uRE 5 .60 Curb-opening and slotted-drain inlet interception proceeding equations. An inlet half the size (12 feet)
efficiency. is still about 75% efficient in this example.
5. Many inlets are designed with a local depression
(not computed in this example). A local depression
where L is the actual length of the curb opening. This is of 2 inches in this example would allow a 14-foot
shown graphically in Figure 5.60. inlet to be 99% efficient.
Curb Inlet on Grade Design Example. Determine the
As with many design equations, the computed answer may
throat length required for 100% interception for the values be technically correct but should be evaluated for practical-
of the preceding example. ity. There are alternatives to the excessive inlet computed in
1. Since this is a composite gutter section, the this equation.
equivalent cross slope is used as calculated in Curb-Opening Inlets In Sag Locations. In a sag (or sump,
Equation (5.6K). Given SwfSx= 4.1 and WIT= 0.25, or sink) condition, curb inlets operate as a weir for gutter
Figure 5.6K reads a value of E0 = 0.70; S'w is still flow depths less than or equal to the height of the opening.
required to solve Equation (5.6K). At depths greater than 1.4 times the height of the opening
the inlet operates as an orifice-this condition should be
S' =.!.._= 0·125 =0.063 (5.6M) avoided. Between these depths the flow is in transition. The
w W 2 interception capacity for a depressed inlet as given by the
where weir equation is
8=W(Sw-Sx) 0; = Cw (L + 1.8W)d15 (5.60)
= 2(0.0833-0.0208)
=0.125 (5.6N) where Cw is the weir coefficient (2.3), L is the length of the
opening (e.g., throat length), Wis the lateral width of the
2. The equivalent cross slope is depression and d is the depth of flow at the curb as measured
Se= 0.0208 + 0.063(0.70) from the normal cross slope gutter flow line. For an uncle-
pressed inlet Wis equal to 0.
= 0.065 (5.60)
When flow in the gutter exceeds the height of the curb
3. Substituting the values into Equation (5.6J): opening inlet by a factor of 1.4, the opening acts as an orifice
with the capacity given as
L = 0.6(3.5)042(0.03)03 ( 1 )o.6
T

=22.?ft
(0.015)(0.065)
(5.6P)
0;= Goh L ,j2gdo =Co A )2g( d; - ~J (5.6R)

Since most throat lengths are available in 2 feet incre- where C is the orifice coefficient (usually 0.67), his the height
0

ments, a 24-foot throat length would be specified for this of the opening (feet), Lis the length of the opening (feet), d 0
 5.6 ■ UTILITY DESIGN 501

is the effective head on the center of the orifice throat, A is for the inlet depends on proper interpretation of the "height"
the area of the opening (square feet), and d; is the depth at the of the opening, since the height depends on the configuration
lip of curb opening (feet). Typical opening configurations for of the throat opening.
curb inlets are shown in Figure 5.6P. The computed capacity Based on the information in the curb inlets on grade
example, the conditions of a sag inlet can be computed. In
this case, the curb opening inlet has a height of 6 inches, and
the same 3.5 cfs flow value will be used, and local depres-
sion is ignored. A 10-foot throat inlet would operate in a weir
condition with a depth of 3 inches at the inlet. The width of
spread (based on the computed depth) at the inlet would be
5.5 feet. The computed width of spread at the inlet is differ-
ent from the gutter spread, which is based on the channel
flow condition of the gutter as water approaches the inlet.
When inlets are required in sag locations it's important
to consider larger storm events in addition to the design
storm used for the inlet. During large storms the convey-
a) Horizontal throat ance systems may be overwhelmed, and the sag location
would receive additional flow. In some cases, the sag inlet
and downstream conveyance could be designed for a larger
storm. Another consideration is overland relief in the sag
location-assuming the inlet and conveyance system is over-
whelmed the flow should be evaluated to determine where
the flow will be conveyed (e.g., overtopping the curb).
Grate Inlets on Grade. The capacity of a grate inlet depends
on pavement geometry, amount of flow and the configura-
d0 =di -(h/2)Sin ® tion of the grate. Flow through the grate is affected by the size
and spacing of the bars as well as their shape and orientation
with respect to flow direction.
Any jurisdiction's design standards identify preferred
b) Inclined throat
types of grates. Each type of grate has its own hydraulic capac-
ity chart. The FHWA identifies several types of grates and
their hydraulic characteristics in HEC-12. For those occa-
sions where a standard grate will not suffice, there are manu-
factured inlets that usually include hydraulic characteristics.
Grate Inlets in Sag Locations. Flow through grates located
at the low point of a sag vertical curve operates as weir flow
for relatively shallow depths. As the depth increases, the
flow through the inlet transitions to orifice flow. There is
no definitive depth where weir flow stops and orifice flow
begins. The range of depth for which the transition between
weir and orifice flow occurs, depends on geometric and
hydraulic characteristics of the grate. The weir equation for
c) Vertical throat grate inlets is

(5.6S)

where Cw is a weir coefficient dependent on geometry of

Q 0.67 hl v'2Qd0
the opening (Cw"" 3.0), Pis the effective length of opening
L Length of opening where weir flow occurs, (grates located along the face of curb
d0 Effective head on center have only three sides where discharge passes through as weir
of the orifice throat flow), and dis the depth of flow.
The orifice equation for grate inlets is
di Depth at lip of curb
opening (5.61)
h Orifice throat width
where Cd is the coefficient of discharge (0.67), A is the clear
FIG uRE 5. 6 P Throat configuration of curb opening inlets. opening area of the grate (ft2), g= 32 ft/s 2, and dis the depth
502 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
of flow. Orifice discharge through the grate depends on the Following are some of the factors that affect flow
clear open area, which does not include space occupied by resistance.
bars, vanes, and other obstructions. Since sag locations are
highly susceptible to clogging by debris and trash, many • Surface roughness, due to size and shape of the
localities require an allowance of 50% for clogging. grains of the material forming the wetted perimeter,
increases the roughness coefficient as the coarseness
5.6.4. Stormwater Flow in Pipes and Channels of the grains increase.
The two basic forces which act on flow in an open channel • Vegetation is also a form of surface roughness. The
are gravity (pulling it downward) and friction (retarding its degree to which vegetation impacts flow resistance
movement). These factors then must be combined with the depends on density, height, and type of vegetation.
basic concept of continuity, that is the flow in one discrete
section of channel or pipe must equal the flow out of that • Channel irregularities such as those found in natural
section. This is the basic premise for estimating open chan- streams. Channel irregularities include depressions
nel flow in channel and pipes. Therefore, open channel flow in the channel bed, humps, sand bars, ridges, etc.
Q is estimated by combining the continuity equation, Q = VA, which changes the wetted perimeter size and shape
with Manning's equation for velocity. of cross section. Abrupt channel changes have a
larger effect on the n value than small or gradual
JA
Q = ( 1.4:59 R2l35112 X (5.6U)
irregularities.
• Channel alignment and curvature has some impact
where the term in parentheses represents Manning's velocity on flow resistance. Large radius of curvature has less
for open channel flow. In Equation (5.6U), n is Manning's coef- effect than a short radius.
ficient of roughness, R is the hydraulic radius (feet), defined as
• Centrifugal forces should be considered for flows in
the ratio of the cross-sectional area to the wetted perimeter, S
bends based on the velocity and centerline radius.
is the slope of the energy grade line (ft/ft), and A is the cross-
sectional area of the flow (ff). • Obstructions such as logs, stumps, debris, trash,
Natural conveyance systems (i.e., swales, ditches, and rocks, and other items that interrupt and severely
channels) are often used in residential applications and/ alter the flow path increase the flow resistance.
or slower speed roadway environments. Natural channels
• Channel lining should be carefully considered and
are subject to the same theories reviewed in open channel
evaluated to verify stability of the selected material.
flow but they can also provide water quality benefits when
designed as stormwater management systems. In a circular pipe flowing full with diameter D, the
The cross-hatched area of Figure 5.6Q shows the cross hydraulic radius (area/wetted perimeter) is D/4. In a pipe
sectional area of flow for a circular section and a trapezoidal flowing less than full the relationship between depth y, cross
section. The wetted perimeter for the circular section is arc sectional flow area A, wetted perimeter P, and hydraulic
ABC. Line segments ABCD show the wetted perimeter on radius R (Figure 5.6R) is given by the following relationships:
the trapezoidal section.
The roughness coefficient represents an estimate of the 0
y =-(1-cos 0) (5.6V)
resistance of flow. Large n values correspond to high resis- 2
tance to flow. Table 5.6D provides n coefficients for com-
02
monly occurring channel materials. A=- (0-sin0cos0)
4
02
=4 (0-1/2sin2 0) (5.6W)

P=00 (5.6X)

R=~=!!__ ( 1- sin 0cos0J

P 4 0
=!!__( 1- sin2 0J (5.6Y)
4 20

Energy Losses in Pipe Systems. Flow in a conduit is

retarded by resistance and turbulence. Resistance and turbu-
Cross Sectional lence are measured in terms of the energy consumed to over-
Area
come them, which is mostly in the form of frictional losses
FIG uRE 5. 6 Q Cross-sectional area and wetted perimeter for circu- along straight sections of the conduit. Turbulence is also cre-
lar section and trapezoidal section. ated where there is an abrupt change in cross section of the
 5.6 ■ UTILITY DESIGN 503

TAB LE 5 . 6 D Values of Roughness Coefficient, n

TYPE OF CHANNEL AND DESCRIPTION MINIMUM NORMAL MAXIMUM

A. Closed Conduits Flowing Partly Full

A-1. Metal
a. Brass, smooth 0.009 0.010 0.013
b. Steel
1. Lockbar and welded 0.010 0.012 0.014
2. Riveted and spiral 0.013 0.016 0.017
c. Cast iron
1. Coated 0.010 0.013 0.014
2. Uncoated 0.011 0.014 0.016
d. Wrought iron
1. Black 0.012 0.014 0.015
2. Galvanized 0.013 0.016 0.017
e. Corrugated meta
1. Subdrain 0.017 0.019 0.021
2. Storm drain 0.021 0.024 0.030
A-2. Nonmetal
a. Lucite 0.008 0.009 0.010
b. Glass 0.009 0.010 0.013
c. Cement
1. Neat, surface 0.010 0.011 0.013
2. Mortar 0.011 0.013 0.015
d. Concrete
1. Culvert, straight and free of debris 0.010 0.011 0.013
2. Culvert with bends, connections, and some debris 0.011 0.013 0.014
3. Finished 0.011 0.012 0.014
4. Sewer with manholes, inlets, etc., straight 0.013 0.015 0.017
5. Unfinished, steel form 0.012 0.013 0.014
6. Unfinished, smooth wood form 0.012 0.014 0.016
7. Unfinished, rough wood form 0.015 0.017 0.020
e.Wood
1. Stave 0.010 0.012 0.014
2. Laminate, treated 0.015 0.017 0.020
f. Clay
1. Common drainage tile 0.011 0.013 0.017
2. Vitrified sewer 0.011 0.014 0.017
3. Vitrified sewer with manholes, inlet etc. 0.013 0.015 0.017
4. Vitrified subdrain with open joint 0.014 0.016 0.018
g. Brickwork
1. Glazed 0.011 0.013 0.015
2. Lined with cement mortar 0.012 0.015 0.017
h. Sanitary sewers coated with sewage slimes, with bends 0.012 0.013 0.016
and connections
i. Paved invert, sewer, smooth bottom 0.016 0.019 0.020
j. Rubble masonry, cemented 0.018 0.025 0.030

(Continued)
504 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
TABLE 5. 6 D Values of Roughness Coefficient, n (Continued)
TYPE OF CHANNEL ANO DESCRIPTION MINIMUM NORMAL MAXIMUM

B. Lined or Built-up Channels

B-1. Metal
a. Smooth steel surface
1. Unpainted 0.011 0.012 0.014
2. Painted 0.012 0.013 0.017
b. Corrugated 0.021 0.025 0.030
B-2. Nonmetal
a. Cement
1. Neat, surface 0.010 0.011 0.013
2. Mortar 0.011 0.013 0.015
b. Wood
1. Planed, untreated 0.010 0.012 0.014
2. Planed, creosoted 0.011 0.012 0.015
3. Unplaned 0.011 0.013 0.015
4. Plank with battens 0.012 0.015 0.018
5. Lined with roofing paper 0.010 0.014 0.017
c. Concrete
1. Trowel finish 0.011 0.013 0.015
2. Float finish 0.013 0.015 0.016
3. Finished, with gravel on bottom 0.015 0.017 0.020
4. Unfinished 0.014 0.017 0.020
5. Gunite, good section 0.016 0.019 0.023
6. Gunite, wavy section 0.018 0.022 0.025
7. On good excavate drock 0.017 0.020
8. On irregular excavate drock 0.022 0.027
d. Concrete bottom bloat finished with sides of
1. Dressed stone in mortar 0.015 0.017 0.020
2. Random stone in mortar 0.017 0.020 0.024
3. Cemen trubble masonry, plastered 0.016 0.020 0.024
4. Cemen trubble masonry 0.020 0.025 0.030
5. Dry rubble or riprap 0.020 0.030 0.035
e. Gravel bottom with sides of
1. Formed concrete 0.017 0.020 0.025
2. Random stone in mortar 0.020 0.023 0.026
3. Dry rubble or riprap 0.023 0.033 0.036
f. Brick
1. Glazed 0.011 0.013 0.015
2. lncement mortar 0.012 0.015 0.018
g. Masonry
1. Cemented rubble 0.017 0.025 0.030
2. Dry rubble 0.023 0.032 0.035
h. Dressed ashlar 0.013 0.015 0.017
i. Asphalt
1. Smooth 0.013 0.013
2.Rough 0.016 0.016
j. Vegetallining 0.030 0.500

Reprinted from Chow, V. T. 1959. Open Channel Hydraulics. New York: McGraw-Hill. Reprinted with permission from McGraw-Hill.
 5.6 ■ UTILITY DESIGN 505

where the '1:.hi term accounts for the total energy lost between
points A and B.
The energy gradient (hydraulic slope) is defined as the
energy loss per length of channel:

(5.6AB)

Ty
D
In closed conduits under pressure flow the potential
energy plus the pressure energy in the system is given as
Z + E_ . This term, also referred to as the static head or piezo-
y
metric head, represents the level to which the liquid will rise
if a piezometer tube were installed at this location. A con-
tinuous line drawn through the tops of these piezometer
columns is the hydraulic grade line (HGL). In open chan-
nel flow, the water surface itself is the hydraulic grade line.
In uniform flow the slope of the channel, the slope of the
water surface, and the slope of the hydraulic gradient are all
FIG uRE 5. 6 R Nomenclature for pipe flowing partially full.
parallel.
Head loss is attributed to pipe friction, abrupt changes in
the cross sectional area (due to entrance and exit of flow to or
flow (e.g., sudden contraction or sudden expansion) or by from a reservoir or manhole) or other types of appurtenances
other interferences of the flow. The concept of uniform flow and obstructions within the flow path. The two most com-
in open channels is a balance between the available energy monly used friction loss equations for determining hydraulic
that is generated by gravity and the consumed energy of the resistance are the Darcy equation and the Manning equation.
flow resistance. The Darcy-Weisbach equation is given as
Uniform flow occurs whenever the depth, water area,
velocity, and discharge at every section in a channel remain (5.6AC)
constant. For such stringent conditions to exist, not only
must channel geometry be consistent, but the drop in poten-
tial energy (due to the fall in elevation in the channel bed) where h1 is the friction energy loss, f is the Darcy-Weisbach
must be equal to the energy consumed through boundary friction factor, L is the length of conduit, D is the diameter
friction and turbulence. Hence, if the channel geometry and of the conduit, Vis the mean velocity in the conduit, and g is
slope remains constant and the reach is sufficiently long, then the gravitational acceleration.
for a given discharge there will exist one, and only one, depth The Darcy-Weisbach friction factor is obtained from the
at which the flow will be uniform. This depth is referred to Moody diagram (see Figure 5.6JJJ), which relates f to the
as normal depth. Reynolds number and the relative roughness of the conduit. 2
The energy at a particular location in a pipe is given by Conversion of the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor f to the
Bernoulli's equation: Manning roughness coefficient n is given by

n =0.0926 R116 f 112 (5.6AD)

P
E=-+-+z
v2 (5.6Z)
r 2g where R is the hydraulic radius.
In the Manning equation the slope of the energy line S
where ply is the pressure head,' V 2 /2g is the velocity head is given as S = h/L, where h1 is the friction loss and L is the
and z is the elevation head. A plot of points given by length of conduit. Substituting for S and solving for h1 in the
Equation (5.6Z) at every section along a length of a pipe is Manning equation gives
known as the energy grade line (EGL). By utilizing the con-
servation of energy principle along with the Bernoulli equa- -( 29n 2 L)~ (5.6AE)
tion, the energy at point B downstream of A, is less than h,- R4t3 2g
the energy at point A by an amount equal to the energy lost
between point A and B. Mathematically expressed as In addition to pipe friction energy losses, there are minor
energy losses through manholes, bends, and other appur-
tenances. Energy losses through such appurtenances are
(5.6AA)

'The Reynolds number is a dimensionless parameter that is a ratio of inertial forces

to viscous forces. Relative roughness is the ratio of element roughness size to conduit
11n hydraulics the term "head" is synonymous with energy. size. Consult basic hydraulic texts for further discussion.
sos i@UUFI F@di4Mi•
proportional to the velocity head in the appurtenance and and below the ground surface elevation (e.g., the inlet inflow
are accounted for as follows: elevation or rim elevation). Some localities have developed
v2 criteria requiring the storm sewer system to be evaluated for
hL=k- (5.6AF) specified storms larger than the design storm, such as in low-
2g
lying areas where there is little to no overland relief where
where k is an empirical coefficient that accounts for the runoff could surcharge out of the system.
energy loss for a particular appurtenance or configuration. Hydraulic grade line calculations are easily summarized
Table 5.6Y gives k values for various conditions). with the aid of an HGL calculation form of Figure 5.6T. The
Minor energy losses through manholes and junctions are hydraulic grade line is parallel to and below the energy grade
the result of the deflection angle of the flow, entrance losses as line along the length of conduit, a distance equal to the veloc-
the flow enters the discharge pipe from the manhole, and exit ity head, V2!2g. Energy losses through manholes and other
loss as the flow leaves the incoming pipe. As indicated by Equa- appurtenances are graphically shown as abrupt jumps in the
tion (5.6AF) high velocities result in high energy losses. How- EGL. Figure 5.6T is a schematic representation of the HGL
ever, the energy loss through the manhole can be significantly calculation form and Figure 5.6U is a schematic representa-
reduced through inlet shaping. Inlet shaping provides a flow tion of the variables shown in a pipe profile.
through at the bottom of the manhole to direct the flows from Computations for the HGL begin at a position where
the incoming pipes to the downstream pipe. Exit loss coeffi- the water surface elevation is known or can be calculated.
cients, energy loss coefficients and other loss coefficients are A known water surface elevation is where the HGL eleva-
typically identified in the local standards criteria. Figure 5.6S tion can easily be determined, such as with the end of a pipe
gives some values for k as prescribed by American Association discharging into a lake. In this case, assuming the velocity
of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO). head of the water at the lake's surface near the discharge end
In addition, losses for deflection of flows from the incom- of the pipe is negligible, the starting EGL elevation is equal
ing pipes to the outgoing pipe have to be considered. When to the water surface elevation of the lake as well as the HGL
a junction or manhole has more than one incoming pipe, of the lake. Should the end of the pipe discharge into a chan-
each pipe is analyzed for the total head loss of the combined nel the beginning water surface elevation can be found from
effects (entrance, exit, deflection, etc.). The pipe producing backwater computations in the stream channel.
the greatest head loss is assumed to be the controlling pipe Once the starting point has been established the com-
and the EGL and HGL are based on this greatest value. putations proceed in the upstream direction by adding the
Energy losses also occur at inlets that collect surface run - energy losses attributed to exit, entrance, and junction losses
off and discharge directly into the storm sewer system. The to the EGL.
water dropping into the bottom of the manhole produces If storm sewer systems are assumed to operate with veloc-
turbulence within the water that is already flowing through ities in the 3 to 6 fps range the HGL is approximated by the
the manhole, thus disturbing (even further) the flow from EGL. For normal velocities in the storm drain system the dif-
the upstream pipes. These energy losses are added to the ference between the EGL and the HGL elevations is less than
conventional losses attributed to the exit and entrance losses 0.5 foot (i.e., for V = 5 fps, V2!2g = 0.4 foot). Although the
from the discharge ends of the incoming pipes. Other losses, HGL is actually lower than the EGL by this amount, a rela-
which are less frequently encountered in the pipe network, tively small velocity head is considered negligible and many
include diffusor/confusor losses, losses associated with con- localities assume that the EGL approximates the HGL.
verging or diverging wyes, and bends. Figure 5.6S summa- However, recognize that the occasion occurs, perhaps
rizes the various minor energy losses through structures. rarely, where such approximations can be substantially dif-
Hydraulic Grade Line in Pipe Systems. Most storm sewers ferent. One case occurs when the discharge velocity in the
are intended to operate as gravity flow for the design dis- incoming pipe is significantly greater than the velocity of the
charge. Occasionally, due to unavoidable field conditions outgoing pipe in a manhole. This is illustrated at structure
like high flow rates or low-lying flat areas where little fall is number 3 in the following example.
available, the system is surcharged (i.e., operates as pressure HGL Computation Example. Determine the HGL for the
flow). Even though the pipes were sized to function under data given in Table 5.6E.
gravity flow, accumulated head losses can cause surcharge in All pipe is reinforced concrete pipe (RCP), n = 0.DIS. A
the system if, during design, sufficient allowances were not plan/profile view of the pipe system is shown in Figure 5.6V.
made to compensate for the accrued head losses. Surcharge In this example, the water surface is known at the down-
in the system occurs when the hydraulic grade line rises stream side of structure #1. The head loss through the struc-
above the crown of the pipe. ture is computed to find the EGL on the upstream side. The
Most localities prefer the storm drainage system to oper- head loss through the section of pipe is added to this to find
ate as gravity flow for the design discharge. However, sur- the EGL on the downstream side of the next upstream struc-
charge of the system for the design flow is tolerable, if the ture. The process is repeated until the HGL falls below the
hydraulic grade line is maintained below a certain limit. Typ- crown of the pipe or until the end of the run. Detailed com-
ically, this is a specified distance above the crown of the pipe putations follow with reference to HGL computation form
 5.6 ■ UTILITY DESIGN 507

CJ-----o CJ-----o
v2 v2
Htm = (a) H0 = 0.52g (b)
2g
Terminal Junction Losses Entrance Losses
(at beginning of run) (for structure at end of run)
Where g = gravitational constant, Assuming square-edge
32.2 feet per second
per second

---
Lateral

~ 0
l ateral

-91-.
(lateral)
3
0

..Y._ (Outflow) ( C)
2g
2
Junction Losses 04V4 - a,v,2 - 0 2V22 + K01V,2 (d)
Use only where flows are identical to 2g04
abov~, otherwise use Hi 2 Equation.
Junction Losses
(After FHWA)
Total losses to include Hi2 plus losses for
changes in direction of less than 90° (Hb)-

Where K "' Bend loss factor

0 3 = Vertical dropped-in flow
from an inlet
V3 = Assumed to be zero

J>._: or
~-' i "\I,
Friction Loss (H,)
<----___}~
:C H, = s, X L (f)
~ > Where H1 = friction head
6 Where B = 90 - A
S1 = friction slope
12
KV_
_

2g
(e) L = length of conduit

Bend Losses
(changes in direction of flow)

Degree of
Where K Turn (A) in Junction Where a discharge of conduit
0.19 15 n Mannings coefficient of
0.35 30 roughness (use 0.013 for
0.47 45 R.C. pipes)
0.56 60 A = area of conduit
0.64 75
A = hJ.draulic radius of conduit
0.70 90 ( /4 for round pipe)

Total Energy Loss at Each Junction

Hr = H,m + H0 + (Hj1 or Hj2) + Hb + H,

FIG uRE 5. 6 S Summary of energy losses through structures.

 PROJECT: _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ DESIG. EO BY: _ _ __ _ CE-fECKED
DESIG 'STORM: _ _ __ _ _ __ _ _ __ __ DATE: _ __ __ DA

]. 2 3 41
I
s 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 n I 14 15, 16 J7 18 19
I Friction Loss in Terminal J mm[on Losses
Pipe Sr.TUCture
Loss,e.s

Struct. DIS .h, DIS D Q V L s, Hf H.,. H""" H~ HI H~ H, 1.3 0.5 UIS

HT ttl'
No. EGL out HGL illl cfs fos fl [till It rt fl ft It ft r1 fl ft I EGL

I
I
I
I I I
I

Column Column
1 Structure identification label 1J Contractwn head loss for ou tRo,. Erom a ooruen
2 EGI.. d evation at do,...'1151.ream side of structl!lre = preceding column 19 + 14 Exi:,ansion head l.oss for inflow imo noncerrn.inal
preceding column 11.0 lj &ad h£ad I due co de0ection of flow through
3 Velocity head al the discharge side of the structure = v 2ng ]6 Total head loss mrough the junction = column
4 HGL elevation = column 2. - columlil 3 n Head loss for COf"ltrihuting flow [rom surface rnle
5 Pipe diameter discharge is greater than 10% of lhe mainline 'lllo
6 Discharge 18 Reduclion in head loss of column 16 for inlet sh
7 Discharge velocity co'lumn 17 X 0.5
8- Pipe length betu<een structures. 19 EGL oo I.he upstream side o{ the Jlla.11.bole structt
or column 16, 17, or 18
9· Friction slope = (~1.49 Ru, )' 20 Velocity head of Lhe i111commg pipe = V1111-ag
21 HGL Olil 1he ap ream side o! Lhe ma111hole s.1.mcr
22 Ek\•ati.on of iop of manhole or inlet SIIUcture
10 Friction head loss = column 8 X column 9 (fig. 14.20-0
L] Exil bead loss .rt terminal s.tm>cttire. on D/S end. of run (fig. H -20-a)
12 Emrance head loss a:t terminal S1.mcrure on ~ end of nm (fig. 14.20-b)

FIG uRE 5. 6 T Hydraulic grade line computation form.

 5.6 ■ UTILITY DESIGN 509

/
.,,,,,,,-------
/

~ N
~
~ ':>:,. ....1_ ---- - ---
20
~ ">~ ~• VI
~~--- --
c ~
~
•
+--L-_,__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _++

I
-
/
15 ....1 I _ v3 -o
vi I '- -
,r,L _j\g_'" - - -
.,.---1~---
I
I

Reference Datum

FIG uRE 5. 6 U Schematic diagram for energy grade line and hydraulic grade line.

shown in Table 5.6F. The form is utilized best if each hori- If, as assumed, V = 0, and we use gage pressure as the
zontal line is computed sequentially. reference then ply= 0 and the EGL is equal to the water
surface elevation z. Because V = 0 the HGL is also the
water surface elevation (i.e., HGL = EGL - v2!2g).
STRUCTURE 1
Columns 2, 3, and 4. Structure #1 is a headwall with Column 11. Assuming a loss coefficient k for a square
pipe discharging into a reservoir at water surface (WS) edged headwall= 1.0. The head loss through the head-
elevation = 42.5. The velocity of the water surface of wall is
the reservoir is assumed to be zero if we ignore the
disturbance in the immediate vicinity of the headwall 6·692 )=0.69ft (5.6AH)
Hex =(K) .!'.'.=.=1(
g g
caused by the momentum of the incoming flow. The ex 2 2
EGL at the downstream side of the headwall is
where V is the average discharge velocity in the pipe
P v2 (5.6AG)
EGL=-+-+z (V= QIA).
y 2g
Column 19. On the upstream side of the headwall the
EGL is equal to the EGL at the downstream side plus
the head loss through the structure.
TAB LE 5 . 6 E Data for HGUEGL Example (UIS EGL) 1 = 42.50 + 0.69 = 43.19 ft (5.6AI)
DIAMETER LENGTH SLOPE DISCHARGE
FROM To (IN) (FT) (FT/FT) (CFS) Columns 20 and 21. The HGL at the upstream side of
the headwall is equal to the EGL minus the velocity
4 3 15 200 0.045 15 head in the pipe.
3 2 21 400 0.010 15
2 1 24 300 0.0075 21 (U/S HGL) 1 = 43.19- 6·692 = 42.50 ft (5.6AJ)
2g
510 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii

Pla n View

60 ....................... ................................ . ....................................... ... .. .................. 3

PROPOSED
55 ············· · ··········· ··· ···· ·· ··················· ·············~~.~R~ .......... .......................... .

50

40 ····················· ···· ······ ............ g-.;,····························· .... ................. ...........~;;· .. ················ .. ······~··
z~o ~~o z
-N~ o~o -
~•N ~•~ ~o
O 11 • ~II• ~~
~ ~ ~
01-11 1-II c~
115~ "5!!: 11 n
8>> 8>> 0 >
+~~ +!!:!!a ~~
0+00 2+00 4+00 6+00 8+00

Profile View

FIG uRE 5. 6 V Plan and profile view of pipe system for HGL computation example.

Columns 6 and 7. From Manning's equation the maxi- Columns 9 and 10. The friction slope of the water is
mum discharge through the 24-inch pipe is

0 67
(0.0075) 0·5 ( 22tr:)=17.0 cfs
sf= [ (6.69) 10.0:;11'. 0.011 fl/ft (5.6AM)
Q
max
= ~ (~)
0.015 4
.
4
(5.6AK)
(1.49) (¾) j
The pipe is carrying 21 cfs and is therefore under pres-
The total head loss in the 24-inch pipe is
sure, that is, the HGL is above the crown of the pipe.
The velocity in the pipe is H1 = (0.011)(300) = 3.30 ft (5.6AN)

Q 21
(5.6AL) STRUCTURE 2
V=A= n 22 =6.69fps
Columns 2, 3, and 4. The EGL on the downstream side
4 of structure 2 is equal to the EGL on the upstream side
 TA BLE 5 . 6 F Hydraulic Grade Line Computation Form
PROJECT: EXAMPLE PROBLEM DESIGNED BY: CHECKED BY: _
DESIGN STORM: DATE: DATE:.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
TERMINAL
STRUCTURE
FRICTION LOSS IN PIPE LOSSES JUNCTION LOSSES
STRUCTURE D/S H. D/S 0 0 V L s, H, Hex Henr H. H, H. H, 1.3 H, 0.5 H, U/S
No. EGL OUT HGL (IN) (CFS) (FPS) (FT) (FT/FT) (FT) (FT) (FT) (FT) (FT) (FT) (FT) (FT) (FT) EGL
1 42.50 0 42.50 0.69 43.19
24 21 6.69 300 0.011 3.30
2 46.49 0.69 45.80 0.17 0.21 0.28 0.66 0.86 0.43 46.92
21 15 6.24 400 0.012 4.80
3 51.72 0.60 51.12 0.15 0.81 096 0.48 52.20
15 15 12.2 200 0.072 14.3
4 66.50 2.31 64.19 1.16 67.66
Column
1 Structure identification label
2 EGL elevation at downstream side of structure= preceding column 19 + preceding column 1D
3 Velocity head at the discharge side of the structure= V2/2g
4 HGL elevation = column 2 - column 3
5 Pipe diameter
6 Discharge
7 Discharge velocity
8 Pipe length between structures
9 Friction slope = (Vn/1 .49 R213) 2
10 Friction head loss= column 8 x column 9 (Figure 21.17()
11 Exit head loss at terminal structure on D/S end of run (Figure 21. 17 a)
12 Entrance head loss at terminal structure on U/S end of run (Figure 21. 17 b)
13 Contraction head loss for outflow from a nonterminal structure= k.l•f-0 ,, /2r!J
14 Expansion head loss for inflow into nonterminal manhole= k.ntr(V 2;n/2ri'J
15 Bend head loss due to deflection of flow through manhole (Figure 21. 17 e)
16 Total head loss through the junction = column 13 + column 14 + column 15
17 Head loss for contributing flow from surface inlet= column 16 x 1.3 if surface discharge is greater than 1opercent of the mainline flow
18 Reduction in head loss of column 16 for inlet shaping = column 16 or column 17 x 0.5
19 EGL on the upstream side of the manhole structure= column 2 + column 11 or column 16, 17, or 18
20 Velocity head of the incoming pipe= V2;n/2g
21 HGL on the upstream side of the manhole structure= column 19 - column 20

......en 22 Elevation of top of manhole or inlet structure

512 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
of structure 1 plus the head loss in the pipe between However, hydraulic experts have questioned the effec-
structures 1 and 2. tiveness of inlet shaping for highly turbulent excessive
surcharge flows.
(D/S EGL) 2= 43.19 + 3.30 = 46.49 ft (5.6AO)

The HGL on the downstream side of structure 2 is one STRUCTURE 3

velocity head below the EGL. Computations for structure 3 are similar to structures
1 and 2. Since structure 3 is a manhole type struc-
ture, and no surface water enters through the top,
(D/S HGL) 2= 46.49- 6·692 = 45.80 ft (5.6AP)
2g column 17 does not apply. Note that the EGL across
structure 3 increases, while the HGL decreases, due to
Columns 13, 14, 15, and 16. The head loss through the
the high incoming discharge velocity. This is one case
structure is the combined effects from sudden con-
where the HGL cannot be approximated to the EGL.
traction, sudden expansion, and momentum loss as
the flow is deflected through the 45°. Proceeding in
the upstream direction, the head loss due to sudden STRUCTURE 4
contraction as the flow leaves structure 2 and enters Structure 4 is a terminal structure and therefore only
the pipe is column 12 applies for computing the head loss. Notice
the HGL elevation is above the rim elevation of the
structure. This shows that for the given discharges and
H0 =ko(r_)=0.25( 6 ·692 )=0.17ft (5.6AQ)
pipe design the top of the structure is inundated by 3 feet
2g 2g
of water. If the design discharges are for a frequent storm
The head loss for sudden expansion for incoming flow (i.e., recurrence interval less than or equal to 10 year) this
into structure 2 is pipe design, in all likelihood, would be unacceptable.

HGL Summary. HGL computations are vital to the proper

H; =0.35( \ 2g42 ) = 0.21 ft (5.6AR)
design and construction of storm sewer systems. Keep in
mind that the method described in the previous sample
The bend loss coefficient found on Figure 5.6S is 0.47.
problem is typical; however, many localities have additional
Using the incoming velocity,
or different techniques. Some localities allow head losses at
junctions to be reduced by inlet shaping, as suggested by
2
Hb = 0.47( \ 2; ) = 0.28 ft (5.6AS) column 18 in the HGL spreadsheet, while others do not.
Some state departments of transportation (DOT) also take
The total head loss through the structure HT= 0.17 + conservative approaches to bend losses and junction losses,
0.21 + 0.28 =0.66 foot. The head loss coefficients for sud- so always consult the local design criteria if available.
den expansion and sudden contraction vary according Another conservative approach practiced by many agen-
to the standard design criteria of the local jurisdiction. cies is to assume that the minimum depth of the HGL along
a pipe at the junction location (going upstream) can be no
Column 17. Surface water entering through the top of
lower than a certain depth in the pipe, such as normal depth
the structure disrupts the flow in the mainline and thus
of (D, + D)/2. For example, if calculated junction losses
creates head loss. The recommendation by AASHTO
shows that the elevation of the HGL is near the bottom of
is to increase the total head loss through the structure
the upstream pipe, the user would start the HGL for the
by 30% to account for this additional head loss. This
upstream pipe at (D, + D)/2, not the calculated HGL value.
adjustment is only applicable for surface water enter-
ing the structure in the amount equal to or greater 5.6.5. Culvert Hydraulics
than 10% to 20% of the flow in the mainline of the
pipe, based on local criteria. In this case, 6 cfs (10% x Culvert design considers both open channel flow and a con-
dition of pipe flow. The channel flow to the culvert and after
15 cfs) and the adjustment is made: 1.3 (0.66) = 0.86 ft.
the culvert will influence the hydraulic condition within the
Column 18. Efficiency of flow through the manhole can culvert. In open channel flow either of three turbulent flow
be improved by constructing a trough through the bot- regimes exists: subcritical flow, supercritical flow, or criti-
tom of the structure to direct the flow. This is known as cal flow. The discharge energy, relative to the channel bed,
inlet shaping. Most design standards for storm sewer is referred to as the specific energy and is mathematically
manholes incorporate inlet shaping. If the storm sewer defined as
structure incorporates inlet shaping the total head loss v2
through the structure, in this case, is reduced 50% (this E=y+- (5.6AT)
2g
value varies according to local criteria). Column 16
(or column 17 for surface inlet structures) is decreased. where y is the depth of flow, Vis the average cross-sectional
For this structure, column 18 = 0.5(0.86) = 0.43 foot. velocity, and E is the specific energy.
 5.6 ■ UTILITY DESIGN 513

For one particular combination of depth and velocity, for a where A is the cross-sectional area of flow and B is the width
specified discharge, the specific energy is a minimum. This par- of the channel at the free surface of the water. Hydraulically,
ticular discharge is the critical flow. Alternatively, critical flow a control section restricts the transmission of the effect of
is the condition of flow when, for a given energy content of the changes in flow conditions, either in the upstream or down-
water, the discharge is a maximum. For the same discharge, flows stream direction, depending on the state of flow.
above this minimum energy may exist as either high depth-low The amount of water entering a culvert is determined by the
velocity or low depth-high velocity. In the former case flow is location of the control section. If the control section is at the
subcritical, the latter is supercritical flow. The parameter that inlet (i.e., inlet control) the amount of flow into the culvert is
distinguishes flow regimes, the Froude number, is a dimension- restricted by entrance conditions and the flow into the culvert is
less number. The Froude number, as seen in Equation (5.6AU), less than what the culvert might actually carry. Ifthe control sec-
is the ratio of inertial forces to gravitational forces of the flow: tion is at the downstream end (i.e., outlet control) the amount
of flow through the barrel is controlled by the combination of
V_
F, _ _ (5.6AU)
R-,,jgci;, conditions on the downstream side of the culvert, inlet configu-
ration, and hydraulic properties of the barrel itself.
In this equation, dh is the hydraulic depth (the cross-sectional Inlet Control. When the control section is near the inlet,
area of flow divided by the width of the channel at the water only the headwater depth and inlet configuration determines
surface), V is the velocity, and g is gravitational accelera- the amount of water entering the culvert. In most cases, the
tion. At critical flow FR = I, for subcritical flow FR less than amount of water entering the culvert is less than what the
1 and at supercritical flow FR greater than 1. The location in barrel is capable of carrying. Consequently, the barrel is
the channel section where flow changes from subcritical to flowing less than full. Conceivably, for a given inlet configu-
supercritical flow, that is, FR equal to 1, is defined as a control ration, the culvert can flow full if the headwater depth is high
section. At a control section, there exists a unique relation enough to force enough water through the inlet. The head-
between depth and discharge, given as water depth necessary to achieve full flow in the barrel of
the culvert is very large, and is usually not achievable given
0
u
=vya (5.6AV) practical site constraints. Figure 5.6W illustrates the various
types of inlet control.

-fs LL~~::~----
• HW -----~ 7 ..;:a,. .iOJ►=

o) Inlet & outlet unsubmerged. Flow b) Although the outlet is submerged,

passes through crltlcal depth just flow is still under inlet control. A
downstream of entrance resulting hydraulic jump forms os flow goes
In partly full supercritical flow In from supercrltlcal to subcrltlcal
barrel. Flow approaches normal near lower end.
depth of outlet.

Median Drain

c) A more typical design situation of d) Both ends submerged do not assure

Inlet control'. The Inlet Is submerged outlet control nor full flow. As
& the outlet flows freely. Flow Is supercrltlcol flow goes to subcritlcal
supercritical In barrel & approaches flow, a hydraulic jump forms. If
normal depth near outlet. the median Inlet did not provide
ventilation, subatmospherlc pressures
would develop which could cause the
barrel to alternate between full flow
& partial flow.

FIG uRE 5. 6 W Types of inlet control.

514 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
For flows that do not submerge the inlet, as in a and Similarly, minor losses are computed as a fraction of the
b of Figure 5.6W, the flow into the culvert is modeled as velocity head (kinetic energy) as given in the equation:
weir flow. For submerged conditions, the flow into the
culvert is modeled as orifice flow. Equations (5.6AW), (5.6BA)
(5.6AX), and (5.6AY) were determined from experimen-
tal data on culverts by the National Bureau of Standards
where the factor k is empirically determined and depends on
(NBS). Equations (5.6AW) and (5.6AX) are for unsub-
geometry and hydraulic characteristics. Table 5.6H provides
merged conditions and Equation (5.6AY) is for submerged
values of k for various entrance conditions. In most cases the
(orifice) conditions. [Equation (5.6AX) is another form of
k value for exit loss is 1.0.
Equation (5.6AW)].
Friction loss H1 in the barrel of the culvert, depends on
culvert material and geometry. Using the Manning equation
D
HW
=He+ K
[ Q
AD05
]M + Cs (for Q/AD 05 :,; 3.5) (5.6AW) the friction loss is given as

0
HW; =K [ -
D
-]M
AD 05
(for QIAD 05 ::;3.5) (5.6AX) H
t
=[29n 2
R1.33
L]~
29
(5.6BB)

2 where n is Manning's roughness coefficient, L is the barrel

HW' =c [ -Q- ] +Y +C
- (for Q IAD 05 :2:4.0) (5.6AY)
D ADo5 s length, and Vis the average discharge velocity in the barrel.
The variable R is the hydraulic radius = A/WP, whereas A is
where HW; is the headwater depth above inlet control sec- the cross-sectional area of the culvert, and WP is the wetted
tion invert (feet), D is the interior height of culvert barrel perimeter.
(feet), He is the specific head at critical depth (de + v2!2g) The head loss through a straight culvert of uniform cross
(feet), Q is the discharge (cfs), A is the full cross-sectional section is
area of culvert barrel (square feet), C, is the slope correction
factor [= 0.7S for mitered inlets and C, = -0.5S for all other
H= ( 1 + ke+~ -
29n 2 L) v2 (5.6BC)
inlets where Sis the culvert barrel slope (ft/ft)], and K, M, c, R 2g
Y are constants from Table 5.6G.
The Federal Highway Administration has developed where ke is the entrance loss coefficient. For culverts with
numerous nomographs for various culvert shapes for inlet bends, sudden expansions, and other features that create
control. Figures 5.6X, 5.6Y, and 5.62 illustrate several of these energy losses, additional terms are added to Equation (5.6BC).
nomographs. Others are available in the Hydraulic Design Procedure for Culvert Design
of Highway Culverts (1985) or from software available from 1. Determine the culvert alignment. The most desir-
FHWA Culvert Hydraulics Software, HY-8. able alignment follows the natural streambed.
Outlet Control. When the control section is at the Although factors such as economics, environmental
downstream side of the culvert, flow through the cul- issues, maintenance considerations, and other site
vert is either subcritical or pressure flow. Additionally, constraints contribute to the alignment selection.
the amount of flow through the culvert is governed by Setting the alignment also determines the length and
hydraulic characteristics of both the culvert and tailwater slope of the culvert.
conditions. In culverts under outlet control, the barrel is 2. Select the design storm, which is frequently dictated
not capable of carrying all the water that passes through by state or local criteria. For culverts crossing road-
the inlet. Figure 5.6AA shows the various types of outlet ways, the type of roadway affects the design storm.
control conditions. For secondary roads, the recurrence interval may
Flow through the culvert is a balance between the energy range from 10 to 25 year storm. On major high-
available to pass the water through and the energy consumed ways and interstates, the recurrence interval may
by friction and minor losses. The energy balance is given by be 50 year or greater. Other criteria affecting design
may be the free board distance or depth of flow
HWO + -
v~ = TW + -+
v~ 2, H L (5.6AZ) allowed on the roadway for a storm other than the
2g 2g
design storm.
where HW is the headwater depth above the outlet invert,
O
3. Utilizing land use maps, topographic maps, and
Vu is the approach velocity of the water at the inlet, TW =
whatever hydrologic technique is best suited for the
tailwater depth above the outlet invert, Vd is the discharge
area (e.g., rational method, NRCS methodology, and
velocity of the water at the outlet, and I.H1 represents the
regional equations) determine the design discharge
summation of all energy losses through the barrel.
for the culvert.
As with pipe flow, energy losses for culverts are attrib-
uted to barrel roughness (friction), and minor losses at the 4. Select the culvert material and shape that best con-
inlet and outlet, as well as bends and other appurtenances. forms to the constraints of the site. Note, certain
 TAB LE 5 . 6 G Constants for Inlet Control Design Equations
UNSUBMERGED

CHART No. SHAPE AND MATERIAL MONOGRAPH SCALE INLET EDGE DESCRIPTION EQUATION FORM K M
1 Circular 1 Square edge w/headwall 1 0.0098 2.0 0.(
concrete 2 Groove end w/head wall .0078 2.0 .(
3 Groove end projecting .0045 2.0 .(

2 Circular 1 Headwall 1 .0078 2.0 O.~

CMP 2 Mitered to slope .0210 1.33 Q.L
3 Projecting .0340 1.50 o.e
3 Circular A Beveled ring, 45° bevels 1 .0018 2.50 .(
B Beleveled ring, 33.7° bevels .0018 2.50 .(

8 Rectangular 1 30-75% wingwall flares .026 1.0 .(

box 2 90° and 15° wingwall flares 1 .061 .75 .(
3 0° wingwall flares .061 .75 .(

9 Rectangular 1 45° wingwall flared= .0430 2 .510 .667 .(

box 2 18°-33.7° wingwall flared= .0830 .486 .667 .(

10 Rectangular 1 90° headwall w/¾ chamfers 2 .515 .667 .(

box 2 90° headwall w/45° bevels .495 .667 .(
3 90° headwall w/33.7° bevels .486 .667 .(

11 Rectangular 1 ¾ chamfers; 45° skewed headwall 2 .522 .667 .(

box 2 ¾" chamfers; 30° skewed headwall .533 .667 .(
3 ¾" chamfers; 15° skewed headwall .545 .667 .(
4 45° bevels; 10-45° skewed headwall .598 .667 .(

12 Rectangular 1 45° nonoffset wingwall flares 2 .497 .667 .(

box 2 18.4" nonoffset wingwall flares .493 .667 .(
¾" 3 18.4" nonoffset wingwall flares .495 .667 .(
chamfers 30° skewed barrel
13 Rectangular 1 45° wingwall flares, offset 2 .497 .667 .(
box 2 33.7° wingwall flares, offset .495 .667 .(
Top bevels 3 18.4° wingwall flares, offset .493 .667 .(

16-19 CM boxes 1 90° headwall 1 .0083 2.0 .(

2 Thick wall projecting .0145 1.75
...enen 3 Thin wall projecting .0340 1.5
.(
.(
-
en
a, TABLE 5. 6 G Constants for Inlet Control Design Equations (Continued)
UNSUBMERGED

CHART No. SHAPE AND MATERIAL MONOGRAPH SCALE INLET EDGE DESCRIPTION EQUATION FORM K M
29 Horizontal 1 Square edge with headwall 1 0.0100 2.0 0.(
ellipse 2 Groove end with headwall .0018 2.5 .(
concrete 3 Groove end projecting .0045 2.0 .(
r
30 Vertical 1 Square edge with headwall 1 .0100 2.0 .,
r
ellipse 2 Groove end with headwall .0018 2.5 ·'-
concrete 3 Groove end projecting .0095 2.0 .(

34 Pipe arch 1 90° headwall 1 .0083 2.0 .(

18" corner 2 Mitered to slope .0300 1.0 .(
Radius CM 3 Projecting .0340 1.5 .(

35 Pipe arch 1 Projecting 1 .0296 1.5 .(

18" corner 2 No bevels .0087 2.0 .(
Radius CM 3 33.7° bevels .0030 2.0 .(

36 Pipe arch 1 Projecting 1 .0296 1.5 .(

31" corner No bevels .0087 2.0 .(
Radius CM 33.7° bevels .0030 2.0 .(

40-42 Arch CM 1 90° headwall 1 .0083 2.0 .(

2 Mitered to slope .0300 2.0 .(
3 Thin wall projecting .0340 1.5 .(

54 Circular 1 Smooth tapered inlet throat 2 .534 .555 .(

2 Rough tapered inlet throat .519 .64 .(

55 Elliptical 1 Tapered inlet, beveled edges 2 .536 .622 .(

Inlet face 2 Tapered inlet, square edges .5035 .719 .(
3 Tapered inlet, thin edge projecting .547 .80 .(

56 Rectangular 1 Tapered inlet throat 2 .475 .667 .(

57 Rectangular 1 Side tapered, less favorable edges 2 .56 .667 .(

concrete 2 Side tapered, more favorable edges .56 .667 .(

58 Rectangular 1 Slope tapered, less favorable edges 2 .50 .667 .(

concrete Slope tapered, more favorable edges .50 .667 .(

Reference: FHWA, Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts, HDS-5, 1985.

 5.6 ■ UTILITY DESIGN 517

□CHART 8 12
600
II ( I) (2) (3)
500 9
EXAMPLE 8 10
10 15'• 2' Boa 7!1 Cfl 8
400 QI 7

9 300 1n11t

(I)
0/8 • HI ch/fl.

o
HW

1.715
..
, ,
HW

l .5
6

5
6

5
7 8
7
6
8 (I!) 1.90 3.8 4 s
200
(3) l!.O!I 4. 1 4
4
7 3
3
3
I-
0 100
6 0
I&.
80 ~ 2

5
II:
"'a.
Cl)
I&.
60
50
3
~
/1-
-- 2
2

(.)
/ ~ 1,5
I-
l&J
z 40 / l&J 1.5
l&J ::c 1.5
I&. ii
z 4 g 30
....~
~/ I&.
0
en
e
><
::c
I-
0 20/
/ :E
II:
l&J
0 1.0
CD i /
I-

I&.
~-- z
1.0
0
.....
::c
0
3
/
/w
0
II: 10
....... ~
Wl•t••II
Flore -
:J:
I-
a.
l&J
.9

.8
.9
1.0

.9
l&J
::c / C
::c
8
0
II:
/ (.)
Cl) l&.I
I- 8 ::..A. -
/ 0 <I .7
6 3:
/ I&.
0 0

/ 0
5
~ SCALE WINGWALL ..,
C
.7 .7
:r
~ I- 4 D FLARE .6
C
II: (I) :,o• 10 75•
3 (2) 9O°Hd 15° .6 .6
(:S) O•1111u1io111 .5
of aidea)
2
.5 .5
To UH 1cal1 (21 or (3) proltcl
llori1ot1to11, to ICOII (I), ,~en
uH 1trai9III iacllHd Ii•• throvt~ .4
0 ..,. 0 1ul11,or rt•••ae
a1
lllu1trot1d.
.8 .4 .4

.6
.35 .35
.5 .30
HEADWATER DEPTH
FOR BOX CULVERTS
BUREAU OF PUBLIC IIOAOS J4N. 19M
WITH INLET CONTROL

FIG u RE 5. 6 X HDS-5 chart 8, nomograph for headwater depth for box culvert with inlet control.
s1a J@U4ii IM·ll41iM

180 10,000
CHART 10
168 8,000 EXAMPLE (I) (2) (3)
6.
Ie6 D• 42 lnclle1 (3.5 fMt)
6,000
O• 120 ch
144 5,000

132
4,000 y• ,... MW

3,000
120
ll)
12)
2.5
2 .1
•••
7.4
2,000 (:S) l!.I! 1.1
108
•o Ill fMt

96 1,000
800
84 /
600
/
500
/ ~ 2.
400 /
....•
72
Cl)

"':c 300 '"'v

~~
:c 1,5 1.5
(,) en
~
f/)
I&.
/ a:
z 60 (,) 200 / "'I- 1.5
~ / "'2<C
§ 54 /
...a: ~ a
/1&1 100
l&I
_,
>
::::,
48
/
/ :
Cl:
80
~

...
:c
(,)
% 60 CL 1.0 1.0
(,)
II.
0
°'42 Cl)
a
50
11.! SCALE ENTRANCE "'
0
1,0
40 D TYPE a:
Cl:
"' "' .9 .9
I-
"'Cl:2 n
38 30 (I) s,Hrl edll wltll
IIHdwell i
0
Cl:
.9

a 30 20 (2)
.........
GrooH .... willl
"':c
,8
.a .8
(3) Gron■ end
,,,1ect1111
27
10
.7 .r
24 •
6
.7
To UH 1cale (2) or (3) preJ ■ ct
e llorlrontan, II 1c■ I ■ CI), ,11,11
21 ~H 1troltlll l11clln1d llo tllroutll
4 D end O ICOIH, If rtwene H .6 .6
illuetratad.
3
18
2

15
.5
.5 .5
1.0

12 HEADWATER DEPTH FOR

HEADWATER SCALES 2 8 3
CONCRETE PIPE CULVERTS
REVISED MAY 1964 WITH INLET CONTROL
BUREAU OF PU8LIC ROADS JAN. ttU

FIG uRE 5 • 6 Y HDS-5 chart 1, nomograph for headwater depth for concrete pipe culvert with inlet control.
 5.6 ■ UTILITY DESIGN 519

0 CHART 2

...
168
156

144
, 10,000
8,000
6,000
e,ooo
4,000
Q•••
EXAMPLE
O• Se lnchH (S,0 fHI)
ch

MW a
(I)

I.

s.
(2)

I.
(3)
MW
132 . 3,000 T (fHI)
6.
:I s.
d
II)
••• &.4
120

106
...,
w
C
2,000 12)
(S)
t .,
t.Z
,.s
••• 4.
e.
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12 HEADWATER DEPTH FOR

C. M. PIPE CULVERTS
Bl/REAU Of' PUBI.IC ROAOS JAftl. 1905
WITH INLET CONTROL

FIG uRE 5 . 6 Z HDS-5 chart 2, nomograph for headwater depth for corrugated metal pipe culvert with inlet control.
520 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii

1-r ~:s~~s.
Water
Surface L------,

a) full flow condition with barrel ends d) A more typical situation with Inlet
submerged; often assumed In submerged and free flowing outlet.
calculations, but seldom actually Barrel length Is partly full with
exists. subcrltlcal flow and partly super-
crltlcal flow near outlet.

!w~ L ~ "'-s
b) Outlet submerged, Inlet unsubmerged.
l~s. ~wlv L ~-~ ~ s.

cfs. e) Another more typical situation: neither

outlet nor Inlet ls submerged. Barrel
ls partly full with subcrltlcal flow.

c) full flow condition with Inlet submerged

and outlet unsubmerged. The extremely
high HW required to maintain this
condition makes this a rare occurrence
and results In high outlet velocltles.

FIGURE 5.&AA Typesofoutletcontrol.

materials and shapes may not be readily available 100-year design discharge = 690 cfs with tailwater depth =
from suppliers. For example, low embankment 4.3 feet. At least 1.5 feet of freeboard is required for the
height may warrant the use of elliptical pipe or high 25-year design discharge, and the maximum allowable
embankments may warrant structurally enhanced flow depth over the embankment for the 100-year design
material. Aesthetics may also affect the selection of discharge is 12 inches. The upstream invert elevation =
material and shape. 314.2 feet, the downstream invert elevation 313.8 feet, and
the top of the roadway elevation = 324.5 feet. The culvert is
5. Size the culvert either using the equations for inlet
140 feet long. Assume flared wingwalls with angle of flare
and outlet control or the culvert nomographs,
between 30° and 75° and square edge conditions. The mini-
whichever gives the greatest controlling elevation.
mum allowable cover over the culvert is 3.0 feet. From the
The FHWA culvert design form of Figure 5.6BB
given data the constraints for the 25-year discharge are
provides a guide to the selection of a culvert. For
the design discharge, the headwater depth is com - Maximum headwater depth= 324.5-1.5- 314.2 = 8.8 ft
puted assuming inlet control and outlet control. Maximum culvert height= 324.5-3-314.2 = 7.3 ft
The type of control that produces the highest
headwater depth is the governing control for the Slope= 314 ·2 - 313 ·8 = 0.003 ft/ft
140
design.
(5.6B0)
6. After sizing the culvert for the design discharge
check to see that other requirements as dictated by Sizing a culvert is a trial and error procedure. Estimating
applicable design standards are met. Such require- a "first try" size becomes more intuitive with experience. In
ments might include; freeboard height or roadway this example, select a trial HW/D based on the maximum
overtopping for lower recurrence interval storms, headwater depth and culvert height, HW/D = 8.8/7.3 = 1.2
effects and impacts of upstream ponding, the need to obtain a first approximation. (Note: When finalizing the
for erosion control for excessive outlet velocities, culvert design, the site engineer should consider the physi-
structural stability, etc. cal characteristics of an installation and determine that the
culvert will fit safely underneath the roadway pavement box.
Culvert Design Example. Size a concrete (n = 0.013, This should be done by drawing a profile of the culvert with
k, = 0.5) box culvert for the following constraints: 25-year relation to the proposed ground above the culvert. The thick-
design discharge = 461 cfs with tailwater depth = 2.6 feet; ness of the culvert should also be considered when profiling
 5.6 ■ UTILITY DESIGN 521

TA BL E 5 . 6 H Entrance Loss Coefficients

OUTLET CONTROL, FULL OR PARTLY FULL ENTRANCE HEAD Loss

H. =K.(~;)
TYPE OF STRUCTURE AND DESIGN OF ENTRANCE COEFFICIENT k9

Pipe, Concrete
Projecting from fill, socket end (groove end) 0.2
Projecting from fill, square cut end 0.5
Headwall or headwall and wingwalls 0.2
Socket end of pipe (groove end)
Square-edge 0.5
Rounded (radius = 1/12 fJJ 0.2
Mitered to conform to fill slope 0.7
End section conforming to fill slope* 0.5
Beveled edges, 33.7 or 45° bevels 0.2
Side- or slope-tapered inlet 0.2
Pipe or Pipe-Arch, Corrugated Metal
Projecting from fill (no headwall) 0.9
Headwall or headwall and wingwalls square edge 0.5
Mitered to conform to fill slope, paved or unpaved slope 0.7
End section conforming to fill slope* 0.5
Beveled edges, 33.7° or 45° bevels 0.2
Side- or slope-tapered inlet 0.2
Box, Reinforced Concrete
Headwall parallel to embankment (no wingwalls)
Square-edged on 3 edges 0.5
Rounded on 3 edges to radius of 1/12 barrel dimension, or beveled edges on 3 sides 0.2
Wingwalls at 30°-75° to barrel
Square-edged at crown 0.4
Crown edge rounded to radius of 1/12 barrel dimension, or beveled top edge 0.2
Wingwall at 10°-25° to barrel
Square-edged at crown 0.5
Wingwalls parallel (extension of sides)
Square-edged at crown 0.7
Side- or slope-tapered inlet 0.2
*Note. End section conforming to fill slope, made of either metal or concrete, are the sections commonly available from manufacturers. From limited hydraulic tests they are
equivalent in operation to a headwall in both inlet and outlet control. Some end sections, incorporating a closed taper in their design have a superior hydraulic performance.
Reference: FHWA, Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts, HDS-5, 1985.

the system.) For inlet control conditions use the nomograph Now check the HW depth for outlet control conditions.
in Figure 5.6X. On the scale at the right, for HW/D = 1.2, From Table 5.6H for the given headwall/wingwall configura-
extend a straight line to the left scale (height of box) value tion, the entrance loss coefficient k, is 0.5. Substituting the
of 7 and read QI B = 68 cfs/ft on the middle scale. Therefore values into Equation (5.6BC) gives
a discharge of 461 cfs requires a 461/68 = 6.8-foot-wide box
culvert. The first trial size is 7 x 7 feet. The corresponding H = ( 1+ 0 _5 + (29)(0.013) 2 (140)) (461/ 49) 2 2 _5 ft
headwater depth is 8.3 feet. (49/28) 413 2g
(5.6BE)
522 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
PROJECT : STATION :

SHEET _ __ OF
CULVERT

DESIGNER /DATE :
DESIGN FORM
., ___
REVIEWER/ DATE : I
HYDROLOGICAL DATA
EL114 : _ _ (f117 ROADWAY ELEVATION : (Ill

:i 0 ll[THOO :
: 0 DRAINAGE AREA : _ _ _ 0 STRUII st.OPE :_ _ _
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DESIGN FLOWS/TAIL!MJIR EL1 (It)
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R. I. (YEARS! FLOW(clt) TW(H) S• $ 0 - FALL/ La EL0 : _ _ (H)

S•
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!,U!,VERT DESCRIPT>QN : TOTA&. FLO• HEAOWA1£R CAU:ll.ATIONS

. "' ._,
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MAT(R\AL • SHAPE-S IZE · ENTRANCE
Fl.OW
"" INLET CONTRCt. OUTLET CONTRCt.
u . COMMENTS
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TE&HNI~!, FOOTNOTf;!I: (4) El.Iii" HW;• EljllNVOIT ~ 16) ho • TW o, I de• 0/2)! WHICHEYt:R B GIIEA'ltll)
Ill USE Q/NB FOR BOX CULVERTS iNlET CONTROL SECTION)
(tl H• ~• ••• (:t,nZ L) 111W J V 1 l2t

IZ) HW i 10 • MW /0 OR MW 1 10 FROM OUIGN CH Al<TS 1•1 TW BASEO 011 OOWII STREAII (a) flt,o • ELo t K+ ho
CONTROL 011 n.ow DEPTH 11
13) F"AlL• HW. -(ELM- EL 1 r) i FA\.l tS ZERO CHAIIN[l.
n"lilll na \WDT\ID. CJ\I mll.&ne"

SUBSCRIPT DEFINITIONS : COMMENTS /DISCUSSION: CU~t;RT IARRt;!, Sn.ECTED ;

• • A"1tOXIIIIATI
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FIGURE 5.68B Culvertdesignform.

The critical depth, d, for the box culvert using the given data is The second part of the design is to check if the flow depth
over the road embankment for the 100-year discharge is less
than 12 inches. From the nomograph in Figure 5.6X extend
d,=0.315~rnJ a straight line from the left scale (height of box = 7 feet)
through the QI B = 690/7 = 98 cfs/ft and read HW / D = 1.8 on
=0.315~( 4~1J (5.6BF) scale 1 at the left. The resulting headwater depth= (7 x 1.8) =
12.6 feet.
=5.1ft Now determine the headwater depth for outlet control
conditions. From Equation (5.6BC):
and (d, + D)/2 = (5.1 + 7)/2 = 6.1 feet. The variable h0 is the
greater of either the tailwater elevation or (d, + D)/2. Here
(d, + D)/2 = 6.1 feet> TW = 2.6 feet. H j 2
1+ 0. 5 + (29) (0.013)2(140)] (690/49) = 5.6 ft
Finally, the headwater depth for outlet control is l 49/2Bt3 ( 2g
(5.6BH)
HW=H+ho-LS 0
=2,5+6.1-140(,003)=8,1 ft (5.6BG) This same value can be obtained using the outlet control
nomograph for concrete box culvert of Figure 5.6CC. First
Since the headwater depth for inlet control (= 8.3 feet) and draw a straight line from the dimension of square box scale
outlet control(= 8.1 feet) are both less than or equal to the (7 x 7 feet) to the length scale value of 140 feet for ke = 0.5.
maximum allowable headwater depth (= 8.8 feet), a 7 x Next draw a straight line from the discharge scale(= 690 cfs)
7-foot box culvert is an acceptable size. Also, since the head- through the point where the previously drawn line intersects
water depth for inlet control is greater than the headwater the turn line to the head (H) scale on the left. Read a value
depth for outlet control, the culvert operates as inlet control. of H = 5.6 feet.
 5.6 ■ UTILITY DESIGN 523

CHART 15
□
5000

For Rlttet ,,..,. MU ....... , •• d. COl"O,C.,fe MW .,

12x12 . . .._., -..C.rilNd • ....., -•••P o,oced.,. .4

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5

HEAD FOR
CONCRETE BOX CULVERTS
FLOWING FULL
AU 0, l'Ull lC IIOAOS JAH , 1963 n = 0.012
FIG uRE 5. 6 CC Outlet control nomograph for example problem.
524 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
The critical depth de is inlet control nomograph (Figure 5.6X) construct a straight
line from scale HW/D scale 1 for HW/D = 1.61 to the left
scale for D = 7 feet. Read QIB = 90 and find Q = 7(90) =
dc=0.315~rnJ 630 cfs. The total flow of culvert and weir flow is 630 + 270 =
760 cfs. Our 100-year design discharge is equal to 690 cfs.
= 0.315~( 6~0 J (5.6B1) Therefore, there is sufficient capacity within the culvert and
the 1 foot of allowable overtopping of the road to pass the
= 6.5 ft design discharge. A trial and error process using the same
where (de+ D)/2 = (6.5 + 7)/2 = 6.8 feet. Hence the variable procedures could calculate the actual 100-year water surface
h0 = 6.8 feet. The headwater depth for outlet control is elevation.
This example uses the culvert nomograph for inlet con-
HW=H+h 0 -LS 0 trol to calculate the headwater depth. Equations (5.6AW),
= 5.6 + 6.8 -140 (.003) = 12.0 ft (5.6BJ) (5.6AX), and (5.6AY) could have also been used for the same
purpose. The nomograph is convenient and quick, however,
For the 100-year discharge the culvert operates under inlet a variety of computer programs are available to assist and
control (i.e., 12.6 is greater than 12.0). automate the culvert analysis process.
Based on the assumption of no roadway overtopping, the Major Culverts. The preceding example demonstrates how
headwater elevation for the 100-year discharge is 326.8 feet, a 7 x 7-foot box culvert would meet the minimum design
which is 2.3 feet above the road. Finding the actual depth requirements for the given discharges. Major culverts usu-
over the road is another trial and error procedure. For a ally have different definitions in different localities but are
given headwater (above elevation 324.5 feet) the total flow is usually large single and multiple cell culverts with drainage
the amount that the given headwater depth pushes through areas 200 acres or greater. These crossings may not fall under
the culvert plus the amount of flow going over the embank- floodplain requirements mandated by localities or the fed-
ment. The objective is to find the headwater depth where the eral government, and therefore careful consideration should
combined flows equal the specific design discharge. be given to the analysis, design, and construction of these
Flow over the embankment is typically modeled as a weir. structures.
The length of the weir and depth of water over the weir are When analyzing larger culvert crossings, simple single-
difficult to determine when the road profile is a sag vertical basin hydrology or rational method hydrology may not be
curve or when the embankment surface has a very irregular appropriate. Developing models to take into account ter-
shape. There are various numerical methods to approximate rain, soil types, land covers and various inflow points may be
each of these values. Sometimes a simple approximation of a necessary, and therefore developing a rainfall runoff model
broad crested rectangular weir can be used. For more com- with NRCS methodology may be appropriate. Regression
plex situations, many culvert analysis programs will allow equations or other "regionally adopted" approaches may be
for the input of the roadway profile above the culvert and suitable and even required by some localities to estimate the
calculate the weir flow incrementally over the road until the runoff to the culvert. The range of storms required for analy-
resulting discharge balances. Weir flow is sis may vary as well. Larger culverts may need to be designed
for 25-, 50-, or even the 100-year storm events based on the
Ow=CwLH 312 (5.6BK)
classification of the roadway, proximity to existing or pro-
where Cw is a weir coefficient that depends on the shape and posed development, or localized soil conditions.
depth of water above the weir relative to the depth of water Hydraulic analysis and design of these major culvert
below the weir, L is the length of the weir, and H is the depth crossings may also require more complex approaches than
of water above the weir. For a broad crested trapezoidal weir previously described. The nomographs used in the previous
Cw ranges between 2.5 to 3.1. Refer to hydraulic handbooks, example, although still effective in predicting the appropri-
such as Brater and King, for various other values for different ate size of a culvert, may be overly conservative. With many
types of weirs. major culvert crossings, a more appropriate hydraulic analy-
To determine if the roadway overtops less than one foot, sis may be more similar to a stormwater management or res-
as was required in the example problem; assume that a ervoir routing process than simple pipe flow. The nomograph
SO-foot-long rectangular weir approximates the overtopping approach does not consider storage on the upstream side of
portion of the roadway. Using Equation (5.6BK), a Cw= 2.6, the culvert. Hand calculations (typical reservoir routing)
L = 50 feet and H = 1 foot (allowable overtopping) yields a or most simple hydrologic computer programs can handle
weir discharge of 130 cfs. Next, we determine whether the these calculations and the results give a more realistic answer
combination of weir flow and culvert flow, at the allowable to the headwater elevations and discharge through the cul-
elevation of 325.5 (1 foot above the road elevation), is suf- vert. The computer models can also provide an approxima-
ficient to pass the 100-year discharge. tion of the amount of time the culvert embankments may be
Using an elevation of 325.5, the corresponding HWID saturated during a particular storm event. Oversaturation of
ratio of (325.5 - 314.2)/7 = 1.61. From the box culvert with water sitting behind a culvert for long periods of time could
 5.6 ■ UTILITY DESIGN 525

cause eventual slope and/or erosion problems with certain size in order to reduce upstream water surface elevations
soil types and embankments. could be warranted.
More detailed hydraulic programs (step backwater pro- Another consideration to culvert sizing includes provid-
grams such as HEC-RAS or WSPRO) may also be helpful in ing for the increase in runoff from proposed upstream devel-
analyzing the impacts major culverts have on the upstream opment. Oftentimes, communities will require the designer
property. Major culverts may also have bend losses or be to consider the potential for upstream development, usually
located in series such that these models can better predict based off an approved comprehensive or zoning plan. For
the water surface elevations for the different design storms. many culvert installations, the required design storm could
Upstream conditions may be more affected by the head- be the 10-, 25-, or even SO-year storm. Most localities do not
water conditions at the culvert, and as a result, the amount regulate stormwater management (SWM) controls to miti-
of impact to the upstream property and where that impact gate for the 25- or SO-year storm events. Many localities only
would dissipate or tie-out can be determined. This type consider the IO-year and smaller events. Therefore, a culvert
of analysis may be required (even if a floodplain analy- located in the lower part of a watershed, especially where
sis is not) so that the proper easements can be obtained development potential is high, should be sized to accommo-
upstream to encompass the predicted increase in water sur- date the increase in peak discharges over time.
face elevations.
There are other issues when dealing with major culverts 5.6.6. Plan Content
that may factor into the overall size and hydraulic require- The storm drainage information shown on a site plan is
ments. For instance, upstream flood stages may be increased depicted in both plan and profile views. The plan views will
above what might be acceptable. Besides the local design show the horizontal alignment of the storm drainage network
criteria, another consideration is the amount of upstream while the profiles will depict the vertical information. Sup-
land inundated because of the increased flood elevation. In porting computations and results should be included with
flat areas, with significant land value, a 0.5-foot rise in flood a narrative that defines basic assumptions, many of which
stage may mean acres ofland impacted by flooding, resulting will be coordinated with hydrologic calculations (defined
in reduced development potential or increased development in Chapter 5.5). A sample plan sheet with typical features is
costs for grading. Therefore, the cost to increase the culvert shown in Figure 5.6DD.
52& i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
I Dewberry·
,.
I

0 .,
Ii
11

-I

00 0 •

-~ I

0 -
:A

0
I

,.
I •

0
qr.

I· 5
I ~t
""""

1. Plan view with storm sewer alignments shown

2. Notes and profile legend specific to profile sheets, reference sheet where
storm computations are provided
3. Storm structure label, rim elevation, and height of structure
4. Existing and proposed grade line at centerline of pipe network
5. Proposed and existing utility crossings shown. labeled, and dimensioned
6. Pipe label for size, length, slope, and material
7. Structure information for invert in, out, and structure type/size
8. Stations and elevations for profile grid

FIG uRE 5 • 6 DD Storm drain plan and profile.

 5.6 ■ UTILITY DESIGN 527

SPRINGFIELD GARDENS PHASE D

Location: Springfield Gardens, Queens, NY
Client: NYC Economic Development Corporation
Completion Date: Spring 2016
Case Study: The Springfield Gardens Community in Queens, New York, was originally settled in 1640. Today it is
a working-class neighborhood consisting of 40,000 residents with two land use functions, residential and industrial.
Development of the area came in the 1920s with the expansion of Long Island Rail Road. The irrigation system was
originally created to supply water for crops and later incorporated into the city's water system until the ponds became
polluted. Using sustainable green infrastructure principles, stormwater is collected in the newly installed catch basins
and discharged into the wetlands where the water is naturally filtered. The project alleviated flooding and refurbished
the area with vegetative diversity and a thriving wildlife habitat. The residents now have park programs to connect with
nature and experience the wonders of an urban ecosystem.
The NYC Economic Development Corporation, the NYC Department of Environmental Protection (NYCDEP), and
the NYC Department of Transportation collaborated to develop a solution for the chronic flooding and poor roadway
conditions in the Springfield Gardens section of southeastern Queens in New York City. The project included recon-
struction of2.5 miles of roadway, sanitary and storm sewer improvements constructed in tandem with best management
practices (BMPs) and drainage improvements in Springfield and Idlewild Parks.
The purpose of the project was threefold: (1) relieve the flooding, (2) naturally convey and treat stormwater by improv-
ing degraded ecological conditions in the Parks, and (3) improve the flow of traffic along Springfield Boulevard.
Before this project, there were no storm sewers in the area so even small amounts of rainfall caused flooded streets.
Residents would open sanitary sewer manholes during storm events to alleviate the street flooding. Complaints to the
City were not being addressed because the NYC Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) had an official drain-
age plan that called for the roadways to be raised 4 to 5 feet to "legal grade:' This would put the homes and businesses
several feet below the street and would have simply moved the flooding from the streets to the homes and businesses.
DEP recognized that was an unacceptable solution.
Dewberry was able to design a storm sewer system that resolved the flooding without raising the street significantly and
worked with the regulators at DEP to gain acceptance of the system design and revised drainage plan. The strategy was to
direct stormwater to the open water system in the Parks, rather than build a conventional storm sewer system that would
discharge untreated water to Jamaica Bay. Dewberry's design incorporated BMPs that reduced peak flows, provided
stormwater flood control, improved water quality and restored natural areas with native vegetation. This project also
provided enhanced wildlife habitat and improved aesthetics for surrounding communities.
A new storm sewer system with natural drainage structures in the Parks was installed, along with roadway improve-
ments. The storm sewers and natural drainage system preserves wetland areas to perform their natural functions of
conveying, storing and filtering stormwater. The project will treat and convey stormwater through a system ofBMPs and
open water in the Parks before discharging to Jamaica Bay.
Because Springfield Lake flows into Jamaica Bay, the wetland stormwater conveyance system is in accordance with the
Jamaica Bay Watershed Protection Plan. The project included removing sediment and organic debris from the lake,
which deepened the lake, thus reducing algal blooms. This project also created BMPs and restored natural areas, thus
removing a portion of urban stormwater runoff contaminants that flowed into Jamaica Bay.
Springfield Lake is in the middle of the 24-acre Springfield Park, and Idlewild Park contains one of the last remaining salt
marshes in Queens and lost most of its natural habitat benefits. It included a former tidal marsh that was covered with
fill material from previous construction activities.
Springfield Lake lies at the end of a large watershed and receives significant stormwater runoff flowing from impervious sur-
faces in the vicinity that contains contaminants such as particulates, nutrients and pathogens. Consequently, Springfield Lake
and its associated streams had accumulated a large amount of sediment over the years, leading to degraded water quality.
As part of the stormwater management program, three BMPs were installed: SL- I allowed for velocity attenuation and
sediment removal for the stormwater entering the new system from the surrounding areas; SL-2 created a low and high
marsh system to allow sediment and nutrient removal upstream of Jamaica Bay; and SL-3 is a new stormwater outfall
520 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
discharging into a new open tidal channel, bordered by low marsh, a narrow band of high marsh, and a wooded buffer.
In addition, Springfield Lake and its associated inlet stream were dredged to remove accumulated sediments.
The primary functions of the BMPs are velocity attenuation and sediment removal for the storm water that enters the
system from the surrounding areas. SL-1 improves water quality by allowing sediments to settle in the forebay and
micropool before the stormwater enters Springfield Lake. By capturing sediments, where they can be removed, the newly
dredged Lake will maintain that depth for a longer time. The re-vegetated shoreline shelves provide the same benefits in
Springfield Lake. Likewise, the installation of SL-2 and SL-3, downstream of the lake, improve water quality by creating
larger, more robust tidal marsh areas.
The stormwater runoff from Springfield Boulevard and the surrounding streets flows through SL-2 and SL-3. The fill mate-
rials were removed and tidal wetlands were restored to attenuate the additional stormwater from the outfalls discharging to
the BMPs. The BMP wetlands were constructed by excavating and grading the area, placing topsoil/sand and then planting
native species. These BMPs will allow sediments to settle and the planted wetland vegetation will remove nutrients.
 5.6 ■ UTILITY DESIGN 529

SL-1 consists of a forebay, an open water channel with adjacent low/high marsh, and a micropool that discharges to
Springfield Lake. SL-1 was designed to convey the stormwater generated by the 5-year rain event, with its primary
purpose to provide treatment for the "first flush'' of stormwater.
SL-2 was constructed in an overgrown area of historic fill. It consists of two open water channels: one from an existing
outfall and another from a new second outfall with a stilling basin that will merge in a low marsh surrounded by a high
marsh and wooded buffer.
The existing outfall discharges water from Springfield Lake while the new outfall will discharge stormwater from the
surrounding streets. A 30-inch storm drain that collects stormwater from the streets to the west of Springfield Lake, also
discharges into SL-2. To allow for deposition of sediments, a forebay was constructed within SL-2, at the storm sewer
outlets. After depositing sediments in the forebay, the stormwater flows into the reconfigured stream channel within
SL-2, and continues to Jamaica Bay.
SL-2 will redirect the existing outflow from Springfield Lake through a low marsh/high marsh system with increased
sinuosity and storage capacity. This wetland will offer increased hydraulic capacity to the entire system and will act as a
flow through system as opposed to a retention basin.
SL-3 was also constructed in a historic fill area in Idlewild Park. The stream channel downgradient was excavated of
sediment and the eastern bank was re-graded to stabilize it for planting native species to provide treatment of stormwa-
ter during normal flows. The drainage area for SL-3 consists of a tidal stream with low marsh/high marsh areas and a
wooded buffer. The stream will flow out of a stormwater outfall on Springfield Lane, through the BMP area, and into the
existing channel. The new outfall will discharge stormwater from local streets.

INNOVATIVE METHODS AND COST-EFFECTIVE SOLUTIONS

Innovative methods included the way BMPs were used to alleviate flooding, filter runoff and improve the quality oflife
for residents, and the use of Geotubes for efficiency in dredging. This project is the first of its kind successfully using
Bluebelts in the Borough of Queens.
Hydraulic dredging was performed with a floating platform from which the dredge line was lowered to the lake bottom.
The cutting head dislodged the sediments, which were pulled by vacuum and pumped via piping to the stockpile area
within SL-2, thus eliminating the need for hauling sediment away from the lake to a dewatering location. Slurried solids
were collected in Geotubes, allowed to dewater and dry prior to disposal off-site. This operation, conducted outside the
boundaries of Springfield Park at the site of SL-2, was extremely efficient reducing construction time, cost and damage
to the Park and Lake surroundings.
530 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
COMPLEXITY
This project required a complex coordination effort by the engineers, environmentalists and owners to achieve success.
New York City could be considered one of the most challenging environments to advance a project of this nature. A long
roster of stakeholders, many functioning under difficult bureaucratic frameworks, was required to review and accept
these improvements. With the vision of the NYCDEP and PlaNYC behind it, this Infrastructure Improvement Project
leveraged ecological restoration to improve traffic, relieve flooding, and enhance open space-a remarkable precedent-
setting accomplishment.
NYCDEP constructed the new storm sewer system with natural drainage structures in the Parks. NYCDOT imple-
mented roadway improvements along Springfield Boulevard and local streets. Added features included sidewalks and
pedestrian crossings, planted median with permeable concrete pavement, and modifying the roadway section to calm
traffic and add parking. The results are a project that makes the community and city proud. NYCEDC served as agent
for the design and construction of the project; and Dewberry carried out all of the design.
 5.6 ■ UTILITY DESIGN 531

ROUTE 110 DRAINAGE & ROADWAY IMPROVEMENTS

Location: Halesite, Suffolk County, New York
Client: New York State Department of Transportation
Completion Date: September, 2014
Case Study: Dewberry, in a joint venture with L.K. McLean Associates, provided preliminary and final design services
(Phases I-VI) as well as construction support for New York State Department of Transportation (NYSDOT) to evalu-
ate feasible alternatives for roadway and drainage improvements for this $IS-million project. The primary objectives of
the project were to determine the major factors responsible for the chronic flooding of NY Route 110 in the hamlet of
Halesite, New York, by analyzing the contributing watershed and existing storm drainage network; evaluating possible
solutions to flooding; and recommending design alternatives to alleviate the flooding on Route 110.
Drainage concerns are the most significant issue for this project. During the passage of Hurricane Ivan in September,
2004, Newsday wrote: "Cars on New York Avenue [Route 110] in Halesite in Huntington faced water that rose several
feet, forcing police to close the stretch from Spring Road to the harbor:' Among the most important factors causing
flooding are the low and nearly flat elevations of the roadway; a large watershed area; high groundwater table; significant
development of the area; and tidal influence. The analysis and design of solutions to the flooding problems, therefore,
required efforts beyond those of typical drainage projects.

Dewberry was responsible for the design of a 0.9-mile section of Route 110. This included two new roundabouts, in
place of signalized intersections, to reduce congestion and improve safety. The project included the use of24-foot-wide
transverse roadway grate inlets to redirect excessive stormwater away from the roadway's low point, via culverts, pipes,
and streams, to a new filtration basin. This configuration was a unique structure classified as a bridge by New York State
Department of Transportation (NYSDOT), due to its size.
The project also incorporated an off-line articulated-concrete/planted floatables filter system, to keep debris out of the
creek and provide NYSDOT with an easy way to periodically remove the debris with its maintenance forces. The parallel
creek was restored and enhanced as well. Dewberry was responsible for design of modern tidal gates, which allow typical
tidal activity but close upon excessively high tides to prevent upland flooding.
Another aspect of the project was the inclusion of a new small "pocket park" with a relocated historic monument.
New pedestrian sidewalk access, benches, and low maintenance gateway-style plantings were included. These are a
few of the project features which contributed to an aesthetically pleasing solution to nagging drainage, pavement, and
traffic issues.
532 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii

(Photo Provided by L.K. McLean Associates.)

 5.6 ■ UTILITY DESIGN 533

PART B-SANITARY TAB LE 5 . 61 Strength of Sewage in mg/L

5.6.7. Introduction CONSTITUENT
Sewage is a water transport means of conveying wastes from
WEAK NORMAL STRONG
the source. Domestic sewage conveys wastes from dwellings
and the normal business, commercial and industrial activi- Total solids* 400 700 1000
ties associated with any community, such as restaurants,
laundries, and service stations. Sewage also contains the dis- Suspended solids 100 200 350
solved inert chemicals from the water supply as well as dis-
solved and suspended organic matter from the sources. The 5-day BOD 100 200 400
primary source of the material in sewage is the bathroom, *Includes the dissolved inorganic material from the water supply
kitchen, and laundry. Sewage also contains very high con-
centrations of bacteria and viruses. Sewage should always be
considered as being a source of enteric pathogens. suspended solids in domestic sewage are generally more than
Since sewage behaves hydraulically as water, the design 80% organic matter. These solids originate from fecal mate-
engineer is only concerned with the composition of sew- rial, laundry, and kitchen wastes. Sewage will contain some
age when it contains substances that may be damaging to organic material from laundry and kitchen wastes. Inorganic
the sewer system or maintenance personnel. Principal sub- matter also originates from washing vegetables and from
stances of concern include those that are corrosive, pres- laundry wastes. Inorganic suspended material is known as
ent potential fire or explosive hazards, emit toxic fumes or grit or fixed solids.
interfere with downstream wastewater treatment. Normal Table 5.61 presents information on the range of strength
domestic sewage does not contain hazardous constituents related parameters for domestic sewage that may be of inter-
other than pathogens. However, poor design or construction est to the site engineer. Other sources present more detailed
can create hazards. The accumulation of solids can result in analysis of sewage as would be of interest in the design of
the creation of odors as well as corrosive and toxic gases from treatment works.
the decomposition of the solids.
Domestic sewage is more than 99.9% water and generally 5.6.8. Procedure for Sanitary Sewer Design
between 0.05% and 0.075% dissolved and suspended solids. The size and alignment of sanitary sewer is generally less
The broad classification "strength'' is used to indicate the variable than a storm drainage system. The pipe size is deter-
level of organic matter in sewage. A weak sewage generally mined by building requirements and usually does not change
results from high infiltration to the sewer system. A strong in size within a single land development but could vary in
sewage indicates the presence of industrial wastes. There is size for large development projects. Size of the system is
little difference in sewage strength that is related to living based on building use, as opposed to size. The outfall point
standards. for a sanitary sewer system is critical.
The two most important parameters for defining the The connection from the new site sewer to an existing sewer
strength of sewage are the biochemical oxygen demand line is important to verify early in design stage (as discussed
(BOD) and suspended solids concentration. BOD is a mea- in Chapter 3.6). The location and elevation will establish con-
sure of the amount of organic matter present, expressed straints on depths and slopes of the sanitary sewer system.
in terms of the oxygen required to biologically oxidize the Quantity of Sewage. All wastewater management facili-
material to a stable form. A 5-day period is generally used ties should be designed to serve the needs of the contributing
for the test. Thus, the 5-day BOD is an expression for the area for some time into the future. The design engineer for
strength of sewage. The use of a broad test of this type is a wastewater treatment facility may use several methods for
necessary because sewage is a mixture of many organic com- determining future design populations. These methods will
pounds, making it near impossible to conduct a complete always include population projections for the design period.
chemical analysis. Furthermore, many of the compounds In sewer design, the engineer needs to know the area to be
present are partly refractory to biological oxidation, making sewered and the developed density. The developed density
a chemical analysis meaningless. The BOD test measures will depend on the planned or zoned activity. The area to
the strength in a manner that most nearly represents treat- be served can be established from available maps or from
ment accomplishment and potential impact of the flow on field surveys. Most areas subject to being sewered should be
the receiving body of water. included in a comprehensive plan or have been zoned for a
Suspended solids concentration is also an important specific land use (as discussed in Chapter 2). The use of this
characteristic of domestic sewage. The sewer system must information permits the design engineer to establish sewage
be designed to transport the solids. Suspended solids also flow for an area at complete development. This information
represent a load to the treatment plant. Solids not removed can then be used to establish sewage flow for each segment
in the treatment process may accumulate on the bottom of the sewer to be designed. Sewers are normally designed
of the receiving stream creating a pollution problem. The to sewer the tributary land area at complete development.
534 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
Specific conditions, such as political boundaries or land use
TABLE 5. 6 K Recommended Design Flows as
planning may also dictate the design area. It is important to
design a sewer with enough capacity to serve the area for Required by the Regulations of Virginia*
at least 25 years. Regulations of the local utility may control the FLOW
area to be included in the design and the design requirements. SOURCE OF FLOW DESIGN UNITS (GPO)
Most states and many local utilities have established min-
imum design standards for sewers. The engineer must be Dwellings Per person 100
familiar with the requirements for the area where the sewer
will be installed. Tables 5.6J and 5.6K present data that may be Schools with showers Per person 16
used in the absence of any local requirement. Table 5.6J pres- and cafeteria
ents the requirements of Fairfax County, Virginia. Table 5.6K Schools without show- Per person 10
is taken from the sewage regulations of the Virginia Depart-
ers and cafeteria
ment of Health. No separate allowance is needed for infiltra-
tion if the design and construction keeps this source of flow Boarding schools Per person 75
below 100 gpd/in-mile of pipe.
Variation in Sewage Flow. Sewage flow from commercial, Motels (rooms only) Per room 130
business, and industrial establishments are generated during
Trailer courts Per trailer 300
the operating hours. Very little flow is generated from many
of these sources between late evening and early morning, Restaurants Per seat 50
as well as on weekends and holidays.
Sewage flow from residential areas is associated with Interstate or through Per seat 180
activities in the homes, with peak flows occurring gener- restaurant
ally from 7 to 10 a.m. and in the evening between 6 and
Factories Per person 15-35
10 p.m. Peak flow hours will vary somewhat for different
sections of the country as they depend on the living habits Hospitals Per bed 300
of the community. Figure 5.6EE shows a typical daily vari-
ation in sewage flow for a home. The sewage flow from a Nursing homes Per bed 200
.....................................................................................................................................
home will be very close to the rate of water use. However,
Doctors' offices Per 1000 square feet 500
Laundromats Per machine 500
TAB LE 5 . 6 J Recommended Average Design
Community colleges Per person 15
Flows from the Requirements of Fairfax County,
Virginia Swimming pools Per swimmer 10
TYPE OF Theaters Per seat 5
DEVELOPMENT DESIGN FLOW (GPO)
Picnic/park areas Per person 5
Residential: General 100/person
Camps with flush Per camp site 100
Single-family 370/residence toilets
Townhouse 300/unit The above flows are considered to be adequate to include limited infiltration.
State and local utility regulations are generally considered as being minimum design
Apartment unit 300/unit conditions.
*Waterworks Regulations, Virginia Dept. of Health (1993).
Commercial: General 2000/acre
Motel 130/unit sewage flow in a sewer system will differ from the rate of
water use in two distinct ways. The peaks in sewage flow are
Office 30/employee less pronounced because the time of concentration to a mea-
0.20/net square feet suring point will be different for different segments of the
system. For example, flow from a section of the community
Industrial: General 10,000/acre that is 0.25 miles away will reach the measuring point after
the flow from 0.10 mile away has passed. The peak sewage
Warehouse* 600/acre
flow at a treatment plant will occur some time after the peak
School Site: General 16/student demand on the water supply because of the flow time in the
sewer. The water supply is a pressure system and a demand is
*Varies with type of industry. placed on the source at the instant water is drawn at a faucet.
 5.6 ■ UTILITY DESIGN 535

15

14

13
Dishwasher
12
Garbage
11
Disposal

Cl) 10
E
0
:::c 9
"i::
:J
0 8
:::c
...
Cl)
C. 7
u,
C:
0 6
cii
C,
5

M 2 4 6 8 10 N 2 4 6 8 10 M
AM PM
Time of Day
FIG uRE 5. 6 EE Hourly variation of sewage flow.

Thus, peaks in flow in a sewer system occur later than what Tables 5.6J and 5.6K must be adjusted for peak flow rates for
is shown in Figure 5.6EE and will be less pronounced. The use in designing a sewer. The periods of minimum flow are
actual conditions will depend on the size and configuration generally not of a concern in sewer design.
of the sewer system. Note from Figure 5.6EE that water use Some local utilities have developed, or adopted from
drops to near zero from about midnight until about 6 a.m. other sources, regulations for establishing peak flow. Most, if
Flow in a sewer system during these hours will be primarily not all, states also have minimum standards. Most equations
infiltration except for some industrial and business areas. for calculating a peak factor are based on population. Two
The design engineer must design sewers to accommodate such equations are given below.
peak flows. Tables 5.6J and 5.6K provide information on daily 5
rates of sewage flow generation. A peak factor is used to account Peak factor= - (5.6BL)
pD.2
for the differences in the average daily flow and the instanta-
14 (5.6BM)
neous flow. Nominal infiltration and inflow is accounted for Peak factor= 1+ - -0- 5
by the daily flow quantities shown in Tables 5.6J and 5.6K. 4+p
The table values are considered to be high for properly con- where P is the contributing population in thousands. The
structed sewers. No additional allowance needs to be made peak factor should be limited to a maximum value of 5 and a
for infiltration and inflow. The average daily flows shown in minimum value of 2.5.
53& i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
A more useful approach in sewer design is the use of
curves to establish the peak factor. This type of curve is 10.0
shown in Figures 5.6FF and 5.6GG. The average daily flow
that has been calculated by using the tributary area and 9.0
appropriate densities is then multiplied by the peak factor to
establish the design flow for use in sewer design. 8.0
Hydraulics of Sewers. Sewage is considered to have the
same hydraulic characteristics as water and uses many of
7.0
the same design analysis as storm drainage (as described in
Part A of this chapter). Sewage is an incompressible fluid 0
C) 6.0
having viscous properties like water. Both gravity sewers ::IE

and force mains are generally designed as circular pipes 3:

flowing full. Design practice also assumes that the flow ,..g 5.0
is steady and uniform for each segment of pipe. In instances ...
C)

where building connections are adding flow to a segment of ...<

a:: 4.0
line, the flow at the downstream end of the segment is used ~
for the design of the entire segment. A manhole should be 3.0
installed where sewers other than building laterals connect
to the line being designed. Design segments always run 2.0
from manhole to manhole. Uniform flow applies when the
cross sectional area and slope of the segment are constant
1.0
throughout the length. Manholes are located at all changes
in slope, direction, and pipe diameter.
0
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0

PEAK rLOW rACTOR

1.0
Notes:
1. Multiply average dally sewage flow
0 .9 by peak flow factor to obtain max.
flow for design purposes.

0.8 2. Peak flow factor Is 2.5 for all flow

greater than 10 MGD.

0 .7 FIG uRE 5. 6 GG Peak flow curve 1.0 and greater mgd.

0
C) 0 .6
::IE The flow rate is equal to the cross sectional area of flow
3: times the velocity at the section. This is expressed by the con-
,..0
...J 0.5
tinuity equation,
...
C)

...><
a:: 0 .4 O=AV (5.6BN)
< where Q is the quantity of flow passing the reference point
0 .3 (cfs), A is the cross-sectional area of flow (ft2), and Vis the
velocity of flow at the section (fps).
0.2 If the flow is steady and uniform as generally assumed,
the continuity equation is applicable and Equation (5.6B0)
0.1
applies.
(5.6B0)
0
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 According to the principle of conservation of mass, mass
can be neither created nor destroyed. Since Q remains con-
PEAK rLOW rACTOR
stant along a segment of sewer having a constant slope and
diameter, the velocity remains constant.
Note: Multiply average dally flow A pump is a means of imparting energy to a flow. This
by peak flow to obtain max. added energy is generally expressed in feet and is the height
flow for design purposes.
that the energy grade line is raised by the pump. This is
FIGURE 5.&FF Peakflowcurve0to1.0mgd. shown in Figure 5.6HH.
 5.6 ■ UTILITY DESIGN 537

The energy dissipated within the flow is lost as heat. This

loss is known as head loss or friction loss. The slope of the
HGL and EGL shows the rate of energy loss along a length of
conduit. The drop in the HGL over a length of conduit is the
amount of friction loss.
The roughness of the conduit interior wall is of signifi-
cant importance in any hydraulic design. Pipe manufacturers
EGL and HGL Energy Imparted strive to produce a pipe having a very smooth wall surface,
By Pump {P) as this is an important item in marketing the product. The
smoother the pipe wall, the less turbulence generated and
hence the less energy loss in the flow. Most pipes marketed
today are classified as smooth pipes.
The hydraulic design of a sewer system requires a pro-
Q cedure for determining the rate of energy loss. A number
of equations have been developed for this purpose. Most
HGL of the equations were developed empirically from field or
FIG uRE 5 , 6 HH Change in HGL and EGL by a pump. laboratory data, but some have been developed by dimen-
sional analysis. Since the head loss depends on the level of
turbulent vortices generated at the conduit wall, all calcula-
Flow of fluid in a conduit may be defined as being laminar tions of head loss must relate to the type, height and spac-
or turbulent. Laminar flow is flow of molecular layers of fluid ing of roughness protrusions on the pipe surface. These
where one layer is moving with respect to the adjacent layer. conduit characteristics depend on the type of pipe material
There is zero movement at the conduit wall under laminar selected. Pipe manufacturing is sufficiently developed to
flow conditions. The resistance to movement is the viscos- where the engineer can expect all pipe of a given material
ity of the fluid. Viscosity is due to cohesion and interaction to be of uniform quality. Furthermore, since most if not all
between adjacent fluid molecules. The resistance to move- pipe presently available can be considered as being smooth
ment is an irrecoverable energy loss that is dissipated as heat. wall, the engineer needs to consider other characteristics
For laminar flow, the rate of energy loss is a function of the when selecting the pipe material to be included in the con-
fluid and the velocity of the fluid and not related to type of struction. These include resistance to deterioration, ease of
pipe material. This resistance to movement is represented by handling and laying, and cost and availability. The charac-
the hydraulic gradient. teristics of new pipe should not be used in design because
The type of flow present is defined by the Reynolds all pipe material will deteriorate with age and use. There
number NR will be erosion of the surface, growth of slimes on the sur-
_DVp
face and accumulation of solids with use and aging. Sewers
NR- (5.6BP)
µ should be designed to function properly at the end of the
design life.
where D is the diameter of conduit (ft), Vis the velocity of In turbulent flow, the conduit wall roughness is the prin-
flow (ft/s), pis the fluid mass density in lbs-s 2/ft4, andµ is the cipal condition that determines the intensity of turbulent
shear between fluid layers in lbs-s/ft2. vortices generated and hence the energy loss associated
For laminar flow, the friction factor is related directly therewith. The Manning coefficient or "friction factor" is
to the Reynolds number. The upper limit of the Reynolds found in catalogue material supplied by pipe manufacturer's,
number for laminar flow of water is 4000. To provide a as well as in texts on hydraulics and related subjects. A value
frame of reference, water, which is flowing at a velocity of of 0.013 is generally used in sewer design. The Manning
2 fps and having a temperature of 68°F, in an 8-inch pipe has equation may be arranged to calculate the head loss for a
a Reynolds number of 50,000. This indicates that the flow length of sewer L as follows:
is well within a turbulent flow regime as is always the case
for water and sewage flow in conduits. In sewers, the fluid VnL112 ] (5.6B0)
HL = [ 1.486R2/3
particles move in a heterogeneous manner causing a com-
plete mixing of the fluid. This movement or turbulence is Information available from pipe suppliers may indicate
primarily created at the conduit wall by the roughness of the that a Manning "n" value as low as 0.009 is appropriate for
surface and by shear forces between the wall and the mov- their product. This would indicate that for a required veloc-
ing fluid. The conduit wall roughness and the shear forces ity and capacity the required slope of the HGL would be
generate turbulence vortices which move out from the wall reduced 48% from that for an n value of 0.013.
where they are subsequently dissipated by viscous attrition
with other fluid particles. This generation and dissipation 009 ] 2 x100=48% (5.6BR)
[·
of turbulence consumes energy which is converted to heat. .013
53a i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
Or for a constant hydraulic gradient (HGL slope) the velocity Gravity sewers are designed to flow full at the design peak
and capacity would be increased 44.4% (0.013/0.009 = 1.444). flow. Figure 5.611 presents the hydraulic properties of circu-
A Manning coefficient of0.013 is conservative for smooth wall lar sewers for all depths of flow. As shown by the Manning
pipe available for sewer construction. This value of n is recom- equation, one of the factors influencing the velocity or capac-
mended and generally used because its use allows for erosion ity is the hydraulic radius "R'' (area/wetted perimeter). The
of the pipe wall, slime buildup, and other minor obstructions area of flow and the corresponding wetted perimeter do not
to flow. These forms of pipe deterioration, resulting in reduc- vary uniformly with depth of flow. As shown by Figure 5.611,
tion of capacity, occur over time. A sewer pipe material should the hydraulic radius is greatest at a ratio of 0.8 of full flow
give reliable service for at least 50 years. depth. The velocity will also be the greatest at 0.8 of full
Since all pipe material used in sewer construction is essen- depth. While the cross-sectional area of flow is maximum
tially smooth wall, there will be little difference in the pipe at full depth, flow Q = AV and the maximum product of A
roughness and hence in the value of"n" to be used in a design and Vis at 0.94 depth, as shown by Figure 5.6II. The capacity
for different pipe material. The selection of the type of pipe to at the 0.8 depth is the same as for the full depth. Therefore,
be used in a design and included in the contract specifications a sewer under gravity flow will never flow full because the
as being acceptable for use in construction should be based flow will by natural law flow at the lower energy (energy of
on the long-term serviceability of the pipe material. Service- flow= surface elevation plus momentum). Any sewer flow-
ability factors should include expected useful life, resistance ing at greater than 0.8 depth is being surcharged by a down-
to problems with infiltration, ease of installation, resistance to stream obstruction. Since the velocity of flow at the 0.8 depth
corrosion and erosion, and maintenance requirements. Pur- is about 14% greater than at full flow, the hydraulic gradi-
chase cost alone should not be the determining factor. ent required to achieve the equivalent full depth capacity is

y:~
1.00
j
·,
//
.90 ••
.80
/'
'II
J . ••
I

.70
$
~e~/
, ~~
/

/ / I

•'' J
V
clJ .60
V
/' 1/ /1/
0
3:
.50 V V
-
Li:
0
/2
,,,/ /
- / ;
&.
aG).
.40 v/r v;;
~
I,,'
C -~G~
rt;
~-a:
<5,uY,, ;/
.30
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.:;
C'G
~/' ~1~ _,,,,~'~e\O
Gi .20
a:
~ ,, .... ,,
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0
.10 .20 .30 .40 .50 .60 .70 .80 .90 1.00 1.10 1.20 1.30

Rations of Hydraulic Elements

V Q A ,and R
v,un a,u11 Atull R1u11
FIG uRE 5. 611 Nomograph of selected hydraulic elements for circular pipe flowing partially full.
 5.6 ■ UTILITY DESIGN 539

reduced. However, it is not common to design for the 0.8 Various forms of nomographs and software applications
depth conditions. are available for solving the Manning equation. These devices
Sewers will flow at less than 50% of full capacity most of are normally used in sewer design to facilitate solving the
the time. At 50% capacity, the depth of flow and velocity is equation. A typical nomograph is shown in Figure 5.6JJ. The
also 50% of full flow conditions. Sewers should be designed nomograph includes lines for five hydraulic elements and a
to provide a minimum velocity of 2.0 to 2.25 fps at full flow. pivot line. The continuity equation (Q = AV) may be solved
A full flow velocity of 2.25 fps will ensure a scouring velocity by knowing two of three terms and finding the third from
of 1.0 fps at about 11 % of full flow (Figure 5.6II). A scouring the nomograph without using the pivot line. The right side
velocity of 1.0 fps is considered adequate to prevent deposi- of the pivot line includes "n;' "V;' and "S:' Knowing two of
tion of solids. the three will establish the pivot point from which knowing

0.004 0.5 0.4

0.3
0.005
0.6 0.2
0.006
0.007
0.008 0.7
0.009 0.1
0.01 0.8 0.08

0.9 0.06
0.05
1.0 0.04
20 0.03
0.02
0.02
ft;' 0.03
q

10
9
°
~
0.04
1.5 0.01
0.008
8 'ii
96 0.10 o.os 0 .006
84 7 0 ,: 0.08 0.06 0.005
2 0.004
72 6 ¾! ] ~:o.Ol
E 0.003
60 s B :i: 0.040.08
~ 54
4
8 0.0J°<,~ 0.002
oai °g 48
"'X: 0.02
~ - - ; ; 42 C:
~ 3:9-1s

---,. ---·2
20] i}j 0.001
u ·-
j ; ~~ "· ~ --e"' 0.0008

c: ~ 24 ~ 0.0006
0.0005
10 ·-:. ~ 21 C

8 ~
; o"' 18
"'
::!E
0.0004
0.0003
u
6 i5 15
0.0002
5
12
4
6
10 0.0001
3
0.00008
8 7
2 0.00006
8 0.00005
6
0.00004
9 0.00003

4 10
0.00002

0.00001
0.000008
15 0.000006
0.000005
0.000004
18

FIG uRE 5. &JJ Nomograph for solving the Manning equation. (From Design and Construction of
Sanitary and Storm Sewers, manual of Practice No. 9, ASCE 1969. Reprinted with permission from the
American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, New York.)
540 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
"Q" or "D'' permits finding the other. Likewise, Q and D can
be used to establish the pivot point and knowing either n or
TA BLE 5 . 6 M Common Design Relationships of
S will permit solving for the other. Hydraulic Elements
Sanitary Sewer Design Example DIAMETER (IN) n V (FPS) S (FT/FT) r213 q(GPM)
a) Determine the slope and velocity of an 8-inch pipe 8 0.013 2.0 0.0033 0.303 314
that can convey 1 cfs:
Using Figure 5.6JJ, knowing Q and D, find V = 2.9 fps. 8 0.013 2.25 0.0042 0.303 354
Knowing D, Q gives pivot point, with n = 0.013,
8 0.010 2.0 0.0020 0.303 314
S= 0.0019.
b) Determine the depth and velocity for the pipe in part 8 0.012 2.0 0.0028 0.303 314
a) when the flow is 0.4 cfs: 10 0.013 2.0 0.0025 0.351 489
Knowing Q/Q-full = 0.4/1.0 = 0.4 and using Figure 5.6II
Depth of flow= 43% of 8 inches= 3.44 inches 10 0.013 2.25 0.0031 0.351 551
Velocity= 95% of V-full = 2.75 fps
12 0.013 2.0 0.0019 0.397 705
There are several types of design aids in addition to the
12 0.013 2.25 0.0025 0.397 793
nomograph shown as Figure 5.6JJ for use in solving both
the Manning and the Hazen-Williams equations. These
include special nomographs and various forms of slide rules.
The conventional type nomograph as shown in Figure 5.6JJ Air Testing. The contract specifications should require that
and the slide rule types are generally preferred by design a leakage test be performed to verify the water tightness of
engineers (when software is not used). Some pipe suppliers the sewer. An air test is generally required for this purpose,
may provide these design aids. Some common conversion although an older water test may be used. The air test is eas-
relationships for water are shown in Table 5.61. Some com- ier to conduct and gives good results. The section of line to
mon design relationships from using the Manning equation be tested is plugged and pumped up to a pressure of 4 psi
are shown in Table 5.6M. plus 0.433 psi for each foot of groundwater over the conduit
The data in Table 5.6M show that an 8-inch sewer (pressure should not exceed 9 psi). The pressure is allowed
installed to provide a minimum velocity of 2.0 fps has a to stabilize to the sewer temperature. Pressure drop is then
capacity of 314 gpm (gallons per minute) (0.45 mgd (mil- timed from 3.5 to 3.0 psi (Note: 0.433 psi times the feet of
lion gallons per day)). This flow would be subject to a peak groundwater over the pipe must be added to these numbers).
factor of 5 (see Figure 5.6FF), giving an average design flow Acceptable time limits for the 0.5 psi pressure drop are
of 63 gpm or 90,700 gpd. At a per dwelling unit daily flow shown in Table 5.6N.
of 370 gallons (see Table 5.6J), this 8-inch sewer will serve
243 housing units. Likewise, a 10-inch sewer will serve 389 5.6.9. Pumping Stations
single family units (note that the peak flow factor for the Pumping stations are common to most sewage collection
10-inch line capacity of 489 gpm (0.7 mgd) is 4.8. A 12-inch systems. The collection system that does not include lift
sewer will serve 633 single-family units. Velocities greater or pumping stations at one or more locations is rare. The
than 2.0 fps and smaller n values will provide still greater engineer has available a wide choice of pump types giving
capacity. Many developments are sewered by 8-inch sewers and flexibility in selecting the type of facility most suitable for a
line sizes greater than 12 inches are seldom needed except for particular application.
main or trunk sewers. An 8-inch-diameter sewer is consid- The term "lift station'' refers to a pumping facility located
ered the minimum size line in public sewer design. within a collection system to lift the flow to a higher eleva-
tion. Sewer systems located in relative level terrain may
become excessively deep, making it necessary to "lift" the
TAB LE 5 . 6 L Common Conversion Factors flow up to minimum cover for the sewer. Note in Table 5.6M,
1 cfs = 449 gpm the slope of an 8-inch sewer providing a velocity of 2.25 fps
is 0.0042. This sewer has a head loss and hence a drop in the
1 ft 3 = 7.48 gal sewer invert of 4.2 feet per 1000 feet oflength. If the sewer
is long or if the sewer is not running with the ground slope
1 mgd = 1.55 cfs = 695 gpm
the depth may become so deep that a lift station is needed.
1 gal = 231 in 3 = 8.34 lb The depth where a lift station becomes economical depends
on subsurface conditions. The presence of a high ground-
1 ft 3 = 62.4 lb water table, poor soil, or rock must be considered in mak-
ing this determination. Also the length of sewer that will be
Pressure = 62.4/144 = .433 psi per foot of water
excessively deep must be considered. Utility maintenance
 5.6 ■ UTILITY DESIGN 541

TAB LE 5 . 6 N Air Test Table

PIPE DIAMETER
411* 611 an 10 11 12 11 15 18 11 21 11 24 11 27 11 30 11 33 11 36 11

25 2.9 4.2 5.7 7.1 8.5 10.6 12.7 14.8 17.0 19.2 21.2 23.3 25.5
50 23.3 25.5
75 19.2 21.2 24.3 28.9
100 14.8 17.0 21.6 26.8 32.2 38.5
125 12.7 16.3 21.2 27.0 33.3 40.1 48.2
tu
l&,I
II. 150 10.6 14.3 19.6 25.5 32.6 40.1 48.3 57.6
!:
l&,I 175 11.6 16.7 22.8 29.7 37.9 46.7 56.2 67.3
z
::::i
II. 200 8.5 13.3 19.1 26.1 34.0 43.3 53.5 64.4 77.0
0
::c 225 7.1 9.5 15.0 21.5 29.4 38.2 48.7 60.1 72.3 86.7
~
z
l&,I
...I 250 7.4 10.6 16.7 24.0 32.6 42.5 54.0 66.9 80.5 96.1
275 8.1 11.7 18.3 26.3 35.9 46.7 59.6 73.5 88.4 105.8
300 5.7 8.9 12.7 20.0 28.7 39.1 51.0 65.0 80.3 96.6 115.5
350 6.6 10.4 14.9 23.4 33.4 45. 7 59.5 75.7 93.7 112.7 134.6
400 4.2 7.6 11.9 17.0 26.7 38.2 52.2 68.0 86.6 107.1 128.8 154.0
450 4.8 8.5 13.4 19.1 30.0 43.0 58.7 76.5 97.4 120.5 144.9 173.1
500 2.8 5.3 9.5 14.9 21.2 33.3 47.8 65.3 85.0 108.3 133.9 161.0 192.5
*When testing 4-inch house laterals with sewer main, add 2.8 minutes to test time.

personnel generally prefer that sewers not be over 20 feet minimum remain fully operational at the 25-year
deep if greater depths can be avoided. flood elevation and receive no damage at the 100-
A pumping station is a facility designed to lift the flow and year flood level. The criteria used in determining
convey it some distance, such as from one drainage area to flood protection is dictated by local policy and
another or from the collection system to a treatment works. conditions related to the site, such as the potential
A lift station is commonly referred to as a pumping station for unacceptable environmental pollution when
but pumping stations are not called lift stations. overflows or sewer backups occur. In no case should
Location. A pumping station should be located to serve sewer backup due to pump station failure result in
the entire sewer shed. The station must be located to receive flooding of buildings with sewage.
the sewage flow from the designated sewer shed. Some gen-
eral considerations to be used in locating a pumping station • Consideration should be given to problems with
include noise and odor. Odor is most likely to be a consider-
ation with flow from large long main or trunk sew-
• A lift station or pumping station should never be ers where the sewage becomes septic in the sewer
located in a public street. before reaching the pumping station. The discharge
from a force main will also usually be septic. Equip-
• The station must be accessible by an all-weather ser-
ment is available for removing odors from exhaust
vice road, where the utility either owns the right-of-
air. Screenings are another source of odors and they
way or has a permanent access easement.
should not be stored at locations where odors will
• The station must be located to provide protection impact the surrounding area. Accumulation of solids
from flood inundation. The station should as a in a poorly designed wet well may also cause odors.
542 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
Noise will not normally be a problem at a properly on-site emergency power. The engineer has many options
designed facility. The noise level from the operation of available for selecting the type of pumping facility to be used.
pumps and motors is low and should not be noticeable However, the submersible station design will normally offer
outside the station. There will be some minor noise from the most economical and functional choice for use in sys-
the maintenance truck and crew that checks the station tems serving small communities.
daily. If the station design includes on-site emergency Figure 5.6KK shows a design employing two submersible
power, the generator will need to be exercised weekly, pumps placed in a properly sized concrete manhole. The bot-
but residential type mufflers are available and should be tom of the manhole is filleted and sloped to direct the flow
used. The exercise period is usually one-half hour and to the pump intake and to prevent solids accumulation in the
should be scheduled during the normal workday. manhole. The pump mounting design provides for the pump
to be removed and replaced by a lifting chain without the
• A buffer area of at least 100 feet around the station
need to enter the manhole. A lifting hoist is provided as part
should be owned by the utility. A cyclone type fence
of the station design. All valves and controls are located in a
should be installed around the station to minimize
separate vault for ease in maintenance, thus eliminating the
problems with vandalism and more importantly, to
need to enter the wet well. This type pumping station can be
reduce the possibility of accidents involving children.
used for designs of any size. Where the average daily flow is
• The exterior architecture of the station should not greater than 0.5 mgd, the two pumps may be placed in sepa-
detract from the appearance of the neighborhood. rate chambers that are interconnected with isolation valves
A pumping station can be located in any residential so that either chamber may be dewatered for maintenance.
neighborhood if it is designed and sited in an attractive There are several manufacturers of reliable submersible
manner. Windows should be avoided to reduce van- pumps. No alternative offers the simplicity, reliability, and
dalism. False windows can be used where needed for economy that are achieved with a submersible pump station.
architectural reasons. The owner should always be con- Four-foot diameter manholes are normally used as the wet
sulted about the exterior appearance of the station. The well in collection systems; however, manholes are generally
grounds should be properly landscaped for appearance available in diameters up to 10 feet. When a large diameter
and drainage. Use slow growing shrubbery, gravel areas manhole is needed for locations where they are not available,
and pavement to reduce maintenance requirements. reinforced concrete pipe can be placed vertically on a con-
crete pad. When concrete pipe is used, the design must con-
Design Types. The engineer should be familiar with the nect the pad and pipe together in a manner that will prevent
requirements of the utility that will own and operate the sta- leakage at the joint.
tion. Utility personnel prefer equipment that they are familiar While the submersible pumping station is recommended,
with for ease in maintenance. Ifthe utility staff does not like the there are hosts of "package pump station'' designs available.
type of equipment provided, it probably will not be a success- Generally, the entire pumping station is shipped to the site
ful project. It is also important that the equipment be procured already assembled and is placed on a concrete pad, con-
through a manufacturer's representative that will be available nected to a wet well discharge, force main piping, and to an
and responsive if problems occur with the equipment. electrical supply. Typically, this type of station is referred to
A small lift station may serve such uses as a few houses, as a suction-lift pumping station. The name defines how it
a business, church or school. This type of station can be operates: a suction pipe is placed within a wet well of simi-
as simple as placing one or two small pumps in a manhole. lar shape and size as a submersible station, and the lines are
This type station is widely used with submersible pumps, connected to pumps placed above ground. These pumps
with the manhole housing the pumps serving as the wet discharge into a force main that conveys the sewage to the
well. Small grinder pumps are often used, in which case the receiving manhole in another collection system or the treat-
force main may be a 1¼-inch plastic pipe. Pneumatic ejec- ment works. The pumps and associated controls are typically
tors may also be used for small lift stations, but ejectors housed in a prefabricated fiberglass or concrete station which
are generally located inside buildings to lift the flow from is easily accessed by maintenance personnel. In addition to
floors lower than the public sewer up into the sewer. Ejec- limitations that impact the operation of submersible pump-
tors located inside buildings are part of the building plumb- ing stations, the suction-lift station has limitations with the
ing. In most instances these small lift stations should include depth of the wet well. Based on the location of the pumping
two pumps with automatic alternation for station reliability. station in relation to sea-level, the pumps are typically unable
Figure 5.6KK shows a typical design of this type. to pull the sewage vertically through a suction line greater
Moving up in capacity, the second type of pumping or than 25 feet. Suction-lift stations are generally more expen-
lift station may be of the same general type as described in sive to construct, but are typically easier to maintain than a
above, except for the size or capacity of the equipment and submersible pumping station.
the reliability of the station. This size station would always The engineer always has the option of designing a con-
pump into a force main 4 inches in diameter or greater. The structed in place wet well-dry well design where reinforced
station should always have two pumps and generally have concrete basins are constructed and the pumping equipment,
 5.6 ■ UTILITY DESIGN 543

FLYGT submersible pump

lowerd down guide bars to
automatic engage with fixed
discharge connection
retaining hook for
lifting chain

guide bar ---+-+--~H:-t

discharge connection
for automatic
pump coupling

self anchoring
bOlts

FIG uRE 5. 6 KK Typical submersible pump station. (Reprinted with permission from FLYGT Corporation, 1993,
Wastewater Pumps Catalog Trumbull, Conn.)

piping and associated appurtenances are assembled in place. normally not an option for a station serving a land develop-
The wet well is the receiving chamber for the incoming flow. ment project.
The wet well serves as a flow surge basin and as short-term With designs where the maintenance personnel must
storage during periods when the pumps are not operating. enter the wet or dry wells, a minimum two-person crew
The dry well is isolated from the wet well except for the pump must be present, whereas only one person can carry out the
intake pipes. The dry well houses the mechanical equipment. routine maintenance at a submersible station as no below
The electrical equipment, including the pump motors is gen- ground tasks are required. It is important to note that all-
erally placed in the ground floor housing located over the pumping station designs be checked for flotation. While
dry well. Both the wet well and dry well must be suitably more engineers and utilities are using submersible pump
lighted, ventilated and have proper access for maintenance stations as described above, the older accepted practice of
personnel. This type pumping station can be designed to constructing a built in place wet well-dry well pumping sta-
incorporate all specific requirements of the operating utility, tion remains the standard design for the larger installations.
but it is the most expensive to construct and to operate and is Submersible pumps can be used in dry well installations.
544 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
together with a welded strip located on the downstream side
lncomin
Sewer at the bottom and top of the screen. A rake, having teeth size
and spacing compatible with the screen, should be provided
for cleaning the screen. The screenings are raked to the top
of the screen where they fall into a can having a perforated
bottom for drainage or onto a drain rack. The top of the bars
FIG uRE 5. 6 LL Schematic of a pumping station. may be curved over to facilitate cleaning. Fiberglass racks and
slide gates are available and should be considered for a design.
Mechanically cleaned screens are used at large stations.
Components of a Pumping Station. The flow schematic The approach velocity to the screen should not be greater
shown in Figure 5.6LL is common to all pumping stations, than 2.5 fps at peak flow. The design must allow for the
except the gate valve is not needed between the wet well energy loss in the channel and through the screen so that the
and the pump in a submersible design because the pump is incoming sewer is not surcharged. Also, the maximum oper-
installed in the wet well. ating level in the downstream wet well must not surcharge
Screening. Screenings are the larger particles of floating the screen. When the screen is located in a subsurface cham-
and suspended matter that may clog pumps and other equip- ber, suitable hoisting equipment should be provided for lift-
ment. The quantity of screening normally does not exceed ing the screening to the surface. A typical manually cleaned
0.5 cubic feet per million gallons of flow for residential sew- bar screen is shown in Figure 5.6NN. Calculations are shown
age. Rags are the most troublesome items in pumping sta- for sizing a screen to handle an example flow condition.
tions. The quantity of screenings to be removed will depend The average and peak flows are 1.25 cfs (809,560 gpd) and
on the type of housing and other sources of incoming sew- 5.63 cfs, respectively). The approach velocity is to be 2.5 fps
age. The screening device should be located such that all at peak flow. The bars are to be ¼ x 2 inches with 2 inches
incoming flow passes through the chamber before entering clear openings between bars.
the wet well. The device should only remove material that
will interfere with the station operation because of the dif- Cross-sectional area of flow= QIV= 5.63 cfs/2.5 fps
ficulty of handling removed material. Disposal methods = 2.25 ft 2
include grinding and returning the material to the flow,
burial, and incineration. Burial and incineration should be Select channel depth: The incoming 15-inch sewer at 0.8
off-site from the pumping station. Maintenance crews gener- depth of flow= 1 foot, therefore a I-foot depth is selected
ally carry the screenings from small pumping stations back for the approach channel. Width of channel = 2.25 feet/
to the treatment plant for treatment and disposal. Macerators 1.0 foot = 2.25 feet = width of screen. Note in Figure 5.6NN
are available for locating on the incoming sewer and should that free fall of about 3 inches is provided at the influent pipe
be considered for use on sewers serving industrial areas pro- and 6 inches of fall is provided through the screen chamber.
ducing significant fibrous wastes. The energy loss through a clean screen is small, being less
The screening device for small to moderate size pumping than 1 inch, but most of the time the screen is partly clogged
stations, serving primarily residential areas, may be a bas- which can materially increase the loss. Note the curved bars
ket located such that the flow passes through the basket as it that aid in handling the screening. The screenings are raked
enters the wet well. Daily cleaning should be scheduled until onto a drain pad. After draining, the screenings are removed
experience shows that a less frequent schedule is adequate. for disposal.
The design permits overflow in case of stoppages without Sizing of the Wet Well. The wet well is a chamber that
causing a sewer backup. The basket should be designed for has been sized to receive and accumulate the incoming
easy removal of the screening. With submersible stations, the flow when the pumps are not operating. The wet well also
basket is lowered into place and removed by a cable hoist. provides some flow equalization, thus reducing the peak-
The basket is held in place by guides or by hanging hooks as pumping rate from the peak influent flow rate. Some com-
shown in Figure 5.6MM. Hanging hooks are generally more mon design criteria for pumping stations include
satisfactory because guides are a maintenance problem.
Fixed bar screens are used in larger pumping stations. The 1. Pumps are selected to pump 2.5 times the average
bar screen is placed in a straight channel, usually located at daily flow rate with the largest pump out of service.
the entrance to the wet well. The screen is inclined from 30° For example, if only two pumps are provided, each
to 60° from the horizontal. The corners of the channel should must have a pumping capacity of2.5 times the
be filleted to minimize problems with solids accumulation, average daily flow rate. If three pumps are provided
particularly grit. The bars generally have a face dimension of that are not of equal size, the two smaller capacity
¼to¾ inch and a depth from 2 to 2½ inches. The bar size for pumps must be capable of pumping 2.5 times the
larger screens is determined by the structural requirements, average daily rate. All pumping stations should have
with the face dimension limited to ¾ inch. The clear space at least two pumps so that any single pump can be
between the bars is normally 2 to 2½ inches. The bars are held removed for maintenance.
 }il'' S.S. Permanently
Sanitary Attached to Hoist
Sewer

1 ~" x 1/16 " S.S.

F'lot Stock (typ.) Stain less
Cable

S.S. Coble
Hooks (Length
to be Field Set)
Influent Pipe

~ "~ Hinge Pin

1" x ~" S.S. Stock W/ Cotter Pin
@ 2" o.c.
(typ.) (Each Side)
-0
-~
::J
Hook Ill
0::
.,
<

1" S.S. Bosket

Hangers

~" S.S. Plate

I
I
I
I
I
----- ~

Miter Full 1Y.. "x 1 Y4 " x 3,/i 5"

Weld (typ.) Angle Frame
a) b)
FIG uRE 5. 6 MM (a) Hook-mounted basket, (b) guide-mounted basket. (Reprinted with permission from Washington Aluminum Company Compo-
nents for Water and Wastewater Plants, Catalog, Baltimore, MD.)

1'-3"

..·.,-. 18"x36"x39" ID
PRECAST UTILITY
VAULT W/OUT TOP
REINFORCED

1- ~"x1 ~"x Y.."

S.S. ANGLE WITH
SUPPORT BOLTS 0
9" O.C.(TYP.)

18" SO. CONCRETE

DRAIN PAD

..:· ii .·.·.·.· .·.·.·.· .'. •J:i • .·.·' '.·,· .-... ·. · ,',• . ·.· . ·.· .·.· .·.· .·.· .·,·~ · . ·, • ' ::---.6,.----
:-·... . ·.. ·.· .·.· .·.· .·.· .·. · ,', · ·il. · .· .·.· .·.· .·.· .·.· ~ -.·,· ,',• ,,,.. ,·,· ,', • .·.· .·, · ,',• .. ,:-:
"""- ....,o. c......... ,,

6" MIN. CRUSHED

STONE

FIG u RE 5. 6 NN Manually cleaned bar screen.

545
54& i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
2. There is a heat buildup in pump motors if the fre- 10. A check valve should be placed in each pump
quency of starting is too great. This can shorten the discharge pipe to prevent back flow through the
life of the motor. Most heavy-duty motors of the pump. A gate valve should follow the check valve so
type used with pumps can be started up to about that the pump and check valve can be isolated for
10 times per hour without overheating occurring. maintenance.
Starting frequency is controlled by the size of the
11. The top of the pump bowl on horizontal impeller
wet well and this should be coordinated with the
shaft pumps should contain an air release valve that
electrical designer to ensure that the proper class
is vented back to the wet well.
motor is specified.
12. No air should enter the dry well from the wet well.
3. The wet well should be filleted to eliminate corners
where grit can accumulate. 13. Pumping stations located in an area where sew-
age backup or overflow would result in a health
4. The wet well should be divided into sections at hazard should include an on-site power genera-
larger stations so that the section supplying each tor. These generators are normally diesel engine
pump can be isolated and dewatered for mainte- driven and designed to start automatically upon
nance. This can be accomplished with submersible a failure of the off-site power supply and return
pumps by placing each pump in a separate man- to standby conditions upon return of the off-site
hole that is suitably interconnected and valved. power supply. The units are designed to keep the
5. If maintenance crews are required to enter a facility completely operational. An on-site fuel
chamber for routine maintenance, proper ventila- supply for 36 to 48 hours of operation is provided
tion must be provided. The ventilation fan should as a part of the design.
be sized to provide 30 air changes per hour. Air Pump Selection. Sewage pumps are typically centrifugal
is usually exhausted from near the floor so that volute non-clog impeller design. The impeller should be
fresh air is brought into the top of the chamber as designed to pass a 2½-inch diameter sphere. Other pumps,
the crew descends. The exhaust fan switch should such as grinder pumps, utilize a "cutting" type impeller that
be located at the top of the stairs or ladder so the reduces the size of the solids that are being pumped, and
fan can be started before entering the subsurface allow for a reduction in the discharge force main diam-
chamber. eter. The pump manufacturer provides performance curves
6. A potable water hose bib should be available at each for each impeller available for the specific pump. A typi-
structure for use in cleaning. The potable source cal performance chart for a submersible pump is shown in
should be protected by installing a backflow pre- Figure 5.600.
venter on the service line serving all outlets except The performance curve shown in Figure 5.600 only
the drinking fountain and bathroom. shows the characteristics of the particular pump for a
single impeller. The manufacturer casts the largest impel-
7. A flow-measuring device should be included in the ler that can be used with the pump. Impellers are then
design. Ultrasonic meters are reliable and widely trimmed to the diameter required to provide the head and
accepted. flow needed.
Figure 5.6PP provides performance data for eight impel-
8. The short intake piping and intra-station effluent pip-
ler diameters. The diameters, in millimeters, are shown along
ing may be designed for velocities of 6 to 8 fps, but
the ordinate of the graph. Efficiency curves are shown for
force mains are not normally designed for velocities
the operational range of the pump, with the peak efficiency
greater than about 5.0 fps at the peak pumping rate.
being 87% for the 870-millimeter impeller. Additional data
Higher velocities scour and erode the pipe and the
available from catalogues include intake and discharge con-
energy loss increases exponentially with an increase
nection diameter, brake horsepower, and rotational speed.
in velocity. A minimum velocity of2.0 fps should be
Rotational speed is also an important characteristic in
provided at the minimum-pumping rate.
pump selection. Higher rotational speed will increase flow
9. Pump stations, except for the very small ones and head, but bearing life is generally materially reduced.
should have an alarm system for the following A larger lower speed may cost more, but reliability will be
malfunctions: power supply failure, pump fail to significantly improved. The pump selected should operate
start, high level in wet well, failure of sump pump at less than 1700 and specify any diameter between 7.0 and
to operate, and failure of on-site generator to start. 10 inches. Net positive suction head (NPSH) is the difference
Other alarms may be needed at specific locations. between the absolute pressure at the suction point and the
The alarm should be relayed, by telephone line or vapor pressure of the liquid. Failure to maintain the NPSH
otherwise, to a central manned location. can result in vaporization of the liquid being pumped with
 5.6 ■ UTILITY DESIGN 547

CONFIG. SECTION PAGE

CP/CT/CS C-3152 3 15
PHASE VANES SUPERSEDES ISSUED
454 Impeller (6M volute)
3 1 2/88 6/94

22 ~ - - ~ - - ~ - - - - - - ~ - - ~ - - ~ - - ~ 2 2
20 r--,------r--1=::::;;;;;::;:;g;;;;;;:::r=-----r--, 20
18 1-----+------bi---=-----+---+----+-----""'....,.------118
~
0..
:I:

~
0..
~
16

14 l--------=---=---+---+---+----+-----+------1 ::

1--------------+----+-----+-------i 12 □
I
* 12

10 ' - - - - ~ -_ _,___ _____.,_ _ _...____ __,__ _~ - - - - ' 10

120

110

100

90
CAPACITY HEAD CURVE

ti 80
~
C
~ 70
:I: BEST EFFICIENCY
~
0
POINT
I- 60 80
70 l
50 60 z~
w
50 0
u::
40 40 LL
w
(.)
30 :J
30

20
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
20

0
10
I
FLOWGPM

------------------------------ -~
FIG uRE 5. 6 0 0 Pump performance curve. (Reprinted with permission from FLYGT Corporation, 1993, Wastewater Pumps Catalog
Trumbull, Conn.)
s48 i@UUFI F@di4Mi•
CONFIG. SECTION PAGE
CP/CT C-3602 3 3
PHASE VANES SUPERSEDES ISSUED
1040 Impeller
3 4 12/91 6/94

HEAD (-) Hydraulic End Efficiency(%) (-·-) Power Limitl

(ft)

110
I I I I
NO CONTINUOUS OPERATION - -
e~,
..... IN DASHED AREA

100 --- -- ....·,

'
'
'
~

90 80.2
- -- ... -:...
835
' "'.... .... , 8~

--- -- -- ....' ,
.......... .... '
'
82~ 85
~
80
58~
-
53~ -
~,,.,
-- -
~-.........
........ .... '...
.... .... ' .... .... .... ...
' .... ' '
'

....
~
~ ~
~
- :,... 88

-.... - --
70 88
' · ... .... ~

.... ' ·
........ .... .... .' -~ 'r-... ~
~
'"- .... ' .... 82' 5

60
480
- ...... ___. " .
..:..' , .... ~
'"
\._84
425

-- -- '~ ........... _
.........
.... ........ ::::--~ ....
\' '~ ~ ~k)
,82
'-.84
2

'\._ 7S
50
..... ........ ..... ....
.... .... .... t2" Kb? ( '\.1c
... -~~
.... _ .... ~ ~ ~
~

~ ~ 0 ~ ;; '
40
',~ ' 0
30
" '· 430 HP -
~ ~K'...
' I
' · 335 HP
I
20 , 250 HP

10

0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000
FLOW
NOTE: Curves are baaed on nominal constant hydraulic-end
(gpm)
NPSHre speed and show pertorrnance wtth clear water.

(ft)
,45
I
40 I
35 /
30 V
25
20
.,,. -- - ~
/

------------------- ---------- ...~

FIG uRE 5. 6 PP Centrifugal pump performance curve. (Reprinted with permission from FLYGT Corporation, 1993, Wastewater Pumps Catalog
Trumbull, Conn.)
 5.6 ■ UTILITY DESIGN 549

the resulting cavitation causing damage to the pump. The performance characteristics are installed in an installa-
low water pump shut off level is usually set no lower than tion, the smaller pump will not function if the discharge
the midpoint of the pump bowl so that pump suction is not head of the larger pump is greater than the shut off head of
a problem. Pump efficiency is shown to vary between 58% the smaller pump. Shut off head is the head produced by a
and 72%. Brake horsepower is shown for each of the four pump at zero flow and is shown by the ordinate-intercept
impeller sizes. of the pump curve.
The total head imparted to the flow is shown as the ordi- A system curve is then constructed starting with the
nate for the indicated flow rate. The head imparted is not static head at the ordinate intercept and adding the system
the same as the discharge pressure. The imparted head is energy loss at two or more flow rates to permit drawing
the discharge energy minus the intake energy of the flow. the curve. The interception of the system curve with the
Note that for centrifugal pumps, as the discharge head performance for the indicated number of pumps shows the
decreases the motor horsepower requirement increases. capacity for the respective number of pumps. Note that in
Never oversize a centrifugal pump as this may lead to an Figure 5.6QQ since four pumps are identical, the distance
overloaded motor. between the curves at the total head value are the same as
It is sometimes necessary to install two centrifugal pumps each pump has the same pumping capacity at any given
in series to provide the required energy input. When cen - head. However as more pumps come on line, the energy
trifugal pumps are installed in series, the flow through each loss increases as defined by the Hazen-Williams equation
pump is the same and the energy input is the sum imparted and shown by the system curve. Thus the flow capacity of
by the two pumps. The two pumps are designed as separate two pumps is less than twice that of the single pump oper-
pumps and piped to operate in series. With water pumps ating. The capacity of each pump is the same and is one-
series impellers can be installed in a single multistage pump half, one-third, or one-fourth of the total, depending on the
housing (multistage pump has two or more impellers on the number of pumps operating.
same shaft within a single housing). However, this cannot be Pumping stations serving a long force main should have
done with sewage pumps because the pump must be designed a surge relief valve to relieve the surge from water hammer.
to pass solids. Therefore, sewage pumps are designed as sep- This valve is located on the station discharge piping and is
arate pumps where series operation is required to induce the vented back to the wet well.
required head.
When centrifugal pumps are installed in parallel, the 5.6.1 o. Sewer Plan Content
flows cannot be summed to obtain the flow from the two A plan and profile is prepared showing all utilities includ-
(or more) pumps. Figure 5.6QQ shows a pump curve that ing the sewers. If the sewer is located within a street, the
has been constructed for four pumps installed in parallel. lines are a part of the street plan and profile. All existing
The pump curve is constructed by selecting a head and and proposed underground utilities should be shown on
drawing a line parallel to the abscissa. Each pump dis- these drawings.
charge for that head is added along the line. In the figure, A plan and profile sheet is used for presenting this
all four pumps are identical, but the same principal applies design. The plan view is shown on the top half of the sheet
if the pumps are different. When pumps having different and the profile is shown directly below on the bottom half
of the sheet. The plan and profile view for a final plan of
H is shown in Figure 5.6RR. The scale (of the original draw-
ing) is 1 inch = 50 feet. In the profile view the horizontal
scale of the profile is the same as that of the plan view. The
vertical scale is 1 inch = 5 feet. The larger scale is used to
show the detail needed for construction.
In subdivisions it is common to locate the sewer near the
middle of the street where possible and construct all build-
ing spurs to the property line and cap the end of the line.
It is important to show the location and elevation of each
spur on the drawings for later location. The spur should
Qp enter the sewer through a manufactured wye. House spurs
generally do not connect to a manhole. Submains should
FIGURE 5,6QQ Performance curve for up to four identical pumps enter the main at a manhole where the connection has been
operating in parallel. cast as a part of the manhole.
 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii

\6 __
550

' ,. •
(_..,_.. '4 I ~
.~ l - ~ - t 1 ....oo.•<goc1QU-IIIILIU
I Dewberry'

0
0
0
0 ~
I- 0
0
L.

I
l
i
!1l 0 0 0
A
~

j1
1:., ~

1. Plan view with sanitary alignments shown and buildings labeled

2. Notes and profile legend specific to profile sheets
3. Sanitary tables for main alignment (bearing/distance) and lateral table
4. Sanitary structure label, rim elevation, and height of structure
5. Existing and proposed grade line at centerline of pipe network
6. Proposed and existing utility crossings shown, labeled, and dimensioned
7. Pipe label for size, length, slope, and material
8. Lateral labels from main line to buildings (corresponds to lateral table)
9. Structure information for invert in, out, and structure type/size
10. Stations and e levations for profile grid
FIG u RE 5. 6 RR Example of a plan and profile view for a sanitary sewer line.
 5.6 ■ UTILITY DESIGN 551

PART C-WATER needed to meet the maximum daily potable demand

Adequate water discharges are necessary to cover the range plus fire flows, or the peak hour flow, whichever is
of flows due to the fluctuation in demand. Adequate pres- greater [the American Water Works Association
sures are necessary for firefighting, general service to resi- (AWWA) defines the maximum daily demand as the
dents, and economic considerations such as leakage and maximum amount of water used during one 24-hour
energy losses. The pressures within a water supply system period occurring during the latest 3-year period].
must be high enough to overcome the energy losses in the • The minimum residual pressure in the system at the
system yet maintained below the point at which damage to average daily demand should be around 40 to 50 psi.
fittings and other appurtenances occur. According the AWWA, the average daily demand is
Due to the size and varying topography within many sys- the average amount of water used each day during a
tems, different pressure zones maybe generated to ensure reli- I-year period for the entire system. If the water pres-
ability in meeting the fluctuation in demands. These pressure sure in the main is 60-psi or greater, the engineer
zones are typically divided through booster pumping stations should consider incorporating pressure-reducing
and storage facilities. Pressures and discharges are a function valves on the domestic service lines.
of the hydraulic characteristics of the system, as well as the
• The minimum residual system pressure during the
system's service characteristics. Service characteristics include
peak hour demand on the maximum day is typically
such items as; demand as it relates to present and projected
required to be 30-psi or greater. Additionally, the pres-
population, economic base, fire flow, and climate. Hydraulic
sure in the water main should be greater than 20-psi
characteristics include the length, size and condition of the
during the maximum daily demand plus fire flow.
pipe, types and sizes of fittings and appurtenances, and varia-
tions in elevation of the system. Since service and hydraulic
characteristics constantly change, the design must incorporate The preceding considerations are only guidelines for
allowances for these changes. Dynamic demographics of the designing the water distribution system. The regulating
users and deterioration of the system effect how and when the authorities should be consulted for specific line pressures,
changes are made. The changes that can be made include relo- demand flows and other design criteria.
cating or replacing the existing waterline, increasing the pipe After estimating the demand and determining the peak-
sizes, addition of auxiliary pumps and storage, or adding more ing factors, layout the pipe network, including fire hydrants,
distribution lines to accommodate new development. valves, tees, and crosses on a plan view of the project. The lay-
out also should include any stubouts needed to provide water
5.6.11. Procedure for Water Distribution Design service to future developments. In laying out the waterline, the
Waterline analysis and design are done using computers engineer follows the local criteria for setting the waterline in
and commercial software. To model the system accurately, public right-of-way. Based on the facilities being served, the
pipe geometry, system demand, flow, and pressure data for engineer estimates the pipe size and labels them on the plan
the existing water services, at the points where the proposed view. In most moderately sized developments, pipe diameters
waterline connects to the existing waterline, are needed. typically range from 6 inches on short residential cul-de-sacs
Pressure and flows, at these connection points, serve as the streets to 12 inches for the main feeder line. Typically, the size
boundary conditions for the proposed waterline. Addition- requirement results from fire flow demand and not because of
ally, data may be needed on storage tank capacities, water the domestic demand. In all likelihood, the size of the distribu-
surface elevations in the storage tank at the time of the flow tion lines through the proposed development will have similar
tests, as well as pumping station and well pump curves. sizes as the existing lines in surrounding similar developments.
If the data is not available directly from the utility com- Input this data into the model and examine the output
pany, flow tests will have to be conducted, at nearby hydrants, for high velocities, excessive head losses, and unacceptable
to obtain static and residual pressures for several different pressures. Adjust the pipe sizes to meet demand and local
flow conditions. If the municipality or water utility company standards criteria. When the model analysis is complete, fin-
has the computational abilities and resources, they may dic- ish the plan and profile of the waterline for the construction
tate the location and size of the water supply system compo- drawings.
nents. Some larger utilities now use system modeling software Pressure Requirements. Pressure requirements in the sys-
that is integrated with a geographic information system (GIS) tem depend on the combined normal service requirements
for the management of their water infrastructure. For small and fire flow demand. Pressures must be high enough to
systems, the consulting engineer will normally do the hydrau- overcome energy losses within the distribution and service
lic analysis and design of the additional distribution system lines, as well as the losses incurred from hydrants, nozzles,
needed for the new development project. hoses, and other firefighting equipment. Additionally, pres-
The following criteria are considered when designing the sure requirements are a function of the topography. Since
water supply system: most waterlines are installed at minimum depth, they closely
follow the ground surface topography. Consequently, pres-
• In most cases the flows in the water distribution sures in the system must be increased in the hilly service areas
system are designed to supply the amount of water to overcome elevation differences. A balance must be struck
552 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
between the pressures required for normal service operations For fire resistive buildings, consider the six largest suc-
and the pressures required for short-term high demand and cessive floor areas if the vertical openings are unprotected;
emergency occasions. Although the water supply system can if the vertical openings are properly protected, consider only
be designed to operate at higher pressures, sustained excessive the three largest successive floor areas. Coefficient C = 1.5
pressures add to system costs, increasing leakage volumes, and for wood frame construction, 1.0 for ordinary construc-
potential damage to fixtures. To address fluctuations in pres- tion, 0.9 for heavy timber type buildings, 0.8 for noncom-
sure due to extreme topography changes and demands over bustible construction, and 0.6 for fire-resistive construction.
a large area, some water distribution systems will divide into Coefficients shall not be greater than 1.5 nor less than 0.6
different pressure zones to maintain reliability with the sup- and may be determined by interpolation. Such interpolation
ply. These pressure zones allow the system to provide varying shall be between consecutive types of construction as listed
pressure ranges in different locations, but require some form above. Additionally, these guides recommend a minimum
of mechanical equipment, such as booster pumps, to move fire flow of 500 gpm and maximum fire flows under the fol-
the water supply between the different zones. lowing conditions: 8000 gpm for wood frame construction,
A municipality's exact pressure requirements are estab- ordinary and heavy timber construction; 6000 gpm for non-
lished by a state agency, such as the health department, with combustible construction and fire-resistive construction.
supplemental requirements imposed by agencies within For normal one-story building (of any type construction)
the municipality such as the fire marshal. Typically, street the fire flow shall not exceed 6000 gpm. Table 5.60 identifies
water main pressures of 20 psi are the minimum when pro- required fire flows for areas of single family and small two-
viding either maximum daily demand (including fire flow family dwellings not exceeding two stories in height.
requirements) or the peak hour demand. This is a precaution- Adjustments to recommended fire flow values might be
ary measure, designed to prevent potential cross-connection applicable for certain occupancy conditions. Equation (5.6BS)
backflows from house fixtures. This minimum pressure also may be reduced up to 25% for occupancies having a low fire
represents the minimum pressure required to overcome fric- hazard or increased up to 25% for occupancies having a high
tional losses in the service line provide enough force for three fire hazard. Examples of occupancies considered low fire haz-
stories-the upper height limit typical in residential areas. ard are residential dwellings, churches, schools, hotels, hospi-
Preferable normal pressures in the street should be tals, and other public buildings. Occupancy of high fire hazard
between 40 and 60 psi in residential areas. In most cases, a are manufacturing and processing plants using explosives and
pressure of about 80 psi is recommended as the upper limit. high combustibles such as oil refineries, paint shops, and air-
Above 80 psi special pressure reducing valves may be neces- craft hangers. Other modifications, which affect the required
sary to prevent residential fixture damage. Typically, com- fire flow rate, include the existence of sprinkler systems, non-
mercial areas require a minimum pressure of75 psi. Booster combustible construction, and building separation. However,
pumps for tall buildings (e.g., more than 10 stories) eliminate the range of adjustment to the initial fire flow estimates cannot
the need for excessively high pressures in the street mains. be greater than 75% and the final adjusted flow cannot be less
Rre Flow Requirements. Each municipality establishes its than 500 gpm, nor exceed 12,000 gpm.
own parameters for fire flow requirements based on local con- Fire flow estimates resulting from applying the above crite-
ditions. Although, the municipality may instead refer to the ria are only a guide and warrant the judgment of experienced
fire flow recommendations provided by the Insurance Services and knowledgeable persons in fire protection. Typically,
Office (ISO). The ISO recommends criteria for establishing local jurisdictions require fire flow approval by controlling
insurance rates and for classifying municipalities with reference agencies, such as the fire marshal's office, public water supply
to their fire defenses and physical conditions. The criteria pro-
vides a means for rating a municipality based on type of fire-
fighting equipment, proximity of equipment, water distribution TA BLE 5 . 6 0 Required Fire Flows for Single-
flows, storage and other factors. One such document by the ISO Family and Small Two-Family Dwellings
is the "Guide for Determination ofRequired Fire Flow:' Although
the guide only recommends fire flows, many areas defer to it for DISTANCE BETWEEN SUGGESTED REQUIRED
fire flow considerations, while others have established their own BUILDINGS (FT) FIRE FLOW (GPM)
requirements. Minimum fire flows vary widely among jurisdic-
tions. The design engineer should consult with the local water Over 100 500
authority and fire marshal's office for specific criteria. 31-100 750-1000
Estimating Fire Flow. The ISO uses the following equation
to estimate the required fire flow: 11-30 1000-1500

f=18xCx ✓-4 (5.6BS)

10 or less 1500-2000*
*If the buildings are continuous use a minimum of 2500 gpm. Where wood shingle
where Fis the required fire flow (gpm), C is the coefficient roofs could contribute to spreading fires, add 500 gpm.
related to the type of construction, and A is the total floor (From the publication "Guide for Determination of Required Fire Flow," 2nd ed.
area (sf), including all stories but excluding basements. Reprinted with the permission of Insurance Services Office, Inc. Copyright 1974.)
 5.6 ■ UTILITY DESIGN 553

agency, and health department. Exact requirements by local A pressure gage is placed on one of the hose outlets on
jurisdictions for fire flows may not be the same as what is the residual hydrant and the hydrant valve is fully opened.
recommended by the ISO. In fact, there can be a wide range After the barrel air is exhausted, the pressure is recorded.
of fire flow requirements even among adjacent jurisdictions. The other hydrants are opened full in succession one at a
Fire Flow Tests. Before new projects ultimately get approval time. After each hydrant is opened and the flow stabilized,
for construction by the fire marshal's office, fire flow tests are the pressure is recorded at the residual hydrant and the dis-
performed to determine the fire flow capacity and adequacy charge at each open hydrant is measured using a pitot gage.
of the existing system. Fire flow tests are used to determine The discharge Q (gpm) is determined from
available flow rates and pressures at various locations for
firefighting purposes. Although, in the larger municipalities, (5.6BT)
the water utility company has extensive data on the existing
where c is the coefficient of discharge of the pitot tube (depends
water system, uncertainties in the hydraulic variables and
on the manufacturer specifications typically around 0.9), dis
service variables requires further data to corroborate exist-
the diameter of the outlet hose connection in inches, and p
ing information. On commercial sites and small subdivi-
is the velocity pressure in psi (i.e., the pitot tube reading).
sions, the test is performed on hydrants near the point where
After all observations are recorded, the discharge (in gpm)
the proposed water main will connect to the existing water
at the specified residual pressure or for any pressure drop is
main. On larger sites, where the project is built in phases, fire
flow tests may be required near the connection points at each
subsequent phase of the development.
The following discussion on testing procedures and anal-
QR=QFX (~:r 4 (5.6BU)

ysis is extracted from the National Fire Protection Associa- where QR is the flow predicted at the desired residual pres-
tion (NFPA). The exact method and analysis may deviate sure, Qp is the total flow measured during the test, h, is the
according to local regulations. pressure drop to the desired residual pressure, and h1 is the
The test consists of discharging water at a measured flow pressure drop measured during test.
rate from one or more hydrants and observing the result- As the equation is written, any consistent units for the Q's
ing pressure drop in the main through another fire hydrant. and h's will work.
Typically, a minimum residual pressure of20-psi in the main Fire Duration Requirements. In addition to providing
is required (when delivering fire flows) for two basic rea- adequate discharges and pressures for normal consumption,
sons. One, fire department pumpers require 20 psi to operate a water supply system must be designed to provide water for
effectively, and two, a minimum residual pressure is needed sustained periods for firefighting purposes. Since the mag-
to prevent a vacuum (negative pressures) from developing in nitude, duration, location, and frequency of a fire are quite
the system that can cause collapse of pipes and inadvertent unpredictable, the design of a system should be based on a
back siphonage of polluted water. reasonable worst-case scenario.
For the test, one base point hydrant is selected as the The ISO defines the average daily consumption as the
residual hydrant. The residual hydrant is chosen such that total amount of water used each day during a I-year period
the hydrants to be flowed are between it and the larger mains. considered as a rate for a 24-hour period. The maximum
Typical patterns for selecting the test hydrants are illustrated daily consumption is defined as the maximum total amount
in Figure 5.6SS. Note, the residual pressure at this location is used during any 24-hour period in a 3-year period disre-
measured before other hydrants are opened. The pressure at garding any unusually high circumstantial amounts caused
this location is then determined when the other hydrants are by filling storage tanks. An adequate water supply, according
fully opened. The test is made during a period of ordinary to the ISO, can deliver the required fire flow for the duration
demand such that the pressure drop in the residual hydrant given in Table 5.6P at the maximum daily rate.
is 25% or less of what it would be at the total demand neces- Distribution Storage. Distribution storage, which con-
sary for firefighting purposes. sists of small reservoirs located near service areas, act as
service storage areas to compensate for the widely fluctu-
ating demands and provide storage for firefighting and for

1,0;[ , ~
A. 4 B. C.
~

11 c!5
- 2
1
emergency reserve. Distribution storage is used to normal-
ize operating pressures, eliminate the need for nonuniform
pumping, reduce the need for constructing large mains at the
Flow Test Layouts periphery of the system, and provide increased reliability for
(Note : Circl es fire protection and other emergencies.
j~ '
1 cb
- Drawn About
Residual Hydran ts.
Ar rows Denote
Whether ground storage or elevated storage tanks are used
depends on such factors as topography, size of service area,
D. - E.
Flow Direction
In Ma i ns. )
reliability of main water supply, and economics. Auxiliary
FIG uRE 5 . 6 S S Suggested test layout for hydrants. (From the pub- pumps at the ground storage facility or higher water surface
lication "Grading Schedule for municipal Fire Protection." Reprinted with elevations in the elevated storage reservoir can be utilized to
the permission of Insurance Services Office, Inc. Copyright 1974.) equalize pressures during high demand periods. Since short
554 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
empties. However, due to this fluctuation there is a somewhat
TAB LE 5 . 6 P Required Fire Flow Duration
continuous exchange of water within the tank. With the resid-
REQUIRED FIRE FLOW (GPM) REQUIRED DURATION (HR) ual effects of disinfectant chlorine limited to 6 to 10 days, the
maximum residence time of water in the tank should be less
10,000 and greater 10 than 8 days to prevent stagnation and other health problems.
Formal design of a storage facility should incorporate the
9500-9000 9
hourly use hydrograph or mass diagram for the maximum
8500-8000 8 day. A description of the design can be found from other
resources. One way to estimate storage requirements based
7500-7000 7 on land use follows.
Water Storage Tank Example. Table 5.6Q shows the land
6500-6000 6
use for a new service area and the corresponding demand
5500-5000 5 for the average day for the type of land use. For this service
area, fire flow requirements are 4 hours duration for a flow
4500-4000 4 of 2500 gpm. Local ordinance requires a reserve of 20% of
3500-3000 3 the maximum day demand and the maximum day demand
is assumed to be equal to 1.6 times the average day demand.
2500 and less 2 Use a t factor of safety = 1.25. What are the storage require-
ments given these parameters?
(Source: Virginia Dept. of Health. 1993. Waterworks Regulations.) Storage required:

4 h fire flow@ 2500 gpm x 60 min/h = 600,000 gal

and frequent high demand periods can require pumps to turn 2,068,910 gal x 1.6 x 0.20 = 662,051 gal
on and off regularly to maintain system pressures, one advan-
Subtotal= 1,262,051 gal (5.6BV)
tage to elevated storage tanks (over auxiliary pumps) is the
ability to supply a sustained pressure, without the cyclic pump Storage= 1,262,051x (1.25)
operations. However, the selection of the type of distribution = 1,577,564 gal
storage should be considered on a case by case basis.
Although the need for design and construction of stor- Further considerations in this analysis would be to deter-
age facilities is infrequent in moderately sized land develop- mine if one or several facilities would supply the required
ment projects, very large projects, or areas of unanticipated storage, the size of each facility, and the location.
rapid growth, may warrant the need for distribution storage
facilities. Nonetheless, the project engineer should be aware 5.6.12. Water Use and Demand
of the major factors governing the design of the facilities. In Water use is categorized as either consumptive use or non-
many cases, an engineer specializing in the design of water consumptive use. Consumptive use includes municipal,
works will be called on to perform the specific design. In the agricultural, industry and mining, whereas nonconsumptive
projects where such facilities are required, the developer and use refers to water used for hydropower, transportation, and
jurisdiction may enter into some kind of joint venture where recreation. Water demand is the quantity that consumers use
the costs would be shared by the two. This practice is com- per unit of time. Land development projects involve analy-
mon in instances where users beyond the project boundaries sis of municipal water uses such as residential, commercial,
would share the facility. institutional, industrial, firefighting, swimming pools, and
The size of a storage tank depends on the characteristics lawn and park watering.
of the service zone, fire demand requirements, and the local Demand forecasting projects the future water use based
standards governing such design. General rule-of-thumb on previous water use, socioeconomic trends, climatic fac-
storage requirement is given as one day's supply plus fire flow. tors, and other parameters. Various types of forecasting
The one day supply is based on the maximum day usage, while models may be used to estimate water demand. The least
the fire flow storage is based on the duration as suggested by complex of which is a single coefficient method, whereby the
the ISO for the design fire flow (see Tables 5.60 and 5.6P). projected demand is based on a factor such as per capita, per
Note local design standards may supersede this method of connection, or by land use. Complex models may factor in
storage demand design. Preferably, the tank should be sized water pricing, income, and even incorporate statistical analy-
to provide 2 to 3 days supply, although economic and risk sis. The selection of the model depends on the type and size
analysis will dictate the upper limit of the size. of the project and the availability of the data.
Another consideration for storage tank sizing deals with Part of the design of a water distribution system includes
the retention time of the water in the tank. Since a storage tank estimating the amount of water needed for a service area.
is designed to supplement the added demand during peak Water demand for an area depends on population, climate,
periods and refill during off-peak periods, a properly designed industry, and economic factors. Additionally, the design anal-
tank under most operating conditions never completely ysis must include fire flow requirements. Although the overall
 5.6 ■ UTILITY DESIGN 555

TA BLE 5 . 6 Q Demand Requirements for New Service Area (Water Storage Tank Example)
LAND USE UNIT OF MEASUREMENT No. OF UNITS AVERAGE DEMAND (GPO) TOTAL DEMAND (GPO)

Single-family detached per dwelling 1682 350 588,700

Town house per dwelling 519 350 181,650
School per student 750 16 12,000
Daycare center per student 200 16 3200
Recreation center per person 1528 10 15,280
Hotel per room 120 168 20,160
Restaurant per seat 800 50 40,000
High-rise commercial per acre 89.1 2000 1,782,000
Low-rise commercial per acre 362 1500 543,000
Subtotal= 1,582,190
Existing demand 486,720
TOTAL= 2,068,910

volume of water used for fighting fires is quite low relative to water withdrawals and metered use. Inconsistencies in how
most other uses, the amount of water required to fight a fire, each supplier defines various uses, or categorizes the various
even if only for a few hours, puts a heavy strain on the system. uses, leads to the inexactness in determining "average use''
Since fire flow requirements are so high relative to other uses, figures, when compared over statewide areas. The point here
they are usually the controlling criteria in the design of dis- is that it is difficult to confidently say a certain value is appli-
tribution piping and storage. In part, the water works system cable as a blanket design value for all areas of the United
design is based on an estimated average demand and maxi- States. Table 5.6S lists approximate water withdrawals by
mum daily demand. However, variations in demand must state, as shown in a map diagram. For preliminary estimates,
also be included as part of the design analysis. a blanket design value is appropriate, but for specific design,
Variation in water use becomes apparent by considering regional data is more appropriate.
hourly and daily individual personal water use. Each individ- An additional component of demand projection which
ual drinks, baths, and general uses varying daily amounts of requires significant consideration is the understanding and
water. On an hourly basis, this variation fluctuates substan- implementation of sustainability or "green design'' goals.
tially. Extend the individual fluctuations in hourly and daily Water is a limited resource and all design concepts should be
use over a population of tens of thousands and it becomes aware of industry trends that help to conserve this valuable
apparent why water demand projection is difficult. Fortu- commodity. Some conservation techniques include devel-
nately, individual daily use tends to an average value exhibit- opments that do not install or permit the use of permanent
ing only slight variations over longer periods. Variations in landscape irrigation systems, or residential, commercial, and
short-term use are further reduced as population and devel- industrial facilities that utilize water reduction fixtures in
opment stabilizes. However, the capricious variables (e.g., bathrooms and kitchens. Knowledge of sustainability goals
climate, demand for consumer goods and services) inherent and techniques for incorporating them into design will sup-
in commercial, manufacturing, and agricultural industries port the conservation of this resource.
can add to wide variations in use and complicate demand Residential Demand. Domestic water use refers to the
forecasting. water used for household purposes, including water for
The types of use for water demand include domestic, drinking, cooking, sanitary needs, landscape watering,
commercial, industrial, mining, agricultural, thermoelectric swimming pool maintenance, street cleaning, firefighting,
power, public use, and many others depending on where the leakage, and system maintenance. Residential water demand
interest is. The wide fluctuations in various uses is evident widely fluctuates, on both a daily basis and a yearly basis.
from the data listed in Table 5.6R. Collecting and sorting the Daily, the water demand has two peaks. Once in the morn-
data to determine "average use'' is difficult, cumbersome, and ing hours of 7 to 11 a.m. and another peak in the evening
inexact. Water supply companies keep numerous records of between 4 and 8 p.m. (coincident to sanitary demand loads,
55& i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
TA B L E 5 •6 R States with Highest and Lowest Water Use

■
■
■

-I
- 11I1111 --•11II
· __ •• II.I!1- -1 111 •I-
·--1i 1-1 -- 1~1- · 1- -I _11_1_. _I
1. I

TA B L E 5 •6 S Public Supply Freshwater Use by State {from USGS Circular 1200)

Colorado

-
 5.6 ■ UTILITY DESIGN 557

as identified in Part B of Chapter 5.6). Although the peaks an individual perceives his actual use is. However these val-
remain fixed for the time periods, the amount varies accord- ues account for unmetered water use such as firefighting,
ing to season and yearly rainfall. maintenance (e.g., flushing the system), leakage and illegal
The USGS presents data on water use in the report connections.
"Estimated Use of Water in the United States in 2010:' The Industrial Use. Industrial use accounts for the water used
data from this report shows public-supplied domestic water for fabrication, processing, washing, and cooling associated
use ranging from 51 gpcd (gallons per capita daily) in Maine with such industries as food processing, steel production,
to 167 gpcd in Utah, with the average water use for all states, chemical processing, mining, and petroleum refining. Note
as well as Washington, D.C., being 89 gpcd (a decrease from some industry plants install their own water supply systems,
the 101 gpcd in 1995). rather than rely on the municipal water supply. Depending
Commercial Demand. Commercial water use refers to the on the industry and the capacity of the municipal water sup-
water used in motels, hotels, restaurants, office buildings, ply, it may be necessary for the industry to furnish its own
shopping centers, and other commercial establishments. water supply. The amount of water used varies greatly with
Compared to residential demand, commercial demand is the type of industry.
considerably less than residential peak demands and not as Other Uses. Additionally water use can be identified with
varied. Note, most of the water use for office buildings is for other types of manufacturing and industries. Depending on
air conditioning purposes. Restaurants, hotels, and motels the region, the water use associated with mining, irrigation,
use water mainly for cooking and cleaning. Water use esti- livestock, and thermoelectric power, may heavily influence
mates for design purposes are usually based on; number of design considerations for a water system.
square feet of space, potential number of occupants, or on the Peak Demand. Distribution system design must account
number of water fixture units in the building. Utilizing data for the peak periods of daily use. The maximum daily use
available in the above noted USGS report, it can be deduced for domestic water ranges between 1.5 and 3 times greater
that commercial use, relative to total use, ranges anywhere than the average daily use, whereas the maximum hour for
from 1% in Iowa to nearly 41 % in Alaska. Table 5.6T pro- domestic water use is 2 to 5 times greater than the aver-
vides values for water use for various types of uses. At first age annual use. Since peak factors are a function of present
glance the values might appear to be high relative to what population, population growth rate and land use, the older

TA BL E 5 . 6 T Daily Water Consumption Rates

TYPE OF LAND USE WATER CONSUMPTION (GAL/DAY)

Dwellings, per person 100

High schools with showers, per person 16
Elementary schools without showers, per person 10
Community colleges per student and faculty 15
Motels@ 65 gal/person, minimum per room 120
Trailer courts @ 3 persons/trailer, per trailer 300
Restaurants, per seat 50
Interstate or through highway restaurants, per seat 180
Interstate rest areas 5
Shopping centers, per 1000 ft2 of ultimate floor space 200-300
Theaters, auditorium type, per seat 5
Hospitals, per bed 300
Laundromats, 9-12 machines, per machine 500
Factories per person per 8-hour shift 15-35
(Source: Virginia Dept. of Health. 1993. Waterworks Regulations.)
55a i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
TAB LE 5 . 6 U Estimated Peak Ratios for Residential Water Systems
POPULATION RATIO OF MAXIMUM DAY TO AVERAGE ANNUAL USE RATIO OF MAXIMUM HOUR TO AVERAGE ANNUAL USE

0-500 3.0 4.50

500-1000 2.75 4.13
1000-2000 2.50 3.75
2000-3000 2.25 3.38
3000-10,000 1.90 2.85
10,000-25,000 1.80 2.85
25,000-50,000 1.80 2.70
50,000-75,000 1.75 2.62
75,000-150,000 1.65 2.48
Over 150,000 1.50 2.25
Reprinted by permission of R.V. Anderson Associates Limited, Willowdale, Ontario.
(Source: Recommended Guidelines for Residential Servicing in Ontario. 1973. Ontario Housing Advisory Committee.)

stabilized areas tend to have peak factors that are 2 to 3 times by a motor power source. Water that enters the suction side
lower than rapidly expanding areas. Table 5.6U shows the of the rotating impeller is thrown at high velocity against
relationship of population on peaking factors. the casing to convert velocity head into pressure. Centrifu-
Typically, distribution lines are sized for design flows of gal pumps can be designed to provide stages in series, where
maximum daily consumption plus the required fire flow. each impeller and matching casing constitutes a stage, to
However, if the maximum daily consumption plus fire flow is realize pressures not attainable with a single-stage pump.
less than the estimated maximum hourly amount the design Pumps having more than one stage are called multistage
may be based on the latter value. Local regulations and state pumps, of which there are two types, submersible pumps and
waterworks design manuals dictate minimum design flows. turbine pumps.
Since the estimated water use design values are based The submersible pump consists of one or more pump
on immediate as well as future expectations in growth and stages driven by a closely coupled motor designed for sub-
development, economic assessments are made to determine merged operation (Figure 5.6TT). They are commonly used
the long-range plan of the system. The decision may be to in wells, but may also be used in finished water clear wells at
design the system for the short-term future and improve the treatment facilities.
system later rather than size and build the system for long- Turbine pumps consist of one or more centrifugal pump
range future projections. stages driven by a vertical shaft, connecting the pumping
assembly to a motor mounted at the surface. Figure 5.6UU
5.6.13. Pumping Facilities shows a turbine pump used for well service. Turbine pumps
Pumping facilities are necessary to transport treated water in this configuration are called vertical turbine pumps. Tur-
through the transmission and distribution lines to fill storage bine pumps can also be mounted on treatment plant clear
tanks and maintain system pressure. For small water utilities, wells for distribution of finished water.
the well pump or the single-finished water pumping arrange- Positive Displacement Pumps. Positive displacement pumps,
ment at a treatment plant may be all that is required. For as the name implies, displace a set volume of water with each
large municipal distribution systems, a complex network of turn of the pump. The pumping rate varies with the speed of
pumping stations, monitored and controlled from a central the pump. Although these pumps are not that common in
point, may be needed. water distribution service, especially in high-volume applica-
Pump Selection. Small water utilities commonly employ tions, they are well suited for intermittent pumping at high
three types of pumps for water distribution service. These are pressure. Positive displacements pumps are available in sev-
(I) centrifugal, (2) positive displacement, and (3) jet (ejector). eral configurations.
Centrifugal Pumps. Centrifugal pumps are the most com- Reciprocating Pumps. This pump consists of a plunger
monly used of the three. A centrifugal pump involves a cas- driven back and forth in a closely fitted cylinder, with check
ing containing a rotating impeller mounted on a shaft turned valves at both the inlet and pump outlet.
 5.6 ■ UTILITY DESIGN 559

Drop Pipe
Connection

_ _ _ ,, _ _ _ ., .
------ o---
· -- - 0

-0---0--- - -
__ ___
WeHCaslng .,
-- 0

-- o--o--- o
-o--o---
--- 0
-n--- o - - -
o --

~--
----

--- . --- _ _ _ ., _ _
,, __
0 -

--•--0-
'''" ~ --o
.. - - - 0 - -
- - .. - - - 0
• - -o ---·--
o--
- - 0
--•-----o-•
• ~ ieiiiaiiiiiir • - -
~.J--~~=:=.:~=~-:'.7"""'.~
. c..ingsi...·,
Powerleads----tV.14 ...
Motor Shaft Wallf Beemg Sand or -
·•·.

Motor
Section ClooedBeUBollom

Lubricant Seal FIG uRE 5 . 6 UU Turbine pump in well service. (Reprinted from
Design and Construction of Small Water Systems, by permission. Copyright
© 1999, American Water Works Association.)

FIG uRE 5. 6 TT View of a multistage submersible pump. (Reprinted are economical for low volume facilities, and are commonly
from Design and Construction of Small Water Systems, by permission.
Copyright© 1999, American Water Works Association.) used in wells.
The fundamental considerations for pump selection
within a particular installation are as follows:
Helical Rotor Pump. The helical pump consists of a spiral
• Yield of the well, or other water source.
rotor that rotates in a sleeve. As the spiral rotor turns, it traps
water between the rotor and the sleeve, forcing it to the outlet • Total daily needs and instantaneous demand of the
end of the sleeve. system.
Rotary Gear Pump. This type of pump uses two meshing
• Total operating head pressure of the pumps at nor-
gears housed in a sealed casing that traps water in cavities
mal delivery rate, including lift and all friction losses.
between them. As the gears mesh, they carry water from the
inlet to outlet port. • Elevation difference between the ground level and
Jet (Ejector) Pumps. Jet pumps are actually a combination the water level in the well during pumping.
of centrifugal and ejector pumps (Figure 5.6VV). A portion
• Availability of power.
of the centrifugal pump discharge is diverted through a noz-
zle and venturi tube near the water level of the source. This • Ease of maintenance and availability of parts.
creates a low-pressure zone that draws flow upward toward
• Initial and operations costs.
the surface, where the centrifugal pump suction can further
lift it into the distributions system. These jet installations • Reliability of pumping equipment.
5&o i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
Figure 5.6WW shows an example of system head curve
including a typical centrifugal pump curve.
The concept of total dynamic head must be understood
to construct a proper system head curve for a potable water
distribution pumping system. Figure 5.6XX is a graphical
representation of total dynamic head for a well pump instal-
lation. Static head, friction head, and pressure head are the
three components of total dynamic head. Static head is the
difference in elevation of the source water and the point of
discharge. Friction head is the loss that occurs due to valves,
Plastic Seal
fittings, and piping. The pressure head includes the veloc-
ity head as well as the minimal residual pressure required in
the system by state health departments (usually no less than
25 psi at the outlet fixture).
Grout Formation Seal
Water hammer, or hydraulic surge, occurs when water
flowing in a pipe comes to an abrupt stop. A common exam-
ple of this is when a pump shuts off suddenly due to a power
failure. On such an occasion, the resulting surge can cause
system pressure that is many times the normal working pres-
sure. These high pressures, if not adequately accommodated
Venturi for in the design, can damage piping, valves, and pumping
equipment. Lack of proper surge protection can result in
catastrophic failure, requiring several days of repair, while
the utility customers are without water service. Surge protec-
tion must be carefully designed, even for small water utili-
ties. Common surge protection methods include surge relief
valves and pressure surge tanks located on the discharge
main near the pumps, and vacuum relief valves located at
key points on long force mains.
Pump Drives. Pumps in the water utility industry are nor-
mally driven by alternating current (AC) motors. The power
source for AC motors can be single phase or three phase.
However, single phase is generally limited to small motors
of 10 hp (0.75 kW) or less. On a first cost basis, establishing
a three-phase power source for a pumping facility is more
expensive than it is with single phase, although the three
FIG uRE 5 . 6 VV Combined centrifugal and ejector pump.
(Reprinted from Design and Construction of Small Water Systems, by per-
phase is more efficient.
mission. Copyright© 1999, American Water Works Association.) AC motors can be provided as either squirrel-cage induc-
tion, synchronous wound, or wound-rotor induction types.
However, squirrel-cage inductor types are most commonly
Table 5.6V provides information useful for selecting the used because they are less expensive than the other two and
type of pump needed for typical small system applications. they have proven operation. In general, lower speed motors
Selecting the proper pumping unit size must be done by are larger and more expensive than higher speed motors,
carefully evaluating the peak demand, available storage in but they have a longer service life. Normally, the needs of
the system, and capacity of the water source. Increased stor- small water utilities can be met through properly designed
age capacity is needed when source yield is low in compari- constant speed pumping arrangements of multiple pumps.
son with peak demand (as often happens with well sources). However, two-speed, squirrel-cage motors are available.
This is needed to avoid starting and stopping pump motors Note fairly recent improvements in technology, reliability,
more than four or five times per hour in order to maintain and costs of variable frequency drives (VFDs) make them
optimum service life of the equipment. worthy of consideration for small utility service. VFDs work
System Head Curve. The system head curve is an essential by converting AC to direct current (DC), and then back to
tool for use in determining the pump's type, size, and num- AC but at a different frequency. Since the speed of a synchro-
ber of units to be applied for the most economically feasible nous motor is directly proportional to frequency, varying the
installation. It graphically presents hydraulic head require- frequency varies the motor speed. Because of this conversion
ments for various flow characteristics of a particular system, process, VFDs produce considerable heat that must be prop-
making it easier to determine the appropriate configuration. erly vented, or even addressed by the use of air conditioning.
 TAB LE 5 . 6 V Specifications for Various Types of Pumps (Reprinted from Design and Construction of Small Water S
Copyright © 1999, American Water Works Association.)
PRACTICAL USUAL WELL- USUAL
TYPE OF PUMP SUCTION LIFT"' PUMPING DEPTH PRESSURE HEADS ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES REMARKS

Reciprocating:
Shallow well 22-25 ft 22-25 ft 100-200 ft Positive action Pulsating discharge Best suited for
(7-8 m) (7-8 m) (3Q---60 m) Discharge against Subject to vibration and noise 5-25 gpm (19-
variable heads against moder,
Deep well 22-15ft Up to 600 ft Up to 600 ft Pumps water containing Maintenance cost may be high Adaptable to h,
(7-8 m) (183 m) (183m) sand and silt May cause destructive pressure Can be installe,
above cylinder Especially adapted to low if operated against closed valve [2-in (51-mm)
capacity and high lifts
Centrifugal
Shallow well 20ft(6 m) 10-20 ft 100-150 ft Smooth, even flow Loses prime easily Very efficient p
Straight maximum (3-6m) 30-46 m) Pumps water Efficiency depends on operating (227 Umin) an
centrifugal containing sand and silt under design heads and speed
Pressure on system is
even and free from shock
Low starting torque
Usually reliable; good service life
Regenerative 28ft(7 m) 28 ft (7 m) 100-200 ft Same as straight centrifugal Same as straight centrifugal, except Reduction in pr
vane turbine maximum (30-60 m) except not suitable for pumping maintains priming easily not as severe a
type (single- water containing sand or silt
impeller) Self-priming
Deep well
Vertical line Impeller 50-300 ft 100-800 ft Same as shallow-well turbine Efficiency depends on operating
shaft turbine submerged (15-91 m) (30-244 m) All electrical components are under design head and speed
(multistage) accessible aboveground Requires straight well large enough
for turbine bowls and housing
Lubrication and alignment of shaft critical
Abrasion from sand
Submersible turbine Pump and motor 5Q-400 ft 50-400 ft Same as shallow-well turbine Repair to motor or pump requires 3500 RPM mrn
(multistage) submerged (15-122 m) (15-122 m) Easy to frostproof installation pulling from well of smaller diarr
Short pump shaft to motor Sealing of electrical equipment from vulnerable tow
Quiet operation water vapor critical other causes
Well straightness not critical Abrasion from sand
Jet
Shallow well 15-20ft Up to 14-20 ft 80-150 ft High capacity at low heads Capacity reduces as lift increases
(5-6 m) (5-6m) (24-46 m) Simple operation Air in suction or return line will stop
below ejector below ejector Does not have to be installed pumping
over the well
No moving parts in well
Deep Well 15-20ft 25-120 ft 80-150 ft Same as shallow-well jet Same as shallow-well jet The amount of
(5-6 m) (8-37 m) (24-46 m) Well straightness not critical Lower efficiency, especially at greater with increased
below ejector 200 ft (61 m) maximum lifts 50-ft (15 m) Ii~
Rotary
Shallow well 22ft (7 m) 22 ft (7 m) 50-250 ft Positive action Subject to rapid wear if water contains
(gear type) (15-76 m) Discharge constant under sand or silt
variable heads Wear of gears reduces efficiency
Deep well (helical Usually 50-500 ft 100-500 ft Efficient operation Same as shallow-well rotary, except no A cutless rubbe
rotary type) submerged (15-152 m) (30-152 m) Same as shallow well rotary gear wear Flexible drive c,
Only one moving pump device Best adapted f(
in well

-
en
a,
*Practical suction lift at sea level. Reduce lift 1 ft (0.3 m) for each 1,000 ft (305 m) above sea level.
(Reprinted from Design and Construction of Small Water Systems, by permission. Copyright© 1999. American Water Works Association)
5&2 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
Flow. u.,
Packaged Booster Stations. Packaged booster pumping
0
JOO +-_ _10
..__ _.._
20 _ _JO
..___ _40
.___ _ 50.___ ___J.__,
60
stations are very popular with small water utilities because
of their economy and ease of installation. These units, which
are delivered assembled to the construction site complete
250 with controls and electrical, can be installed with minimal
72
labor and time. Although these packaged pumping units
can be used for primary finished water service at treatment
200 60 plants, they are more often used as booster stations out in the
""ti distribution system. These packaged stations can be ordered
i
:,: for either above or below ground level installations, as shown
~ 150 in Figures 5.6YY and 5.6ZZ, respectively.
l>-
!1
0
~ ;;;
Emergency Power. Electrical power to a treatment facility
{1 36 ~
or pumping station can be disrupted by a storm, or other
Friction Head
100 +
Pressure Head
natural disaster, for many hours, or even for days. Many
I 24 state health departments require that critical waterworks
I
I and pumping stations be protected against power failure by
I
50 - - - - -i - - - a standby power source. Normally, the standby power source
12
1
I Static Head is a connection to a second independent public power source
Peak Flow I (served by a separate power grid that serves the primary
I
0-+----,------,--"----,----'--,------+0 source), or a standby generator set.
200 400 600 BOO 1,000

Flow, gpm
As a minimum, generator sets should be sized to provide
power for the average system demand, plus basic lighting and
FIG uRE 5. 6 WW System head curve. (Reprinted from Design and heating. Generator sets must be maintained and regularly
Construction of Small Water Systems, by permission. Copyright© 1999, exercised to ensure they will operate properly when called
American Water Works Association.)
upon during an emergency. Although these sets normally
operate on diesel fuel, units can be obtained that operate on
fficlion Head Loss propane, liquefied natural gas, or natural gas, if available.
+
Ptessure Head

S1atic Head
8 rnsu1:11@d F1be,91~s~ Cover
Wrlh $p(ang AS!!.1$1
and Safe111 Chain
Lifllng Handles
Wi1h Backing 8at

8 Fresn Air Fnret

Stainfess Steel Hin cs

S1ralner Typk::al
Air i=;ie1ease v.atve;
Drain 10 Floor
BallVai\'e

Increaser

Buner11y Valve Air Release Valve

Eleclrlc Ser,.,k:e Coupling.

Telepl\One Coupling,

~•fn. (11•mm-} Dlameler Holes

f I Gu RE 5. &XX Components of total dynamic head in well pump. FIG uRE 5 . 6 YY Aboveground packaged booster pump station.
(Reprinted from Design and Construction of Small Water Systems, by (Reprinted with permission of Universal Sanitary Equipment Manufacturing
permission. Copyright© 1999, American Water Works Association.) Co., Tumah, WI.)
 5.6 ■ UTILITY DESIGN 563

Service Conduit
Telemetry Panel
Brackets

Ceiling-Mounted Blower
Discharge Pressure
O Gauge and Switch

- Ch lorine Sta11on
I
Inlet Pressure
Gauge and Switch
Discharge Pipe

Inlet Pipe

Heater and
Dehum idifier
Hatch With
Hasp and Padlock

Screened Blower
Exhaust Pipe Pump Lift Eye

r
Inlet

Magnesium
Anodes
(as needed)

Sump Pump With Screen

FIG uRE 5. 6 ZZ Below-grade packaged booster pump station. (Reprinted with

permission of Universal Sanitary Equipment Manufacturing Co., Tumah, WI.)

Both the generator set and its auxiliary fuel tanks must be
properly secured against vandalism, and the fuel tank and its
feed lines must be contained to prevent contamination from
leakage.
There are several available options for securing and con-
taining the generator set and its fuel tank. The first option is
a custom designed, built-in place building. The advantages of
such a building are that it can match the aesthetics of nearby
buildings and surroundings, and can provide ideal condi-
tions for maintenance and repair of the set. Care must be
taken to properly ventilate the building to prevent air starv-
ing of the operating generator set. This is typically done with
properly sized louver systems that are opened either by the
force of the air being pulled toward the generator set, or by
electric motors that activate when the generator set is started.
Generator sets can also be provided by the manufacturer
with a sound-attenuated enclosure made of steel or fiberglass,
with removable panels to enable repairs (Figure 5.6AAA). f I Gu RE 5. &AAA Sound attenuated walkin enclosure. (Reprinted
The disadvantage of this is that the repair personnel must with permission of General Power Systems, Wakesha, WI.)
564 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii

FIG uRE 5. 6 BBB Typical generator enclosure. (Reprinted with

permission of Copyright © Tramont Corporation 2001.)

stand in the elements to do their work. To facilitate repair, the FIG uRE 5 . 6 DD D Aboveground storage tank and generator set.
generator manufacturer can also provide a sound-attenuated (Reprinted with permission of Core Engineered Solutions.)
shelter to cover the set and to provide space for repairs to be
done under protected conditions. These shelters are essen-
tially small prefabricated buildings made of steel or fiber-
glass that fit compactly over the set with clearances to allow Another option for an above-ground tank is a con-
repairs out of the weather. They are generally less costly than crete enclosed tank such as that provided by Convault
custom designed buildings, but are more costly than a simple (Figure 5.6DDD). The feed lines from the protected tank
generator set enclosure (Figure 5.6B8B). must also be protected. If buried, the lines will need to be
Traditionally, the normal arrangement for fuel tanks double walled for containment. Some utilities also require
serving generator sets was to use buried tanks. However, the buried double walled lines to be installed in a lined
as with buried tanks serving gasoline stations, there have trench (Figure 5.6EEE).
been many instances of failure of the tanks and their feed
lines causing contamination of the surrounding soils and 5.6.14. Thrust Restraint
groundwater. Buried tanks are still a viable option, but they
Two basic forces associated with flowing water under pres-
must meet much higher standards concerning leak monitor-
sure are the hydrostatic forces and hydrodynamic forces.
ing and double walled containment for the tank and buried
Simply explained, hydrostatic forces are due to the pressure
lines (state and local regulatory agencies can provide detailed
exerted by a depth of fluid as shown in Figure 5.6FFF. This
standards for buried tank installations). This has greatly
pressure force acts perpendicular to a surface. Thus, for a
increased the cost of buried tanks, such that most public
pipe with full flow the pressure acts radially outward and also
utilities are choosing other options.
along the longitudinal axis of the pipe.
The other available options for non-buried fuel tanks are
Consider a pipe connected to a tank and plugged
above-ground tanks in buildings or that are otherwise pro-
at the other end as shown in Figure 5.6FFF. From basic
tected. One approach is to use a protected skid-mounted tank
hydrostatics, the pressure on the plugged end of the pipe
that is designed to fit securely under a skid-mounted genera-
is proportional to the depth of water H as shown by the
tor set. These tanks are double-walled for containment, and
hydrostatic pressure distribution diagram. The pressure p
are protected by the generator shelter or enclosure and the
is equal to yH, where y is the specific weight of the fluid.
skid framing. Their feed lines are inside the generator enclo-
The magnitude of the force acting at the end of the pipe is
sure, and are therefore also protected (Figure 5.6CCC).
equal to the product of the pressure and the cross sectional
area of the pipe, Pp= yHA, where A is the cross sectional
area of the pipe.
Hydrodynamic forces are the result of changes in momen-
tum of the moving fluid. Any change in direction or mag-
nitude of flow velocity results in a change in momentum of
fluid. Fittings such as bends, tees, and wyes change the direc-
tion of flow; nozzles, valves, and reducers change the cross
sectional area of the flow path. Each of these fixtures has
force acting on them due to hydrostatics and hydrodynamics.
FIG uRE 5 . 6 CCC Skid-mounted fuel tank for location beneath The impulse-momentum equation (assuming incom-
a generator set. (Reprinted with permission of Cummins Power Generation.) pressible flow) determines the resultant hydrodynamic force
 5.6 ■ UTILITY DESIGN 565

CONNECT TO ENGINE
FLEX FUEL LINES
PUMP
STATION
WALL

TANK LEAK
DETECTOR

DIESEL
ELECTRIC
GENERATOR f---'------'-...,......ill--...,......--! >--'""""'l~""'l'"'_..""'l'"'.....111~ '--'--_ ___.__. . _ _ _ ~ MAX . FUEL LEVEL
SET
BELOW ENGINE
FOOT VALVE & FUE L EJECTORS
SUCTION STRAIN ER
SUMP AT FIBERGLASS
ELECTRIC SLOPE CONTAINMENT SYSTEM
SET CONTAINMENT CONTAINMENT
TO SUMP, LEAK DETECTION
TYP. FULL
NOTE : LENGTH
FUEL LINE
PIPE SIZES SHALL BE FIBERGLASS-2H UL LISTED WITH 4" CONTAIN MENT DETECTOR SUMP
PIPE STEEL AS RECOM MENDED BY THE GENERATOR SET SUPPLIER AND
INSTALLED BY ELECTRICAL CONTRACTOR .

SCHEMATIC ARRANGEMENT OF
DIESEL FUEL PIPING
N.T.S.

FIG uRE 5. 6 EE E Schematic arrangement of diesel fuel piping.

of the water on the fitting. The impulse-momentum equation,

in vector component form, is

LFx= pQ(~Vx)
"iFr= pQ (~Vr) (5.6BW)

where Q is the discharge, p is the density, and Yx and Vy a)

represent the x and y components of velocity. Consider
the horizontal bend of Figure 5.6GGG(a). The force of
the water on the bend is the result of the pressure forces
pA acting on the water within the bend, as illustrated in
V1
..
Figure 5.6GGG(b). To counter these forces, an equal and
opposite force is produced by the longitudinal stresses in

p = 0
Hydrostatic
Pressure
Distribution b)
Diagram~

H
V1

FIG u RE 5. 6 FF F
L D

Hydrostatic pressure in a pipe.

p = 'O' x H

FIG u RE 5 • 6 GGG
Free-body Diagram
Of Water In Bend
Forces for flow through a horizontal bend.
566 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
the pipe wall (Figure 5.6GGG). Since common pipe joints used to transfer the fluid pressure forces to undisturbed soil.
cannot resist these longitudinal forces, the developed forces Other measures include collars and clamps around the joints
must be reduced or eliminated by additional anchors, either to provide additional restraint.
in the form of thrust blocks or with supplemental clamps The design concept of thrust blocks is similar to foun-
and collars at the joints. dation design. The intent is to transfer internal hydrostatic
As an example of the magnitude of such forces, consider a forces to the undisturbed soil mass through a mass of con-
typical water distribution pipe system. Typically the operating crete. For a given hydraulic design, the size of the thrust
pressure ranges from 40 to 150 psi, with velocities approxi- block depends on the bearing capacity of the soil and the
mately 3 to 10 fps. Within these ranges, hydrostatic forces are hydrostatic forces within the waterline component.
far greater than hydrodynamic forces and for the purposes of Figure 5.6HHH shows the magnitude and line of action of
design, can, in most cases, be ignored. To illustrate this point, hydrostatic forces for various types of waterline components.
consider a 12-inch diameter, 45° horizontal bend. Assume The location of the thrust block depends on the type of pipe
line pressure of 50 psi and flow velocity of 5 fps. The right fittings. Parameters considered in the design of thrust blocks
side of the momentum equation [Equation (5.6BW)] is the include pipe size, hydrostatic pressures, type of component,
force due to the change in momentum of the fluid. The left and soil properties.
side represents all forces acting on the fluid, such as gravity, The Ductile Iron Pipe Research Association (DIRPA)
pressure forces, and shear forces. For the conditions given, recommends the following for thrust block design (with
let Fx and Py represent the forces of the bend on the fluid. reference to Figure 5.6III).
Expanding Equation (5.6BW) gives Bearing surface of the block should be placed against
undisturbed soil. Alternatively, when this is not possible, the
P1 A1- Fx - P2 A2 cos 45° = pQ(V 2cos45° -V1) fill soil between the block and the undisturbed earth must be
Fr- p 2 A2sin45° = p OV2sin 45° (5.6BX) compacted to minimum 90% Standard Proctor density. The
required bearing block area is
Rearranging terms and substituting the appropriate values
Ab=hb=TS, (5.6CC)
2 Sa
( 50 psi x 144 in .) (0.79 ft2)-(5o psi x 144 ~j(0.79 ft2)
PSI PSI
where Ab = the bearing surface area of the block
ft ( 5-
cos 45°-1.94 slugs X 3.9-
s s
3
ft cos 45° - 5- = Fx
s
ft) h = height of the block
b = width of the block
(5.6BY)
T = the resultant hydrostatic thrust force on the com-
Or ponent. The hydrostatic forces (PA terms) corre-
sponding to Tare found from Figure 5.6JJJ.
1666 lb-(-11 lb)=1677 lb=Fx (5.6BZ) S1 =factor of safety (usually 1.5 for thrust block design)
SB = bearing strength of the soil (psf)
Similarly the y component of the force is
The block height h should be equal to or less than ½ the
( 50 _lb2x 144 in: x O. 79 ft 2sin 45°) total depth to the bottom of the block Hr but not less than
In ft the pipe diameter D. Block height h should be chosen such
3 (5.6CA) that the calculated block width b varies between one and two
+ (19.4 slugs) x ( 3.9 f~ sin 45° j = Fr
times the height.
Table 5.6W provides bearing strengths for generalized
Or soil, to be used whenever actual bearing strengths are not
5688 lb+ 5.4 lb= 5693 lb= FY (5.6GB) available. The engineer is responsible for proper selection
of the bearing strength based on proper soil identification.
The preceding computations show that for conditions The DIPRA suggests that in lieu of the values for soil bearing
typical of water distribution systems, the components of the strength shown in Table 5.6W, a designer may choose to use
momentum force (i.e., 11 and 5.4 pounds) are substantially calculated Rankine passive pressure or other determination
less than the x and y components of the pressure forces, of soil bearing strength based on actual soil properties.
namely 1666 and 5688 pounds, respectively. On horizontal bends, the placement of the thrust block
The types of joints commonly used to connect ductile is against the outer edge of the bend. On vertical down
iron pipe are push-on or mechanical joints. Although leak bends, similar placement would put the thrust block on top
proof and quite effective for normal radial stresses, these of the pipe. Besides the danger of crushing the pipe, the fill
joints are not capable of resisting the hydrostatic and hydro- dirt on top of the block provides marginal bearing support.
dynamic forces at the components in the longitudinal direc- Instead, the vertical down bend is stabilized with a grav-
tion. Added measures are necessary to reinforce longitudinal ity thrust block attached to the underside of the bend [see
separation at the joints. One measure, thrust blocks, are Figure 5.6 III(b)]. The vertical component (Ty= PA sin 0) of
 5.6 ■ UTILITY DESIGN 567

i T = PAb
S PA
·~ T = PA
6PA2
~ PA19

l DEAD END T = P(A1 - A2)

REDUCER
PAr

PA
TEE

/T = PAb

WYE
T = 2{PA){SIN 01z)
BEND
FIG uRE 5. 6 HHH Thrust forces and line of action for selected fittings. (Reprinted with permission of Ductile Iron Pipe Research Association,
Birmingham, Alabama.)

the thrust force is countered by the weight of the block itself. 5.6.15. System Analysis
The required volume of the block is Analysis and design of a water distribution system is a com-
S1 PA(sin0) plex process. Due to the availability of computers and the
VG=---- (5.6CD) myriad software programs available to analyze complex sys-
WM
tems, detailed longhand computations have become virtu-
where VG is the volume of the block and WM is the density of ally obsolete. This does not deemphasize the importance of
the block material. The horizontal component of the thrust the fundamental knowledge of hydraulics. Although it is not
force, Tx = PA(l - cos 0), is transferred to the soil by the imperative that the program users fully understand the pro-
right-side bearing area of the block. gram and the numerical methods used within the program,
In situations where thrust blocks cannot be used, another it is imperative that the users understand the limitations of
common method for thrust resistance is the use of restrained the program and the reliability of the input data. To intui-
joints. A restrained joint is a specially designed joint that pro- tively get a feel for the correctness of the output, the engineer
vides longitudinal restraint. The thrust force at the compo- still needs to understand the fundamental methods typically
nent is transferred to the surrounding soil through frictional used in the software program. The results from a computer
resistance and bearing from a predetermined length of pipe. software program are only as good as the input data and the
Other types of thrust resistance include steel straps numerical methods used within the program.
attached to boulders and bedrock (not very common), and Pipe Flow. In general, flow through a pipe conduit is
tie rods connecting collars on either side of a joint. affected by its hydraulic and geometric properties. Length
56a i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
in water distribution systems. Equation (5.6CE) converts
pressure to pressure head-the depth of fluid that creates a
pressure identical to the pressure in the pipe.

E._ = h (5.6CE)
y
where p is the pipe pressure in psf, y is the specific weight of
the fluid (lb/ft3), and h is a depth (ft). This is also referred to
as the flow energy of the fluid. The kinetic energy of a mov-
ing fluid, typically referred to as the velocity head, is
v2
h,=- (5.6CF)
2g
s,
0 where hv is the velocity head, v is the average velocity in the
0
0 'I. cross section of flow, and g is the gravitational acceleration.
0 ,£; Fluid within the distribution system also has potential
0 energy. This is the energy associated with a fluid's height rel-

~~
ative to a reference datum. The datum is arbitrarily selected
for the convenience of analyzing the system or identifying
other parameters associated with the system. The variable
a)
"z" is used in hydraulic nomenclature to reference the poten-
Ty T tial energy of the system.
Analysis of a system, or components within specific con-
fines of the system, usually requires the comparison of the
total energy of the fluid at two locations. From the conserva-
tion of energy principle, equating the energy at one location
to the fluid's energy at the second location produces

P, v~ P2 v~ (5.6CG)
-+-+ z,+ I-hi=-+-+ z2+ I-h1
y 2g y 2g
Where the I.h1 terms represent energy lost by the fluid in
going from location one to location two. Energy lost or taken
from the system is attributed to pipe friction, components
b) such as valves and reducers, and sudden enlargements and
contractions.
FIG uRE 5 . 6111 Schematic for (a) bearing block (b) gravity block.
(Reprinted with permission of Ductile Iron Pipe Research Association, In the energy equation, Equation (5.6CE), the E._ + z terms
y
Birmingham, Alabama.) represent the hydraulic grade line (HGL). This is the locus
of values above the centerline of the pipe that designate the
height to which the water level would rise due to the pres-
sure head if it were not confined within the pipe. Along
and shape are the significant geometric properties; hydrau- straight sections of pipe, energy losses in the system cause
lic properties include pipe material (for roughness), type the hydraulic grade line to drop in the direction of flow.
and number of components (e.g., valves, reducers, bends, However, increases in pipe velocity in the downstream direc-
tees, etc.) and pressure. Analysis of fluid flow is a matter of tion will cause the HGL to rise. Adding the v2!2g term to the
determining the total hydraulic energy of the fluid. To do so hydraulic grade line represents the energy grade line. This
requires the conversion of the fluid's known energy related represents the fluid's available energy, and similar to the
parameter-pressure, velocity, and relative elevation-to hydraulic grade line, decreases in the downstream direction
units of energy. when no external energy is input into the system.
Most water distribution systems function as pressure Discharge through pipes is represented by the continu-
flow. Mathematically, system pressure is converted to energy ity equation, Q = VA. Unless there is a leak or the fluid is
by changing the units of pressure to an equivalent height of highly compressible, the continuity equation shows that
fluid. This is done by dividing the pressure by the specific the amount of water flowing in a length of pipe is constant;
weight of the fluid. Although specific weight is a function velocity adjusts proportionally to any change in cross sec-
of temperature, the value of 62.4 pounds per cubic foot is tional area to keep the discharge constant. Inherent in pipe
ordinarily assumed constant for the conditions encountered flow is the energy loss from the effects of the roughness of
 5.6 ■ UTILITY DESIGN 569

Pipe dilm,D, ft
0.1 02 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 l 2 3 4 6 8 10 20
0.05
0.04
" I\

0.03 ~
"' I"-
I'..

"' ""
!
0.02

0.01
0.008
'\.
' '' '
~ Riveted I\
.,.
'
~

steel
'r-,.,,
I'\.
"' ""
' '
,,
'"
"- ' ~" Concrete ~"' ,
"- I
' 1"-
0.006
'\. '\. "J, I I 'I. "'
0.005
' "
0.004 ' " '' ..._ '','" Wood~,
""""-1'. ),,.~tavf I
' ' '
0.003

"~~~ "' "' ' I'\,

~

"" ""'
0.002 ~o-o..,..-

~ "~~~~~~'
'rs.
',r-. ,, 'r,,. ~
0.001
0.0008
'
'
' "- ..........
...
' I"\
·~ ''
'i..,
'
'
' ' ' '~~;==
0.0006
0.0005
~.. ~~"'"-
C.,I'\. "' ,-
....~:-

0.0004
0.0003
'
w, . ' "'r---."'~ ~ "
Z¾I\,.?{..,,cif~~~"'~
I'.(}.;/
f\,❖.,.,./
?o,, " ' ~
I\
I'..
~
0.0002 ~" ' I'-.

~~~---
~C!!o...,,.~
""'"f\i N
~.. .
"'
(,, -

0.0001
0.00008
~~"-
~.r.
~' I'\.
~ S;!>..,._V --
' "-
' ', '-;~fq;_,. _~
0.00006

~"
0.00005
0.00004
, ~-
0.00003

0.00002
~<i -

~
'"
' ", -~
\"'-~
-~
r,,.~ 1-
0.00001
0.000008
"" l' v~
K1i:;~ . -~✓. -
...s--
0
11' ' "-
0:0000()5 I'\..
2 3 4 5 6 8 10 20 30 40 60 100 200 300
Pipe diam, in
Roughness ractors (expressed in reet) for commercial pipes.

F 1Gu RE 5. 6 J J J Roughness factors for commercial pipes. (ASME Transactions, vol. 66,
1944. Reprinted by permission of American Society of Mechanical Engineers.)

the pipe material. The pipe's surface roughness affects the (where h1 = head loss, f =dimensionless friction factor, L =
velocity across the cross-sectional flow area, with a net result length of pipe, D = diameter of the pipe, V = average velocity
of retarding the flow. Therefore, the equations for determin- in the pipe, andg= gravitational constant) and experimental
ing the discharge in pipes must account for this head (i.e., verification shows the following to be true:
energy) loss.
The Darcy-Weisbach equation is one of the most popu- • The head loss varies directly with the length of pipe
lar methods for determining the head loss in pipe flow. This and inversely with the diameter.
equation, • The head loss varies with the square of the velocity.
LV 2
(5.6CH) • The head loss depends on the roughness of the inte-
h1=f--
D 2g rior pipe wall.
510 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
3. Determine the t:!D ratio and enter Rand £/Don the
TAB LE 5 . 6 W Bearing Strength of
Moody diagram (Figure 5.6JJJ) and read the corre-
Generalized Soils sponding value off.
SOIL STRENGTH (Se)* (LB/Fr2) 4. Use the Darcy-Weisbach, Equation (5.6CH), to
Muck 0 find hv
5. Use the Bernoulli equation and/or the continuity
Soft clay 1000 equation to determine other design parameters.
Silt 1500 In lieu of the Moody diagram, Equation (5.6CK) can be
Sandy silt 3000 used to approximate f for the given constraints

Sand 4000 1.325

f = [ln(e /3.7D + 5.74/ R09 )]2
Sandy clay 6000 for
Hard clay 9000 10-5 :<,; ~ :<,; 10-2 (5.6CK)
D
*Although the above bearing strength values have been used successfully in the 5000 :<,; R :<,; 10 8
design of thrust blocks and are considered to be conservative, their accuracy
is totally dependent on accurate soil identification and evaluation. The ultimate Pipe analysis problems with incompressible flow
responsibility for selecting the proper bearing strength of a particular soil type must
rest with the design engineer.
require the determination of the variables Q, L, D, hf, and
(Reprinted with permission of Ductile Iron Pipe Research Association, Birmingham, V. Recognize that V, D, and f are interrelated. Hence, the
Alabama.) solution to solving problems where these parameters are
unknown (and therefore R in unknown) requires a trial and
error procedure. Since the value off changes very slowly at
• The head loss depends on fluid properties of density the higher R values, begin the trial-and-error procedure by
and viscosity and is independent of pressure. assuming a value for either f of R and obtain a final solution
for Q or V. Compute an f ( or R) using the final solution, and
The last two items are evident from the significance of the use the Moody diagram to find R (or f) and compare this to
parameter f. The value of f is dependent on the Reynolds the assumed value. The procedure ends when the computed
number, the ratio of the inertia forces to the viscous forces of value is within an acceptable tolerance of the assumed value.
the fluid and the relative roughness of the pipe. These are the For example, if D is known, the trial-and-error procedure
only two significant forces of the fluid in a completely filled begins by assuming f and using the Darcy-Weisbach equa-
conduit. For a circular conduit the Reynolds number (R) is tion to find the velocity. Use this velocity to compute R and
find the corresponding f value from the Moody diagram. If
R= pDV (5.6CI)
µ the two values are within an acceptable tolerance, the proce-
dure ends and the design parameters are known; otherwise
For laminar flows (i.e., R < 2000) f is assume another value for f and repeat the procedure.
Another popular method used to find pipe discharges and
f = 64 (5.6CJ) other design parameters is the Hazen -Williams equation,
R shown for use with English units as
where p is the density and µ is the absolute viscosity of the
V =1.31 BC RD63SD54 (5.6CL)
fluid. For any consistent system of units R is a dimensionless
number. where V is the velocity, C is the coefficient associated with
For turbulent flows f has been found through experi- pipe roughness, R is the hydraulic radius(= D/4 for circular
mentation to be related to the ratio of £/D, where e is the pipes flowing full), and S = energy gradient (h 1 /L).
absolute roughness, a parameter that measures the size of Although not dimensionally correct, as many empirical
the irregularities of the pipe material. This ratio depends on equations tend to be, the Hazen-Williams equation provides
the pipe material and the pipe diameter. Figure 5.6JJJ shows generally acceptable discharge estimates. In most problems
this ratio for various commercial pipes. The Moody diagram for design purposes, C is taken to be 100, but for aged pipe C
(Figure 5.6KKK) shows the relationship between f, £, and R. can be as low as 70. Table 5.6X provides a range of C values
The energy loss, h1 , for a known discharge and pipe can for different pipe materials. The advantage in using this
be found by equation, over the Darcy-Weisbach equation, is the indepen-
dence of C from the Reynolds number. Because this equation
1. Determine the Reynolds number, Equation (5.6CI).
does not include any terms relating to the physical proper-
2. Determine e from Figure 5.6JJJ. ties of the fluid, the Hazen-Williams equation is used for
 5.6 ■ UTILITY DESIGN 571

Values of ( D" V) for water al 60°F ( diam in inches - velocity in fps)

0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 . 1 2 4 6 8 10 20 40 60 100 200 400 1,000 2,000 4,000 10,000
Values of (D" V) for atmospheric air at 60"F
2 4 6 8 10 20 40 60 100 200 400 600 1,000 2,000 4,000 10,000 40,000 100,000
0 · 10 [111 . I II
1.. 1 1 1 I I "I I Ill I I I I
I I I I 11 11 I

0·09 ~Laf~!'" I Ic;~~: J_I III

1 I I I I l ~I 111
0.08..,_ ~-~~'...~ - -Transition zone - -..- - - - - Complete turbulence. rO\N}h pipes - - - - >--
1111111 111111
1-!101./Ullm=:::t~~=t=~·ij;¼==¾====t=~~~~=l==t==W~~=~~~~tt~
t-Ull--!- .~ ''Tt-+-+-+--1-+-~---1--+-4--+++++1--1-~~+++~-+-l-++lf++H0.05
1
0 ,07 1- ~ ,.. II ~ f½r--.. ., 11 0 ,04
0.06::, ¥ \ I ' 0.03
\, ! ; ~ ~ \.
0.05>-- --~ ~ r-- - 0.02
~ t_- I f::: .., --rr-+-+...µ.+.u-----1'.:..,....-1--1~-l-+-l-l-l-----+-l--+-l-l-4-l~- --1---4--1--+-l-++~O.OI 5
I t-,;-, ::-- "
0.04 - ::----:::::r--
$\ I ~ N:::: ,. ~ 0.01 i
~ :::-----::=r--i-
--:;\1 i: ;, " 0.008 :f
~ ~ r-- _ mttt--+-4--1--ll'\~'-++---4--~--l-l-+++._---+---+-....j....l,4-l-li..f.lo.006 !
1 ~ v.
.!.
0.03 ttJit-11\:v\?:✓·,yv1ft1Hil~.~~~r---...,t41Hi'l'f=*=++t+~l==l=:t::~:t:t:1:U:=:::t=t:+UU1J "ii
j \ . ~,r--... ', 0.004 ~
0.025
J
,:
.!i!
.'g
... 0.02
\
\ ~~ ---;:::::-..::::r--
~~ i:::::-:::::--
~
'
", I\..
0.002

0.001
!~
\ I I
Smooth pipes 4 ~ r---,.._ - 0.0008
::-,..... 1---- - 1, 0.0006
~ t--- -... , 0.0004
o.01 s1-H+1---+--+-H-H+-H--+-+.-:H-H++l---~~lcFN-4"=:t::-~---,-+_- ,.::::-.
--. . , ~
-,:.JL-_1_1-..t.+-l-+..i+..l.+-utt-+i 0.0002
r-- .,-l--++--++-+\+-1.gf+-'--p-"'~-
,1D-0.OOOOOST
~ ~ ~ I::'.-..._
t--~i--,...._
-1~-r-tt++-1:+---.j........'~I--"-~~
i,. 0.0001
1 ~ 1
~ mrttt--+-~~J+Ro.00005
__

0.01 ,I 1 ..,.. ::::

1--. .._~
0.009 i-+,f++---+-+-+++-++H--+--+-+-++++++---+--+- •I D-0.000001-:--d-_-f_""§t:,1.1:"t+-o=--+-t-+-+t++tt
0.008 tlJUl.......1.1 -1..L•l.J.1 .L•J...llllL_1L...J_,L1...i.L.
1 1 UWL...1•---1...J•...L•ll.u 1L.i.,J.J.,L,J...l,;:...Il~tit----:~---~[~:U:I:b±J:~0.00001
,ll..JILJIUl.lJll~.L.
6 8 10] 2 3 4 5 6 8 10• 2 3 4 5 6 8 10' 2 3 4 5 6 8 Jr/ 2 3 4 5 6 8 107 2 3 4 5 6 810'
t
Reynolds number N11 •DV/11 (D, ft; V, fps; 11, fl /IK)

Friction factor for pipes.

f I Gu RE 5. 6 KKK Moody diagram. (ASME Transactions, vol. 66, 1944. Reprinted by permission of American Society of Mechanical Engineers.)

water discharges for turbulent conditions only. Additionally, or exiting the component. This method computes the minor
this nondependence on the physical properties of the water losses using the form
makes the Hazen-Williams equation the preferred equation v2
for pipe flow analysis. Figure 5.6LLL is the nomograph for h,=k- (5.6CM)
2g
the Hazen-Williams equation. Given the value of two of
the variables in the equation, the nomograph provides the where k is the constant of proportionality. Table 5.6Y shows
unknown values of the remaining two variables. k factors for various fittings and other waterline appurte-
Minor Losses. Components in the pipe network con- nances. For additional information on head losses through
tribute to the system's head losses. These are considered as fittings as well as other components, the manufacturer's
minor losses and depending on the section of the system specifications should be consulted.
under analysis, may or may not need to be incorporated Equivalent Pipe Lengths. A pipe network typically con-
into the design computations. Energy lost through friction sists of loops and branches, with fittings and pipes of various
is significantly larger than the combined minor losses when diameters. In order to simplify pipe network computations, it
pipe lengths exceed ±1000 diameters. In these situations, the may be advantageous to convert the fittings and various pipe
minor energy losses can be ignored without appreciable effect lengths into equivalent lengths of a uniform diameter. The
on the results (due to the uncertainty in the C coefficient). equivalent pipe length represents a length of pipe of known
The loss coefficient method uses a constant of propor- diameter that has either the same head loss as a length of
tionality based on the configuration of the component. This pipe of different diameter with the same discharge, or the
constant is applied to the velocity head of the water entering same head loss as a fitting for the given discharge. Using the
512 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
TAB LE 5 . 6 X Specific Roughness and Hazen-Williams Constants for Various Pipe Materials
E(Fl') C

TYPE OF PIPE OR SURFACE RANGE DESIGN RANGE CLEAN DESIGN

STEEL
Welded and seamless 0.0001-0.0003 0.0002 150-80 140 100
Interior riveted, no projecting rivets 139 100
Projecting girth rivets 130 100
Projecting girth and horizontal rivets 115 100
Vitrified, spiral-riveted, flow with lap 110 100
Vitrified, spiral-riveted, flow against lap 100 90
Corrugated 60 60
MINERAL
Concrete 0.001-0.01 0.004 152-85 120 100
Cement-asbestos 160-140 150 140
Vitrified clays 110
Brick sewer 100
IRON
Cast, plain 0.0004-0.002 0.0008 150-80 130 100
Cast, tar (asphalt) coated 0.0002-0.0006 0.0004 145-50 130 100
Cast, cement-lined 0.000008 0.000008 150 140
Cast, bituminous-lined 0.000008 0.000008 160-130 148 140
Cast, centrifugally spun 0.00001 0.00001
Galvanized, plain 0.0002-0.0008 0.0005
Wrought, plain 0.0001-0.0003 0.0002 150-80 130 100
MISCELLANEOUS
Fiber 150 140
Copper and brass 0.000005 0.000005 150-120 140 130
Wood stave 0.0006-0.003 0.002 145-110 120 110
Transite 0.000008 0.00008
Lead, tin, glass 0.000005 150-120 140 130
Plastic (PVC and ABS) 0.000005 150-120 140 130
(Reprinted with permission from Professional Publications, Inc., Civil Engineering Reference Manual, 10th ed., by Michael R. Lindeburg, copyright© 2006 by Professional
Publications, Inc.)
 5.6 ■ UTILITY DESIGN 573

100 d 0.001 500

.a.ooo 20 u
~
400
80 0.3 300
30,000
60
·= 0.002 200
50 0.4
20,000 Q 0.003
40 10 ~ 0.5 0.004
100
cu
E 80
0.005
30 96 8 c5 0.6
0.006
60
84 0.007 50
10,000
72
0.7 0.008 .a
20 0.009
8,000 o.a 0.01 30
60
54
0.9
!! 20
6,000 48 l 'i:
::I
5.000 42 0.02

cu 4,000
~ ~ 10
-; G.03 cu .. 8
1.5 20 ] !, 6
·e 3.ooo
C:
-g
C:
0
"'Cl
C
0
0.04 ] !! 5
6 u 0.05 :;: 'i:
i u 24 4 X.

·--
cu

;g
5
cu
"'... :c 20 "' 2 0.06 50 ~ C,!- _; -r 0
in
8.
--
2,000 cu 0.07
'5 o.oa .!:!
!i.
io
4 Q.

.!: 16
18
ucu 0.09 1ooi :i
"'
"°
.!: 3 .!: 14 c:
0.1
150 ~
I
0
'Q
>,
cu·
>-. -~ ~ ::c
"°
] 1.000
J 12
C. J,,, ,:
3 200
::c "'
.§ 1 0.001

~ '-4
u 0.2 0.8
2 0 10
o"' 800 ...cu > 0.6
uE 8 0.3
0.5
0.4
600
500
"'
i:5
5 0.4 0.3
6 0.5
6 0.2
400 0.6
5 0.7 u
0.8 7 0.8 ~
300
0.6
4
Jt
8 ?·' ·=
-0
0.1
9 0.08
0.5 3 10
"'cu
~
0.06
200
?;- 0.05
0.4
zt 2 g 0.04
'ii
0.3 2 > 0.03
3
15
100 4 0.02
0.2 1J.z
5
80 6
20 0.01
7
f50 8 0.001
l 9
50 25 10 C>.OOI
0.1 0.005

FIG uRE 5. 6 LL L Hazen-William nomograph. (Design and Construction of Sanitary and Storm Sewers (1969).
American Society of Civil Engineers and the Water Pollution control Federation. Reprinted with permission of ASCE,
New York, New York.)

Darcy-Weisbach equation, a length equivalent pipe for a fit- can be used in lieu of the equations to convert various fix-
ting with a given head loss is tures to equivalent lengths.
To convert a pipe of one diameter to pipe of different

t( ~) ~; = K ( ~; J diameter, for a given discharge, either the Darcy-Weisbach

equation or the Hazen-Williams equation can be used. After
or (5.6CN) rearranging terms of the Darcy-Weisbach equation, convert-
D ing one pipe of known diameter D to another diameter De, of
Le=K-
f equivalent length Le is found by

where the terms are as defined earlier and Le represents the

length of pipe of diameter D that corresponds to the head loss (5.6CO)
through the component. The nomograph of Figure 5.6MMM
574 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
TAB LE 5 . 6 Y Table of Loss Coefficients
Use the equation hv = kvv/2g unless otherwise indicated. Energy loss Et equals hv head loss in feet.
Perpendicular square entrance: Check valves:
J:-_..., k = 0.50 if edge is sharp Swing type k = 2.5 when fully open

' Perpendicular rounded entrance:

Ball type
Lift type
k = 70.0
k = 12.0
Angle valve:

Rid = 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 k = 5.0 if fully open

k = 0.25 0.17 0.08 0.05 0.04

Additional loss due to skewed entrance: Segment gate in rectangular conduit:

V k = 0.505 + 0.303 sin a + 0.226 sin 2 a k = 0.3 + 1.3 [( 1/n)F

_:::f( .!!J where n = 4>14> 0 = the rate of opening
with respect to the central angle
Strainer bucket: Sluice gale in rectangular conduit:
t k = 10 with foot valve k = 0.3 + 1.9 [( 1/n) - nF
A k = 5.5 without foot valve where n = hi H.
Standard tee, entrance lo minor line: Sudden expansion:

7f- k = 1.8 ~- E= (1_ _:"zv, ) 2 2gv,1 Or f = (1V2 - 1)2 2gv/

J ,, - . . _ _ - ,, l l

Confusor outlet: Sudden contraction:

d!D = 0.5 0.6 0.8 0.9 (d/0) 2 = 0.01 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
k = 5.5 4 2.55 1.1 k = 0.5 0.5 0.42 0.33 0.25 0.15
use v2 in Equation 13.13
Exit from pipe into reservoir: Diffusor:

k = 1.0 E1 = k(v, 2 - v/ )!2g

a0 = 20 40 60 80
k = 0.20 .028 032 035
Diffusor outlet for D/d > 2: Confusor:

o: = 8 15 30 45
0
E1 = k(v,2 - v/ )/2g
k = 0.05 0.1 8 0.5 0.6
I ~ «0 = 6 10 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
?',=.._.H- '~ o~ Jd 0.12 0.16 0.39 0.80 i .o 1.06 1.04 1.04 1.04
D· 1.5d 0.12 0.16 0.39 0.96 1.22 1.16 1.10 1.06 1.04

Gate valve: Sharp elbow:

e/D = 0 1/4 3/8 1/2 5/8 3/4 7/8 ~ ··-.; U

k = 67.6 X 10- 6(o: 0 ) 2·17
k = 0.15 0.26 0.81 2.06 5.52 17.0 97.8

Globe valve: Bends:

fz~ k = 10 when fully open ~ k = (0.13 + 1.85(r/R) 3 - 5 )✓a 0/180°

Rotary valve: Close return bend:

o0 = 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 :2) k = 2.2
k = 0.05 0.29 1.56 5.47 17.3 52.6 206 485 oo

(Courtesy of Simon, Andrew L. Hydraulics. 1986. Adopted by permission of Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ.)
 5.6 ■ UTILITY DESIGN 575

A simple way to account for the resistance offered to

low by valves and Sttinp Is to add to the lensth of
pipe in the line a lensth which will live a pressure
drop equal to that which o«urs In the valves and
Sttinp in the line.
Eumple1 The dotted line shows that the resistance
of a 8-inch Standard Elbow Is equivalent to approxi-
mately 16 feet of 8-lnch Standard Steel Plpe.

Gate Valve 3000

J4 CIOMd
~CIOMd 2000 Note: For sudden enlargements or sudden
contractions, use the smaller diameter on the
.. ~-\4 Cloeed nominal pipe size scale.
Fully ()pea
1000
so

Aa,ae Valve, Open

®
Scandard Tee

0
Swln1 Check Valve.
Pull10pen

0.5
·~ 114
2

Chart copyright by
Crane Co. Reprinted
with permission.

cu
0.2

0.1
o.s
FIG uRE 5. 6 MM M Equivalent lengths for minor losses. (Reprinted with permission from Crane Co., Stamford, CN.)
57& i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
where f and f e are the friction factors for the given pipe and estimate the demand, the one used depends on the building
equivalent length pipe, respectively. codes of that jurisdiction.
Similarly, the Hazen-Williams equation is rearranged to The simplest method used to estimate demand is one
find an equivalent length pipe using the diameters and the that relates the demand to the building use. For example,
coefficients of pipe roughness for the equivalent length pipe water demand for an office building could be based on the
Ce and the coefficient of roughness for the given pipe C. square foot of floor area or the number of employees, while
for apartments the demand may be based on the number
(5.6CP) of units in the building. If this type of method is used, the
demand table for various building uses will be prescribed in
the applicable building code.
Equivalent Pipe Length Example. As an example, find
Another method estimates the demand based on the
the equivalent length of 12-inch diameter ductile iron pipe
number and type of plumbing fixtures in the building. How-
(C = 100) for 500 feet of IO-inch-diameter pipe (C = 100)
ever, the size of the water supply line is based on maximum
attached with a globe valve at one end (Q = 5 cfs).
probable demand rather than the sum of the maximum flows
The velocity in the 10-inch pipe is
of all of the fixtures. It is highly unlikely that every plumbing
fixture would be operating at maximum discharge simulta-
(5.6CQ)
neously. Under this pretense, the demand is related to the
number and type of fixtures, the rates required by these fix-
tures and the probable simultaneous operation of the fix-
Using the same equation, the velocity in the 12-inch- tures. The unit of measurement used to correlate these flow
diameter pipe is 6.4 fps. characteristics is the water supply fixture unit (WSFU) or
From Table 5.6Y the head loss coefficient for a globe valve shortened to "fixture unit:'
is 10 and the corresponding head loss through the globe The fixture unit is a measure of the hydraulic demand of
valve is a fixture. It is the average discharge, during use, of an arbi-
trarily selected plumbing fixture. It takes into account the
9.2 2 ) =13.1ft
h,=10 ( 2g (5.6CR) anticipated discharge, the average duration of flow when the
fixture is in use, and the frequency with which the fixture is
likely to be used. The WSFU is a factor chosen so that the
Using the Hazen-Williams equation the equivalent length of
load-producing effects of different kinds of plumbing fix-
12-inch-diameter pipe for the globe valve is

~ 2 = (1 r
.318C~D63h? 54 5
tures, as well as their conditions of service, can be expressed
as multiples of that factor. For example, if a bathtub with a
discharge of 7.5 gpm is selected as the arbitrary fixture, a fix-

ooi( r
ture with a discharge of 22 gpm is assigned a fixture unit of 3.
1.318(1 2 13.1° 54 Typical values of fixture units are given in Table 5.62. By
4 = 700 ft (5.6CS) knowing the type and number of water supply fixtures, the
6.4 total WSFU for a building can be determined and then con-
From Equation (5.6CP) the equivalent length of 12-inch- verted to flow rates using Figure 5.6NNN. 3
diameter pipe for 500 feet of IO-inch-diameter pipe is After estimating the peak demand, the service line is sized
using head loss and velocity parameters for the pipe material
4.87 selected. Consideration is given to the available pressure in

L,, a 500
lC~ l1 ( l
1 100
100
1. 85

a 1215 ft
(5.6C1)
the water main to determine if the pressure is adequate for
the calculated losses through the building. Booster pumps
may be required when pressures are inadequate at the upper
level floors.
The total equivalent length of 12-inch-diameter pipe is Fixture Unit Supply Example. Size the water supply line
700 + 1215 = 1915 feet. for a three-story apartment building having five-apartment
Fixture Unit Method. Occasionally, the project engineer units on each level. Each apartment has one bathroom and a
may be required to size the water service line to a building. kitchen with a dishwasher. There are four (16-pound) laun-
This normally occurs on commercial or other high-rise/ dry machines in the basement. The elevation of the 8-inch
high-density projects. For the most part, however, the analy- water main located in the street is 165.5 feet. The water meter,
sis and sizing of the internal distribution system is typically where the service line connects to the building, is 160 feet
done by mechanical/plumbing engineers. The size of the away from the water main and is at elevation 175.5 feet.
water supply line to the building depends on the demand
within the building, which may be related to the number 3This curve, frequently referred to as the Hunter curve, was first proposed by Roy B.
and type of plumbing fixtures in the building, or perhaps the Hunter of the National Bureau of Standards in 1923. Since then it has been modified
buildings use. Since there are several methods available to based on other research data.
 5.6 ■ UTILITY DESIGN 577

TAB LE 5 . 6 Z Demand Load of Fixtures*

LOAD VALUES ASSIGNED,
WATER SUPPLY FIXTURE UNITS
FIXTURE OCCUPANCY TYPE OF SUPPLY CONTROL COLO HOT TOTAL

Water closet Public Flush valve 10 10

Water closet Public Flush tank 5 5
Urinal Public 1" (25.4 mm) flush valve 10 10
Urinal Public ¾" (19 mm) flush valve 5 5
Urinal Public Flush tank 3 3
Lavatory Public Faucet 1.5 1.5 2
Bathtub Public Faucet 3 3 4
Showerhead Public Mixing valve 3 3 4
Service sink Offices, etc. Faucet 2.25 2.25 3
Kitchen sink Hotel, restaurant Faucet 3 3 4
Drinking fountain Offices, etc. 3/8" (9.52 mm) valve 0.25 0.25
Water closet Private Flush valve 6 6
Water closet Private Flush tank 3 3
Lavatory Private Faucet 0.75 0.75 1
Bathtub Private Faucet 1.5 1.5 2
Shower stall Private Mixing valve 1.5 1.5 2
Kitchen sink Private Faucet 1.5 1.5 2
Laundry trays (1 to 3) Private Faucet 2.25 2.25 3
Combination fixture Private Faucet 2.25 2.25 3
Dishwashing machine Private Automatic 1
Laundry machine [8 lb (3.6 kg)] Private Automatic 1.5 1.5 2
Laundry machine [8 lb (3.6 kg)] Public or general Automatic 2.25 2.25 3
Laundry machine [16 lb (7.3 kg)] Public or general Automatic 3 3 4
*For fixtures not listed, loads should be assumed by comparing the fixture with one listed using water in similar quantities and at similar rates. The assigned loads for fixtures
with both hot and cold water supplies are given for separate hot and cold water loads and for total load. The separate hot and cold water loads are three-fourths of the total load
for the fixture in each case.
(From Nielson, L. 1981. Standard Plumbing Engineerings Design, 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.)
510 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
500 - - - - . . - - - - - - - - - - - , - - - - - - , - - - - . . . . - - - - - - , 500

z 300
300
-
:ii]
..J
<
C,

3
0
..J
IL
200 200

No.1 - System with Flush Valves

No.2 - System with Flush Tanks
100 100

o..______,_______.____...._____._______._______.
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000

FIXTURE UNITS
ENLARGED SCALE
120 1 - -1 - -1 - -1 - -1 -----:-1 ---c:::::::::='T""I 120
~-"'f"'=----ir-==::::::;j;;f 100
-
..J
<
C, 60
,~..i-"""""'=-----+----t-180
~--=----,---+----+----+-! 60
t
..J
401-----,,,,,,""-+----:::;,.,.....9-----+---t---+----+---+-I 40
IL
~ ~

0 0
50 100 150 200 250 300 350

FIXTURE UNITS

FIG uRE 5. 6 N N N Curves for estimating demand load.

The service line has 2° to 90° elbows and one angle valve. 5. The pressure at the inlet side of the water meter is the
Minimum pressure in the water main is 45 psi (Table 5.6AA). minimum pressure in the water main less the losses
in the valves and piping and the elevation difference
1. Tabulate the fixture units (i.e., static lift) between the water main and the outlet
2. Using Figure 5.6NNN the total demand for connection, or
151 WSFU is 60 gpm.
Pressure@ water meter= 45 psi
3. Using Figure 5.6000 the demand discharge of
60 gpm and a design velocity of 6 fps indicates that a -[~·i□Pf~i (160+28+2(5))-(174.5-164.5)]=29.5 psi
2-inch pipe is required. Note that the corresponding
pressure drop (i.e., headloss) is 2.8 psi per 100 ft. (5.6CU)

4. Convert the elbows and angle valve to equivalent Hardy-Cross. Analysis of a water distribution system can
lengths of pipe. From Figure 5.6MMM the angle be extremely complex due to the varying pipe sizes, pumps
valve is 28 feet of2-inch pipe and an elbow is 5 feet storage facilities, fluctuations in demand, and fire flow
of2-inch pipe. requirements that must be considered. Many methods used
 5.6 ■ UTILITY DESIGN 579

Although computers has made hand calculations nearly

TA BLE 5 . 6 A A Fixture Unit Count for
obsolete, an understanding of even the simplest method
Example Problem helps in assessing the validity of the final values of the analy-
TOTAL TOTAL sis. The Hardy-Cross method uses an equation of the form
FIXTURE UNITS WSFU WSFU
h1 = KQ" (5.6CV)
Kitchen sink 15 2 30 where h1 is the friction head loss in a section of pipe, K is a
Dishwasher 15 1 15 constant, and Q is the discharge.
The value of the exponent n depends on the govern-
Lavatory (sink) 15 1 15 ing equation selected for solving the problem. As example,
the Hazen-Williams equation [Equation (5.6CL)] can be
Water closet (flush tank) 15 3 45
written as
Bathtub 15 2 30
(5.6CW)
Laundry machine 4 4 16
Total= 151 For a given pipe of known material and diameter flowing full
the equation simplifies to

D= KSo s4 (5.6CX)
for analysis are iterative processes that incrementally adjust
the flows or head losses until convergence. Several iterative where the constant K incorporates the coefficient 1.318, the
techniques include the linear theory method, the Newton- diameter, the C-factor, n, and other constants. Substituting
for S, the equation is
Raphson method, and the ever popular Hardy-Cross method.
One of the most widely used and accepted computer models, h, =KQ1 .as (5.6CY)
KYPIPE, is based on the linear theory method.
The simplicity of the Hardy-Cross method, a form of the There are two main underlying assumptions in the Hardy-
Newton-Raphson method, lends itself to hand calculations. Cross method. The first is that continuity must be preserved

10,000
10,000
-
-
~
' 5,000
5,000 .,, .... ,x
4,000
3,000
'\ 1K
,
4,000
3,000
~I''1 "'\.
........
I)<
,/

'
A1(
.
u
,,.,,1 ... . i.-
2,000 ,--.., ii:\~
o~r<: . . rc;,~.r
V
" \. I,, ~ ' i.,,
2,000 o'~s~~ \

1,000
A
I), ...
~ 1).-i-~ V .... ,,,,,_
~

1,000
.... v f'<; '~ j; ~ ~) ~K.; r5 I.--'v D'b ~

~
z
~ 500
., ......
.,,
,.
6-
"
.; ....,.
-~
i"' - ,. .
~

'
z
~ 500
400
-" - '
~ -
,_
' ,;
'\ .:i '\
- ',>,
~

'
,c 400
300 ' . ....... " x;~ "'
Cl 300
.... \
,/
'\
..... \ ~
~

' .. V
, --:;
V
C)
I.Y V'" "'"
~--~ ,o Y<'
) )(' ':). i,..-'
......-1'\ l, ..
I!!' 200
~ ....
W 200 ,g

: ~ ... I,~~
V
.......
~ I< .... ~ y !)!; ... _.)
V' )

y v' ), i.-
~ ~v ~ "'
a:
100 '\ /
~

--~ i\ / \ '
~u.
ii:: 100 1

-- - -
0 80 1 'I-
....
u. 60 . - ' ' ,ft
,_,
\. ~~'!,
70
50
~

,"ft~
,
,/

a:
w
~

;
40
30
V"' , .,, ,.... '\
') v,
'\ .I ,\t:
' r~.
V"'
'\ ~- i::;
"'""
\.
a:
w
~
40
30
v
.Jt

~V "
'\
.....\
_, '\ I'\
llt' .... ~
I'• ' , "
',,
~ \ _;i.,,
'
~
~
V 'I- ~~"' 31';
20
20

10 1\../ ~
""
,.... ' I,,

I) ~ ~ ~ ~~ l~ ~
i::;; ~ "'""
\.

'I- ~"'"' 1g R"' I.--'

~j; ~
~V j;' '
~
I'
~ k:: L'.). '/J"
1,
J..;
I, j;

I\
8
6
4
., -- _, --- ., ......
" ,rt
~~~ -.
,.
"''('
\.
'I-
6
4
/
...... -
'\
'
_,
'\
·-
/
'
' ,_ "'
'
,dw""""

........
'\ ~ ~/;.,'
~ ~~
., ._x::;;, ,,,,,
3
....'
3 ~
~ ~ ' "lo!:;, V' ,~ /\ ' \
2

1
~
0.1
/
0.2 0.30.4
~/ ~ ~--
2 3 4 5
~~~
/

10 20 3040 100
2

1
/
0.1
I.;'
0.20.3 0 .4
~-- \ 1
).V '
2 3 4 5
~

/
10 20 30 50 100

PRESSURE DROP, PSI, PER 100 FT OF PIPE PRESSURE DROP, PSI, PER 100 FT OF PIPE

b) galvanized steel and wrought Iron that will be fairly rough

a) copper tubing and other pipes that will be smooth
after 15 to 20 yea rs In use.
after 15 to 20 years In use.

FIG uRE 5. 6 0 0 0 Chart for determination of flow in pipes.

5ao i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
1 cfs
Lup, Dup
Q
- :::::---aup
4 cfs

6000' - 16"
I 40oo· _ 12 ..

A B

~ --
Q

D
loop 1
:;tj coI
0:S®
loop 2 cij 0
N
I

Qlow
© 0on..,.
0 © ,,, 0
0

CD --L 0~ O" cfs

FIG uRE 5 • 6 PPP Simple loop for Hardy-Cross solution. 6500' - 16" 50
oo· - ' (@)
N 10 0
p loop 3
(the total flow into a junction equals the total flow exiting the 0 cij 0
..,. @
0 0
0 0
junction). The second is that pressure at any junction is single on
valued (the summation of the head loss around a loop is zero).
~ ®
4000' - 10"
With reference to Figure 5.6PPP, if continuity is preserved, /
the flow at point B is equal to the flow at point C. For the 2 cfs
pressure at point C to be single valued, the head loss in the
FIG uRE 5. 6 QQQ Schematic diagram for Hardy-Cross example.
upper loop must equal the head loss in the lower loop. In all
likelihood the pipe lengths and diameters and possibly even
the pipe material in each loop are different. The discharge will where (H1); represents the head loss in the ith pipe of the loop
divide at point B in such a way that the head loss through the and Q; is the discharge in that pipe, which was used to cal-
two sections ofloop is equal. As a result, if a clockwise direc- culate H1 .
tion of flow is assumed to be positive the summation of the The sign convention applies to the H1 term-all flows in
head loss from BCur around CB1ow will be zero. the negative direction will have negative H1 terms.
The solution is determined through a series of iterations Figure 5.6QQQ shows a simple three-loop system with
with each iteration producing a loop correction factor. Some pipe information and assumed flows, Table 5,6BB summarizes
value of flow for Our and Q10wis assumed. For these assumed
flows if hfiBC-up) is greater than hfiBC-Iow) then the discharge in
the upper loop must be reduced and the discharge in the
lower loop must be increased. That is Our' = Our+ f..Q and TA BL E 5 . 6 BB Initial Assumptions for Flows
Q10w• = Q10w - f..Q, where f..Q is the loop correction factor. and Directions
Eventually the discharges in each loop are adjusted, such that
INPUT VALUES
the summation of the head loss around the loop converges to
zero. The flow correction factor for the loop is LOOP No. PIPE No. DIAMETER (IN) LENGTH (FT) Q (CFS)

/1Q- ht,□-"P - htBC-Ow (5.6CZ)

1 1 16 6500 -2.00
- 1 _85 (ht,c-"' + ht,c-••J 2 16 4000 -2.00
Oup 01ow

For a more complex multiloop problem, the initial task is to 3 16 6000 2.00
set up the following parameters: 4 8 4500 .20
• Pipe system identifying pipe sizes 2 4 8 4500 -.20
• Lengths and materials
5 12 4000 .80
• Identify all location of flows entering and leaving the
system 6 12 3000 .80
• Assume a sign convention for direction of flow 7 10 5000 -.80
In the initial assumption of pipe flows, it is imperative for 3 7 10 5000 .80
the sum of the flows at any junction to be zero. Using these
8 12 4000 -1.40
initial conditions, the head loss for each pipe is computed as
9 10 4000 .60
11Q= -(I,(Hr);J ±(l(Hr); I]
i=1
X
/=1 Q,
(5.60A) 10 10 5000 .60
 5.6 ■ UTILITY DESIGN 581

the information shown on Figure 5.6QQQ. Note the algebraic 5.6.16. Water Main Plan Content
sign attached to the discharge: negative if the flow is counter- The plan and profile of the waterline identifies the size and
clockwise, positive for clockwise direction. At each junction type of pipe and the location of the fittings. To the contractor,
the LQ = 0. In most systems there are valves, pumps, storage it shows the material needed, the volume of excavating, and
tanks, and other components that impact the calculations. potential construction problems. To the review agencies, the
Additionally, systems are analyzed for maximum fire flow plan and profile shows that the waterline is in conformance
demands at several locations to ensure adequate pressures with the applicable building and health codes.
everywhere. This simple system serves only to illustrate the The waterline location is accurately drawn on the plans as
fundamental procedure for Hardy-Cross calculations. per local criteria. For stakeout and construction purposes, the
Tables 5.6CC and 5.6DD show how loop flows are location of a waterline is identified by stationing. Since most
adjusted by a fi,,Q correction. Note how the adjustments are waterlines in a development project are located in the street
determined for pipes common to more than one loop. For and typically run near parallel with the centerline, the street
example, pipe 4 is common to loops one and two. In loop 1, stationing can be used for stationing the waterline. When the
the first iteration fi,,Q is +0.082, while the fi,,Q for loop 2 is course of a waterline cannot be tied to the street, an arbitrary
0.113. The new flow in pipe 4 is then 0.20 + 0.82 - 0.113 = stationing system on the waterline itself serves the same pur-
0.17 cfs. The initial flow of 0.2 is adjusted simultaneously by pose. Although stationing of the pipe system is done as a mat-
the correction of the first loop and the negative of the cor- ter of convenience, and should reasonably reflect the length
rection of the second loop. The iterative process continues of the pipe used, it does not need to start with 10 + 00. In the
until the sum of the absolute values of the fi,,Q's is less than figures showing the plan and profile of a typical waterline, the
a prescribed minimum tolerance. The acceptable tolerance waterline stationing coincides with the street stationing.
depends on the precision of the known values and the degree Although some localities allow pipes to be laid with
of accuracy required. curves, other standards require that pipe direction changes

TA BL E 5 . 6 CC First Iteration Values

LOOP No. PIPE No. DIAMETER (IN) LENGTH (FT) Q (CFS) HL 1.85* HL IQ Q' (CFS)

1 16 6500 -2.00 -5.47 5.06 -1.92

2 16 4000 -2.00 -3.37 3.11 -1.92
3 16 6000 -2.00 5.05 4.67 2.08
4 8 4500 .20 1.56 14.43 .17
-2.23 27.27
b.Q = -(-2.23/27.27) = .082
2 4 8 4500 -.20 -1.56 14.43 -.17
5 12 4000 .80 2.51 5.80 .91
6 12 3000 .80 1.88 4.34 .91
7 10 5000 -.80 -7.61 17.60 -.52
-4.78 42.17
b.Q = -(-4.78/42.17) = 0.113
3 7 10 5000 .80 7.61 17.60 .52
8 12 4000 -1.40 -7.06 9.33 -1.57
9 10 4000 .60 3.57 11.00 .43
10 10 5000 .60 4.47 51.71 .43
8.59 51.73
b.Q=-(8.59/51.73) =-0.166
502 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
TA BL E 5 . 6 D D Second Iteration Values
DIAMETER LENGTH Q Q
LOOP No. PIPE No. (IN) (FT) (CFS) HL 1.85*H1'0 (CFS)
1 1 16 6500 -1.92 -5.07 4.89 -1.85
2 16 4000 -1.92 -3.12 3.01 -1.85
3 16 6000 2.08 5.44 4.84 2.15
4 8 4500 .17 1.13 12.30 .26
-1.62 25.04
!).Q = -(-1.62/25.04) = 0.064

2 4 8 4500 -.17 -1.13 12.30 -.26

5 12 4000 .91 3.20 6.51 .88
6 12 3000 .91 2.40 4.88 .88
7 10 5000 -.52 -3.43 12.20 -.57
-1.04 35.89
!).Q = -(1.04/35.89) = 0.029

3 7 10 5000 .52 3.43 12.20 .57

.......................... ........................... ............................ ..................................................................... .......................................... ................................................... ...................................
8 12 4000 -1.57 -8.68 10.23 -1.55
9 10 4000 .43 1.96 8.43 .45
10 10 5000 .43 2.45 10.54 .45
-0.84 41.40
!).Q = -(-.84/41 .40) = -0.20

be made with elbow fittings. On commercial sites, the waterline shows how it will weave around other utilities.
designer needs to know where the fire hose connections As discussed previously, special construction techniques
at the building are located. In addition, some locales have may be necessary when the waterline is placed either near
minimum spacing for fire hydrants in commercial areas. a sanitary sewer or at less than minimum depth. The engi-
Both of these items affect the placement of the hydrants. neer should ensure that all utility crossings are shown
In residential areas, placement of fire hydrants may be in the profile view and that minimum clearance (as per
based on minimum spacing or based on the area of cover- applicable standards) is maintained.
age for the required fire flow. The engineer should ensure At the point where the proposed waterline connects to the
that the location of the hydrants shown on the work- existing water main, the plans should identify the method
sheet complies with appropriate design criteria. After the for location of existing line and type of connection (e.g., wet
waterline location and stationing are established in the tap with tapping sleeve and valve). Although the water utility
plan view, the waterline profile is drawn using the same company probably has records to show where the existing
stationing system. In the profile view, pipe characteris- line should be, test holes are dug to find the exact location.
tics (e.g., diameter, material, bearing strength, etc.) are In many instances, where the waterline is terminated from a
labeled. The profile view identifies the station of fitting, prior development, a blow-off valve is set to easily connect a
hydrants, and other pertinent components. The profiled future waterline (Figure 5.6RRR).
 5.6 ■ UTILITY DESIGN 583

0 =;
=:l

r
I 0 '.'1

-
I
I
'
Ii ' 0 0 0
ES

'2

li -
1. Plan view with water alignments shown and stationed, building
information (type, use, size) labeled for fire code reference
2. Notes and profile legend specific to profile sheets
3. Existing and proposed grade line at centerline of pipe network
4. Proposed and existing utility crossings shown, labeled, and dimensioned
5. Pipe label for size and material
6. Station labels for vertical bends, horizontal bends, hydrants, valves, tees,
and other appurtenances
7. Stations and elevations for profile grid

FIG uRE 5. 6 RR R Plan and profile view of a typical waterline.

584 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii

SOUTHERN DELIVERY SYSTEM, FINISHED WATER PIPELINES - SEGMENTS FW3

Location: Colorado Springs Utilities, Colorado
Case Study: Dewberry provided preliminary and final design services, permitting support services, bid phase services,
and engineering services for construction of 11,500 feet of 36-inch-diameter cement-mortar-lined, polyurethane-
coated, and double-lap-welded steel pipeline. The waterline was constructed in the west-bound lanes of a four- to six-
lane major arterial roadway in Colorado Springs, Colorado. An optimal waterline alignment was developed, evaluated,
configured, and recommended to minimize construction costs and traffic and public impacts during construction.
The project included four trenchless crossings: (1) a 264-foot-long 48-inch-diameter tunnel constructed using a tunnel
boring machine, (2) a 95-foot-long 48-inch-diameter tunnel constructed using pipe ramming under a six-barrel box
culvert at Sand Creek, (3) a 80-foot-long 48-inch-diameter tunnel constructed using an auger bore under a double-barrel
box culvert at an unnamed drainage crossing, and (4) a 195-foot-long 54-inch-diameter hand-tunnel that was proposed
by the contractor during construction as a value engineering alternative to cross under a prominent retaining wall/
entrance feature. The hand-tunnel avoided disturbing a highly active commercial property. Dewberry supported the
value engineering alternative by designing the hand-tunnel geometry.
Dewberry led, coordinated, supported, and reviewed a select team of highly qualified subconsultants for geotechnical
soils investigations, soils analysis, and tunneling design and evaluations, field surveying, subsurface utility investiga-
tions, sacrificial anodes cathodic protection design, and traffic phasing plans. Multiple options were considered for pro-
posed easement limits for acquisition necessary to successfully perform construction and to facilitate future client access
for maintenance. Proposed easement boundaries were further refined during the project to minimize disturbances to
property owners.
The team prepared construction drawings and specifications for competitive bidding. Technical memoranda was pre-
pared on design criteria, construction cost estimates, drainage crossings and appurtenances, transient analysis and
hydraulics, and value engineering. Also, a design data handbook was prepared to consolidate key calculations. The team
supported development of a trenchless crossings technical memorandum.
Technical support was necessary to prepare permit applications and responding to questions from federal, state, local
agencies for permitting acquisitions consisting of the Army Corps of Engineers, Colorado Department of Public Health
and Environment, Colorado Department of Transportation, El Paso County Site Development Plan approval, and the
City of Colorado Springs.
Dewberry supported responding to contractor bid questions, prepared bid addendums, reviewed and evaluated contrac-
tor bids, and prepared a recommendation of bid award. During construction, contractor submittal reviews were review,
periodic site observations were performed, and clarification and interpretation of contract documents was provided.
After construction, internal pipeline observations were performed that consisted of measuring deflection and examining
the condition of the cement mortar lining and of the contractor-installed grout at the joints.
 5.6 ■ UTILITY DESIGN 585

HIGHLINE TRANSMISSION MAIN, PHASE 1

Location: Colorado Springs Utilities, CO
Case Study: Dewberry provided preliminary and final design services, permitting support services, bid phase services,
and engineering services during construction for 6910 feet of 42-inch-diameter, 4510 feet of 36-inch-diameter, and
1030 feet of 30-inch-diameter cement-mortar-lined, polyurethane-coated, and double-lap-welded steel pipeline. The
waterline generally followed alongside several major arterial roadways in Colorado Springs, Colorado. The alignment
corridor was highly congested and constrained with existing utilities.
The project included two trenchless crossings: (1) a 310-foot-long 42-inch-diameter tunnel constructed using an auger
bore, and (2) a 140-foot-long 54-inch-diameter tunnel constructed using an auger bore. The project included open-cut
construction across East Fork Sand Creek and the Center Tributary to Sand Creek.
Dewberry coordinated and supported geotechnical soils investigations and analysis, field surveying, subsurface utility
investigations, sacrificial anodes cathodic protection, easement boundary development and acquisition, and traffic phas-
ing plans. This included permit acquisition for federal, state, and local permitting involving Army Corps of Engineers,
Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment, Colorado Department of Transportation, El Paso County
1041 and Site Development Plan approval, and the City of Colorado Springs. Extensive coordination was required with
Peterson Air Force Base to minimize disruptions to traffic during construction. Dewberrryprepared construction draw-
ings and specifications for competitive bidding, prepared bid addendums, reviewed and evaluated contractor bids, and
recommendation of bid award. Construction management services included contractor submittal reviews, periodic site
observations, and clarification and interpretation of contract documents.
 CHAPTER 5.7

EROSION AND SEDIMENT

CONTROL

5.7.1. Introduction harmful impacts on aquatic (benthic) organisms along with

Erosion is the detachment and transport of organic and increased downstream flooding as sediment fills the channel
mineral particles caused by the forces of water, wind, and or stream bed reducing the hydraulic capacity.
gravity. Sediment, the by-product of the erosion process, is With careful planning and the use of appropriate control
the solid material that is in suspension or transport or has devices, excessive erosion and sedimentation can be greatly
been relocated from its origin. Deposition of these particles reduced during land disturbing operations. Chapters 3.5
is sedimentation. and 5.5 describe the stormwater management requirements
Natural soil erosion and sedimentation are important pro- and systems for post-development conditions. Stormwater
cesses responsible for the creation and evolution of natural is managed prior to starting work on a site and continue
landforms and essential for maintaining a balance between through the construction process with interim stormwater
plant and animal life. Features such as the Grand Canyon, management controls (erosion and sediment controls). The
badlands of the Dakotas, escarpments on mountains, fertile design and documents associated with this interim condi-
soils, and delta areas along rivers are the result of a slow uni- tion are formatted into phases-in most cases, a phase 1
form process of erosion and sedimentation occurring over establishes perimeter controls and initial systems prior to
time. Deposition of nutrient-rich sediment contributes to major land clearing and phase 2 focuses on the final controls
the creation of topsoil and spurs vegetation growth that, in for the post-development site.
turn, supports various animal species. Because of the long This chapter discusses the cause and effects of erosion
length of time for this change to occur, ecosystems are able and sedimentation and focuses on the various mitigation
to gradually adapt to the changes. strategies (planning and engineering methods) to minimize
Human-induced activities, such as logging, farming, and erosion and reduce sedimentation caused by land develop-
construction cause erosion at greatly accelerated rates. Such ment and construction related activities.
activities alter the natural surface runoff patterns by denud- Any erosion and sediment control measure called for in the
ing large areas of vegetation, loosening the soil, changing plan should be able to be implemented in the field at the time
land slopes, and accelerating the "time of concentration'' of its need. It is easy to put silt basins, silt fence, berms, etc.
of site runoff often through structural conveyance systems symbols on paper, but the engineer must ask if it can be built as
such as storm drains, open channels, and curb and gutter. shown. Is the practice accessible during construction so it can
Such extreme and rapid changes to the natural landform can be maintained, and finally can the device be easily removed
increase the erosion rate from two to several tens of thousands once construction is complete? The engineer must think
of times the natural rate existing before the activity began. through the construction process with respect to the controls
The effects of erosion and sedimentation are recognizable shown on the plan and make sure that a clear constructible
immediately after a storm in the form of muddy runoff and set of plans is being presented that meets the developer's goals
sediment deposits on pavement or other low spots. Other while allowing for flexibility of the contractor. If need be, clar-
impacts include degraded water quality with the associated ify ambiguous or controversial situations in the narrative.

586
 5.7 ■ EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL 587

Additionally, as a result of the National Pollutant Dis- into the air and may be displaced 5 feet in the horizontal
charge Elimination System (NPDES) permit program direction. The detachment rate of the soil particles is a func-
(as introduced in Chapter 2.5), construction sites will be tion of both the kinetic energy of the raindrop and the force
required to prepare a Storm Water Pollution Prevention Plan holding the soil particle in place. Detachment occurs when
(SWPPP) prior to commencement of any land-disturbing the kinetic energy of the raindrop is greater than the total
activities greater than one acre in size. The goal of the SWPPP energy that holds the particle in place. The basic compo-
is to maximize the potential benefits of the pollution preven- nents of the particle energy are the intragranular frictional
tion and erosion and sediment control practices through the resistance, gravity, and chemical bonding. The most easily
use of best management practices during the construction detached particles are the medium and coarse noncohesive
process. Since the primary focus of this program is on con- particles. Cohesive clay particles have the highest resistance
trolling pollutants in any stormwater discharge, incorpora- to detachment because of the strong intraparticle ionic
tion of well-thought-out and carefully implemented erosion bonds. The raindrop must carry enough kinetic energy to
and sediment control measures is more important than ever. overcome this intraparticle bond for detachment to occur.
The descriptions of the specific structural measures Raindrops vary in size, with the largest diameters on the
herein have been limited to those that are most frequently order of 3/16-inch (5 mm). The velocity of the raindrop
used in an erosion and sediment control plan. Other mea- depends on its size. As the diameter increases, the termi-
sures exist, and the reader is referred to local standards man- nal velocity increases up to a maximum of 30-mph (9 mis)
uals for measures needed to accommodate the nuances for a for larger raindrop sizes. Velocity and size are related to the
specific locality or site condition. storm intensity. The following summarizes the relationship
between raindrop diameter, rainfall intensity, and velocity:
5.7.2. Soil Erosion and Sedimentation Process
The natural soil erosion and sedimentation process is an • As raindrop diameter increases, rainfall volume
important factor in the formation of the surface features increases.
of the earth. These surface features, plant growth, and ani- • The average raindrop diameter increases for low- to
mal habitats are the natural result of a slow uniform process medium-intensity storms and decreases for higher-
occurring over geologic time; when uncontrolled and/or intensity storms.
accelerated, erosion has damaging effects on the environ -
ment and compromises aesthetic values important to site • As raindrop diameter increases, the terminal velocity
development. increases up to the limiting diameter of 6 mm.
Design of a soil erosion and sedimentation plan for a The transport process begins with entrainment of the soil
development project requires a fundamental knowledge of particle. That is, the soil particle is "captured" and pulled
the process itself. With a basic understanding of the prin - along by the combined effects of turbulence and momentum
ciples of soil erosion and sedimentation mechanics, the engi- of the fluid. Heavier sediment particles near the bottom of
neer can then plan and design efficient methods for erosion the flow mass move by bouncing, sliding, or rolling. Flow
and sediment control. turbulence lifts the lighter sediment particles and transports
Soil erosion and sedimentation is a three-step process. them in suspension. Whether the particle moves in suspen-
1. First, the soil particles must be detached from the sion or along the bottom of the flow mass depends on the
soil mass. velocity and turbulence of the water and the physical charac-
teristics of the particles themselves.
2. Water (or wind) must then contain sufficient energy The common factor in detachment and transport is the
for entraining and transporting the particles. energy of the agent. Rainfall acts not only as a detaching
3. Finally, deposition occurs when the energy of the agent at impact but also as the transporting agent as runoff
water (wind) is less than the fluid shear resistance in the erosion process. As runoff progresses through various
and gravitational forces acting on the sediment flow regimes, the erosion process is often exacerbated.
particles. Sheet Flow. After the soil has been fully saturated, the rain
accumulates into small depressions on the order of only sev-
The key to erosion and sediment control is to prevent ini- eral raindrop diameters deep. As the depression capacity is
tial detachment of the soil particles and reduce the velocity exceeded, the first phase of runoff, referred to as sheet flow,
of the runoff. begins. On a macroscopic scale, sheet flow appears as a very
Detachment and Transport. Detachment of soil particles shallow uniform depth flowing over the area. On the scale
from the soil mass often begins when the energy of a rain - of a raindrop, it is a series of braided watercourses flowing
drop impacting the ground is sufficient to break down the in very small unapparent channels. This type of flow usu-
soil aggregates and project them into the air. Upon impact, ally lasts no more than several feet when the land cover is
these ejected particles then contribute to the detachment of denuded (bare soil) and only exists during the early part of
even more soil particles. Soil particles can be ejected 2 feet the rainstorm. Typical velocity for sheet flow is around 1 fps.
588 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
Rill Flow. Water transforms from sheet flow into rill flow per acre). This compares to estimates of a natural erosion
as it moves downslope. As sheet flow depth increases beyond rate of 0.18 tons per acre per year in forestland and estimates
several raindrop diameters, the runoff begins following in of agricultural erosion rates range from 0.3 to 6 tons per acre
more defined water courses several inches deep. This con- per year.
centration of flow carries more momentum than sheet flow. Soil erosion is a progressive yet discontinuous process.
Consequently, the erosive power and turbulence of rill flow The soil particles are transported a fixed distance based on
is much higher than sheet flow. The relationship between the energy of the flowing water. Eventually, the particles will
velocity, erosive power, and transport capacity of flowing again be entrained and transported further downstream
water is such that when the velocity doubles, the water breaks when higher erosive velocities recur. The following state-
loose 4 times more soil particles and transports 32 times ments summarize the relationship of soil erosion and rainfall:
more sediment. Much soil erosion begins during rill flow.
Gullies. The next phase in the erosion process is the for- • Average soil loss per rain event increases with the
mation of gullies. Gullies are significantly larger than rills. intensity of the storm.
These steep-sided watercourses with near vertical scarps • Most erosion occurs from moderate storm events
at the head may be several feet to 15 feet (and larger) deep, producing 1 to 2½ inches of rain.
twice as wide, and hundreds of feet long. Gully formation
results from the merging of many smaller depressions. Over- • The erosive power of water is related to the volume
land flow and rain splash soak the soil to the point where the and velocity created by the storm.
sides of these depressions erode away and slough to the bot- • Any storm, which effectively causes an increase in
tom of the depression. As the sides of adjacent depressions either of these two parameters, will pose a high ero-
wear away, the depressions combine as a larger one. The sion risk.
gully enlarges as the upslope water flows through the gully
and further deepens it. Flows entering the head of the gully 5.7.3. Factors Influencing Soil Erosion
have very high erosive energies. Erosion in this part of the The soil's erodibility (or propensity to erode) depends not
gully causes the movement of the gully to progress further only on soil characteristics but also on the region's type of
upslope. Figure 5.7A shows the relative velocity during the vegetation, topography, and hydrologic conditions. The vari-
various stages of the erosion process. ability and nondeterministic nature of these factors adds to
In land development projects, continuous grading and the difficulty in quantifying soil erosion to a high degree of
construction operations prevent gully erosion, that is, unless certainty.
the site sits unprotected and remains unvegetated for very Soil Characteristics. Rainfall and flowing water erode the
long. Typically, this is not the case if judicious land plan- soil only if the energy is high enough to dislodge, entrain,
ning management is exercised during construction. Most and transport the soil particles. The minimum detachment,
eroded soil at construction sites occurs from sheet and rill or threshold, energy that holds the soil particles in place and
erosion. Studies have shown that construction sites can pro- the energy required to start a particle in motion depend,
duce 1 cubic yard of sediment per 100 square feet of cleared in part, on the physical and chemical characteristics of the
areas during a moderate storm event (over 400 cubic yard particle, which are directly related to the soil structure and
texture. Soil structure is the geometric arrangement of soil
particles with respect to each other, that is, how the soil par-
ticles interlock. Soil texture is a measure of the particle size
and gradation; it is the proportion of the sand, silt,1 and clay
content within the soil (see Chapter 2.5 for soil classification
information). Noncohesive granular soil particles (e.g., sand)
require the least energy for incipient motion. Clays and silts
are platy and have strong chemical bonds. Thus they require
high threshold energy for incipient motion; however, their
size (2 micrometers) makes them easily transportable once
they are in motion. Generally, once the threshold energy is
reached, the minimum energy to keep the particle in suspen-
sion or moving is considerably less. For those particles that

1A distinction should be made between the terms silt and sediment. The two words
are frequently used interchangeably although this is incorrect. In the classification of
soils, silt is the microscopic soil particles that consist of fine quartz grains and mica-
FIG uRE 5 . 7A Relationship between runoff velocity and stages of ceous minerals. All transported particles, regardless of size or formal classification,
the erosion process. are considered sediment.
 5.7 ■ EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL 589

move through rolling-bouncing-sliding motions, the more convex slopes. Factors such as slope length, gradient, and geo-
round the particle the less energy required. metric configuration all affect erosion potential. Because of
Two other factors that directly affect the erodibility of soil the slope, rain splash dispenses more soil particles downslope
are infiltration and permeability rate. Soils that have high than upslope. The amount dispensed downslope increases
infiltration capacities and permeability rates are generally with slope gradient. For slopes of uniform gradient, the volume
less erodible. These soils are able to absorb runoff conse- and velocity of the runoff increase as slope gradient and length
quently reducing the available energy to surface soil parti- increase. The tangential stress of the flowing water combined
cles. However, storms of sufficient duration will eventually with the gravity component of the weight of the water in the
exceed the soil's infiltration capacity. Once this happens, the direction of flow greatly increases erosion potential.
soil becomes saturated and the benefits of the highly perme- Soil Erosion from Snowmelt. Although the impact of fall-
able soil are temporarily lost. ing snow does not contribute to the detachment of soil par-
The following statements summarize the relationship ticles, the subsequent snowmelt and freeze-thaw cycles at
between erodibility and soil texture: certain times of the year can have dramatic erosive effects.
As snow melts, it saturates the surface layer of the soil. If the
• Soils containing high percentages of silts and sands immediate sublayers of the soil are nearly frozen, permeabil-
are the most erodible. Their erodibility is magnified ity and infiltration capacities are significantly reduced result-
when these soils appear on steep slopes. ing in a heavily saturated top layer or slurry. As the thaw
• Clean, well-drained, well-graded gravels are the least continues, this soil slurry easily washes downslope with the
erodible. These soils have a high resistance to erosion snowmelt. At the next freeze-thaw cycle, the process repeats
because of their combination of cohesive and inter- itself with the next available soil layer.
granular strength.
5.7.4. Factors Influencing Coastal Erosion
• Higher-clay-content soils are less erodible except the
Nature's ability to shape the landscape is most apparent on
unstable clays, such as illite and montmorillonite,
the coastline. The forces of waves, tides, and currents are
which have low infiltration capacities and are highly
constantly and sometimes dramatically altering the shore-
susceptible to erosion.
line. Variables that influence the erosion process include
• Soils with high organics are more permeable, which the frequency and intensity of storms, sediment supply,
allows for infiltration of higher amounts of rainwater the characteristics of the near-shore sea bottom, and land
and are more resistant to detachment. management.
Coastal erosion, like soil erosion and the sedimentation
Vegetation. Vegetation is perhaps the most important fac- process, is a natural process that shapes the features of the
tor in reducing soil erosion. Leaves, branches, and stems earth. As discussed previously, land development can accel-
reduce the kinetic energy of the raindrop and thus reduce erate the process of soil erosion, which leads to a degradation
detachment. Some forms of vegetation are more effective at in water quality, increasing flood hazards, and a reduction
dampening the kinetic energy than others. Ideally, the most in hydraulic capacity and storage. Likewise, development
effective vegetation would be strong enough to absorb the of land compounds the coastal erosion process by creating
initial kinetic energy and close enough to the ground such static features in a dynamic environment. Development in
that the subsequent kinetic energy of the collected secondary close proximity to the shoreline is exposed to wave, wind,
droplets is minimal. and flooding hazards, and therefore has a high potential for
At the ground surface, the organic litter and other plant property damage. Despite the complex dynamics of the ero-
debris reduce erosion in two distinct ways: they act as an sion process along the coastline and the development haz-
additional energy-absorbing barrier, and the layer and the ards it creates, the demand for view and waterfront property
shade from the foliage canopy reduce soil moisture evapora- creates strong pressure for development. According to a 2010
tion. Moderate amounts of soil moisture enhance the stabil- report from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admin-
ity of the soil aggregates. istration (NOAA), about 39% of the population lives within
Below the ground surface, the root system acts as a deter- 50 miles of the coast-a population that increased by almost
rent for erosion. Nearly 75% of the root system is located 40% over 40 years.
in the upper 12 inches of the soil. The root system along In general, coastal erosion can be classified into two
with the surface debris roughens the ground surface. These general categories: storm-induced and long-term. Storm-
ground surface irregularities reduce flow velocity and dissi- induced erosion, such as due to a hurricane, northeaster, or
pate flow energy, the consequences of which are a decrease tsunami, tends to have larger-scale changes, including shore-
in erosivity and the deposition of entrained particles. The line retreat, dune erosion, and dune removal. In extreme
increase in depression storage from the irregularities reduces events, such as category 4 and 5 hurricanes, barrier islands
runoff volume, which reduces erosion potential. can be overwashed and flattened, completely inundated, or
Soil Erosion on Slopes. Soil erosion rates are higher on breaches can occur where barrier islands are narrow and low
slopes, with the highest erosion intensities occurring on lying. For mainland beaches, the dune field would experience
590 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
severe erosion and removal, eventually exposing landward are higher, as properties that appear to be protected by the
properties to wave impacts depending on dune volume, and fronting beach and dune field may be threatened in the near
the height and duration of the storm surge. The magnitude future.
of storm erosion is dependent of the intensity and duration Waves. Wave motion is the most important force in the
of the event. The USGS photos in Figure 5.7B depicts the natural process of accretion and erosion of a shoreline. Waves
impacts of Hurricane Sandy on Mantoloking in New Jersey. form as a result of wind moving over the ocean or water body
Storm-induced erosion response tends to have a high degree surface. The characteristics of waves depend on wind veloc-
of spatial variability: it is dependent on the nearshore con- ity, duration, and amount of unobstructed water surface,
figuration of the seafloor, the width of the beach, and the size referred to as "fetch:' Energy is transferred in the path of
of the dune field prior to the storm. the wave until the wave encounters shallow water. When the
Long-term erosion can be a result of several factors, water depth becomes approximately half of the wavelength
including, but not limited to, sea-level rise, subsidence, and, (distance between wave crests), the wave will begin to "shoal"
most importantly, localized or regional deficits in sediment and dissipate energy. As the water depth decreases, the wave
supply. Coastal erosion and shoreline retreat due to these height will increase until the breaking depth is encountered,
factors can vary from one to tens of feet per year, depend- and at that point, the wave energy will be released as the wave
ing on the factors involved. Many communities have insti- collapses. Beaches fronted by extensive shallow areas, such
tuted coastal setback statutes to balance development with as reefs, are subject to less wave energy due to wave shoaling
the expected future position of the shoreline. Such statutes and breaking.
take the calculated annual rate of long-term coastal retreat Wave height and wave steepness are the most impor-
and delineate a regulatory line, and new development is lim- tant factors for determining the potential for erosion. Wave
ited to areas landward of the line. This type of regulation is energy is proportional to wave height; the higher the wave, the
especially important in areas where long-term retreat rates greater the potential for transporting material. The potential

. -"!:~.,.:..~ s North beach profile

." ·. · ._- . · . . . : .'-... Beach

. .·.·;•_· . . . _. ~
. . -..
I • ~ : ... • • •

• • ,I •

Adjustment for large waves

I•••

, I I ', • ~• : , 10 : •

.... .
...

. .'-'"..-:~; ~

_. ·.·
.·. , :··.· · ·. ·.. ·-~
-
..:•. ~--:-. ·:.
Coastal dunes and □ · · •
.' ·,· beach store sand until □ •. -
:""
-~
w dunes
Recovery

· , ·next large wave event .·

• • • • • • 1• • •,•I

Large waves, which tend to occur seasonally

in Hawaii, cause a beach to temporarily □
change its profile.
FIG uRE 5 . 7 B Impacts of Hurricane Sandy on Mantoloking,
New Jersey. The area was completely inundated by the hurricane storm.
Green arrows identify the common reference point before and after. FIG uRE 5. 7 C Seasonal beach profile adjustments.
 5.7 ■ EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL 591

for moving material on or offshore is dependent of the wave also be a result oflocalized and regional changes in shoreline
steepness. Steeper waves will tend to transport material off- orientation.
shore, whereas less steep waves will move material onshore. Tidal currents at inlets (hydraulic connections between
Thus, smaller waves can have a greater erosive impact than the ocean and another water body, such as a lagoon, bay,
larger waves, depending on the wave steepness. or sound) are the most frequent cause of erosion associated
Beaches may experience seasonal cycles that are a direct with currents. As tidal forces move water through an inlet,
reflection of changing wave conditions through the year, in current velocities increase as the water is driven through the
particular, wave steepness. During late summer and early constricted opening. The increased water velocity scours
fall, beaches are typically in peak condition, due to typically sediment from the seabed and causes the channel to migrate
fair conditions through the summer months that produce if the entrance is not stabilized by jetties. Migration of the
small, long-period low steepness waves known as "swell:' channel can eventually cause the current to come into close
Through the winter months, storminess increases, produc- proximity with adjacent landforms and induce erosion.
ing higher, shorter period steep waves, which erode and flat- Human-Induced Factors. Erosion can be accelerated by
ten the beach and transport material out to the offshore bar. human alterations to the coastline. Hardening a coastline
During the late spring and summer months, swell waves pre- with structures can interfere with the natural movement
dominate, gradually moving this material back onshore and of sediments in the complex coastal system (Figure 5.7D).
restoring the beach to peak conditions. This cycle is also rel- Often, attempts to reduce erosion and stabilize one area of
evant to short-term beach evolution during and after storm the coast result in increased erosion rates elsewhere. Beaches
events. downdrift of groins and jetties are prone to erosion, as the
Tides. The gravitational effects of the sun and the moon structures interfere with the longshore transport of mate-
in relation to the earth cause tides. The ebb and flow of tides rial. As a retreating beach encounters a seawall or revetment,
produces regular changes in the level of the sea along the it can no longer draw upon the landward sand supply and
coast and generates tidal currents. The influence of tides on the fronting beach will become severely eroded. Human-
beaches depends on tide range, which determines the zone induced impacts on the natural vegetation of a dune system
over which wave action can operate. reduce the coasts natural ability to trap and retain material
Currents. Currents, the continuous movement of the water and decreases the stability of the dune.
because of specific forces, have the capacity to carry large
amounts of sedimentary material. Currents may or may 5.7.5. Evaluation of Coastal Erosion
not play a part in beach erosion, depending on the type of Coastal erosion is typically evaluated through shoreline
current, the flow velocity, duration, and location. Tidal and change, cross-sectional change, and sediment budget analy-
wave currents provide the greatest impacts, with longshore sis. Shoreline change analysis involves compiling available
sediment transport, the lateral transport of beach sediments historical aerial photographs for the study area, digitizing
along the coast, and tidal currents at inlets being the most shorelines, establishing a baseline, and then determining
significant to coastal erosion. change rates between the sample dates relative to the base-
Waves approaching the shoreline at an angle induce what line. End-member and linear regression analyses are then
is known as longshore current. The height and angle of the conducted on the shoreline positions to determine change
approaching waves are the most important factors in deter- rates over the period of interest. Care must be taken that
mining the strength of the current. The higher the waves and the photographs are generally at the same time of year to
the greater the angle to shore, the stronger the current and the avoid seasonal fluctuations of the shoreline that may influ-
greater the potential for sediment transport along the coast. ence the accuracy of results. One must also ensure that the
The actual amount of transported material is dependent on digitized feature, typically the mean high water line, is con-
the sediment supply and sediment grain size. The direction sistent across the set of imagery. Photographs taken after
oflongshore transport shifts with the predominant direction storms events should be avoided, as they could also skew the
of wave energy. Seasonal changes in wave climate can result analysis.
in reversals of longshore current along the coast. The total Cross-sectional profiles for coastal monitoring are typi-
amount of material transported is known as the gross long- cally collected on an annual basis. Profiles are analyzed for
shore transport, while net longshore transport refers to the key parameters, typically volumetric changes of the beach
amount of material transported in the dominant direction and dune. Results are then compared to previous data to
of transport. Changes in the nearshore bottom configuration establish trends and to identify areas of higher vulnerability.
can result in gradients in longshore transport. For example, Sediment budgets provide a comprehensive assessment of
a localized reach of shoreline with a deeper seafloor than sediment movement. These assessments begin with a con-
adjacent areas would have a greater amount of wave energy ceptual model of all sediment inputs and deficits in the area
closer to shore, resulting in a localized increase in the rate of study. The study area is broken into a series oflittoral cells,
oflongshore sediment transport. This area would experience where quantifiable sediment fluxes are then assimilated in
a net loss of sediment as the amount of material removed a reservoir model approach. Cells are delineated by nodes
would be greater than the amount coming in. Gradients can in longshore transport, by structures, inlets, or headlands.
592 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii

FIG uRE 5. 7 D Shoreline hardening and beach loss-groin field in Westhampton, New York, 1988. (Aerial photograph courtesy of the U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers.)

Fluxes in and out of each cells are tallied and balanced to yield and soil loss are not necessarily equivalent. The amount
determine a best estimate of sediment transport direction of soil loss from a slope will be less than the sediment yield
and magnitude. Sediment budgets serve as an informative farther downslope because of deposition that occurs between
tool to determine the impact of changes in inputs to the sys- the point in question and the base of the slope. Not all eroded
tem as a whole (such as how constructing a dam on a river soil qualifies as soil loss either. Eroded soil may be redepos-
would impact erosion rates for coastal areas adjacent to the ited before it leaves the slope, and therefore does not factor
river mouth in the following 10 to 100 years). into soil loss quantity. The USLE is

5.7.6. Estimating Erosion A= Rx Kx (LS) x Cx P (5.7A)

Although it is not common to have to quantify erosion, where A is the average annual soil loss from sheet and rill
there are several methodologies commonly employed that erosion measured in tons per acre. The remaining terms of
the engineer should be aware of including their appropriate the equation are the following: R is the rainfall erosion index,
application and limitations. K is the soil erodibility factor, LS is the length-slope factor,
The Universal Soil Loss Equation. One of the most widely C is the cover factor, and P is the erosion control practice
used and accepted equations for estimating soil erosion is the factor. Detailed information including data tables, support-
universal soil loss equation (USLE), an empirical equation ing equations, and mapping for determination of the various
developed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. It was ini- USLE terms is found in the USDA's Agriculture Handbook
tially developed for agricultural purposes and since has been No. 537 available online.
adapted to apply to construction sites. The USLE applies to Morphological features of agricultural land are different
relatively large homogeneous soil areas and is based on long- from urbanized developing land. Agricultural land typically
term averages of rainfall and soil losses from runoff directly is characterized by relatively long, regular, gentle slopes,
on the slope. It does not estimate deposition, nor does it esti- whereas construction sites may have discontinuous and
mate sediment yield at a downstream location. The USLE irregular land patterns. The land patterns of a construction
estimates the annual tonnage of soil eroded from the site site are a combination of steep slopes, sharp breaks, excava-
attributed only to sheet and rill erosion. This easily converts tion holes, and mounded piles of excavation soil. Since the
into a volume assuming a unit weight of soil. USLE measures average annual soil loss, the erosion from
Three common terms used in context with quantifying the relatively short-term denuding-stabilization sequence,
erosion are soil erosion, soil loss, and sediment yield. Soil typical of a construction site, may not be indicative of the
erosion is the amount of soil moved by natural forces. Soil loss value obtained from the USLE. Runoff from an area above a
is the amount of soil moved off a particular area. Sediment disturbed slope was not a factor in establishing the USLE, yet
yield is the soil loss delivered to a specific point. Sediment runoff from upslope areas does occur on construction sites.
 5.7 ■ EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL 593

Therefore, use of the USLE, especially for construction sites, grading operations expose much of these surface soils so
requires the site area to be broken down into homogeneous that runoff carries the nutrient laden sediment into streams,
areas. The USLE should be applied to each individual area, lakes, and ponds increasing the turbidity levels and accel-
with the sum being more representative of the soil erosion erating the eutrophication process. The adverse effects of
estimate. excessive sediments and adsorbed compounds can extend to
The use of the USLE provides an estimate of the the ecosystems at the water's surface, which rely on the water
erosion potential of a site. Using the USLE to compare as part of their life support.
different practices at a construction site is appropriate; The injection of excessive sediments into the watercourse
however, using the USLE to compare one construction site increases the turbidity, which reduces the amount of sunlight
to another is not recommended. Furthermore, the equa- dispersed throughout the water. Decreased sunlight in the
tion is unable to account for the deposition that occurs in water creates fluctuations in the dissolved oxygen content and
the nonhomogeneous irregular land forms typical of land thermal stratification in the water. Aquatic life thrives within
development projects. Not all sediment eroded from a site small variations of thermal conditions and requires specific
can be classified as soil loss relative to the boundaries of amounts of dissolved oxygen: their existence depends on a
the site, since some soil is redeposited on-site from natu- stable environment.
ral deposition. Nutrients conveyed by sediment promote algae ("algae
The Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation. The revised bloom'') and bacteria growth. A chain reaction begins with
universal soil loss equation (RUSLE) is a widely used com- the proliferation of algae due to the abundance of phospho-
puter program developed by the USDA-Agricultural rus, commonly known as the "limiting nutrient:' As the algae
Research Service to estimate rates of soil erosion caused by propagate, they block sunlight to deeper areas of the water
rainfall and associated overland flow. The RUSLE, while body. As the algae, die off, and fall to the bottom of the pond,
still using the same terms, incorporates data and additional bacteria decompose the algae consuming dissolved oxygen
theory for describing hydrologic and erosion processes not in the process and depriving other organisms of much
included in the original USLE. The new data and additional needed oxygen. Because of the reduction in dissolved oxygen
theory have allowed for additional refinement of the evaluat- levels, blocked sunlight and changes in temperature and tur-
ing terms to suit conditions that are more specific. bidity, aquatic organisms are either driven away or die off.
Water Erosion Prediction Project. The Water Erosion Pre- While these impacts most immediately affect the benthic
diction Project (WEPP) soil erosion model was developed organisms and their deep zone or bottom habitats, as these
by an interagency group consisting of the USDA-Natural organisms die off, their loss can greatly affect other creatures
Resources Conservation Service, USDA-Forest Service, higher in the food chain. Many fish and shellfish feed on
USDI-Bureau of Land Management, and others involved in these benthic organisms, while underwater grasses serve as
soil and water conservation and environmental land plan - breeding grounds and shelter for young fish and shellfish.
ning and assessment. WEPP was completed to replace the The disappearance of these habitats results in "dead zones"
USLE and its subsequent updates (RUSLE). The USLE is within the water body.
applicable for predicting sheet and rill erosion. The WEPP Reduction in Hydraulic Capacity and Storage. Many
model's overland flow profile simulations are applicable to reaches of natural streams are in a state of equilibrium bal-
sheet and rill erosion, while its watershed simulations are ancing the water and sediment loads over a given period.
applicable to field situations with multiple profiles, gullies or When the balance is disrupted, the stream compensates by
grassed waterways, and impoundments. aggrading or degrading the bed and banks. Adding more
sediment than the stream can convey causes deposition
5.7.7. Consequences of Excessive Erosion of sediments (aggradation). If the imbalance causes the
Various types of nutrients and toxicants become attached to stream section to carry less sediment than naturally sup-
the surface of soil particles and, when carried into streams, plied, the bed and banks begin to erode (degradation) to
lakes, and other water bodies, their effect can be detrimen - make up for the deficit. In each case the channel's hydraulic
tal to aquatic ecosystems. Other effects of sedimentation characteristics change, affecting the water level and associ-
include reduced hydraulic capacity of streams resulting in ated floodplain along the entire watercourse. In the case of
higher flood elevations and loss of storage volume in lakes an aggrading stream, the water level tends to rise; thus, the
and ponds. At a more local scale, excessive and uncontrolled likelihood of causing adjacent property damage as a result of
erosion can cause damage to adjacent properties such as flooding is increased. In the case of a degrading stream, huge
lawns and landscaped areas, trees, sidewalks, and walkways, loads of sediment can be released downstream. As the chan-
which can cause projects to be shut down as well as costly nel bank becomes destabilized, more bank failure is likely
fines and repairs imposed. to occur until a stable angle of repose is achieved. The loss
Water Quality Degradation. High concentrations of natu- of streambank can affect adjacent property owners twofold
ral soil nutrients, such as phosphorus, nitrogen, and their by reducing the amount of land available for development
compounds, reside in the upper layers of soils. Clearing and as property is literally "washed away" and by potentially
594 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
increasing the likelihood of flooding as the channel has now 5.7.9. Erosion Control Best Management Practices2
migrated closer to the structure. Erosion control best management practices (BMPs) limit the
Sedimentation is not restricted to open channels; many amount of soil eroded from a site and indirectly control the
land development projects incorporate lakes and ponds sedimentation process as well. The objective is to prevent
into the stormwater management design for control of erosion on the site by controlling the energy, velocity, and
post-development runoff. Proper operation of these ponds volume of runoff. These measures share common practices
depends on adequate storage volume to accommodate associated with permeant stormwater management systems
the excess runoff generated by development. Excessive (as described in Chapter 3.5 and Appendix 7.2) for final
sediment loads to these small ponds results in decreased development conditions.
capacity and significantly increased maintenance costs for Erosion control BMPs fall into three general categories:
dredging.
I. Site management measures limit erosion through
5.7.8. Benefits of Erosion and Sediment Controls judicious site planning and sequencing of construc-
Aside from protecting the natural environment and pre- tion operations.
serving the habitat of all creatures that use water resources 2. Soil stabilization measures, either vegetative or non-
(including humans who fish, swim, and enjoy aquatic activi- vegetative, decrease the erosion potential of the soil.
ties), there are several other practical reasons for implement-
ing proper erosion and sediment controls. They include 3. Structural measures, which take on various forms of
devices, intercept and divert the runoff to stabilized
• Reducing the loss of topsoil. If the topsoil washes collection areas or dissipate runoff energy.
offsite, the expense of hauling additional replacement
topsoil for final stabilization can be costly. Each of the above measures can be classified as either a tem-
porary or permanent control. Temporary measures function
• Protecting adjacent/downstream property owners for durations no longer than the construction period. Their
from construction damage. If sediment from the purpose is to control erosion only until the immediate area is
site washes downstream onto someone else's prop- stabilized before they are removed. Although these temporary
erty, significant clean up expenses may be incurred measures usually have low initial costs for installation, they
and the construction site will likely be temporarily have high maintenance costs due to the nondurable materials
shut down by the regulatory agency (a huge loss in used. Permanent measures, which have higher initial costs for
productivity). Worse yet, if wetlands or other envi- construction, are justified when considering the reduced main-
ronmentally sensitive areas are damaged, severe tenance costs and the longevity of the structure. The higher
penalties from State and Federal agencies for nonper- costs are attributed to the more durable materials and the detail
mitted impacts are often issued and these areas are involved in the design and construction of the device. The type
very difficult and labor intensive to clean. of control selected is dependent upon the method of construc-
• Erosion and sediment control plans are required tion and the physical characteristics of the site.
for permits. Many states and local jurisdictions Site Management Measures. Site management pertains to
require erosion and sediment control plans for the the general planning and scheduling of construction opera-
issuance of construction and grading permits. The tions to reduce the site's erosion potential for the duration
National Pollution Discharge Elimination System of the project. Careful site management can eliminate many
(NPDES) Phase I and II permit requirements that potential erosion and sedimentation problems by preventing
evolved from the Clean Water Act of 1972 require them from occurring in the first place.
an erosion and sediment control plan for any con- Site Planning. The first and most effective measure for
struction site over 1 acre (refer to Chapters 2.5 reducing the erosion potential of a site is limiting the amount
and 6.1). In some environmentally sensitive areas of area disturbed. Erosion rates can be controlled by avoiding
local ordinances have reduced this threshold even impacts to steep slopes (slopes greater than 15%) and highly
further. erodible soils. Consider the use of retaining walls to reduce the
development footprint and minimize impacts to these areas.
• If the project is pursuing a third party green building Preserve natural drainage features and environmentally sensi-
certification an Erosion and Sediment Control plan, tive areas, thus preserving natural vegetation and other areas
is often a prerequisite, that is, it is mandatory for any that filter runoff and reduce erosion potential. Create and
level of certification. retain buffer zones to the environmentally sensitive areas to
• Careful planning and implementation of the sedi-
2Some localities refer to best management practices (BMPs) when describing mea-
ment control plans can result in cost savings. By sta-
sures taken to remove soluble chemicals from stormwater runoff (SWM BMPs). In a
bilizing newly graded areas you can reduce/prevent broader sense, many other localities and the Environmental Protection Agency refer
erosion and rework having to go back and regrade to all measures designed to improve water quality as BMPs, including those with the
failed or eroded areas and slopes. primary purpose of removing suspended sediment from stormwater runoff.
 5.7 ■ EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL 595

protect these areas from the adverse impacts of development; grading operations begin after erosion control devices are
prohibit clearing and grading within these buffer zones. Clus- in place and once the phase/section is completed, the area
tering of units in a smaller land area is a planning tool which must be stabilized before proceeding to the next phase).
allows for the implementation of more effective perimeter The Sequence is typically found along with other notes on
erosion and sediment controls during construction, preserva- the erosion and sediment control plan sheets. Additional
tion of natural drainage features and environmentally sensi- notes on the plans, or in the erosion control device details,
tive areas, while minimizing the amount of impervious area will specify a maintenance schedule for the inspection and
with reduced road lengths and parking areas. Reductions in upkeep of erosion and sediment control devices.
the amount of impervious area protect the site's natural ability For complex construction situations, the engineer may
to filter and convey storm runoff. The use of porous paving decide to meet with the contractor before specifying con-
materials and the reduction of building setbacks are planning struction staging or land phasing in the sequence of con-
measures that will reduce impervious area. The objective in struction. During this meeting, the engineer can acquaint
this initial stage of site planning is to disturb the smallest area themselves with the contractor's approach for staging and
possible while developing the site in order to reduce erosion phasing of the project. The two parties can then work toward
and offsite transport of sediment. establishing a sequence of construction that meets the devel-
Limiting Denuded Area. The next step to take after reduc- oper's needs and provides flexibility to the contractor, while
ing the area of disturbance is to consider if the construction protecting the environment and meeting regulatory require-
of the site can be staged to avoid area-wide clearing (denud- ments at the same time.
ing of the site). It is difficult to recommend a rule of thumb to Revisions to the Sequence of Construction. Construction
use for the maximum amount of area allowed to be denuded. operations are subject to weather conditions and availability
Most localities have a set limit, by ordinance, on the amount of materials and subcontractors. Also, site conditions (high
of area that may be denuded at any one time. While other groundwater, bad topography) or an oversight in the plans
localities limit the extent of time a disturbed area can remain may require the contractor to adjust the sequence or modify
unworked without stabilization by mulch or temporary the sediment control plans. However, this can only be done
vegetation. This limit is often set at 14 days with reduced with the regulatory agency approval. The process for obtain-
time limits (7 days) in critical areas, such as steep slopes. In ing approval of revisions varies depending on the agency
those instances where there are no local criteria, or where and type of change proposed. The contractor is strongly
the criteria do not apply, the engineer must rely on experi- encouraged to discuss the revision procedure with the reg-
ence and judgment. The engineer must be sensitive to both ulatory agency prior to beginning any construction activi-
the environmental consequences and the cost-effectiveness ties to establish the proper protocol and avoid costly delays.
of construction processes when developing a recommended Typically, minor changes can usually be solved in the field
sequence of construction to accompany E&S plans. through collaboration with the jurisdiction's field inspector,
On one extreme, it is impractical for a builder to denude while major design alterations may require formal engineer-
a 100-acre parcel if they can effectively work in only 5- to ing plan review. One should not avoid seeking revisions if
10-acre sections at a time. The other extreme is when the better protection of the environment can be achieved and
amount of disturbed land is so limited that the builder is if significant cost savings can be realized. Most regulatory
restricted in his/her ability to perform the task resulting in agencies want to work with the builder/contractor to meet
substantial increases in the construction cost. The amount of their goals and will, in appropriate situations where environ-
land that is workable on a steady basis by the builder varies mental considerations warrant, expedite the process.
from project to project and from builder to builder. Limit- Soil Stabilization Measures. Soil stabilization measures
ing the amount of denuded area at one time is practical for are nonstructural controls that prevent erosion by absorbing
projects that have sufficient area to allow for such phasing. rainfall energy, reducing overland flow velocity, increasing
Sequence of Construction. After the initial site plan - infiltration, helping to retain soil moisture, and are even used
ning measures are incorporated, the engineer should begin to bind the soil particles together to stabilize the soil.
preparation of a sequence of construction. The sequence Soil stabilization measures include
of construction is the formal guidance to the contractor on
how to construct the project with respect to E&S measures. • Vegetative ground covers such as grass seeding, straw,
The sequence is prepared by the engineer in the form of a wood chips, and shredded bark
sequential outline of the construction process detailing how • Synthetic alternatives (often biodegradable) such as
the construction activities are to proceed while providing binders or soil stabilization nets or matting
flexibility for the contractor. All sequences specifically detail
when erosion and sediment controls are to be installed or Grass and Mulch. The preferable form of vegetative ground
removed (i.e., install perimeter controls prior to beginning cover, where sufficient rainfall is available, is grass. It is the
rough grading operations, or stabilize upstream drainage easiest and fastest to install and, relative to other forms of veg-
areas prior to removal of inlet protection devices) and when etative covers, it has low maintenance costs. Grass seed mix-
stabilization/ construction operations should occur (usually tures are regionally developed to suit climate, soil conditions,
59& i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
and maintenance expectations. Some species of grass are not other methods used to establish grass cover. Table 5.7A lists
recommended for steep slopes or other special conditions. selected mulches and the recommended rates of application.
Local design manuals, soil conservation district offices, and, Soil Binders. Soil binders are chemicals and synthetic
often, the extension service of a local university provide plant- materials sprayed onto the soil surface in order to bind the
ing information. Of primary importance when installing soil particles together or to protect seeding and sprigs from
the grass seed is the need to keep the seed from washing or washing away. These are emulsions or dispersions of vinyl
blowing away. This can be ensured by proper soil preparation compounds, rubber, or other substances that are mixed with
with appropriate fertilizers and roughening the soil surface to water and applied to the soil. Soil binders are most effective
promote germination. Mulches are then added, as a tempo- when sprayed over an organic mulch to keep it from blowing
rary cover, to protect the grass seed while it is germinating. away. Alone, soil binders do not have the capability to insu-
Additionally, mulches provide temporary surface soil stabi- late or retain moisture and are easily damaged by traffic. The
lization until the grass can grow and stabilize the area. The soil binders decay within 60 to 90 days of application.
most commonly used mulches are hay and straw. For maxi- Soil Stabilization Nets and Mattings. Nets and mats are
mum effectiveness, these mulches must be tacked, usually also a form of ground cover. Nets are a heavy uniformly
with hydromulch, to prevent the wind from blowing it away. woven cloth, most notably jute yarn. Soil stabilization mat-
Grasses can be permanent or temporary. Temporary grass tings are porous materials that are sometimes referred to as
should be used if the site will be redisturbed within a rela- erosion control blankets. The mattings are used when ero-
tively short period of time, commonly 1 month to a year as sion is likely to occur and wash away the soil before vegeta-
these grasses usually are grown for just one growing season. tion can be established. Soil stabilization mattings are made
For long term (more than 1 year to remain undisturbed) or of either natural degradable materials such as coir fiber or
final stabilization, permanent grasses should be used. The straw in a natural netting that is used for a short duration
type of grass species selected should consider future mainte- until vegetation is established and then the matting will have
nance requirements-is this on a steep slope that might not degraded away. Alternatively, they can be made of permanent
be mowed frequently so that the grass species selected should synthetic materials for use in high velocity areas to provide
only grow to a certain height or will this area be regularly permanent stabilization even after vegetation has been estab-
maintained? Maintenance equipment (mowers, tractors) are lished. The mattings are rolled over the newly graded and
difficult to operate on slopes steeper than 4H:1 V. Although seeded area to prevent the seed and soil from washing away
steep slopes optimize land use, they also make maintenance during rain events. To be effective, nets and mats should be
difficult. In general, the steeper the slopes the less frequently in contact with the soil surface and anchored securely.
maintenance operations should be expected. Although the Soil Bioengineering. Historically, methods of controlling
easiest form of grass is seeding, sprigging and sodding are slope erosion, stream flow and wave induced erosion have

TAB LE 5 . 7 A Organic Mulch Materials and Application Rates

RATES
MULCHES PER ACRE PER 1000 Fr2 NOTES

Straw or hay 11/2-2 tons 70-90Ib Free from weeds and coarse matter. Must be anchored.
(Minimum 2 tons for Spread with mulch blower or by hand.
winter cover)
Fiber mulch Minimum 1500 lb 35Ib Do not use as mulch for winter cover or during hot, dry
periods.* Apply as slurry.
Corn stalks 4-6 tons 185-275 lb Cut or shredded in 4-6 in lengths. Air-dried. Do not use
in fine turf areas. Apply with mulch blower or by hand.
Wood chips 4-6 tons 185-275 lb Free of coarse matter. Air-dried. Treat with 12 lb nitro-
gen per ton. Do not use in fine turf areas. Apply with
mulch blower, chip handler, or by hand.
Bark chips or 50-70 yd 3 1-2 yd 3 Free of coarse matter. Air-dried. Do not use in fine
shredded bark turf areas. Apply with mulch blower, chip handler, or by
hand.
*When fiber mulch is the only available mulch during periods when straw should be used, apply at a minimum rate of 2000 lb/ac or 45 lb/1000112.
 5.7 ■ EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL 597

included structural practices like riprap, sheet piles, and reduced construction access requirements; and limited
retaining walls. These traditional approaches are often not maintenance costs. Soil bioengineering is a diverse, multidis-
effective in environmentally sensitive areas when the objec- ciplinary, and rapidly growing field requiring the knowledge
tive is to limit disturbance and preserve the aesthetic qual- of engineers, botanists, horticulturists, hydrologists, soil
ity of the natural setting. Soil bioengineering techniques use scientists, and construction contractors. Soil bioengineer-
combinations of live vegetation, sometimes in conjunction ing uses vegetation to reduce erosion, offsite sedimentation,
with structural practices, to achieve erosion protection. The runoff velocities, and promotion of runoff infiltration.
advantages of soil bioengineering solutions include envi- Examples of soil bioengineering techniques (Figure 5.7E)
ronmental benefits of protected/enhanced wildlife habitat, include contour wattling, brush layering, branch packing,
improved water quality, and aesthetics; improved strength and coir fiber rolls. Guidance on the application and con-
and stability over time as vegetation becomes established; struction of these techniques can be found in the USDA

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TOIi Of ll1E ST"-"ES FWSH WITH IBE INSTAU..fD

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.......i i
ABOVE TttE TOP Of THE LIVE FASCNf.. PUiC:
MOIST SO{LAtONG THE SlDES Of TliE ~ FilS(lNE.
THE TOI OFT'HE FASCINESHOUIJ)UESUGHI\.Y

-·
YIS,l&f~ ntEINSTAl.J.4TION I S ~.

(Oto81nch..\t: NSCI', A.T INTtRVAI.S 0N C0NT0UR OR AT AR AHGIJi: UP 1HiE

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DETAIL LIVE FASCTNES
t..OHG STRAW OR SIMJJ,AA MIJl..0411'G MATP!M. SHCU.O l!lE
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\'11tllf SLD'ES STEEPER TIWf 2.5:l SHOUJ:I Ho\Vf ~
ME:SK OR SlMl1AA MATERlAL PlxBl iN ADCl'T'IOH TO THE
MUI.Ck.

FIGURE 5. 7E Soil bioengineering techniques.

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--
DETAIL COIR FIBER ROLL

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DETAIL JOINT PLANTING

FIGURE 5. 7E (Continued)

598
 5.7 ■ EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL 599

Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) Engineering the stream bank. The coir fiber log is placed in the
Field Handbook. trench so that the bottom and back are in contact
with the stream substrate and the streambank. Stakes
• Contour wattling is used to break long slopes into are then driven down along its sides. Coir or nylon
shorter slopes by planting bundles oflive branch cut- twine is woven between and around the stakes and
tings (called wattles or fascines) in shallow trenches the stakes are driven in firmly, securing the coir fiber
at regular contour intervals along the slope. After log to the streambed. The streambank above the coir
staking the wattles in place with either live or dead fiber log is stabilized using other bank stabilization
stakes, only the top of the wattle is exposed. When techniques.
installed properly and cut from native plants, they
will root and immediately begin to stabilize the slope. Riprap or gabions are often used to protect stream-
banks and lake shores. In some instances, live cuttings can
The selection of native planting material will provide
be interplanted within the riprap or gabions to provide
the best chance of survival for the vegetation and
additional slope stability. Root growth through joints or
subsequent stabilization of the slope.
gaps in the stone will improve the soil strength and as the
• Brush layering is another method of restoring slopes vegetation grows it also hides the rocks, presenting a more
by constructing a fill slope of alternating layers of natural look.
live branches and soil, creating a series of reinforced In areas where space is limited and the stabilization has to
benches. Brush layering is similar to contour wattling extend vertically (in the past a retaining wall may have been
except the branches are oriented perpendicular to the used), the best solution may be a Live Cribwall. Live Cribwalls
slope. The brush layers are placed along small 2- to use a combination oflive woody cuttings with timbers, logs,
3-foot-wide benches cut into the slope. The practice or other similar structural materials. The timbers, logs, or
is recommended for slopes up to 2: 1 and not greater other structural materials are interlocked to form a hollow
than 15 feet in vertical height. box-like structure that is filled with backfill material and lay-
ers oflive branch cuttings.
• Branch Packing is a concentrated use of brush layer- Soil bioengineering measures are not appropriate for all
ing to repair small, localized areas of slope failure or
slope failures and slope erosion problems, see Table 5.7B
slumps. Branchpacking is most effective in slumps
for additional guidance. In some cases with more gradual
or holes less than 4 feet deep and 5 feet wide. The
slopes, grass seeding and hydromulching may be satisfac-
cuttings or live stakes are installed similarly to those
tory and less costly. In other cases, due to steeper slopes,
in a brush layering system and supplemented with
higher scour velocities, significant lateral earth stresses,
wooden stakes to stabilize the area.
etc., it may be more effective to use structural retaining
• Coir fiber rolls are tightly bound cylinders of coconut systems alone. There are several limitations to bioengineer-
fiber (coir fiber) held together by a coir fiber net- ing, these include the fact that the installation season is
ting. They are generally available in 10- to 20-foot often limited to the plant dormant season, when site access
lengths and are 10 to 12 inches in diameter. The may be limited; the availability of locally adopted plants
rolls are installed at the toe of slopes and are used to may be limited; the availability of adequate sunlight due
restore streambanks and wetlands where a natural to existing tree canopy may be limited; experienced labor
look is desired. They are excellent at providing toe may not be available; installers may not be familiar with
protection where scour is not severe. Once installed, bioengineering principles and designs requiring training.
the coir fiber log becomes saturated with water and However, with the right situation/opportunity, soil bioen-
vegetation can be planted directly in them. Coir gineering practices can successfully stabilize slopes and
fiber rolls provide a natural, unobtrusive appearance reduce erosion while saving money and providing a more
while immediately stabilizing the toe of the slope. natural vegetated appearance. An understanding of these
Over a 3- to 6-year period, the coir decomposes techniques-their function and appropriate application-
leaving the roots of the by then, established vegeta- is increasingly important given the increased emphasis
tion, to secure the toe of the streambank. They are throughout the land development industry on low-impact
relatively lightweight (IO-foot length= 75 pounds) development (LID) techniques.
and can be installed with minimum site disturbance. Structural Control Measures. There are practical and
The only limitations to coir fiber rolls are that in economical limits to the effectiveness of site planning on
areas of severe bank scour they are not appropriate controlling erosion from a site. Structural erosion controls
and there must be enough sunlight available to pro- are used to supplement soil stabilization and site manage-
mote plant growth. ment controls. Structural controls redirect runoff, dissi-
pate runoff velocity, or intercept runoff and temporarily
• Coir fiber rolls are installed by excavating a shal- detain the sediment-laden runoff long enough to allow
low (3 to 4 inches deep) trench along the toe of sedimentation.
&oo i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
TAB LE 5 . 7 B Approaches to Upland Slope Protection and Erosion Control
CATEGORY EXAMPLES APPROPRIATE USES ROLE OF VEGETATION
VEGETATIVE PLANTINGS

Conventional plantings Grass seedlings Control water and wind erosion. Control weeds.
Transplants Forbs Minimize frost effects. Bind and restrain soil.
Filter soil from runoff.
Intercept raindrops.
L Maintain infiltration.
I Moderate ground temperature.
V
I SOIL BIOENGINEERING
N
G Woody plants used as Live staking Control of rills and gullies Same as above, but also
reinforcement, as Live fascine Control of shallow reinforce soil, transpire
barriers to soil Brush layer (translational) mass movement excess water, and
movements, and in Branchpacking Filtering of sediment minimize downslope
the frontal openings or Live cribwall Improved resistance movement of earth
interstices of retaining Live gully repair to low to moderate earth forces masses.
structures. Vegetated rock gabion Reinforce fill into
Vegetated rock wall monolithic mass.
Joint planting Improve appearance and
performance of structure.
r VEGETATED STRUCTURES
N
0
N Inert structures with Wall or revetment with Control erosion on cut and fill Stop or prevent erosion and
L vegetative treatments. slope face planting. slopes subject to scour and shallow sloughing on or at the
I
V Tiered structures with undermining. slope face above the toe.
I bench planting.
N
G
L

Structural control measures include of the dike directs runoff that has fallen directly on the dis-
turbed area, runoff that is heavily laden with sediment, to a
• Diversion berms/earth dikes sediment trapping device for filtering.
• Channel conveyance Diversion berms/earth dikes are compacted to increase
their resistance to erosion and for stability purposes. The
• Slope drains compaction is typically done by driving the earth moving
• Outlet protection equipment along the sides and ridge of the berm. Depend-
ing on the soil used for the berm and the height of the berm,
• Checkdams the compaction operation may have to be performed in
• Level spreader approximately I -foot lifts. Berms should be stabilized with
vegetation or stone to ensure their durability. Berms should
Diversion Berms/Earth Dikes. Compacted earthen berms not be installed across swales or ditches that convey appre-
(Figure 5.7F), stabilized with vegetation or mulch are used ciable amounts of concentrated flows. The longitudinal grade
to direct or divert runoff. These berms are placed on natural (i.e., parallel to the berm) on the side of the flow should be
grade around the perimeter of the disturbed area on the high sufficient to ensure positive drainage to the outlet. Minimum
side (upslope). The berms (sometimes referred to as perim- grades of 1% to 2% suffice in most cases. Construction of
eter dikes or clean water diversion dikes) divert "clean'' run- grades less than 1% in bare soil is difficult to achieve and
off around the disturbed area to limit the amount of runoff may not drain properly. Steep longitudinal slopes will result
flowing into the work area (see Figure 5.7G). The low side in excessive velocities and may erode the toe of the berm.
 5.7 ■ EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL 601

24"-36" velocity. Channels excavated in earth are most effective with

2:1 Slop•
or rlalter a trapezoidal cross section and the side slopes less than the
angle of repose of the saturated bank soil. Angles of repose
vary from less than 15° for soft clays to over 40° for large
angular noncohesive gravels. For normal design practice,
"
Typical Parubollc Diversion maximum side slopes of 2H: 1V function adequately over the
range of these angles of repose.
Tables 5.7C and 5.7D identify various linings and the
recommended velocities for grass- and earth-lined chan-
nels. Manning's equation is used to check the velocities
in the channel and compare the velocity to the velocities
given in Table 5.7C or 5.7D. When selecting the lining,
Typical Trapetoldol Olven,lon
consider whether the channel will be temporary or perma-
nent. If additional velocity dissipation is required beyond
what is achieved through installation of a liner, check dams
(discussed in detail later in this chapter) should be provided.
Slope Drains. If runoff needs to be conveyed along the sur-
face of a highly erodible area or steep slope, then another
Typical V-Shaped Olven,lon
method for conveying runoff should be used. As shown in
Figure 5.7H, temporary slope drains or stabilized flumes
(downdrains) can be used to convey flow over the face of a
slope without damage.
Temporary slope drains consist of either flexible pipe
(usually HDPE) or rigid pipe (PVC or even CMP). The drains
Trapezoidal Cross-section
Pcrcbolic Cross-section

FIG uRE 5 . 7 F Typical diversion berms.

TA BLE 5 . 7 C Permissible Velocities for
Earth-Lined Channels
Longitudinal slopes should keep velocities less than 3 fps. If PERMISSIBLE
velocities approach 5 fps, special precautionary construction
SOIL TYPES VELOCITIES (FPS)
measures such as the use of erosion control mattings, riprap/
stone armoring, or the addition of an adjacent conveyance Fine sand (noncolloidal) 2.5
channel should be considered.
Channel Conveyance. Shallow ditches are used to safely Sandy loam (noncolloidal) 2.5
and nonerosively convey small quantities of concentrated
Silt loam (noncolloidal) 3.0
flow. As the flows increase, a more refined ditch design is
necessary. Ditches are typically prismatic in cross section Ordinary firm loam 3.5
(e.g., trapezoidal, parabolic, rectangular) and the type of
lining in the channel coincides with the expected design Fine gravel 5.0
Stiff clay (very colloidal) 5.0
Graded, loam to cobbles (noncolloidal) 5.0
.................................................................................................................................................................
Graded, silt to cobbles (colloidal) 5.5
Alluvial silts (noncolloidal) 5.0
Alluvial silts (colloidal) 5.0
Coarse gravel (noncolloidal) 6.0
Cobbles and shingles 5.5
Shales and hard pans 6.0

FIG uRE 5 . 7 G Diverting runoff around the construction site. (Source: Virginia Erosion and Sediment Control Handbook 1992.)
&02 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
TAB LE 5 . 7 D Permissible Velocities for Grass-Lined Channels
CHANNEL SLOPE LINING PERMISSIBLE VELOCITY (FPS)

0-5% Bermuda grass 6

Reed canarygrass, tall fescue, Kentucky bluegrass 5
Grass-legume mix 4
Red fescue, redtop, sericea lespedeza, annual lespedeza, small 2.5
grains (temporary)
5-10% Bermuda grass 5
Reed canarygrass, tall fescue
Kentucky bluegrass 4
Grass-legume mix 3
>10% Bermuda grass 4
Reed kanarygrass, tall fescue, Kentucky bluegrass 3
(For highly erodible solids, decrease the above velocities by 25%)
(Source: Virginia Erosion and Sediment Control Handbook 1992.)

Pipe Slope Drain (Flexible)* Downdrain

(not to scale)

Discharge into a stabllized ~-~~~- .

watercourse, sediment trapping :.<":/1~1•"~,
device. or onto a stabilized area. -~~ · :::"-:::{ ~ ~ ~ ~

.. ,:-' .'

Section aa

_..... - ...
..•···'
- .·.,.-\ ~ .
Length as necessary - -- -- -- - - . - ·...-·
to go rhrough dike
Standard flared
22 112· pipe elbow

Watertignt - - --,
connecting band

@ less than 1% slope • Drainage area must nor exceed 5 acres

FIGURE 5. 7 H Slope drain.

 5.7 ■ EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL 603

are installed on the face of the slope and anchored securely. Many state and local regulatory agencies have established
At the entrance of the slope drain, a berm diverts the upslope their own design criteria for plunge pools as well.
runoff into the slope drain and keeps the flow from sheet- Outlet Protection Design Example. Given a pipe diam-
ing over the exposed face of the unstable slope. The force eter of 24 inches, full flow conditions with Q = 50 cfs and
of the water flowing through the slope drain, along with the TW < 0.5D 0 , Find length and width of outlet protection
vertical component of gravity acting on the drain itself, puts apron.
tension at the pipe's joints. Consequently, if the joints are not From Figure 5.71 for Q = 50 cfs and d = 24 read d50 =1 foot.
connected and anchored securely, they will separate result- On the upper pipe diameter scale read La= 28 feet for D 0 =24.
ing in costly repairs and extensive erosive damage. Then W = 2 + 28 = 30 feet.
Downdrains or flumes are less common in practice than Check Dams. Check dams are stone structures installed
slope drains. The flume may be any common channel shape across relatively steep conveyance channels at periodic inter-
(typically v-ditch or trapezoidal) and is stabilized with vals to temporarily detain the water (or "check'' the velocity)
either geotextile fabric, riprap, or gabions, or in the case of thereby reducing erosion while vegetation is germinating.
long-term installations, lengthy or excessively steep slopes, Check dams are not installed in live streams. Although some
concrete. Outlet protection is critical as excessive velocities sediment removal is expected through filtering, the use of
may be achieved; an energy dissipation device (or plunge check dams solely as filtering devices is not recommended.
pool, outlet protection) may even be warranted. This practice is to reduce flow velocities.
Outlet Protection. Outlet protection is used at the dis- Check dams can be constructed of stone aggregate ¾
charge end of a slope drain, flume, storm drain or culvert to 2 ½ inches in diameter for smaller drainage areas, up to
discharge, and open channels. It consists of a structurally 6- to 12-inch stone riprap or even gabions on the down-
lined apron or other type of device, which reduces the ero- stream side of the check dam for larger drainage areas. The
sion potential downstream by dissipating the flow energy material is placed across the channel from top of bank to
and allows flow to transition back to the natural channel. top of bank with the center of the dam 6 inches lower than
In addition, outlet protection prevents scouring at the the top of bank. The upstream and downstream faces of the
base of the slope and underneath the discharge end of the stone check dams have slope gradients of 2H:l V. Spacing
outlet pipe. of the check dams is such that the toe of the preceding
Depending on the flow energy, the apron may consist of upstream dam is at the same elevation as the top of the sub-
riprap, grouted riprap, gabion baskets, recycled concrete, or sequent downstream dam. Figure 5.7L shows typical layout
other type of structurally sound material adequate for the of check dams.
hydraulic conditions. Figure 5.71 shows two methods for During high flows, water can pond behind the check dam
pipe outlet protection depending on whether the structure and flow over the 6-inch deep weir in the center of the check
discharges into a well-defined channel or a flat, level area. dam. Erosion of the check dam and the banks at each end
Figures 5.7J and 5.7K provide the recommended apron of the check dam sometimes occurs after heavy rainstorms;
length and stone size for a given pipe diameter flowing full. the contractor must inspect the check dam and channel for
Figure 5.7J is used to size riprap outlet protection stone when any erosive damage after each storm event to confirm proper
the prevailing tailwater depth at the discharge end is less than operation and make any necessary repairs.
one-half the diameter of the pipe. Figure 5.7K is used when Level Spreader. The level spreader is a device that converts
the tailwater depth is greater than or equal to one-half the concentrated flow back into sheet flow. The level spreader is
pipe diameter. an excavated depression with a level grade across the face of a
The length of protection can be judged based on the stabilized slope. Concentrated flow enters the level spreader
magnitude of the exit velocity compared with the natural and fills the depression, when the capacity of the depression
channel velocity. The greater the difference, the longer the is exceeded, the flow uniformly spills over the lip and down
length of riprap outlet protection necessary. When outlet the stabilized slope as sheet flow (Figure 5.7M).
protection lengths are not feasible due to physical con- The effectiveness of the level spreader depends on strict
straints (the outfall is near an adjacent property or environ- adherence to construction specifications. The minimum
mentally sensitive area) other methods of dissipating the depth of the level spreader is 6 inches, and is uniform
energy should be considered. One method to consider is across its length. Limiting the maximum velocity of the
the use of plunge pools. water entering the level spreader to 3 fps prevents scouring
Plunge pools are riprap-lined pools that dissipate the within the spreader. The grade across the spreader is flat and
outfall velocity/energy over a very short length by using a should remain flat during its term of operation. The slope
pool of water in a rock-lined channel. The specific design of the ground below the level spreader should be lOH:l V
requirements are covered in The Hydraulic Design of Energy or flatter to keep the exiting sheet flow from becoming too
Dissipators for Culverts and Channels, Hydraulic Engineer- erosive. Steep slopes below the level spreader promote ero-
ing Circular No. 14 (HEC-14), published by the U.S. Depart- sion as the sheet flow accelerates downslope. The spreader
ment of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration. length is determined by estimating the flow expected from
&o4 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
A A

3d
------ Pipe Outlet To Flat
Area With No Defined
Channel

PLAN VIEW

_l
d

SECTION A-A Filter Cloth Key in 6"-9"; Recommended

For Entire Perimeter

A A

3d o
(Min) Pipe Outlet To Well
Defined Channel

PLAN VIEW

_l
d

SECTION A-A
7
Filter Cloth Key in 6"-9"; Recommended
For Entire Perimeter
Notes:
1. Apron Linning May Be Riprap, Grouted Riprap, Gabion Bosket, Or Concrete
2. La Is The Length Of The Riprap Apron As Calculated Using
Figures 17.6 and 17. 7
3. d = 1.5 Times The Maximum Stone Diameter But Not less Then 6 inches
FIG uRE 5. 71 Pipe outlet conditions.
 5.7 ■ EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL 605

100
Outlet Pipe
W=D 0 + La
I
'--~1
Diameter, D 0

1
90

~~~ ~7
80

L a - -1
70 ~ J/

I
...... "v Tailwater < 0.5 D 0
\,6'
,00'- ~~
~ ~ ~~(;j
Y---
»~ ~~I~vi.,,r
j 60
o'I'•

0'1'<$;~
o' ~tl50
"" ~~ I
~\;
~,~~,s
I§ ,,
~K" l'
40
j /
- 4

30 ....... ' ~'1,•-:,,,

o~....... v
/!~ ~ '/ I
,11; JI
20
~\'f,_.....
6"~ t;:;-..-V~V /
_-::;:;-;,,,
v"'
/" /

ll 1/1/V I;
6",z
..... ~~ % :::;::;::: ~ / /
V

,ll /1 vV,VV
I
JV
-- --
'-"'vv 1/ 1/ IA~ , IV I

-
i.,,,- J i
10 ..... ,_,

0
i.,,,- ---

-~ /,~ J /~~V; V! "

~✓
,
tf'JVJ V/ fl/ V,V, ,.tt.,,,,_/1/:/~
/ / ..'~¾
J:/ /v
1/"/ 1/"V / / ~~~ ~~;~/ ......
~ V ,.,,-:::, Vv_,~., /,.,,- ,, V
,,,.. /
Recommended 6",z
u:;...- v__..... ~---::::: ~ --::: / '-"'
/

-- --------- -
Min. d 50 = 6'
~
_......
f-
:.o
0
3 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000

Discharge, tt.3 /sec.

FIG uRE 5. 7 J Design of outlet protection for round pipe flowing full (T < 0.5d).

the design storm and selecting the appropriate length from distance of the shoreline. Control zones regulate a range of
Table 5.7E. Further, the design flow will determine whether activities, including construction or repair of shoreline sta-
a vegetated or rigid lip shall be employed, bilization structures, public access, and the use or alteration
Production of uniform sheet flow requires uniform dis- of a dune and other shore line habitat areas. Acquisition
charge over the lip. Any trash, debris, or sediment accumula- of privately owned lands by the government or nonprofit
tion within the level spreader will disturb the production of groups is another means by which to control development
uniform flow. Frequent inspection and clean out is necessary in erosion-prone areas. Acquisition can also be used to
for the level spreader to operate effectively. achieve important community goals like environmental
The use oflevel spreader only provides a temporary relief protection and public beach access. However, acquisition
of concentrated flow, as sheet flow will rapidly transition to has not been widely used due to the high costs of coastal
shallow concentrated flow and then concentrated flow (refer property.
to Chapter 5.5). In an attempt to protect property from erosion, a variety
Coastal Erosion Control Measures. Losses due to erosion of structural and nonstructural measures have been utilized.
are anticipated to grow over the next few decades as coastal Many of these measures provide only temporary protec-
areas continue to erode into areas of denser development. tion from erosion and coastal flooding and require ongoing
Site management, planning development to avoid sensitive maintenance or repair. Methods of protecting beaches and
coastal land, is the most effective coastal erosion control shorelines from erosion have depended upon efforts to over-
measure. Many states regulate land use along the coast come the natural forces at work near the shoreline. Struc-
through setbacks, control zones, or a combination of the tures such as seawalls, bulkheads, breakwaters, revetments,
two. Setback requirements limit building within a specified and groins have been created as barriers against the natural
606 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
3D0

1---~ T
Outlet Pipe
Diameter, D 0 - -...---- l o,,o.4l,
SMin.

i~ -- ----- la,------ ----1

~ sz: Tailwater ~ 0.5 D 0

----~b--:::::::::::::::::::..T,--
90

3 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000

Discharge, tt.3 /sec.

FIG uRE 5. 7 K Design of outlet protection for round pipe flowing full (T?. 0.5d).

effects of waves, tides, and currents. These structures inhibit • Revetments

the natural functioning beach/ dune system. In doing so, they
• Groins
interfere with the onshore-offshore movement of sand and
cause increased erosion on adjacent shores by modifying • "Soft'' structures such as sand bags and geotextiles
sediment supply or changing wave refraction patterns.
• Nonstructural measures
This section provides a general overview of coastal
erosion and structures. For more comprehensive descrip- Seawalls and Bulkheads. Seawalls and bulkheads have
tions and technical information on coastal processes and been traditionally used to protect development from storm
design guidance for shore protection structures, please refer surges and further recession of an eroding shoreline.
to the Coastal Engineering Manual (U.S. Army Corps of Seawalls are primarily used to resist wave action. Bulkheads
Engineers, 2002). act as retaining walls, keeping the earth behind them stable
Today, traditional structural measures are generally lim- (Figure 5.7N). While these can prevent the recession of a
ited to the protection of existing nonconforming structures shoreline, they cannot prevent the erosion of beach areas.
and include the following: Hardening of a shoreline can interfere with the necessary
profile adjustments of a beach. A dune can no longer share
• Seawalls and bulkheads
its sand with a beach. As a retreating beach encounters a sea-
• Breakwaters wall or bulkhead it can no longer draw upon the landward
 5.7 ■ EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL 607

2 ACRES OR LESS or DRAINAGE AREA a massive gravity construction resting on the shore bot-
tom supported by its own weight. Bulkheads and seawalls
must be of sufficient strength to withstand the forces of
waves and wave carried debris, both in front of the wall
FilTER CLOTH and behind it. Water flowing around the wall can cause
(OPTIONAL)
excessive erosion and scouring, so the flanks of the wall
need to be protected.
(DOWNSTREAM VIEW)
Breakwaters. Breakwaters reduce erosion by dissipating
wave energy offshore and thus reducing transport poten-
3/4" - 2 1/2"
STONE tial to areas behind the structures. While breakwaters can
F'LOW
reduce the erosive impact of waves, they can cause local-
ized accretion in the lee of the breakwater, these features are
referred to as salients. Breakwaters can be constructed from
many different materials, including stone, concrete, plastic,
salvage material such as railroad cars, etc. Many variations
exist in breakwater construction: structures can be built
2-10 ACRES or DRAINAGE AREA
submerged, subaerial, continuous or segmented, detached
or attached to shore (Figure 5.70). Proper placement and
design of these structures is achieved through numerical
FILTER CLOTH modeling of physical conditions at the site, as well as a com-
(OPTIONAL) prehensive understanding of long-term coastal processes.
Improper design can lead to nonfunctional or overfunc-
(DOWNSTREAM VIEW) tional structures. If too much wave energy is attenuated, the
salients can accrete out to the breakwaters, effectively form-
3/4" - 2 1/2" ing a groin field and imposing a severe sediment burden on
STONE

F'LOW
I
3'
beaches downdrift of the structures.
Revetments. Revetments are structures placed on the
banks or bluffs in such a way as to absorb the energy of
incoming waves. They are usually built to preserve the exist-
ing uses of the shoreline and to protect the slope. Where
available, rubble or quarry stone is the most reliable and eco-
nomical material choice for revetments. Other alternatives
SPACING BETWEEN CHECK DAMS include bags filled with a wet sand-cement mixture, concrete
blocks or slabs, and gabions. Most revetments do not signifi-
L = THE DISTANCE SUCH THAT POINTS cantly interfere with littoral drift; however, they limit sedi-
A AND B ARE or EQUAL ELEVATION ment supply to the system from the protected embankments.
These structures do not redirect wave energy to vulnerable
unprotected areas, although beaches in front of steep revet -
ments are prone to erosion. In some locales, bank sloping in
combination with soil bioengineering techniques is favored
over structural revetments.
Groins. Groins are used to manage longshore transport
FIG uRE 5. 7 L Construction details for check dams. of littoral drift to control erosion. Groins are structures that
extend perpendicularly from the coastline and are typically
constructed in groups called fields. They are most effective
where the longshore transport is predominantly in one direc-
sand supply, exacerbating erosion at the site. Furthermore, tion, or where their construction will not cause unacceptable
as the beach retreats and the seawall or bulkhead is exposed erosion of the downdrift shore. Contemporary construc-
to waves, the seabed in front of the structure will be subject tion methods usually require pre-filling of the groin com-
to scour. This results in additional erosion, undermining, partments with sand to minimize downdrift impacts. Groin
and eventual failure of the structure. Seawalls and bulkheads fields must be carefully designed with respect to height, spac-
also tend to reflect wave energy, which may induce problems ing, extension, and porosity. Groins must extend far enough
elsewhere. in the water to retain adequate amounts of sand, but not so
Seawalls and bulkheads can be built in three basic types: long that rip currents develop along them. Rip currents carry
as interlocking sheet piles driven into the ground; indi- sand offshore into deep water where waves cannot return it
vidual piles used to support an above ground structure; or to the beach.
&oa i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
LAST 20' OF DIVERSION DIKE DIVERSION DIKE
NOT TO EXCEED 17. GRADE

L STABILIZED ----.,
SLOPE /

LEVEL SPREADER

6"x6" SALT TREATED CHANNEL GRADE 07.

TIMBER

NOTE : ALL TEMPORARY BERMS, SWALES ANO LEVEL

SPREADER DITCH I.AUST RECEIVE TEMPORARY
SEEDING IMI.AEDIATELY AFTER INSTALLATION.

FI GU RE 5. 7 M Level spreader.

"Soft" Structures. Sand bags and geotextiles can provide

TAB LE 5 . 7 E Level Spreader Length for a "soft" structural erosion control solution. Sand bags are
Design Flows usually installed on a temporary basis in front of structures
DESIGN FLOW (CFS) MINIMUM LENGTH (FT) that have been exposed to wave impacts. The bags are left in
place until the beach recovers, the structure fails, or a more
0-10 10 permanent solution is determined. Geotextiles are often
used in the form of a sand-filled tube that is placed in the
10-20 20
center of engineered dunes in erosion-prone areas. The tube
provides a last line of defense from wave action for landward
properties in the event of dune failure. Clay cores are also
used in dunes when material is available.
Nonstructural Measures. Nonstructural measures to pro-
tect coastal property from erosion include vegetation and
replenishment. Natural salt-resistant vegetation provides
good protection for the dune system, inhibits both wind
and sand erosion, and allows the system to adjust to natu-
ral stresses (Figure 5.7R). Removal of existing salt-resistant
vegetation from dunes is typically discouraged or prohib-
ited. Sand fencing is another popular method of encouraging
dune growth.
Adding fill to beaches, either to replace the lost beach
materials or to increase the size of an existing beach
can be economical and effective means of storm protec-
tion and erosion mitigation. Beach replenishment (i.e.,
nourishment) material should resemble the original
beach material and be placed to match the natural slope
as closely as possible (Figure 5.7S). The design template
must account for postconstruction adjustment of the
material to the equilibrium profile, which is dependent on
the grain size of the fill material. This calculation is essen-
tial, as the postadjustment beach is narrower than the
constructed template. Material is typically dredged from
FIG uRE 5. 7 N Wooden bulkhead for bluff recession stabilization. offshore deposits, pumped onshore, then manipulated
 5.7 ■ EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL 609

FIG uRE 5. 7 0 Segmented detached breakwaters, Grand Isle, LA. (Aerial photograph courtesy of the Louisiana Oil
Spill Coordinators Office.)

"' ......

FIG uRE 5. 7 P Stone revetment for shoreline stabilization, FIG uRE 5.7 Q Rubble-mound groin (ground photo).
Montauk, NY.
&10 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
management ponds that are modified for use as a sediment
detention facility during construction and after permanent
stabilization is complete, converted to a stormwater man-
agement pond.
Sediment Filters. Filtering controls (sediment barriers)
intercept and filter both sheet flow runoff as well as small vol-
umes of concentrated flow. They can be used as stand-alone
controls or with sediment traps to enhance their effective-
ness. Synthetic filter fabric, stones, or straw bales are typical
filtering devices.
Silt Fence. Filter fabric fence, commonly referred to as silt
fence (Figure 5.7T), is placed along or parallel to a contour
(i.e., perpendicular to the sheet flow direction) to intercept
upstream sheet flow. The distance limitations for the use of
filter fabric fence are shown in Table 5.7F. Filter fabric fence
should not be used in situations where it will intercept con-
FIG uRE 5. 7 R Vegetative dune stabilization. centrated flows or act as a velocity check in ditches or swales.
Filter fabric cloth is made of synthetic fabric (polymer) that
has a specified flow rate and tensile strength. The filter fabric
cloth is attached to vertical posts and embedded in a trench at
the bottom to keep the runoff from undermining the fabric.
For added stability, the filter fence can be attached to wire
support fence allowing a reduction in the tensile strength of
the fabric. To maintain its effectiveness, silt fence should be
inspected regularly and after each rainfall event; any accu-
mulated sediment must be removed.
When the length of flow or steepness of the slope contrib-
uting to conventional filter fabric fence is too great, many
permitting agencies allow the use of filter fabric cloth sup-
ported by chainlink fence, or super silt fence (Figure 5.7U)
as an acceptable alternative. The distance limitation for using
super silt fence is reflected in Table 5.7G. The cost of super
silt fence is higher than silt fence, but the use of super silt
FIG uRE 5. 7 S Example of beach nourishment at Kure Beach, NC. fence in certain circumstances may actually be more cost
(Image courtesy of U.S. Army Corps of Engineers) effective-in areas where sediment traps would otherwise
be required or damage to environmentally sensitive land
may otherwise not be avoidable. Super silt fence is ideal
into the design template by bulldozer. When offshore sand for steep slopes where space is at a premium. As with silt
resources are limited or not cost-effective, material can be fence, to maintain its effectiveness, super silt fence should be
trucked in from upland sources. inspected regularly and after each rainfall event; any accu-
mulated sediment must be removed.
5.7.10. Sediment Control Best Management Practices Straw Bale Dikes. Staked, straw bale dikes have long been
Sediment laden runoff is controlled on construction sites used as a barrier to trap sediment. The bales are typically
by either (1) directing the flow through perimeter filtering placed in a 4-inch-deep trench on the contour and staked
devices or (2) retaining it on-site in impoundment devices to the ground with wooden stakes or reinforcing bars. The
that allow adequate residence time for particle settlement. ends are tightly butted against one another to prevent gaps
Sediment filters, such as silt fence and inlet protection, are where runoff can seep through. Typically, this filtering sys-
used to filter sediment from runoff. Impoundment devices tem is placed at the toe of relatively short slopes. The use
are typically sediment traps or basins; the distinction of straw bale dikes is not recommended as a primary sedi-
depends upon the acreage draining to the facility, the facil- ment control device. Straw bale dikes clog and deteriorate
ity design, and whether they are temporary or permanent. rapidly and require frequent maintenance. In addition, silt
For example, in Maryland, facilities with drainage areas less fence is more efficient in terms of filtering capabilities and
than 10 acres require sediment traps, while larger drainage has a significantly reduced flow through rate. The filtering
areas require the use of sediment basins. In Virginia, the efficiency of straw is approximately 67%, while filter fab-
limit is 3 acres for a sediment trap, while California has a ric has an efficiency of nearly 97%. The flow rate for straw
limit of 5 acres. Sediment basins are frequently stormwater is 5.6 gal/ff/min compared to filter fabric which is about
 5. 7 ■ EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL 611

1. SET THE STAKES . 2. EXCAVATE A 4" x 4" TRENCH 3. STAPLE FILTER MATERIAL TO
11.P.S.LOP.E- ALONG. _TH.£ _~[NE OF STAKES AND EXTEND IT INTO
STAKES. THE TRENCH.

4 . BACKFILL AND COMPACT THE

EXCAVATED SOIL. SHEET FLOW INSTALLATION
(PERSPECTIVE VIEW)
FLOW

POINTS A SHOULD BE HIGHER THAN POINT B

DRAINAGEWAY INSTALLATION
(FRONT ELEVATION)

1. SET POSTS AND EXCAVATE A 2. STAPLE WIRE FENCING TO THE 3. ATTACH THE FILTER FABRIC TO
4" x 4" TRENCH UPSLOPE POSTS. THE WIRE FENCE AND EXTEND
ALONG THE LINE Of' POSTS. IT INTO THE TRENCH.

4. BACKFILL AND COMPACT THE

EXCAVATED SOIL. EXTENS ION or FABRIC AND WIRE INTO THE TRENCH

FIG uRE 5. 7 T Construction details for filter fabric fence.

&12 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
placed embankment that takes advantage of the natural ter-
TA BLE 5 . 7 F Silt-Fence Design Constraints
rain to create an impounding area. Basins may be excavated
MAXIMUM MAXIMUM but they cannot be located in fill. The basin contains an out-
SLOPE SILT FENCE let structure that releases the treated runoff at a slow rate
SLOPE STEEPNESS LENGTH (FT) LENGTH (FT)
(to allow for settlement of suspended solids). The design of
sediment basins is similar to the design of stormwater man-
50:1-10:1 (2-10%) 125 1000 agement ponds. A riser (or control) structure is designed
to retain certain volumes and convey larger storms usually
10:1-5:1 (10-20%) 100 750 10 years and above. In some cases, the sediment basin con-
5:1-3:1 (20-33%) 60 500 tains an emergency spillway to allow the larger storms to pass
through the facility unimpeded. Depending on the jurisdic-
3:1-2:1 (33-50%) 40 250 tion and the size of the watershed to the basin, either rational
method or NRCS hydrology may be used to determine con-
>2:1 (>50%) 20 125 tributing design flows.
Typically, the outlet structure is composed of a vertical
pipe with several small-diameter holes near the bottom.
one-tenth of that value. These efficiency ratings are based on This pipe is open at the top to allow for excess overflow of
properly installed and maintained systems. intermediate storms. The size and elevation of the holes
Inlet Protection. This filtering method can be used both control the release rate of the impounded water. Outlet
at curb and grate inlet openings. Inlet protection devices structures other than the perforated vertical pipes are used
typically use stone and filter fabric around drainage inlets for sediment basins intended to be converted to permanent
to filter the sediments draining to the structures. This facilities. Such facilities tend to have an outlet structure
method of storm inlet protection is used only for small more elaborate and aesthetically pleasing, such as a multi-
drainage areas-usually an acre or less. Care should be stage weir.
taken when protecting curb inlets that have been installed The size of a sediment basin is measured by its storage
on a grade. To ensure that the flow does not bypass the volume. The required storage volume is a function of the
inlet protection device, an asphalt berm or some other amount of disturbed area draining to the facility. Sizing
flow diversion device may be required in order to direct a sediment basin depends on local municipalities' design
flow to the inlet. Other types of inlet protection include a standards, which are developed according to the regional
yard inlet protection device. Figure 5.7V shows variations conditions. In some cases, determining the volume of
of inlet protection. To maintain its effectiveness, inlet pro- the basin may be as uncomplicated as applying a single
tection devices must be inspected after each rainfall event. constant to the drainage area (e.g., Maryland prescribes a
If water ponds on the inlet protection device longer than storage requirement of 134 cubic yards per acre of drain-
48 hours, accumulated sediment must be removed and the age). This design parameter approximates an upper limit
filter fabric replaced as the device is most likely clogged for the amount of sediment expected to be delivered to the
and not effective. facility for the design storm. The assumption here is that
Inlet protection proposed along new road sections the design storm erodes a constant amount of sediment.
should include notes regarding temporary paving and This blanket value does not consider the soils or topo-
drainage conditions. In many cases, the road section is built graphical features that vary from site to site nor the daily
up over the course of construction and the top layer is not variations of the site conditions. In other cases, sizing the
installed until later phases of design. If a curb and gutter basin requires a detailed analysis of the on-site soils and
is installed prior to the final layer of asphalt, there may be their particle size distribution. This information is used
excessive ponding around the inlet and inlet protection. with the USLE or discrete particle settling theory to set
Temporarily omitting the gutter section near and inlet can the basin size.
promote drainage. Discrete Particle Settling Theory. A discrete particle is one
Sediment Storage Measures. For larger drainage areas that does not change in size, shape, or weight as it settles.
(more than acre) a storage measure is required to adequately The discrete particle settling theory describes the settling
control the runoff. These systems operate with similar mech- behavior of particles in an ideal basin in quiescent water.
anisms as permanent stormwater management systems and Particle settling, in such ideal conditions, depends on the
BMPs (as described in Chapters 3.5 and 5.5). properties of the fluid and the particle characteristics.
Sediment Basins. Sediment basins are typically designed Any interaction between the particles within the fluid is
to impound sediment laden runoff by reducing the veloci- assumed negligible.
ties and turbulence of the runoff to levels where the majority A particle settling in a quiescent fluid accelerates
of the suspended particles are given an opportunity to settle under the influence of gravity until the driving force of
out by gravity. A sediment basin consists of a strategically gravity is balanced by the resisting drag force. At this
 5.7 ■ EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL 613

DETAIL 33 - SUPER SILT FENCE

~ ; FEN CE POS T SPAC-

ING SHALL NOT EXCEEv - l i 6 " MINIMU M
10 ' CENT ER TO CENTER

~ I33 " MINIMUM

GROUND
SURFACE

2 1,z" iJ I AME TE~

/
II11
I!
~ HA IN LI NK FENC
FLOW
136" MINIMUM

GA LVAN I ZD WITH 1 LAYER OF

OR ALUM INUM F [LTER CLOTH OVER 8 " MIN IMUM
POS TS
2 1, { D[AME TER GALVANIZED OR
ALUM INUM POSTS
CHAIN LINK FENC ING
33" MINIMUM-POST ANO 2ND
FLOW LAYER FILTER CLOTH
_ _ _ _ _ 16" MIN. 1S T LAYER OF
: :-:-::-~==~~k:::;;;;;;;;:::::::::h:--~F''.__!~L~T}ER CLOTH
EMBED ;: IL TER CL QTH 8 "__ ,..---------
M ! NI MUM INTO GROUND .i__ STANDARD SYMBOL

~SSF~

ConsTruction Spec ifications

Fencing shol I be 42 i nches in height and constructed in accordance

with the latest Maryland State Hi ghway Detai Is for Chain Link
Fencing. The specification fOI"" o 6 foot fence shol I be used,
substitu-ting 42 inch fabric and 6 foot length posts.

1. The poles do not need to set in concrete.

2. Chain I ink fence shal I be fastened securely to the fence

posts with wire ties or staples.

3. Filter cloth snol I be fastened securely to the chain I ink

fence with ties spaced every 24u at the top and mid section.

4. Filter cloth sho l I be etTOedded a minim.Jm of 0 • into the

ground.

s. When -two sections of filter cloth adjoin each other, they

sno l I be overlappeo by 6 " and folded.

6. Maintenance sno 11 ~e performed os needed ond si It buildups

rerroved when "bulges" deve lop in the si It fence.

U.S. DEPAR'l'KENT OP AGBICUL'l'tJBE PAGE M&K!LAND DEPAlrl'KENT OP ENVIBONMENT

SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE H -18 -3 WATD MANAGEM!NT ADJIINlSTBATION

FIG uRE 5 .7U Construction details for super silt fence.

&14 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
the settling zone, and Wis the width of the basin. Under such
TAB LE 5 . 7 G Super-Silt-Fence Design Criteria idealized conditions the incoming flow Q; is steady and con-
MAXIMUM MAXIMUM stant for the width of the basin. Particles within the incoming
SLOPE FENCE flow move horizontally through the basin with a horizontal
SLOPE STEEPNESS LENGTH (FT) LENGTH (FT)
velocity vh = QJ(WH). The vertical velocity component is the
settling velocity v,.
10:1-5:1 (10-20%) 200 1500 The design of an effective settling basin relies on the fact
that an incoming particle travels the vertical height H and
5:1-3:1 (20-33%) 100 1000 settles out before it travels the horizontal length L and is dis-
3:1-2:1 (33-50%) 100 500 charged. At or below the height H the particle is in the set-
tling zone and is considered removed from suspension. The
>2:1 (>50%) 50 250 time T1 for the particle to travel the horizontal length L of the
basin is given as

point, the particle has achieved a terminal velocity and as T. - L (5.7G)

such remains constant during the remainder of the falling L - O;(WxH)
distance. The terminal settling velocity v, for a spherical
The time to travel the height His given as
particle is
H
TH=- (5.7H)
Vs = 4g(pp - Pw )dp (5.7B) Vs
3CoPw
Therefore, the minimum time needed for the particle to
where PP is the density of the spherical particle, Pw is the settle out of suspension occurs when the vertical time is
density of water, g is the acceleration due to gravity, A is the equal to the horizontal time for the given particle. Equating
projected area of the particle in the direction of motion, and Equations (5.7G) and (5.7H) shows that v, is
Cv is the coefficient of drag for the particle.
L H
The drag coefficient Cv is approximated by --=-
O;(WH) Vs
(5.71)
Q Q
V - - ' -_!_
s - LW - As
(5.7C)
Alternatively, the optimal surface area of the tank needed
to capture particles with a settling velocity of v, and
greater occurs when A, ~ QJv,, where A, is the surface
where NR the dimensionless Reynolds number is area of the settling zone. Hence, for ideal conditions, the
design parameters of an effective settling basin do not
- VsdPPw
NR- (5.70) include depth and volume. For all particles (with set-
µ tling velocities of v, and greater) entering the tank with
with µ is the absolute viscosity of water. Note that when NR the given discharge Q;, the basin efficiency is determined
is less than one the settling velocity for a sphere reduces to by the surface area A, relative to the discharge for steady-
Equation (5.7E). state conditions.
To summarize, the basic assumptions for discrete particle
v _ g(pp - Pw)dt settling theory are
(5.7E)
s- 18µ
1. Rectangular basin configuration.
which is Stoke's law for the settling velocity of a sphere in
2. Constant inflow at one end.
laminar flow. This can be reduced to
3. The horizontal and vertical velocities of particles are
Vs= 2.8dffi (5.7F) constant.
where v, is in feet per second and dp is in mm, assuming the 4. The concentration of suspended particles, of each
specific gravity of the particle = 2. 75 and a water temperature size, is the same at all points in the vertical cross sec-
of70°F. tion at the inlet.
An idealized rectangular settling basin (Figure 5.7W)
5. Particle settlement is unhindered by other particles.
consists of four zones; the inlet zone, the removal zone, the
outlet zone and the settling zone. The length L is the dis- 6. A particle is permanently removed from suspension
tance between the inlet and outlet zones, H is the depth of when it reaches the bottom of the settling zone.
 5.7 ■ EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL 615

Storm Drain Inlet Protection Storm Drain Inlet Protection

MDE Detail E-16-5 MDE Detail E-16-6
'0-, SIP '□-, AGIP
L ~
L ~

Example of Standard Inlet Protection

WRAP INLET
GRATE WITH
GEOTEXTI LE
CLASS E

Pl AN/CIII AWAY

6"

CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICAJIONS
1. IF THE INLET IS NOT IN A SUMP, CONSTRUCT A COMPACTED
f~~T~o~ I~~
~~~ 0 ~iRrnEo~JJCM,l~5 ~iR~~T[~A~~L~W n· MAX, ORA I NAGE
HIGHER THAN THE TOP OF FRAME. AREA - 1 ACRE
2. REPLACE THE GEOTEXTILE WHEN IT BECOMES CLOGGED.

Storm Drain Inlet Protection Storm Drain Inlet Protection

MDE Detail E-16-8
r□--i-;;;•
L '--'-._

Example of Median Inlet Protection

GEOTEXTILE CLASS F (SEE SILT
FENCE DETAIL FOR INSTALLATION)

7
"WING"

BOTTOM OF "WING"
MUST BE 6" HIGHER
IN ELEV. THAN WEIR
TO FORCE HIGH FLOWS
ACROSS WEIR

MAXIMUM DRAINAGE
AREA - 1 AC.

FIGURE 5. 7V Inlet protection.

616 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
characteristics, in a given region, coupled with the mixing of

Settllng Zone
Outflow
---- soil layers during land disturbing activities produce a var-
ied distribution of particle sizes entering a trapping facil-
ity. Additionally, rainfall intensity and antecedent moisture
..........._ V5>VA conditions affect the type and amount of sediment eroded.

:z: 0
N
•
C

:i
.!:
OA
I . . . . . ._
VA J •
C
0
N
'ii
's
Hence, trap efficiency can fluctuate due to the variation of
particle size, shape, and density distribution.
Trap efficiency, as determined through discrete particle
0 settling theory, is based on the particle size distribution of
I the sediment entering the facility. In theory, the basin is sized
to remove all particles with settling velocities equal to or
greater than the design particle size. A particle size distribu-
tion curve of the incoming sediment provides an estimate of
the trap efficiency. For example, if the design particle size is
FIG uRE 5. 7 W Idealized rectangular settling basin. 200 micrometers and the particle size distribution curve indi-
cates that 60% of the sediment entering the facility is equal to
or larger than 200 micrometers, the trap efficiency is approxi-
Trap Efficiency. Trap efficiency is the ratio of the amount mately 60%. Note that this method of determining trap effi-
(by weight) of sediment retained in a trapping facility to the ciency assumes that all particles entering the facility have the
total amount of sediment entering the facility. This efficiency same density and behave as spherical particles during settling.
is a function of the incoming sediment characteristics and Because of this assumption, this concept slightly underesti-
the rate of flow through the facility. The rate of flow through mates the trap efficiency since some particles with a settling
the facility depends on the amount of inflow, available stor- velocity greater than the design particle size will be retained.
age, and outflow rate. In turn, outflow rate depends on the An empirical curve for trap efficiency, proposed by
configuration and the location of the outlet. Brune, is based on a study of 44 reservoirs throughout the
Settling behavior of particles depends on the size, shape, United States. The curve (Figure 5.7X) relates trap efficiency
and density of the particle. The wide spatial variation of soil as the ratio of reservoir capacity to annual inflow. Because

------
100
- ~
90 ,,,,, / ~

"E
u
Q)
-
/ ~
/ v//'
80
Gi I"
C. - /.- // ' / Primarily highly flocc ulated and
·= 70 ,/
/
/
coarse-grained sediments
'c
Q)
C.
C.
jg
60
-
/~ / /_ /
/ I I
"EQ) 50
-
/ /- / Median Curve

E
'5
Q)
.!!?. 40
-
I
/
J //
/ /
>,
u
C:
Q) 30
- / J /- Primarily colloids and dispersed
fine-grained sediments
·c3
:E
w
20
- V I I
-I J I I
C.
...
(,:J

I-
10

0
V IV
N (')
I lD t-- ~ N (') N lD t-- N lD t-- 0
0
0
0 0
0
0 0 0 c:, 0 ci 0 0
~ ~
0 0 0
ci 0 ci ci

Ratio of Capacity to Annual Inflow (C/1)

ac-ft/ac-ft

FIG uRE 5. 7 X Trap efficiency of reservoirs.

 5.7 ■ EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL 617

of the easily obtainable parameters of reservoir capacity and of capacity per 1 inch of runoff. Brune's curves are redrawn
annual inflow, it is perhaps the model most widely used in to correspond to the units of the graph of Figure 5.7Y.
practical design. As indicated, either the discrete particle settling theory
Boysen's Method. Sizing a trapping facility for a predeter- or Boysen's method is an acceptable methodology to deter-
mined efficiency depends on the design philosophy that one mine the size and storage volume for a sediment pond. Note,
is willing to accept. An alternative to using discrete particle the design is incomplete in that hydrologic routings should
settling concepts to size a settling basin is a method proposed be done to determine the size for the runoff volume. This
by S.M. Boysen (1974). Boysen's method uses Brune's curve entails the design of outlet structures, emergency spillways,
and the USLE for development of the "urban sediment yield and determining the overall depth based on the design
equation:' storms selected for the hydrologic analysis.
Boysen's urban sediment yield equation expresses off-site Drawdown Time.
sediment yield caused by urban construction as One assumption of the discrete particle settling theory is that
the settling basin remains relatively full. Since some sedi-
Sheet and rill erosion+ gully erosion - ment traps are completely dewatered between storms, the
sediment deposition - sediment trapped settling behavior of the particles will not be as prescribed by
(5.7J)
= off-site sediment yield (in tons) the discrete particle settling theory. This will negatively affect
the efficiency of the trapping facility.
The basic assumptions for the development of this The effectiveness of a sediment basin is enhanced if
method are it remains relatively full over a period of time to establish
1. The USLE is applicable to predict sheet and rill quiescent conditions, which allow the sediment particles
erosion. to settle out. The recommended time it takes for a basin to
dewater is on the order of 6 to 24 hours. As a result, the vol-
2. Gully erosion is prevented by on-site control mea- ume of the sediment basin must be sized to adequately store
sures and therefore is assumed to be zero. a portion of the design storm for an extended period of time,
3. Sediment deposition before reaching the trapping as well as being sized to safely pass storms of higher design
facility is assumed to be zero. frequencies.
Drawdown time for a basin is found by using the orifice
4. Brune's curve for trap efficiency is applicable. equation to determine the outflow discharge. The orifice
equation is used to calculate the flow through a small open-
If the USLE [Equation (5.7A)] predicts the on-site eroded
ing (orifice) for a given headwater. The orifice equation is
sediment yield and (TE) is trap efficiency, then
(5.7N)
Sediment trapped= (Rx K x (LS) x C x P)(TE) (5.7K)
where Ca is the coefficient of discharge (» 0.60 to 0.70), A 0
and the off-site (i.e., beyond the sediment basin) sediment
is the area of the orifice, g is the acceleration due to gravity,
yield can be written as
he = distance from the centerline of the orifice to the water
(R x K x (LS) x C x P)(1- TE) surface, and Q is the discharge through the orifice.
(5.7L)
In sedimentation theory, the mean hydraulic detention
= off-site sediment yield
time is defined as the discharge divided by the volume,
Assume that a prescribed maximum value limits the sedi- T = Q!V. Using the orifice equation and the definition of the
ment yield allowed at a site. If the site erosion is below this mean hydraulic detention time, the time Tto dewater a sedi-
value, no erosion controls will be necessary. If the site erosion, ment basin is
as determined by the USLE, exceeds this prescribed upper
limit then on-site erosion control measures are necessary. (5.70)
The objective in the design of the on-site control measures is
to set the trap efficiency at the difference between the actual
Perforated pipe outlet structures have several different
eroded sediment and the allowable sediment yield limit.
configurations of holes as shown in Figure 5.72. Various
Limiting off-site sediment yield to some maximum allow-
configurations range from a single hole to several holes at
able value is expressed by rewriting Equation (5.7K) as
different elevations. Usually the holes are covered with wire
(R xK x (LS) x C x P) mesh screen with gravel piled against the screen to prevent
(5.7M)
Allowable sediment yield (1-Tf) clogging by debris. The gravel, which also acts as a filter, can
affect the flow through the orifice(s)-the preceding equa-
where the left side of the equation is shown as the ordinate on tions assume that this is negligible. If a cluster of holes is used
Figure 5.7Y. The abscissa of the graph is the values of capac- instead of a single orifice, he is the depth to the centroid of
ity-inflow ratio from Brune's curve converted to cubic yards the holes and A 0 is the total area of the holes.
&1a i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
10
9
8
7
6

- 95
UNIT SOIL LOSS - BASIN VOLUME CURVE
/ V
/
.,,,.,.. ....
w
-'
~
10 V
~v /
/
V

V
,..v / 90 ~

- ~
9
e: 8
7
PRIMARILY HIGHLY FLOCCULATED
AND COARSE-GRAINED SEDIMENTS V
V
/
/
/
/
C
(I)
·o
"'ig 6
I / / / ii=
w
-'
'5 5 I
/
V
1..) ..... / 80 ~
a.

Cf)

~ 4
MEDIAN CURVE - J
r
V /
v v"
iii
"S
-M 3 PRIMARILY COLLOIDAL AND
/ ....
,../ V
- 70

DISPERSED FINE-G RAINED SE D I M ~ /

~>
(.)

~v
0
0
/ - 60

~ 2 50
............
a:
........ v
V" - 40
............ ,....v - 30
l---- _..... ........ v ............ .....

-
- 20
L.--- ~ v - 10
1
1 ---- 3 4 5 6789 1 2 3 4 567891

Required sediment basin volume, cubic yards/acre of drainage

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 00
0

area/inch of average annual runoff.

FIG uRE 5. 7 Y Sediment basin volume versus ratio of calculated soil loss to allowable soil loss. (From Boysen SM: Predicting Sediment Yield in
Urban Areas, Proceedings National Symposium on Urban Rainfall and Runoff and Sediment Control, July 29-31, 1974, Lexington, KY Reprinted with
permission from ASAE.)

Increasing Detention Time with Baffles. Detention time path between the inflow and outflow point. The net
can be increased by increasing the flow path through the result is an increase in detention time.
basin. This can be done by configuring the basin such
2. Baffles help to prevent short-circuiting, which is
that the length to width ratio is maximized. The value
the movement of flow through the basin in such a
usually recommended as the lower limit for design pur-
manner that storage areas are bypassed, resulting
poses is 2(L):l(W). However, this should not be taken to
in nonuniform distribution of sediment over the
the extreme. A small length to width ratio can cause flow-
bottom area. Dead storage areas, those areas where
through velocities (the basin functions as a channel) where
little or no sediment accumulates, results in reduced
the particles have no chance of settling out and the basin
trapping efficiency. Baffles minimize dead storage
loses its effectiveness.
areas by distributing the sediment deposits over a
The two main design parameters of a sediment basin
wider area in the basin and increase the efficiency
are storage volume and detention time. Normally, obtain-
(Figure 5.7AA).
ing the required storage volume is not the problem, even
in constricted work areas, since you normally can excavate
deeper. If the minimum length to width ratio (a controlling Baffles are placed at the mid-point between the primary
parameter for detention time) cannot be met because of site inflow point and outflow point. The shortest distance from
constraints, a solution to the problem of detention time is to the inflow point around the baffle to the outflow point is
install baffles in the sediment basin. the effective length Le. The effective width is defined as
Baffles are devices that actually serve two primary W, = Al L,, where A is the surface area of the sediment basin
purposes: at the normal pool level. The length and orientation of the
baffle is modified so that the ratio LelW. is at least 2.0. This
1. Baffles enhance the basin shape to increase the minimum ratio applies to all flow paths from inflow points
length to width ratio, thereby increasing the flow that convey 30% or more of the peak runoff into the basin.
 5.7 ■ EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL 619

Sediment Cleanout level Dewatering

Hole

- Dewotering Hole
With Yz In . ( 1 .3cm) Dewolering Hole
Mesh Scr-een With Yz In . ( 1.3cm)
Tock - Welded Mesh Screen
Over Hole Tock -Welded
Over Hole

a) b)

Dewotering
Hole

Grovel

- Perforated Pipe In Trench - Mesh Screen Tock -

In Bottom Of Basin For We lded Over Series
Dewatering Sediment Of Dewotering Holes
c) d)
FIG uRE 5. 7 Z Selected riser configurations to dewater a sediment basin. (From Goldman, S., et al: Erosion and Sediment
Control Handbook, 1986. Reproduced with permission of McGraw-Hill.)

D
Flow Poth
Riser {Outlet)
Inf low - Figure 5.7BB shows the recommended location and ori-
entation of baffles for various configurations of sediment
Dead Storage
basins.
Normal
Design Procedure for Sediment Basins. Figures 5.7CC and
5.7DD schematically show a typical temporary sediment
basin layout and its components. The previous discussion
focused only on sizing the sediment basin. The complete
Dead Storage
Riser design involves detailed hydraulic and hydrologic analysis
as well as structural considerations. An outline summary of
designing a sediment basin follows:

1. Determine the basin sediment volume based on

local criteria or an involved analysis of the design
Flow Path
Inflow particle size and settling criteria.
2. Determine basin location and basin shape based on
site conditions. If the length to width ratio is less
than 2:1, consider baffles to establish an adequate
length to width ratio.
3. Determine the volume of inflow for the design
storm (usually 10 years) through hydrologic analysis
(NRCS or other acceptable methods) and then estab-
FIG uRE 5. 7 AA Dead storage areas for selected basin shapes. lish the required height of the embankment.
&20 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
Crest of Emergency
Spillway

o)

Normal Pool

Riser

Inflow

b)

• Olmensions ..,or; 0ccordln9 lo local design crit•ria

FIG uRE 5. 7 DD Schematic elevation view of (a) sediment basin

with emergency spillway and (b) without emergency spillway.

4. Design the principal spillway, taking into consider-

Sheets Of 4' x 8' x ~" Exterior ation the allowable release rate to ensure sufficient
Plywood Or Equivalent detention time for particle settling.
5"
J1 Riser Crest
Elevation
5. Design the emergency spillway (when required)
4' for larger storm events. The design should consider
the hydraulic capacity of the spillway and ensure
8'
nonerosive velocities. Many jurisdictions require the
Posts Min. Size 4" Sq. emergency spillway to be stabilized with rock outlet
Or 5" Round, Set At Least protection (riprap) or to be constructed completely
3' Into The Ground in cut.
FIG uRE 5 . 7 BB Recommended placement of baffles. 6. Determine whether additional devices are required,
such as antiseep collars, antivortex device, trash
rack, dewatering capabilities, and outlet protection.
7. Consider the safety aspect of the facility as with any
Control permanent or temporary impoundment of water.

- Fence the facility to discourage access.

Em•rv•nc:r Splllwar

Sediment Traps. As with sediment basins, sediment traps

operate through the combined effects of settling and filter-
ing. Here, the configuration and type of outlet affects the
settling and filtering process. Sediment traps are similar
to sediment basins in that they are an excavated hole or
impoundment created by an earth embankment. However,
drainage areas to sediment traps are typically limited to
10 acres or less.
Sediment traps use a variety of material and configurations
II for their outlet structure. The selection of which depends on
Embankment 1I I I local standards. Some localities do not accept certain types of
outlet structures, either due to local conditions or the biases
FIGURE 5. 7CC Schematic plan view of sediment basin. of the local reviewing agency. Outlet structures can be grass
 5.7 ■ EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL 621

aprons, stone or riprap weirs, or even perforated riser pipes. area of the sediment trap per drainage area whereas the lat-
Figure 5.7EE shows several of these standards. ter dictates the volume to drainage area ratio as the design
Once again, the method of sizing sediment traps depends parameter. As with the basin, the surface area is sized to
on local design criteria and is typically chosen to maximize maximize the length to width ratio. Again, the value is rec-
settlement of suspended solids. Two primary values are ommended as 2: 1. Correspondingly, the volume of traps is
used in sizing sediment traps. The first defines the surface designed to maximize settlement of suspended solids. In many

PIPE OUTLET SEDIMENT TRAP - ST I STONE OUTLET SEDIMENT TRAP - ST Il

l=LOW
1,1" HARDWARE CLOTH CWIR,E) •rTii
F"JL TE'ff CL Ont :s.E'CU!i:ELY FASTENfD TO
PERFCRA. TE'O Rt S£:R

1 • MIN
DCAVATE AS TOP OF Dl3.AHKIENT
Cr.MF"A.CT'ED fi:AR'TM
NECESSARY
FCM STM.AGE 1' WIN
t-Li We.IA: L.IENGiH
El.6ANt;M£NT

SECTION 8-B
... ... ...
......... ~~~~~
.
't A.f'RON

STA81Lll£0
AREA
PERSPECTIVE VIEW
CR£ST
STORAGE ◄ ' MAXIIIJM
HEIGHT tF ILL l
1" STORAGE

19-• MINUU4 - - BOTTON

THICtcr«:SS NOTE: !i' MINIICJN LO.GTH UP TO 5
0F 4•-12:· SECTION A-A ACREs; O\'ER 5 ACRES USE
STONE S-TON£,/St I PR.AP S.EO I !ENT
lllAP sr-1v.
NOTE: RISEA EMBEDDED 9" INTO
CC9'CRETE Cit I;/ STEEL
EMBANKMENT SECTION PL.ATE ATTACHED TO RISER
THROUGH R I SER WITH A CONTINUCll.JS WELD
Q'l1 BOTTOM ....., 2' OF STONE
PLAC£0 OOI STE'El PLATE
TWICE THE RISE.A Dt.u.€TER
(NIN4 J

STONE / RIP-RAP OUTLET SEDIMENT TRAP - BT IV SedlmtM TtJP Pr;sip Criltrte

STI ST!I S'TIV

"""""'"'
""""
CACJ
nw
m,;•
TOTAi.
VOi.i/Mi
CCF)
WET
VOLUME
''!"
DRY
VOLUME
(<I')
MINIMUM
DU™
(Fl')
MJNIM\JM

"'"""'
(FT)
...,,,.
""""""'
(Fl')

l 1/D l600 l&(I() ll!OO 2..5 46 23

SECTION 8-B 2 1/D 7200 S600 3600 2..5 61 ,..

s vu 10800 5400 5400 ,.s 86 41

• vu 14000 7200 7200 3.0 SIC 4S

s 1/11 18000 IOOQ 5'000 3.0 101 50
6 IV 21600 IOIOO !OIOO ,.o SIC 46
7

•
JV
JV
= 12600 12600
14000
,.o
,.o
,oo
JO,
so

"""" '""° ,.o 110

"
9 JV 32400 16200 16200
"'
10 JV 36000
'"""' 18000 4.0 123
"'
•1 - PIPE OTJT1..EJ' (POS1), ll - STONE OUTI...ET (SOS"Tl, JV - ST01'"EJRIPRAP OUTU.T {SROS'J')

J, "Jbc lcaJ'h '°""'id:til mi,c..-0Wdbe2:J ,

:2. Wi.mll)Vi;o 1ec,m ud wi:tbd~applycc, lb&boaom oftbettap1.

4, lfUlc. Jtone <Kltid is \L5C!d UII 01JoajLlat!d011 widi rip-r-, C!llaonel ~ lhl!ll. tbl!I AMl.p reqi.tltmlmt wl be 3600
PERSPECTIVE VIEW cub.le f-Mi pnr acre. It tl:io rtoM o\lda ucl rip-rap apron as Ulllld, die 1-,th of die IP'('OCI willbe 1- mlaim'lltl:I of 10·.

4' MIN- WlDTH

2 CIIEST
,tlV"--,-.....,.-,,_..~~1,!I_C~S1
""
61 EllVATICN
I a• MINIMJM
(lJTl.ET ELEVATION
J.PR!lN ISE£ NOTEI

SECTION A-A

NOTE; 5' MIN LENGTH UP TD 5

ACRES, OVER 5 ACRES USE
10' MIN

FIGURE 5. 7EE Sediment traps.

&22 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
cases, the design standard for the volume of sediment trap is Sediment on Pavements. It is imperative to keep silt and
a single ratio applicable to all sites in a geographic location. sediment off of existing pavement. Even though the accumu-
Sufficient storage should be provided to allow for adequate lated sediment dissipates after several rain storms-the dissi-
settlement and overflow design for larger storm events. pation indicates that the sediment-laden runoff has polluted
Typically this is done by providing half the volume for "wet offsite systems. Wet soil is slippery and poses safety problems
storage" -sediment-laden runoff that pools within the bot- for moving vehicles. Rather than take the risk of personal
tom of the trap, while the remaining 50% of the trap volume injury to vehicle occupants or a major cleanup because of the
is reserved for overflow runoff and is only temporarily stored washed-out facility, the engineer should locate the trapping
for as long as it takes to discharge through the outlet device. facilities away from pavement and traffic areas.
This overflow volume is typically referred to as "dry storage:' Construction traffic exiting and entering the site is
For the sediment traps that use weir type outlets, the rec- another source of roadway sediment and frequent public
ommended crest length, in feet, is 4 times the drainage area, complaints that can result in a visit from the local inspector.
in acres, draining to the facility. If properly designed, the The contractor should exercise proper housekeeping prac-
sediment trap can provide adequate protection against down- tices by sweeping up any debris tracked onto the roadway
stream erosion problems. Failure of a trap can, in many cases, and using a stabilized construction entrance (Figure 5.7FF).
be attributed to improper installation and maintenance. In A stabilized construction entrance consists of a bed of 2- to
many of the traps, the pool is permanent and the outfall is only 3-inch-diameter stone covering an area approximately 50 to
for overflow of larger storm events. Hence it is important that 100 feet long and 10 to 30 feet wide. The actual size depends
the trap be cleaned out after the sediment has accumulated on the type of vehicles using it. This area is designed to collect
to 50% of the wet storage design capacity. If not maintained the mud and sediment clumps accumulating on the wheels
properly, sediment will eventually accumulate and significantly of the construction vehicles. If the site is excessively muddy,
reduce the efficiency of the sediment trap. Also, the trap should a wash rack is incorporated into the construction entrance.
be inspected for damage, especially after large storm events. The wash rack is a raised section of timbers or concrete, par-
tially buried into the stone. The wash rack, which raises the
5.7.11. Aesthetics and Safety of Discharge Areas wheels of the vehicle above the stone, allows the wheels to
Sediment should never be discharged beyond the work area. be thoroughly rinsed before exiting the site. A small sedi-
An appropriate control system should intercept all run- ment trap, located on the low side of the wash rack, collects
off prior to being discharged from the site. In some cases, the washed mud. When the stone bed accumulates excessive
sediment can be captured in trapping or filtering devices or mud, the stone is replaced.
even portable sediment tanks or "silt bags" (inlet inserts) for Dust Control. One problem related to erosion and sediment
proper disposal. Treated or "clean'' runoff from erosion and control, but frequently overlooked, is dust. Wind erosion is
sediment control facilities should be directed to an appro- one source of dust. On construction sites, traffic, machin-
priate discharge point or adequate outfall and the aesthetics ery, and other types of related operations (Table 5.7H) are
of this location considered during the course of planning/ a major source of dust. On dry days, various types of con-
designing the E&S plan. struction operations emit dust that becomes a nuisance to

- -- - - - - 70' !.11N .- - -- ---

~
3' MIN.
3' MIN .
A
FIL TERCLOTH
SIDE ELEVATION SECTION A- A
EXISTING
GROUND

3/4" - 2 1/2" :'\

COARSE AGGREGATE B I POSITIVE DRAINAGE
• MUST EXTEND FULL WIDTH TO SEDIMENT
OF INGRESS AND EGRESS TRAPPING DEVICE
OPERATION
PLAN VIEW SECTION 8 - 8

FIG uRE 5. 7 FF Typical construction entrance and wash rack.

 5.7 ■ EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL 623

Dust control is a major concern on sites with soils con-

TAB LE 5 . 7 H Sources of Dust at
taining natural asbestos or minerals and geologic formations
Construction/Demolition Sites capable of generating asbestos such as actinolite or, in the
Construction Sites Mid-Atlantic states, the Orange soil group contains soils with
asbestos generating minerals. Construction sites with these
Pushing (land clearing and earthmoving) types of soils present should incorporate specific types of site
management measures into the construction sequencing to
Drilling and blasting control dust. These types of measures include minimizing the
Batch drop operations (loader operation) amount of denuded land by constructing the project in phases
and leaving stands of trees around and throughout the grad-
Storage piles (soil and construction aggregates) ing areas to dissipate some of the wind momentum and act as
a barrier. Another measure is the suppression of the dust by
Exposed areas
mulching or spraying water or adhesive chemicals over the area.
Vehicle traffic on unpaved surfaces Perhaps the most popular is wetting the surface with water. This
causes the smaller airborne prone particles to adhere to larger
Mud/dirt carryout onto paved surfaces soil masses. However, the rate and frequency of application
depends on climatic conditions and the traffic using the road-
Demolition Sites
way. Other types of spray-on materials include synthetic and
Explosive and mechanical dismemberment (blasting and organic adhesives that, although effective on certain types of
wrecking ball operations) soils, are more permanent than water. Consequently, the cost is
higher also. Chemical stabilization binds soil particles together
Pushing (dozer operation) to form a nonerosive surface crust (Table 5.71).
Artificial measures such as stabilized earth mounds,
Batch drop operations (loading debris into trucks)
fences, and walls can be incorporated into a site to create
Storage piles (debris) wind drag and act as barriers to stop the dust from leaving
the site. Recommended placement of barriers is perpendic-
Exposed areas ular to prevailing air currents at intervals of approximately
15 times the barrier height (Virginia Erosion and Sediment
Vehicular traffic on unpaved surfaces
Control Handbook). For those structures intended to be per-
Mud/dirt/debris carryout onto paved surfaces manent, the judicious placement and timing of construction
will allow them to serve as dust control barriers as well as site
(Source: U.S. EPA, Control of Fugitive Dust Sources, 1988) amenities or as zoning ordinance controls for such things as
privacy fencing. In the same manner, perimeter trees can be
surrounding property and residents. This dust also has an planted, however only select species may be effective.
impact on the air quality. According to the Virginia Erosion
and Sediment Control Handbook, an average value for dust 5.7.12. Construction Sequencing
emission at heavy construction sites is 1.2 tons/acre/month. A familiarity with construction sequencing and techniques
Construction operations can be terminated by the govern- will aid in the development of a cost-effective erosion and
ment agency (inspectors) in charge if the dust problem is not sediment control plan. It is costly for a contractor to interrupt
promptly addressed. construction operations to change the location of structural

TA BLE 5 . 71 Adhesives Used for Dust Controls

WATER DILUTION APPLICATION RATE
ADHESIVE (ADHESIVE:WATER) TYPE OF NOZZLE GALLONS/ACRE

Anionic asphalt emulsion 7:1 Coarse spray 1200

Latex emulsion 12.5:1 Fine spray 235
Resin in water 4:1 Fine spray 300
Acrylic emulsion (non-traffic) 7:1 Coarse spray 450
Acrylic emulsion (traffic) 3.5:1 Coarse spray 350
(Source: Virginia Erosion and Sediment Control Handbook 1992)
&24 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
measures or to add more. Construction sequencing (i.e., the Clearing and Grubbing. Clearing and grubbing the site
timely order in which particular items are built) depends on involves removal of trees (that cannot be saved), stumps,
the contractor and their construction procedures. Interre- brush, and other debris. Included is the removal of the top-
lated to this is the site itself, sediment and erosion control soil layer and stockpiling it in an out-of-the-way location.
ordinances, and the type of project. The stockpiled topsoil is temporarily stabilized with mulch
Establish Perimeter Controls. Construction operations and seed. Silt fence or another suitable sediment control
usually begin with the establishment of silt and erosion con- measure is placed around the perimeter of the toe of the
trol measures around the perimeter of the site (or area to be stockpiled topsoil. This initial grading operation denudes a
worked on if the site is phased). Site clearing for perimeter large area, in a short time, making the area highly suscep-
controls should be limited to only that minimal area neces- tible to erosion. The remaining (non-perimeter) first-phase
sary to install the control measure. The perimeter controls erosion and sediment control measures are installed prior to
retain the sediment onsite, while allowing the early grading beginning grading operations.
operations to begin. These controls usually include the con- In larger residential developments, clearing and grub-
struction entrance, silt fences, and tree protection. bing is initially performed in the street areas and the first
Tree Preservation and Protection. The plans and specifi- few building sites, with roads occurring first. Typically,
cations should include a written description and/or graphic these building sites are for the model homes that will be
depiction of the recommended protection fencing and its used to market the project. In smaller single-parcel com-
location relative to tree preservation areas, as well as preser- mercial areas, the site is almost totally cleared due to the
vation techniques employed to accommodate grade changes high cost of land and the urgency in getting the site con-
(tree wells, retaining walls, spring boxes, drainage, or aera- structed. The limits of clearing and grading should be
tion systems). In addition, the horticultural care of preserved carefully considered, developed, and monitored during
trees, maintenance of open fields, and preservation or the course of the design process. Adhering to these limits
treatment of spring boxes should be incorporated into the requires a detailed understanding of the development pro-
final plans for all phases of construction including utility gram and careful consideration of construction sequencing
installation, preconstruction treatment, and postconstruc- and contractor staging, storage, and operational needs. The
tion maintenance. E&S plan must be coordinated and developed nearly paral-
Generally, the graphic preservation plan and written spec- lel with the grading plan in order to incorporate the recom-
ifications are included in the final site plans and become part mended working limits effectively.
of the construction permitting process. Larger jurisdictions Mass Grading. After clearing and grubbing, the contrac-
may have a separate forestry or natural resources staff, which tor performs the mass grading of the site. Mass grading is the
coordinates tree preservation requirements, whereas smaller moving oflarge quantities of earth to or from the site or within
jurisdictions may rely on the forestry and natural resources the site itself. On sites where mass grading is necessary, cut
staff at the state level. Many jurisdictions now include preser- and fill areas are large and may not be conveniently localized
vation plans as part of the legal construction documents and to optimize haul. Consequently, this operation is performed
assess penalties for open space preservation plan violations with larger earth-moving machinery. In many cases, extensive
just as they would for any other construction violation. mass grading is necessary on a site due to poor site conditions,
Successful preservation requires active, respectful com- rather than the result of bad planning and design.
munication between all participants for the duration of the Rough Grading. The next operation is the rough grading.
project. This means not only between the members of the Rough grading is the reshaping of the site by moving small
development team but including anyone who will work on the volumes of earth, such that the site is brought to within
site. For instance, an uninformed contractor, involved in the ±0.2 feet of finished grade. This includes preparing the site
early stages of site construction can do unintentional but irrep- for foundations, compaction, and generally grading of the
arable damage to prospective preservation areas. Tree, open site to fit the proposed drainage pattern. In areas where sub-
space, and wetland preservation is no longer incidental to land base and base treatments are required (e.g., streets and foun-
development, to be treated as an amenity; it has become both dations) the roughed grades are brought to within ±0.2 feet
economically prudent and environmentally essential. of the proposed sub grade elevation. Where fill is to be placed
Careful consideration of E&S at this phase of the design over the proposed utilities, the area is brought to the grade
is critical to understanding the construction process for slightly above (±4 to ±8 feet) the proposed invert elevation
the proposed development program. A construction sequence of the utility trench. The utility is then installed and back-
or project phasing should be developed that respects the con- filled with lighter construction equipment before completing
straints of the site while still providing sufficient space and the remainder of the fill operation. This procedure protects
reasonable timeframes for requisite construction activity. the utilities from being crushed by the heavier construction
Planning for and performing the preliminary design of E&S equipment being utilized for mass grading operations.
controls will help to minimize erosion and construction run- The design and location of sediment controls should pro-
off pollution as well as clarify critical areas requiring greater vide treatment during clearing, mass grading, and through
attention during final engineering. rough grading. Should the surface grades not direct the
 5.7 ■ EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL 625

runoff to the erosion and sediment control facilities, the and infrastructure details have been worked out. This part
facilities should be relocated or new facilities built to accom- of the erosion and sediment control plan is dynamic in that
modate the new drainage pattern. the erosion and sediment control measures change with the
Utility Installation. After rough grading operations are phasing and sequence of construction. The final design stage
complete, the utilities are installed. Usually the deepest utili- of the erosion and sediment control plan is a follow-through
ties and/or those dependent on gravity are installed first. The of the overall plan devised at the beginning of the project.
main concern during this part of the sequence is the storm The erosion and sediment control plan sheets, included
sewer system. As construction progresses, the site grading in the set of construction drawings, typically consist of plan
evolves such that the overland flow is directed to the storm sheets, detail sheets, and a narrative. Together, they describe
sewer inlets. As the independent branches of the storm sewer and illustrate the procedures and measures that mitigate the
system are complete and made ready to convey runoff, addi- erosion potential of the site and prevent off-site sediment
tional erosion and sediment controls are added around the damage. Many localities require an erosion and sediment con-
inlets. During the transition from the surface drainage pat- trol plan as part of the construction drawing set. The erosion
tern to the proposed subsurface drainage pattern, some of and sediment control plan is just one part of the construction
the initial erosion and sediment control measures are phased documents and as such, is subject to review and approval by
out as the newer ones are phased in. However, no controls the specified public agencies. The length and complexity of
can be removed without the upstream drainage area stabi- the plan depends on the project size, constraints of the site
lized and the permission of the regulatory inspector. and the regulations in effect. Hence, a relatively small site, in
To facilitate construction, the design should be laid out terms of its acreage, may require extensive erosion and sedi-
such that the major utilities (storm, sanitary, and water) can ment control due to the soils, slopes, and environmentally
be constructed simultaneously. For example, in townhouse sensitive areas within it, while a large open site with very flat
developments, the sanitary sewer branch lines are often uniform terrain may have minimal controls.
placed behind the units whenever possible. If the units are Development of an erosion and sediment control plan
basement walkouts, the sanitary lines need only to be mini- initially requires information on
mum depth. This design allows the construction of the sani-
tary lines in the rear, streets and storm drainage in the fronts, • The erodibility of the surface and immediate subsur-
and building pads to be worked on simultaneously. face soils
Finished Grades. Finally, the site is brought to finished • Extent and type of vegetation covering the site
grade. Finished grades are those that are shown on the con-
• Hydrologic conditions; depth of rainfall for the
struction drawings or final grading plans. Final pavement
design storm and average intensity
layers are installed on streets and parking areas and the land-
scape grading is done. Areas around buildings, yards, and • Topography; steepness of slopes, length of slopes, exist-
planting areas are brought to grade with the stockpiled top- ing drainage pattern, contributing off-site drainage
soil and readied for seed, sod, or other landscaping ameni- • Capacity of outfall channels and downstream
ties. Essentially, the site is permanently stabilized. structures
The actual sequence of construction operations described
above will vary depending on the site, type of develop- Most of this information is obtained from local govern-
ment, contractor, and weather conditions. The construction ment agencies and other regional public agencies in the form
sequencing should coordinate with the erosion and sedi- of maps and reports. Typically, most of this information has
ment control plan as to give a verbal outline on how the site been used earlier in the planning and design of the project
should be constructed. There should also be flexibility in and is readily available.
the sequence to allow for changes in weather or contractor The overall erosion and sediment control plan can be
preferences. broken down into three categories, where each category
addresses specific aspects of erosion and sediment control
5.7.13. Erosion and Sediment Control Plan Content for the site. The three categories are (1) planning, (2) design,
A well-conceived plan for a project addresses the potential and (3) installation and maintenance.
erosion and sediment problems long before the final con- During the planning phase, certain issues need to be con-
struction plans begin. The overall erosion and sediment sidered in the layout of the site. If these issues are adequately
control plan begins at the early planning stages of the proj- addressed, the selected measures in the later phases will be both
ect. Such things as fitting development to the terrain, mini- cost-effective and successful in eliminating off-site damage.
mizing grading in sensitive areas (e.g., steep slopes, areas of The issues considered early in the project are as follows:
highly erodible soil), and preserving existing vegetation, all
factor into the erosion and sediment control plan and must • Fit the development to the terrain. Design and site
be considered at the earliest stages of development. The spe- the building structures so that they are compatible
cific design and placement of structural control devices is with the topography. Optimize vertical and horizon-
done in the latter stages of project design, after the buildings tal road alignments to minimize grading activity.
626 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
• Identify the on-site soils for their erodibility. Soil previously discussed. Each site is unique, and the priority or
maps are available for most areas in the United sequence of the issues is not always the same. To begin, the
States from NRCS (Natural Resource Conservation engineer obtains copies of the plan sheets that show the loca-
Service). Erodibility of soils depends on the slope tion of the buildings, streets, and utilities with the existing
lengths and gradients. Long, steep slopes will have and proposed grades. All other pertinent features should be
more erosion potential. Hence, locating the soil included on the plan sheets (e.g., streams, lakes, and other
series and its erodibility on a topographic map of the environmentally sensitive areas, adjacent properties). These
site will identify critical areas. The erodibility may be sheets will serve as their worksheets to develop the erosion
given in general terms (e.g., slight or moderate) or and sediment control plan sheets. Depending on the project,
the erodibility of the soil may be identified by the the designer may need to add a smaller-scale composite view
K factor of the USLE; the local Soil Conservation of the entire project to show the overall layout of multiple
Service office can supply the K factor values. large-scale plan sheets.
Configure the site to minimize the disturbance of The main objective of the erosion control plans is to
the highly erodible soils. Additionally, minimize clearly communicate the erosion and sediment control
disturbance of existing steep slopes. Denuded design to the approving public agencies and the contractor.
slopes exacerbate erosion potential regardless of the This includes selecting the appropriate erosion and sediment
erodibility of the soils on the slopes. control measures and their location on the site. Table 5.7J
suggests the symbols used on plans and summarizes the
• Preserve existing vegetation. A site visit will identify protection afforded by the particular measure.
the areas of good stands of trees and vegetation. First the engineer considers whether any specific phasing
Preserving existing natural vegetation not only is necessary. Phasing may be necessary if one area of the site
decreases erosion potential, but also enhances the has to be graded before another to provide fill dirt for another
land value and conserves energy. Site the buildings portion of the site or a stream crossing may dictate which por-
and structures to take advantage of the scenic value tion of the site is worked on first due to access or permitting
of trees and vegetation. requirements. Another phasing requirement can occur dur-
ing some projects that require model homes to be constructed
Unfortunately, marketing issues, land values, and envi- first to promote marketing and sales within the development,
ronmental preservation quite often conflict with the pri- phasing of the erosion and sediment plan should be consid-
orities of the developer, public officials, and citizens. It may ered. The engineer needs to consider such issues at the outset
not always be economically feasible to develop the site in a and weigh their impact on the project's development.
manner that best fits the interests of all parties. The priority After establishing the need for project phasing, the lim-
of the previously listed issues will vary from site to site. An its of clearing and grading that apply to the phasing are
alternative is to compensate the erosion and sediment con- addressed. Typically, the limits of clearing and grading are
trols through extra structural measures or more tightly con- the point where the proposed contours tie into the existing
trolled construction phasing. Consideration should be given contours. If any intermediate land-disturbing activities are
to determine if the cost for the extra measures is warranted. planned, the engineer may decide to show the clearing and
After the planning phase is complete and the planners have grading limits separately for each activity. For example, if
done everything reasonable to meet the developer's goals, the entire site can be constructed (e.g., utilities, pavement,
comply with local ordinances, and address environmental and building) within the prescribed maximum cleared area,
issues; then the next phase is to design the erosion and sedi- only perimeter controls may be needed. If a site requires
ment control plans. These plans detail where, when and what mass grading and borrow areas, intermittent controls will be
type of structural measures are to be installed, and include necessary around the borrow areas as well as the immedi-
any related computations supporting the design. Construc- ate site area. Alternatively, the intermediate activities can be
tion phasing is also shown on the plans. described or clarified in the narrative.
The placement and sizing of structural measures requires Clearing limits for trenching of utilities often extends
knowledge of construction techniques and construction beyond the width of the easement. The clearing limits for
sequencing. The engineer who is unfamiliar with construc- these activities will depend on how deep the trenches are
tion techniques can develop a plan, but in all likelihood it and whether the contractor will use shoring to stabilize the
will not be very efficient. When possible, the engineer can sidewalls. Sloping or benching the sidewalls of the trenches,
coordinate the design of the sediment control plan with an which is an alternative to shoring, requires extending the
experienced engineer and/or the developer's contractor to limits of clearing and grading beyond where the proposed
provide the most efficient set of plans possible and thereby and existing contours meet. If the trench walls will be sloped,
reducing the project cost. typically IH:1 V, the clearing limits will be a distance equal to
Developing the Plan Sheets. To develop a set of erosion the depth of the trench on either side of the center line of the
and sediment control drawings that are feasible and cost- excavated trench. Note, extra room is necessary on one side
effective, the designer needs to address the specific issues of the trench for placing the excavated soil.
 5.7 ■ EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL 627

TA BLE 5 . 7 J Summary of Symbols and Types of Selected Erosion and Sediment Control Measures
z
Q
c::,
z ,_
-,;O

z ?i ~ z :z
,_ c::
~
3: (l_ >- Q
cc
UJ
t;:;
....J
0
;:: ,_
~~
C!l L.U
:E ~~ asz ~
,.....,
:E ~
0
UJ
0
L.U
a... ,_ :Ea...
C!l
~ w5 0:::J <
:E c5
=
ffi 5 0_, cc
0
-
Cl<
(l_

cii ~ ~~ cc <C
"- c.:, V> (l_ ~ go c::, V>
L.U
,_
,_ V>
LU
(l_
I-
(/;

TITLE KEY SYMBOL A B C D E F

__J
Temporary gravel construction entrance @ ----i
ti' ti'

Straw bale barrier @ ==

ti' ti' ti'
...... ' ... ............................. ' .................. ' ......................................................... .
Silt fence ® --
ti' ti' ti'

Storm drain inlet protection

...... ' ........... ' ...................... '
®
........... '
--¼-- ti'
.... ' . ' ...... ' ............................ .. ' ..... . ' .......... .
Temporary diversion dike @) ~ ti' ti'

Temporary sediment trap ® ti'

Temporary sediment basin ® ti' ti'

Temporary slope drain @ ~ ti' ti'

. .. .. .. ...... ......... . ...................................................................................... ... .
' ' ' '

Paved fl ume ® ti' ti'

Outlet protection @ ~ ti' ti'

. .... .................. ............... .............................................................. ............ .
' ' ' '

Check dams @) - ►- ►- ti' ti'

Level spreader @ ti' ti' ti'

Temporary seeding @ -@-- ti'

Permanent seeding @ --®- ti'

. ' ................ . .................................... ' .................. ' .. ' ...... . .......... ... ' ..... . ........ . .. .
Sodding @) --©-- ti' ti'

Mulching @ ti'

Tree preservation and protection ® ti'

Dust control ® ti'

(Source: Virginia Erosion and Sediment Control Handbook. 1992)

The selection and placement of erosion and sediment all outlet points discharging concentrated runoff outside
controls is related to the existing drainage pattern of the the denuded area. After establishing the existing and pro-
site as well as the intermediate drainage patterns during posed drainage divides, the engineer quantifies the run-
construction and land phasing. The engineer delineates off for each drainage area. Depending on the jurisdiction
the drainage divides for the site's existing and proposed and size of the drainage area(s), either rational or NRCS
conditions. The drainage divides will reveal off-site sources hydrologic methods may be used to compute peak runoff.
contributing surface runoff, drainage areas to existing The engineer also needs to quantify the water discharged
and proposed storm drain inlets, and drainage areas to onto the site from swales, ditches, and pipes conveying
&2a i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
water from off-site sources. On most projects, it is likely able to continue with little interruption from relocating or
that the drainage areas and calculations of the runoff have construction of additional controls.
been done during an earlier stage in the design process. The Along the perimeter on the upslope sides, berms are built
design and installation of structural erosion and sediment to divert clean, off-site runoff away from denuded areas.
control measures may be considered a two-phase process, Along the low areas, berms and trapping facilities are con-
described next-but in some cases a project may warrant structed to divert and detain the sediment-laden runoff.
additional interim phases. Silt fence or super silt fence is installed to filter sheet flow
Phase I. The initial clearing and grubbing operation runoff before leaving the site. If the denuded area is large
denudes a large area. This is the most critical stage for control and the flow concentrated, major sediment basins may be
of erosion and sedimentation. Before denuding a large area, needed to protect the outfall points. These sediment basins
erosion and sediment controls are installed along the perim- are kept in place until the proposed conveyance systems are
eter of the work area and at the outfall of the site. Since some constructed and the upstream contributing area is stabilized.
sites are not located along streams, outfall means anywhere Figure 5.7GG depicts a sample of a Phase I plan.
where concentrated water will be discharged from the site. Phase II. As the construction operations progress, the
Placing these initial controls along the perimeter allows the drainage pattern evolves from the natural one (existing
builder to begin clearing and grading operations with mini- prior to construction) to the ultimate pattern, as shown
mum obstructions. The construction operations should be on the construction plans. This evolution creates smaller

I Dewberry·

ti
II

I
0 0
l •

I
p
. \N
i:ijii

L
I ,1
1:

1. Plan view with limits of work, drainage divides, and control systems
shown. Drainage areas and land cover to each control system should be
labeled. Interior work limits for Phase 1 may be delineated.
2. Control practices with detailed grading and reference to additional detail
and computation information should be shown.
3. Relevant notes and legend for control systems.

FIG uRE 5 , 7 GG Phase I plan content.

 5.7 ■ EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL 629

drainage areas from the existing larger drainage areas. Dur- The Narrative. The narrative to the erosion and
ing the course of the evolution, modification to erosion and sediment control plan is a list of notes that describe per-
sediment controls may be necessary to reflect the changes tinent site features relating to erosion and sedimenta-
in the drainage pattern. This includes eliminating any tion. The narrative conveys to others reading the plan,
unnecessary controls and establishing new controls where the engineer's design intent for the erosion and sediment
appropriate. control design. The narrative describes the expected ero-
As construction of the site progresses to the point where sion and sedimentation problems, identifies the problem
the grading matches what is shown on the construction plans areas, explains any phasing of land-disturbing activities,
and the area is permanently stabilized, sediment traps and clarifies any erosion and sediment control sequencing,
basins may no longer be functional and can be removed with documents the types of measures to be used and the main-
the inspector's approval. As other areas are stabilized with tenance schedule, as well as the inspection and provisions
vegetation and mulch, the erosion and sediment control for repair of the measures.
devices are removed and the area is reworked and graded The purpose of the narrative is to summarize the plan
to match the construction plans. As always, the removal of for the reviewer in the public agency, the site inspectors,
any control devices is contingent on the approval of a site and the contractor. In preparing the narrative, the engineer
inspector representing the engineer or local public agency. assumes the reviewing agency personnel are not familiar
Figure 5.HH depicts a sample of a Phase II plan. with the site and provides sufficient detail for their benefit.

l
I '
0
I
I
i
I
!
0

1. Plan view with limits of work, drainage divides, and control systems
shown. Drainage areas and land cover condition may be shown.
2. Proposed (final) storm sewer system shown and labeled to depict
conveyance and management practices.
3. Relevant notes and legend for control systems.

FIG uRE 5. 7 HH Phase II plan content.

&3o i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
The narrative needs to be short and concise yet still supply 7. When construction phasing is necessary, a descrip-
the information needed. tion of phasing sequence and amount of area to be
Although the narrative may not be required in all juris- denuded is essential.
dictions that require erosion and sediment control plans, it
8. Maintenance: Identify a schedule for inspections,
is recommended that a narrative be included as part of the
clean out, and repair of the structures. Occasion-
erosion and sediment control plan especially for sites that
ally, the phrase "as needed" is used as an all-
require complex arrangements of erosion and sedimentation
encompassing blanket phrase to describe when
controls. The narrative explains the problem areas of the site,
repairs and clean out should be performed, but the
specifically explains the phasing, and clarifies any confusing
phrase should be avoided. Technically, the term
situations shown on the plan view, which hopefully will help
is vague; "as needed" by who? The public agency,
avoid future problems.
contractor, engineer, etc., will have different defi-
The narrative should include information regarding the
nitions for "as needed:' Therefore, the description
following topics:
on inspections and repair should be explicitly
1. Project description: type of project, area that will be specified (e.g., "... every 2 weeks;' or "... after any
disturbed, number of units (residential) or number rainstorm greater than 0.25 inches").
of buildings and associated square feet (single- 9. Permanent stabilization: methods used to
parcel commercial/industrial sites). permanently stabilize the site (e.g., seed, sod).
2. Description of existing site conditions: topography, 10. Calculations and assumptions: Design of sediment
vegetation, streams, lakes, drainage features. basins, their efficiency, etc., requires detailed
3. Description of adjacent areas which might be calculations. Along with the calculations, the
affected by land-disturbing activities: streams, lakes, engineer will have to make assumptions when data
roads, and residential and commercial areas. is not available. The calculations should include
a brief heading describing the calculation. Some
4. Description of soils: soil series and their erodibility. jurisdictions require the calculations and assump-
5. Critical areas such as steep slopes, wetlands, and tions to be included on the actual plan adjacent to
other environmentally sensitive areas. the particular facility they describe rather than in
the narrative.
6. Erosion and sediment control measures to be used
(e.g., berms, number of basins, and general location). An example of a narrative is shown in Figure 5.7II.
 5.7 ■ EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL 631

General land conservation notes

I. All land conservation activities shall be perfonned in accordance with the latest Fairfax County checklist for erosion and
sediment control, the public facilities manual, and the Virginia Erosion and Sediment Control Handbook.

2. No disturbed area will remain denuded for more than 14 calendar days unless otherwise authorized by the director or his agent.

3. All erosion and sediment control measures arc to be placed prior to or as the first step in grading. First areas to be cleared are
to be those required for the perimeter controls.

4. All storm and sanitary sewer lines not in streets arc to be mulched and seeded within 5 days after backfill. No more than 500
feet arc to be open at one time.

5. Electric power, telephone and gas supply trenches arc to be compacted, seeded and mulched within 5 days after backfill.

6. All temporary earth benns, divmions and sediment control dams are to be mulched and seeded for temporary vegetative cover
immediately after grading. Straw or hay mulch is required. The same applies to all soil stockpiles.

7. During construction, all stonn sewer inlets will be protected by inlet protection devices, maintained and modified as required
by construction progress.

8. Any disturbed area not covered by note # 1 above and not paved, sodded or built upon by November 1, or disturbed after that
date, is to be mulched with hay or straw mulch at the rate of two tons per acre and over-seeded immediately.

9. At the oompletion of oonstruction projects and prior to the release of the bond, all temporary siltation and erosion controls shall
be removed and all disturbed areas shall be stabilized.

10. No area shall be left denuded for a period longer than 14 days except for that portion of the site in which work will be
oontinuous beyond 14 days. In the event such maximum period is exceeded and any such areas remain exposed without cover,
the county will (in the event the developer or builder docs not) install the necessary temporary or pennanent vegetative
stabilization measures to achieve adequate erosion and sediment control.

11. The cost of any such temporary measures taken by the county shall be borne by the developer and shall be a charge against the
conservation deposit.

Project description
The purpose of this project is to provide adequate ingress and egress from the property, allowing it to be fully developed into a residential
subdivision under the current zoning. The clearing and grading area required for this development is approximately 9 .42 acres.

Existing site conditions

The site is primarily wooded with some open areas found near the existing Vernon drive cul-de-sac. The site is divided into two distinct
drainage areas split by a ridgclinc that runs northwest to southeast through the site. The southern side of the site drains by sheet flow into
an existing adequate swale. This swale connects downstream to an unnamed tributary of Difficult Run, which drains through the Wolf
Trap Green subdivision. The remainder of the site drains by sheet flow and shallow concentrated flow to an existing unnamed tributary
of Difficult Run which crosses the northeast comer of the site. 100"/, of the onsite runoff enters these two swalcs. The majority of the onsite
runoff(approximately 70%) flows to the northeastern most swale. These swales ultimately convey the on-site stonn runofftoDitlicult
Run.

Soils
Soils were mapped by Fairfax County soil survey office February I0, 1982 with the following results: mixed alluvial land that is basically
oontained within the EQC line at the northeastern side of the property. Connection to an existing sanitary sewer and outfall of the stonn
sewer is proposed within the area of this soil. Meadowville silt loam at 3% slope, Manor silt loam at 6% in the rolling phase, and Glenelg
silt loam at 4% in the rolling phase. The meadowville soil type is characterized as having wetness problems and therefore creating possible
foundation problems. Adequate foundation drainage as well as inspection of foundation subgrades should be done on construction of these
areas. Glenclg silt loam and Minor silt loan, however, are characterized as having both good subsurface drainage and foundation support
but also a severe potential for erosion.

FIG u RE 5. 711 Erosion and sediment control narrative.

&32 i@UH¥I F@Hi4Mii
PHASE 1: (lpltjal clearing and grading)
Erosion and Sediment Control Measures

A. A oonslruc1ion entrance with a wash rack shall be installed) if water is not readily available, a water tank shall be the source of
water). A small temporary silt trap will catch wash rack water.

B. Silt fences and tree protection shall be installed as shown in this plan.

C. Two sediment besins shall be installed as shown on the plan. See sediment basin calculations on sheet 16 and details on sheet
11 . The sediment basins shall be inspected on a regular basis and restored to their original capacity when sediment has
accumulated to the clean out elevation. (See sediment basin computations.)

D. A temporary diversion dike will be installed near the limit of grading as shown on the plan and directed towards the sediment
basins.

Maintenance program
1. The site superintendent, or his/her representative, shall make visual inspection of all mechanical controls and newly stabilized
areas (i.e. Seeded and mulched and/or sodded areas) on a daily basis; especially after a heavy rainfall event to insure that all
controls are maintained and properly functioning. Any damaged controls shall be repaired prior to the end of the work day
including re-seeding and mulching or re-sodding if necessary.

2. All sediment trapping devices shall be cleaned out at 50% trap capacity and the sediment shall be disposed of by spreading on
the site or hauling away if not suitable for fill.

Drainage Area A:
The majority of the runoff contributing to this area is from the proposed Vernon Drive extension. A very small portion of the runoff comes
from offsitc as shown in the plan. Flows are picked up by structure 5. Flows are then conveyed to bed and banks on parcel "A" through
the underground stonn pipes.

Drainage Area B:
This area is comprised of portions oflots 3 through 8. Runoff is picked up at the low point in the cul-de-sac by structure 4. Flows are then
conveyed to bed and banks on parcel "A" through the underground stonn pipes.

Drainage Area C:
This area is comprised of portions of lots 8 and 9. Runoff is picked up by structure 6. Flows are then conveyed to bed and banks on parcel
"A" through the underground stonn pipes.

Drainage Area D:
This area iscomprisedoflots9, 10 and 11. Runoff is picked up by structure 7. Flows are then conveyed to bed and banks on parcel "A"
through the underground storm pipes.

Drainage Area E:
This area is comprised of portions oflots 15 and 16, and portions ofoffsite Kenmore Farms Lot "7." Runoff is picked up by structure 12.
Flows are then conveyed to bed and banks on parcel "G" of adjacent Wolf Trap Green, Section Two by means of underground storm pipes
and a sodded ditch.

Drainage Area F:
This area is comprised oflots 11 through 14. Runoff is picked up at the low point in the cul-de-sac by structure 11. Flows are then
conveyed to bed and banks on parcel "G" of adjacent Wolf Trap Green, Section Two by means of underground storm pipes and a sodded
ditch.

Drainage Area G:
This area is comprised of portions oflots 14 and 15, and offsite lots4 and 7 ofKenmore Farms. Runoff is picked up at a low point by
structure 13. Flows are then conveyed to bed and banks on parcel "G" of adjacent Wolf Trap Green, Section Two by means of the
underground storm sewer pipes and a sodded ditch.

Drainage Area H:
This area is comprised of portions oflots 12 through 14, parcel "B," and off.site lot 4, Kenmore Farms and Route 7. This area also receives
flows from drainage areas E, F and G through the underground storm pipes. Flows are conveyed by bed and banks on Parcel G of adjacent
Wolf Trap Green, Section Two by means of a sodded ditch.

FIGURE 5. 711 (Continued)

 5.7 ■ EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL 633

Drainage Area I:
This area is comprised of a portion of lot 9 and the existing Myra drive tum-around. Runoff is picked up at the low point of the Myra Drive
tum-around by structure 8. Flows are then conveyed to bed and banks on parcel A through the underground storm pipes.

PHASE 2: {Final clearing and grading)

Erosion and Sediment Control Measures

A. After all sediment and erosion control measures have been installed in accordance with the phase I plan, and upon approval of
the county inspector, the contractor shall clear only the areas needed for street and utility construction to minimize erosion . As
soon as grading allows streets will be stabilized with base stone and the remainder of the site shall be cleared when necessary.
Phase I diversion dikes and basins shall be left in place for as long as possible and gradually removed after street areas are
stabilized.

B. Inlet protection shall be placed on storm inlets as soon as they are installed. Outlet protection shall be placed as soon as outlet
structures are in place.

C. For additional information please see land conservation notes.

Maintenance Program

The site superintendent, or his/her representative, shall make visual inspection of all mechanical controls and newly stabilized
area (i .e. Seeded and mulched and/or sodded areas) on a daily basis; especially after a heavy rainfall event to insure that all
controls are maintained and properly functioning. Any damaged controls shall be repaired prior to re-sodding if necessary.

2 AU sediment trapping devices shall be cleaned out at 50% trap capacity and the sediment shall be disposed of by spreading on
the site or hauling away if not suitable for fill .

FIG uRE 5. 711 (Continued)

REFERENCE
Boysen, Stephen M. 1974. Predicting Sediment Yield in Urban
Areas. Proceedings of National Symposium on Urban Rainfall
and Runoff and Sediment Control. Lexington, KY.
This page intentionally left blank
PART IV

POST-DESIGN
This page intentionally left blank
 CHAPTER 6

PERMITS AND CONSTRUCTION

Chapter 6.1 describes the post-design phase of work. During Chapter 6.2 describes all elements that come together to
this phase of work, the final site plan is typically approved by establish construction and contractor documents, which are
the jurisdictional reviewers and the development applies for used by the contractor during construction. These documents
permits. There are often several different permits required extend beyond the design plans and include specifications,
prior to starting construction, and many jurisdictions require bidding requirements, and other contract requirements. This
that the project is bonded. This chapter introduces different chapter also describes postconstruction serves that may be
types of permits and bonds. provided by the design teams.

PRE-DESIGN DESIGN POST-DESIGN

~2_ _·- ---~>

CHAPTER2
Due Dilligence
CHAPTER3
Site Analysis
CHAPTER4
Conceptual &
CHAPTER 5
Final Design
CHAPTER 6
Permits &
Schematic Design Construction

FIG uRE 6. 1 A The land development design process.

637
 CHAPTER 6.1
PERMITS AND BONDS

6.1.1. Permits In addition to the construction drawings, most permits

When a local jurisdiction approves the final site plan, it repre- require applications before a permit is issued. The applica-
sents a major milestone toward issuance of a permit (plan pro- tion ensures that all permit requirements are met. In some
duction and approval process are presented in Chapter 5.1). cases, permits are required for work with minimal land dis-
Permits are issued by public agencies to authorize the con- turbance, such as large tents, sheds, or electric car charging
struction activity proposed with the project's site and build- equipment. The permit process is often used to demonstrate
ing plans. The construction drawings that are prepared by the that the location of improvements are in conformance with
design team (such as the final site plan) are used to obtain the zoning ordinance (height limitations, location relative
permits for construction activity and the occupancy of build- to property lines, etc.), which requires the development of
ings. The architectural, engineering, and construction indus- plans, narratives, and details.
try is required to obtain permits before work can commence Not all construction activity requires a permit. Most juris-
on a project. Most of the permits required are related directly dictions will provide a list of work that does not require a
to the development construction, environmental impacts, and permit, such as minor areas of land disturbance or small-
building components. scale building work. Minor building repairs, such as roof,
door, and window replacements, often do not require a per-
Development permits: The permits necessary for infra- mit. Minor landscape work, hardscape improvements, or
structure work will vary based on jurisdictional require- general land disturbance less than a few hundred square feet
ments. The permits are sometimes referred to as site may also be exempt (but before digging, it's always necessary
permits to differentiate between the environmental and to coordinate with subsurface utility locaters to determine if
building permits. In some cases, a series of related permits utilities are present).
(transportation, environmental, etc.) are required before a Development Permits. There are a variety of permits
site permit is issued to begin work on the project. related to infrastructure work, and construction activity will
often require separate environmental permits. Development
Environmental permits: An environmental permit is permits, as referenced herein, can include permit require-
issued by federal, state, or local agencies for regulated
ments that are not specific to environmental or building per-
activities to ensure compliance with environmental
mits (which are often regulated at the state or national level).
laws. Although a permit may be required because of
In most cases, an approved site plan is required prior to the
federal legislation, it may be issued by either federal,
issuance of a development permit.
state, or local agencies based on interagency (primacy)
Site Permit. A site permit is often required prior to com-
agreements.
mencing any land disturbance. The permit may also serve to
Building permits: Building permits are generally managed verify that all other necessary permits have been acquired.
by the building team, but they often rely on information For example, a redevelopment project may require demoli-
from the site plan. Some building permits, especially for tion, grading, signs, wall, and environmental permits that
new construction, will require evidence that a site permit must be obtained prior to issuance of the site permit. The
has been obtained before the building permit is provided. site permit is an indication that the proposed site plan is in

638
 6.1 ■ PERMITS AND BONDS 639

conformance with all regulatory requirements (zoning ordi- permits and the requirements of each permit should be veri-
nance, subdivision ordinance, etc.) fied prior to commencing work.
Demolition. Demolition permits are often focused on demo- Environmental Permits. Construction projects have the
lition of buildings (as opposed to infrastructure demolition, potential to adversely affect valuable natural resources-
which generally falls under the broader site permit). Utility land, air, and water. These impacts can cause negative
connections to existing buildings are a concern with building changes in both physical and chemical characteristics of nat-
demolition. The existing utility services should be identified, ural resources. Because of the complexity of the natural envi-
and an appropriate plan should indicate how the utilities are ronment, the land development process requires the input of
to be disconnected, relocated, capped, or abandoned. Older various environmental professionals with expertise related to
buildings are often subject to inspections to determine if haz- the site-specific features of the land to be developed. A parcel
ardous material (asbestos or lead) may be present. ofland or a specific construction activity may require one or
Grading. A grading permit is often issued in advance of more environmental permits due to the site location, natural
the site permit to allow early site work to begin while the site resources present, site features, type of construction, and/or
plan is under final review. The scope of work is usually lim - the final use of the facility. Permit requirements can vary sig-
ited to earthwork and associated erosion and sediment con- nificantly based on state and local regulations. The climate
trol measures. The design documents for a grading permit and the time of year also can be factors in permitting require-
are often derived from the site permit and should be coordi- ments for specific construction activities such as stream or
nated with the final design work. Grading permits (or clear- wetland disturbance and landscaping. Therefore, the devel-
ing and grading permits) are often required prior to mass site oper needs to be aware of the environmental requirements
clearing, such as removal of existing vegetation. specific to the project and the permitting jurisdiction.
Transportation Permits. The permits associated with Environmental permits discussed in this chapter are related
transportation systems are required for work associated with to land development activities that affect air or water quality or
public roadways or access from a public roadway. Construc- generate noise or waste materials. It is the responsibility of the
tion entrance, driveway, and design permits are commonly organization conducting the activity to ensure that all neces-
required by the Department of Transportation (DOT) for sary permits are obtained and the permit conditions met. The
new construction. Because a new site entrance will require length and duration of permits issued under federal laws will
working within the roadway, the permits often require differ depending on the type of permit and specific condi-
approval of both a site plan and a traffic management plan. tions imposed by the permit. Most environmental permits are
There may also be separate design reviews, approvals, and issued for 1 to 5 years, with occasional permits issued for 10 to
permits issued for traffic control systems (e.g., traffic signals). 15 years, depending on the anticipated length of the activity.
Sign Permits. Many jurisdictions have stringent regula- Obtaining environmental permits can be a complicated
tions on the size, placement, and style of signs. A sign permit process. The first challenge is to understand the variety of
often requires additional information, beyond what is shown regulations as they relate to the proposed activity and local-
in the site plan, to detail the size and position of the sign. The ity. Once the potential permitting requirements are known,
color and illumination of the sign may be controlled by the the next step is to perform the necessary studies required to
locality. Sign permits may be required for temporary signs complete the permit applications. Permits associated with
(advertising future development) as well as permanent signs minimal impacts to the environment are typically referred
for the development. to as general permits. Typically, general permits cannot be
Temporary Permits. Permits associated with temporary modified. The permitting process for general permits can
improvements, such as construction trailers or construction take 30 days to 6 months. Typically, these permits have spe-
parking, are often required by a local jurisdiction. Tempo- cific timeframes, set conditions, and schedules for the agen-
rary systems will often require many of the same infrastruc- cies to issue or deny a permit. Therefore, it is in the best
ture improvements as permanent facilities. Power, water, and interest of a developer to evaluate ways to avoid or minimize
sewage utility connections will be governed by the utility impacts to the environment in order to meet the criteria for
provider. Temporary facilities often require compliance with issuance of a general permit.
accessibility guidelines and may require land disturbance to Projects that do not meet the requirements of the general
accommodate clearing and grading associated with the tern - permit and have the potential of causing major environmen-
porary facility. tal impacts typically require the issuance of an individual
Miscellaneous Permits. Each jurisdiction will have a list of permit. Individual permits are tailored for the specific proj-
required permits based on the proposed scope of work. Some ect and its impacts to the environment. Regulatory agencies
jurisdictions have additional permits for different utility do not always have timeframes for issuance of an individual
systems, fences, walls, removal (or planting) of trees, noise, permit; therefore, it could take 6 months to several years to
fire protection, and other conditions of development. Some obtain such permits. These projects may also require sig-
plans may be subject to review and permitting by the health nificant studies and documentation to determine the types
department for pools, septic, or well systems. The applicable and magnitude (or significance) of potential environmental
&4o fatUhi!i F41Mitii/i,134U\lhii,i/i
impacts. These studies could include the National Envi- This process is described in detail:
ronmental Policy Act (NEPA) documentation preparation Pre-Application. In some states a pre-application meeting
such as a categorical exclusion document, an environmen- with the regulatory agencies is recommended once the pre-
tal assessment, or an environmental impact statement. As liminary plans for a site have been developed. This meeting
introduced in Chapter 2.5, projects that could trigger NEPA assists both parties in understanding each other's concerns
documentation must have a "federal action:' A federal action related to the project and may save the developer's significant
could include projects that use federal funding or require a time and effort by identifying early on the "red flags" of the
federal permit and impact a federally listed species, a limited proposed project.
access line associated with a federal highway, or a federally Public involvement plays an important role in the process
listed historic property or structure. of obtaining some permits. This can be initiated by holding
Environmental Permitting Process. The increased aware- an informal public meeting referred to as a pre-application
ness of environmental impacts associated with land devel- meeting or can be incorporated into the county or state
opment has resulted in a more stringent permitting process public communication forum. The purpose of the meet-
involving coordination with multiple agencies. If the permit- ing is to explain to the public the intended activity and its
ting process is not incorporated into a developer's budget potential effect on the environment, including, if applicable,
and schedule, it could significantly affect project progress the specific proposed process associated with the pollutant
or even stop work all together. Therefore, knowledge of the and/ or waste stream that may be generated. The meeting is
environmental regulations and the permitting process is an announced by placing a sign at the site or other physical or
essential part of a successful land development project. digital media. At the meeting, the organization (applicant)
The permitting process is constantly evolving, and regula- responsible for the activity explains the plans and provides
tory agencies recognize the need to improve and streamline the public with the opportunity to ask questions and make
the process. Permit writers are finding new ways to improve suggestions.
environmental and economic results through innovative Permit Application. Following the pre-application meeting,
approaches to permitting. Some permits may contain incen- the applicant fills out the permit application. Permit applica-
tives to reduce the amount of pollutants or allow for more tions are often lengthy and may be required to include the
operational flexibility; however, taking advantage of these following:
incentives can be labor intensive requiring significant moni-
toring during the construction and operational phases of a • A description of the project, including physical
project. location, existing site conditions, distance to nearest
Although the requirements of an environmental permit water body, primary watershed, the outcome of
may vary significantly from state to state, the permitting pro- previous coordination with the public or regulatory
cess is similar. Some permits may be relatively easy to obtain agencies.
based on the nature of the regulated activity and its potential • How the facility will be designed, constructed,
for minimal effects on human health and the environment. maintained, and operated to be protective of public
For example, some permits require the applicant to meet a health and the environment, including a demonstra-
standard set of conditions, complete the application, submit tion of avoidance and minimization strategies to be
a fee, and within 15 days receive an authorization for cover- implemented.
age under a general permit. Whereas on a project where the
potential impact to human health and/or the environment • How emergencies and spills will be handled during
is significant, an individual permit is required. The permit- construction (and for industrial facilities after con-
ting process associated with individual permits is both much struction) should they occur.
more detailed and lengthy. The overall permitting process for • Where or how mitigation for project impacts will be
both general and individual permits is similar with the latter accomplished.
typically involving obtaining comments and/or approvals
• How the facility will clean up any environmental
from more permitting or review agencies. The process can
contamination that could occur during construction.
be divided into six distinct steps:
• How public health and the health and safety
1. Pre-application of the workers involved will be protected if
2. Permit application the development site is likely to contain any
contamination.
3. Receipt and review
• How any waste streams generated during construc-
4. Revision
tion will be managed.
5. Public review
• If applicable, how an industrial facility will close and
6. Final permit clean up once it is no longer operating.
 6.1 ■ PERMITS AND BONDS 641

Receipt and Review. When a permitting agency receives an Several additional steps can also take place after the per-
individual permit application, it notifies the public that it has mit is issued:
received the permit and places a copy of the application in
a public area for review. The permitting agency reviews the Permit appeals: Applicants and the public both have a
application to make sure it contains the information required right to appeal the final permit decision. Administrative
by the regulations. Some agencies do not post the project for law judges usually decide the appeal.
public notice until they have made a preliminary decision to Permit modifications: In the case of construction activi-
issue or deny the permit; in these cases what is posted is the ties, a permit modification will likely be required if
tentative decision. there are increased impacts to the environment. The
Revisions. If the permitting agency is not satisfied with the type of modification (either minor or major) depends
permit application or finds the information submitted to on the magnitude of impact increase anticipated. For
be lacking or insufficient, they may issue a notice of defi- example, if impacts to a wetland or stream increase a
ciency (NOD) or a request for additional information. NODs certain amount over the permitted acreage or linear
identify and request that the applicant provide missing or footage, a modification would be required and the
additional information. During the application review and type of modification would be related to the amount
revision process, the permitting agency may issue several of increased impact. Public notice is typically required
NODs. Each time the permitting agency receives a response for major modifications. In the case of industrial facili-
from the applicant, it reviews the information and, if neces- ties, if a facility changes its management procedures,
sary, issues additional NODs until they consider the applica- mechanical operations, or the waste it generates or
tion complete. Given the complex and technical nature of the handles, then it must secure a permit modification.
requested information, the review and revision process can For modifications that significantly change the facil-
take several months to several years to complete, depending ity operations, the public must receive early notice
on the type of project, the environmental sensitivity of the and have a chance to participate and comment. For
site, and the type and significance of the anticipated impacts. minor modifications, the facility must notify the public
Therefore, it is in the best interest of the developer to submit within a specified period of time prior to making the
permit applications that meet the administrative complete- change.
ness and technical requirements of the permitting agencies
involved in the process. Permit renewals: The permitting agency can renew per-
Public Review. When a permitting agency finds that the mits that are due to expire. Depending on the type of
permit application is complete and meets applicable require- permit involved, permit holders that are seeking a permit
ments, the agency issues a draft permit containing the con- renewal may be required to follow the same procedures
ditions under which the proposed activity can take place if as a facility seeking a new permit.
the permit receives final approval. If the permitting agency Permit terminations: If a facility violates the terms of its
determines that an applicant cannot provide an application permit, the permitting agency can terminate the permit.
that meets their requirements, the agency tentatively denies
the permit and prepares a "notice of intent to deny:' Regulatory Enforcement. There are various methods
In cases of individual permits, the permitting agency used to monitor compliance with conditions imposed under
announces its decision to the public by placing a notice environmental permits. An applicant may be required to
through digital or physical media. It also issues a fact sheet monitor or sample discharges or emissions and report the
to explain its decision. Once the notice is issued, the public results to the permitting agency. In addition, a permitee is
typically has 30 to 45 days to comment on the decision. The typically required, within a certain timeframe, to report
public may request a hearing by contacting the permitting to the permitting agency when an activity is not in com-
agency. The permitting agency may also hold a hearing at pliance with the requirements of the permit. The report
its own discretion. The agency typically gives 30-day public should contain an explanation of why the noncompliance
notice before the hearing. occurred, how the activity has been brought into compli-
Final Permit. After considering public comments, the per- ance, and how the unauthorized activity will be avoided
mitting agency reconsiders the draft permit or the notice of in the future. The regulatory agency may also periodically
intent (NOi) to deny the permit. The agency then issues a inspect the permitted facility or site as a means of monitor-
"response to public comments;' specifying any changes made ing compliance.
to the draft permit. Finally, the agency issues the final permit Federal laws provide federal and authorized state regu-
or denies the permit. latory agencies with various methods of taking enforce-
After issuing a permit, the permitting agency may con- ment actions against violators of permit requirements. For
tinue to monitor the construction and operation of the facil- example, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and
ity to ensure compliance with federal and state rules and with state regulatory agencies may issue administrative orders
the permit conditions. that require facilities to correct violations and that assess
&42 fatUhi!i F41Mitii/i,134U\lhii,i/i
monetary penalties. Monetary penalties can be severe and Most states administer the federal program through
can be issued per activity that is noncompliant; for example, delegation of authority from the EPA. This is done
a National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) under regulations adopted by each state and approved
permit violation for a construction activity such as not hav- by the EPA. Land disturbing and development activi-
ing a Stormwater Pollution Prevention Plan (SWPPP) could ties are required to create stormwater pollutant elimi-
result in a minimum fine of $10,000/day until the SWPPP nation facilities so as to improve the water quality of
has been prepared in compliance with the regulation. The receiving streams. For many years, these facilities were
laws also allow federal and state agencies to pursue civil and required only to minimize soil erosion from entering
criminal actions that may include mandatory injunctions or streams. Nitrogen and phosphorus are pollutants that
penalties, as well as jail sentences for persons found willfully significantly harm receiving streams. Best management
violating requirements and endangering the health and wel- practices (BMP) are now required in most jurisdictions
fare of the public and the environment. If any member of the to prevent this type of pollution. These BMPs can be
general public finds that a facility is violating its permit that structural or nonstructural. Refer to Chapters 3.5 and 5.5
person can independently start a legal action unless the fed- (and 5.7 for temporary systems) for a more detailed dis-
eral or state regulatory agency has already taken an enforce- cussion of these facilities. The degree of land disturbing
ment action. EPA has an enforcement division dedicated to activity, location of the stormwater management facili-
providing national direction; leadership; and consistency in ties, and their design are the subject of review and even-
case selection, development, and resolution and appeal of tual issuance of a permit.
civil judicial and administrative enforcement actions pursu- The EPA's NPDES permit application process for
ant to its statutory authorities. construction sites is typically mirrored by the states
Environmental Permitting Programs. Environmental per- that have been granted issuing authority. Because this is
mits can be categorized into a wide variety of ways based on the most common general permit required to facilitate
the including environmental medium regulated, the regu- development activities, the process for obtaining this
latory agency administering the permits, or the permitted permit, per EPA's website, is detailed as follows:
activity. This section provides brief descriptions of some
of the more common environmental permitting programs 1. Read the applicable construction general permit
associated with land development. (CGP) fact sheet and permit requirements. The
Water. For the purpose of addressing water-related permits, applicable CGP depends on the construction opera-
this chapter categorizes water into surface water, waters of tor's NPDES permitting authority. EPA's national
the United States including wetlands, and groundwater. Each CGP applies only in areas where EPA regions have
of these categories requires different aspects of environmen- not granted the state permit-issuing authority.
tal protection and must be managed in a responsible manner
2. Develop and implement an SWPPP. SWPPPs are
to ensure their quality, quantity, and future availability.
required for all CGP applicants. The EPA provides a
Surface water: Surface water pollution can result in template for an SWPPP for construction activities on
conditions that are unsafe for drinking, fishing, swim- its website. Note that an SWPPP must be developed
ming, and other activities. Many studies have shown that and implemented in accordance with the CGP prior
runoff from urban and industrial areas typically contain to submitting the NOi.
significant quantities of the same general types of pollut- 3. Complete and submit an NOi for construction activ-
ants that are found in municipal wastewater and indus- ity to EPA's NOi Processing Center or the appropri-
trial discharge and cause similar water quality problems ate state agency. Signing and submitting the NOi
(Virginia Water Control Board 1992). Therefore, as man- form obligates the permittee to comply with the
dated by Congress under the Clean Water Act (CWA) terms of the CGP. EPA's NOi requires certification
(as introduced in Chapter 2.5), the NPDES stormwater that the industrial activity will not affect endangered
program was created as a national program for address- or threatened species protected under the Endan -
ing the nonagricultural sources of stormwater discharges gered Species Act. This certification is unique to
that adversely affect the quality of our nation's waters. EPA's NOi and is not a requirement of most NPDES-
This permit is required for land development projects delegated states' NOls. For information about a
on even relatively small sites. Specifically, an NPDES per- particular state program or permit, contact the
mit is required if the proposed construction is expected appropriate state.
to result in the disturbance of more than 1 acre of total
land area. Some jurisdictions are more stringent in an To terminate coverage, a notice of termination (NOT)
effort to protect unique resources; for instance, many for industrial activity must be submitted to EPA's NOi
jurisdictions in the Chesapeake Bay watershed have low- Processing Center. A permittee may submit an NOT
ered the limit for land disturbance to 2500 square feet. when
 6.1 ■ PERMITS AND BONDS 643

• Disturbed soils at the construction site have finally unfit for human use. Some of the major sources of these
been stabilized and temporary erosion and sediment contaminants are storage tanks, septic systems, hazard-
control measures have been removed (or will be ous waste sites, landfills, and the widespread use of road
removed at an appropriate time). salts and chemicals.
• Stormwater discharges have been eliminated. The Safe Drinking Water Act was established to pro-
tect the quality of drinking water in the United States.
• The permittee is no longer an operator of the site. This law focuses on all waters actually or potentially
designated for drinking use, whether from aboveground
Waters of the United States and wetlands: The CWA is
or underground sources. The act authorized EPA to
probably the most significant act in its effect on land
establish safe standards of purity. State governments,
development activity, particularly the wetland-related
which assume this power from EPA, also encourage
regulations found in Sections 401 and 404. Section 401 of
attainment of secondary standards (nuisance-related).
the CWA establishes a program to regulate the effects of
The Comprehensive State Ground Water Protection Pro-
any discharges into waters of the United States including
grams (CSGWPPs) established a partnership between
wetlands. Section 404 of the CWA establishes programs
the states, tribal governments, and the EPA to implement
to regulate the discharge of dredged and fill material into
waters of the United States, including wetlands. Waters EPA's groundwater protection goal and principles. State
of the United States considered jurisdictional are regu- and local governing agencies may have restrictions for
lated by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and include development projects that could potentially impact areas
streams, wetlands, and open waters (such as ponds and that have been designated for wellhead protection.
~akes). Wetlands, as introduced in Chapter 2.5, generally
Air. Air pollution can be defined as the presence of gases
mclude swamps, marshes, bogs, floodplains, and similar
or particulates at levels that cause harm to human health
areas. The simplest strategy for dealing with waters of the
or property. Air pollution can be caused by many different
United States including wetlands on a particular project
sources that can include naturally occurring events such as
is to know the location of the jurisdictional areas and
wind storms or volcanic eruptions and man-made activities
to avoid them in the development process. However, in
such as fugitive dust from land disturbance, vehicular emis-
many instances total avoidance is not practical, and some
sions, or emissions from industrial facilities. EPA or their
involvement with the regulatory process is inevitable.
designated local authority currently regulates fugitive dust
Prior to planning and constructing developments
on construction sites larger than 5 acres. Contractors must
within waters of the United States and/or wetlands, the
file a fugitive dust emission control plan to be in compliance.
applicant must show that no alternative site exists, that
Smaller sites may be subject to local regulations (refer to
ecological damage will be avoided and/ or be minimized
Chapter 5.7 for strategies on fugitive dust control).
as much as practicable, and that there will be no "net
The cumulative impacts of the air pollution caused by
loss" of jurisdictional areas.
development can have a significant effect on air quality.
As discussed earlier in this chapter, the decision of
EPA or its delegated state authority has various programs
whether a general or individual permit will be issued is
in place under the Clean Air Act to minimize air pollu-
based on the amount of impact on the streams and/or
tion and protect and improve air quality. The specific stan-
wetlands affected by a project. States may incorporate
dards for air quality vary depending on site location and
the permit application process into their adopted water
the activity being performed. The land developer could
quality regulations. When this is done, it usually results
be required to obtain an air permit and may be faced with
in a simplified process. However, there may be several
addressing issues associated with fugitive dust, open burn-
agencies including federal, state, and local agencies
ing, and construction-related air quality impacts. In some
involved in issuing and approving a permit. This field of
instances, a development may be proposed in a National
regulation is subject to rapid change, and the applicant
Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) nonattainment
is advised to seek out the advice of those professionals
zone (typically related to metropolitan areas). Information
attuned to the water quality aspects ofland development
about air quality issues at a specific site can be found on
in the site's jurisdiction. Penalties for violating the federal
either the EPA's website or on the particular state's envi-
regulations, state law, and/or local ordinances are severe.
ronmental department website. Construction activities in
Groundwater: Groundwater accounts for approximately these areas may require additional air permits and miti-
two-thirds of the world's available freshwater supply and gation measures. Most states have a state implementation
is used for drinking water by more than 50% of the peo- plan (SIP) that incorporates the EPA-approved regulations
ple in the United States. Groundwater contamination can and other materials for meeting clean air standards and
occur when products such as gasoline, oil, road salts, and associated Clean Air Act requirements.
other chemicals are released into the environment and A project that could have a significant impact on air
enter the groundwater, causing it to become unsafe and quality may require extensive air quality modeling in order
&44 fatUhi!i F41Mitii/i,134U\lhii,i/i
to verify that it will not significantly increase the constitu- do not have to be disposed of at a landfill. This debris may
ents that exceed the NAAQS for the respective nonattain- be reused, recycled, buried on-site, or may be removed from
ment zone. Mitigation measures that may be required could the site to be used as offsite fill as long as it is not placed in a
include reduced or restricted work hours or days, restrictions waterway or wetland.
associated with specific types of equipment or construction New construction, especially on previously undeveloped
materials, etc. A developer should consult with the local land, can generate vegetative waste that may be banned from
jurisdiction as to what measures may be required so as to solid waste landfills. These wastes may be disposed of at a
plan accordingly. composting facility or dealt with on site by burning, chip-
Noise. Noise is considered a pollutant and can be consid- ping, grinding, or shredding. An air permit may be required
ered a public nuisance. While its physical and emotional if the waste is burned on site and a registration process may
effects are difficult to define quantitatively, the noise level be required if chipped, ground, or shredded, depending on
itself can be measured in decibels, and it is therefore reg- the quantity of vegetative waste generated.
ulated through permits. Cities and local municipalities Contaminated or otherwise classified materials (i.e.,
typically handle noise issues through local ordinances, so RCRA classified) such as contaminated soil, groundwater,
specific requirements can vary significantly, depending on asbestos-containing materials (ACMs), or lead-based paint
location. The characteristics and conditions that are gen- (LBP) often require special attention during land devel-
erally considered when determining if a noise is a public opment projects. Often, the contractor or applicant must
nuisance include identify the ultimate (permitted) repository and establish
demolition, transport, and disposal plans in compliance with
• Noise intensity level (commonly measured in applicable regulations.
decibels) State Permitting Contacts. Determining the types of envi-
• Nature of the noise (natural versus unnatural) ronmental permits that are required on a construction proj-
ect can be a very complex and time-consuming process. Some
• Origin of the noise permits are handled by federal agencies while others are the
• Proximity to receptors responsibility of the individual state or local municipality. To
obtain additional information on federal programs, search
• The time of day (or night) when the noise is the EPA website under the names of the above-mentioned
generated programs. Most states have posted a comprehensive list of
the environmental permits required for varying activities,
• Duration of the noise
and the appropriate contact should additional information
• Whether the noise is recurrent, intermittent, or be required.
constant Building Permits. After site plan approval and permit (and
even when no site permit is necessary) building permits
These characteristics are typically evaluated during the plan are typically required for the construction of all structures.
approval process. If an environmental study has been deemed The primary focus of review is architectural and structural
necessary during the permitting process, a noise impact design, accessibility (where required), and connection to
assessment may be required. The noise impact assessment means of access and other public infrastructure facilities.
evaluates the potential effect of the noise on local receptors Building permit review allows for examination of criteria
such as residential buildings, schools, and offices. In addi- contained in both the zoning ordinance and building codes
tion, the study also evaluates the effectiveness of various mit- applicable in the jurisdiction.
igation measures that can be incorporated into the project Required Submittals. A building permit application is,
and proposes adequate mitigation to address the magnitude in many jurisdictions, the "marriage" of architectural plans
of the impact anticipated. A noise impact assessment would and final, approved site or subdivision plans. Most munici-
likely be required if there are a significant number of recep- palities prepare pre-printed application forms and checklists
tors impacted or if a federal action is triggered by the project [see Figure 6.IB(a) and (b)] showing a sample of the infor-
at hand. mation and plans that are required for the building permit
Waste. Waste is generated at construction sites where there submission. The complexity of required documents is con-
is clearing, excavation, construction, renovation, or demoli- tingent upon both the project and type of construction. A
tion of structures. This waste is considered construction and general summary of building permit application packages
demolition debris. Some of this debris can be managed on- is as follows:
site. The remaining waste must be properly handled: either
recycled, diverted and reused, or ultimately disposed of at • For individual single family detached structures, sim -
an appropriate permitted landfill. For example, uncontami- ple lot grading, foundation, and framing plans may
nated rocks, bricks, concrete, road demolition debris, and be sufficient. Depending on the size of the structure,
dirt are not subject to solid waste regulations and therefore preparation by an architect may not be required.
 6.1 ■ PERMITS AND BONDS 645

PRINCE GEORGE'S COUNTY •DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES •PERMIT OFFICE

9400 PEPPERCORN PLACE, SUITE 600, LARGO, MD 20774, 301-883-5900
APPLICATION FOR PLAN EXAMINATION AND PERMIT

Case Number Year Type Rev. : I Date

Site I Land Tax Account# I Election

District
I L-O• Block I Parcel I Tax Map I Grid
Information
Address Liber I F olio SCD#

City/I own/State/Zip Subdivision I Suite/Unit#

Tv"" or Permit Plea.se Check One Ex.lsU 112 Slie Use Please Clleck One
D New Residential D Misc. Residential D OPEN LANDNACANT LOT D Single Family DwclUng
D New Commercial D Misc. Commercial D Commercial BuUdlng D T ownhouses/Apl/C ondo's
D Addition D Alteratlon/Re11airs D Grocery Store D Shoppinl?J'Center/ Mall
D Gradlne D Loe~ine D Warehouse/Storage D Car/Sales/Wash/Repair
D Found/Bldg. D SWM/Concepl/ D Hospital D Library/School
11
D Use & Occupancy ( U&O) D Temp U&O D C hurch/Rectory/Synagogue D Parking Lots
D Sign (Bldg) D Sign (Ground) PROPOSED USE:
D Fire/Alarm/Hood D Fire/S11rinklers Property Information
D Mechanical □ S11ecJOther/Raze Water Sewer E lectric C o.
Property Owner Information D WSSC D WSSC D PEPCO
Coo1pa11y Name D C ity D City D B.G.E
Name: D Well D Septic D SMECO
Work Description & Job
Address: Height (ft) Width (ft) Depth (ft)
City/State/Zip Total Site Area Disturbed Area F loor A rea

Telephone Nun1ber Est. Construction Cost$

Contractor's InronnaUon U&O Occupant's Information
License Type & Number Com11any Name
Company Name Trade Name
Na me: Owner's Name:
Address: Address:
City/State/Zip City/Stale/Zip
Telephone Nwnber Telephone N umber
Fax N umber FaxNun,bcr
Archltect's/Ene,lneer's lnforniaUon Applicant's 1nrormaUon
Corupany Name Company Name
Name: Name:
Address: Address:
City/State/Zip City/State/Zip
Telephone Nun1.ber Tele11honeNumber
Fax N umber FaxNwuber
FOR OFFICE USE ONLY
Agency Reviewer Date Aeency Re,>lewer Date
M-NCPPC Structural. E ng.
DPW&T Electrical En11.
PERMITS Fire E ng
HEALTH Site E ng.

Applicant Signature Date Permit Specialist

I hereby certify thal I have authority of the property o'Mler to make this application and that the infonnation is complete and correct , and ij a pennt is issued, the construction
and or use will conform to the building code, the zoning ordinance and other appticable laws and regulations including private building restrictions, if any, v.tlich relate to the
property
5066/2004

FIG uRE 6. 1 B Sample building permit application form.

646 fatUhi!i F41Mitii/i,134U\lhii,i/i
Residential - Single Family Dwellings Commercial - Multi-Family Dwellings
The following plans are required to apply for a Single Family The following plans are required to apply for a new multi-family
Dwelling permit: dwelling building permit:
•One (1) Concept Approval Letter •One (1) Concept Approval Letter
•One (1) Approved Stormdrain Plan (if needed) •Seven (7) Site/ Plot Plans - Signed and Sealed
•Six (6) Site/Plot Plans - Signed and Sealed •Two (2) Architectural Drawings - Signed and Sealed
•Two (2) Architectural Drawings - Signed and Sealed •Two (2) Structural Drawings - Signed and Sealed
•Two (2) Structural Drawings - Signed and Sealed •Two (2) Electrical Drawings - Signed and Sealed
•Two (2) Landscape Plans •Two (2) Mechanical Drawings - Signed and Sealed
•One (1) Sediment Control Plan - Green stamp if the disturbed •Two (2) Energy Calculations - Signed and Sealed
area is greater than 5,000 sq . ft. •Two (2) Landscape Plans - Signed and Sealed
•Three (3) Tree Conservation Plans or exemption letter •Two (2) Sediments Control Plans, one (1) green stamped
•Three (3) Tree Conservation Plans, or exempt letter
•Two (2) Approved Stormdrain Plans
•Two (2) Geo Technical Reports

Commercial - Townhouse Commercial - New Building

The following plans are required to apply for a townhouse The following plans are required to apply for a new commercial
building permit: building permit:
•Seven (7) Site/Plot Plans - Signed and Sealed •Seven (7) Site/Plot Plans - Signed and Sealed
•Two (2) Architectural Drawings - Signed and Sealed •Two (2) Architectural Drawings - Signed and Sealed
•Two (2) Structural Drawings - Signed and Sealed •Two (2) Structural Drawings - Signed and Sealed
•Two (2) Electrical Drawings - Signed and Sealed •Two (2) Electrical Drawings - Signed and Sealed
•Two (2) Mechanical Drawings - Signed and Sealed •Two (2) Mechanical Drawings - Signed and Sealed
•Two (2) Energy Calculations - Signed and Sealed •Two (2) Energy Calculations - Signed and Sealed
•Two (2) Landscape Plans - Signed and Sealed •Two (2) Landscape Plans - Signed and Sealed
•Two (2) Sediment Control Plans, one (1) green stamped •Two (2) Sediment Control Plans, one (1) green stamped
•Three (3) Tree Conservation Plans, or exempt letter •Three (3) Tree Conservation Plans, or exempt letter
•Two (2) Approved Stormdrain Plans •Two (2) Approved Stormdrain Plans
•One (1) Concept Approval Letter •One (1) Concept Approval Letter
FIG uRE 6 .1 B (Continued)

• For residential subdivisions, overlot grading plans regulations such as certain energy efficiency standards that
showing connections to utility systems, soils infor- have been codified or green building certification criteria
mation and test data showing areas requiring special that the municipality has adopted. For zoning, the primary
treatment or alternate details for nontypical situ- concerns are proper setback from property lines, area of
ations, as well as master architectural documents building coverage, density and floor area, height, parking,
showing foundation and framing plans for each and other required facilities that support or are accessory to
type of house, and structural connection details are the principal use of the property. Determining compliance
generally required. The municipality will normally with the building codes requires extensive analysis of con-
perform inspections at the completion of each phase struction details to ensure structural integrity and review of
of building construction prior to allowing work to internal systems for heating, plumbing, and electric service.
be concealed, for example, closing in a wall before Building spaces, both interior and exterior, are assessed in
the electric and/or plumbing in the wall has been terms of the accessibility guidelines. Fire protection systems
inspected and approved, in preparation for the next and fire code construction standards are also reviewed.
phase. As with other approval procedures, the designated lead
agency receives plans and distributes them to others. The
• For complex residential (i.e., multifamily or mixed-
review is usually conducted in a single phase, although vari-
use applications) and nonresidential structures,
ous components of the structure may be reviewed by dif-
a complete set of construction drawings-archi-
ferent departments or agencies. In addition to the payment
tectural plans and site plans-showing all utility
of application fees, other fees may also be collected at the
connections and internal systems is often required.
time of submittal. These include availability or connection
Local regulations often establish elaborate testing
charges for utility services. Fee calculations may be based
and inspection procedures with, in some instances,
on floor area, number of fixtures, projected usage, or other
provisions for third-party inspection by indepen-
indicators. In some communities, impact fees or other devel-
dent firms.
opment contributions (school contributions, parks and rec-
Permit Review Criteria and Procedure. Building permit reation or public facility contribution to name a few) also are
applications are reviewed for compliance with appropri- collected at the time of permit application.
ate municipal zoning requirements, local, state, and federal An approved building permit and payment of associated
building codes, and other applicable regional and municipal fees give the owner/developer the legal authorization to start
 6.1 ■ PERMITS AND BONDS 647

the construction of a building project in accordance with of items subject to bonding and certifies to the accuracy of
approved drawings and provisions. On the whole, a building the estimate. The bond amount is a reasonable estimate of
permit is required to erect, install, extend, alter, or repair a what one could expect to pay to have the improvements
building and must be posted in a conspicuous place until the constructed within the period specified in the agreement.
job is completed and passed as satisfactory by a municipal This estimate is reviewed and approved by the local juris-
building inspector. diction as a part of the approval of the entire bond package.
It is not unusual for larger developments with consider-
6.1.2. Bonds able infrastructure construction to develop the project in
Upon completion of the review and approval of the final smaller sections to avoid the financial burden of bonding
site plan, additional administrative steps are necessary to the entire project.
ensure that not only is the infrastructure construction com- Upon completion of the physical site improvements and
pleted, but that it conforms to the approved plans. These compliance with all other regulations, the bond may be
guarantees take the form of enforceable bonds and agree- released. Some jurisdictions allow for partial release as ele-
ments. In most cases, the documents must be processed ments are completed and accepted. An inspection is con-
before the issuing of permits that would allow construction ducted to ensure compliance with all previously noted code
to commence. Bonds are often required prior to the issu- infractions that all infrastructure construction is acceptable
ance of permits. to the agency assuming maintenance responsibilities, all fees
Bonds guarantee construction of public improvements have been collected, and the as-built construction plans have
in accordance with approved plans. The financial institu- been approved.
tion that issued the instrument makes funds available to Some localities require a conservation agreement and
the local government if the developer is forced to abandon bond in order to preserve those parts of the development
the project. The municipality is then able to construct the property that are to remain undisturbed. This is to ensure
improvements if the developer is unable to complete them. protection of trees, historic structures, and the like. Accu-
Institutions that issue performance bonds usually examine rate identification of these areas is necessary to avoid errors
the credit worthiness and past performance record of the and misunderstandings. The conservation agreement also
developer and typically charge substantial fees for their ser- ensures that the erosion and sediment controls are installed
vice and risk. The bond instruments have the effect of com- and maintained.
mitting the capital and credit available to the developer for The bonds are prepared once final site plans are
future ventures. This provides strong motivation to com- approved, based off the construction estimates. The bond
plete a project and fulfill the obligations of the bond so that amount is usually determined based on the estimated cost
it can be released. of the activity. Most jurisdictions impose a minimum bond
Often, performance bond guarantees are set at ll 0% of amount.
the construction costs to help ensure municipal oversight Bond Estimates. Bond estimates are generally developed
expenses are allocated in the event the developer defaults at the time of final site plan approval. A bond estimate will
and the bond or letter of credit is called upon. Performance often require a calculation of proposed materials (length
bonds are often not released until after a project is completed, of pipe, area of clearing, number of fire hydrants, etc.), but
occupied, or accepted by public authorities. This ensures that bond estimates are not intended to represent a construction
infrastructure will be finished, maintained, and, if damaged, estimate. A bond estimate often follows a prescribed unit
repaired by the developer. Both consumers and the juris- price index (assigned by the jurisdiction) for each infrastruc-
diction are protected from incurring these expenses. Many ture element. In contrast, a construction estimate uses com-
municipalities also allow for a reduction or replacement of petitive bidding to determine price and each contractor may
the performance bond, when all wet utilities, grading, and have a proprietary method of establishing the scope and fee
paving are installed, with a maintenance bond. Maintenance for each infrastructure element.
bonds are used to ensure quality of workmanship and cover Quantity takeoffs for the project are often reserved until
repair costs if a developer (or contractor) defaults after the the site plan is approved or near approval. If plan revisions
project is substantially complete. are necessary, some jurisdictions may require a revision to
The agreement is the legal, binding contract between the the bond amount. Bond revisions may also be required after
developer and the permit issuing authority. The agreement a given period (several years) to accommodate inflation.
specifies the manner and date by which the construction as Bond cost estimates should be prepared and approved by
shown on the approved plans shall be completed. A bond or qualified professionals; in some cases, the bond estimates are
other forms of security approved by the local jurisdiction required to be signed and sealed by a professional engineer.
backs the agreement. This is to ensure thoroughness and credibility of the esti-
The performance bond ensures compliance with the mate. It is important that somewhere in the process an indi-
terms of the agreement. The bond is usually the full amount vidual with knowledge of the details of construction work
of the estimate for construction of the public improve- will perform a constructability review and either develops
ments. The submitting engineer determines the quantities the estimate or checks the efforts of others.
64a fatUhi!i F41Mitii/i,134U\lhii,i/i
It is important during the development of the bond cost the design intent, the site engineer who has been involved in
estimates that the latest available information be used. In the project from the beginning is best suited to resolve these
some cases, the jurisdiction may have information that problems amicably before they escalate.
should be used for bond estimates. A local DOT or other Post-design phase services for the site design team could
public agency may publish historic prices from recent proj- include
ects. The developer and site engineer need to be wary of data
Engineering
that is significantly aged, which is often not accepted for use
in a bond estimate. Other information, such as soil condi- • Bond estimates and applications, as required for
tions, quantity of rock, quantity of unsuitable soil, or the size construction.
and location of unmarked utilities, can be more difficult to
estimate. • Shop drawing or product submittal review and
In general, the bond estimate should include the quanti- approval.
ties and unit costs of all items needed to construct the proj- • Requests for information (RFI) review and approval.
ect. The bond cost estimate can be used for some of the same
items as identified for the preliminary estimate such as loan • Inspections, depending on the jurisdiction and their
applications, cash flows, and to develop market prices. In inspection program and, particularly, if custom
addition, this estimate can provide the developer with area- design facilities are installed.
sonable guide of the amount of funding needed to complete • Field revisions are often minor in nature and
the project, but a bond estimate is not meant to replace a cost are, in the opinion of the engineer, in substantial
estimate that is prepared specifically for construction cost compliance with approved plans. They are typically
estimation purposes. accomplished through small exhibits and reflect a
For bond estimates, a contingency of 10% to 20% is usu- coordinated effort between the contractor, client,
ally employed, depending on the source and timeliness of engineer, and jurisdictional inspector, if present.
the unit costing. Many jurisdictions will prescribe the con-
tingency to be used. The contingency is an indication that • Formal revisions to the plan may be required in
the bond estimate is not meant as an accurate representation order to accommodate substantial changes that do
of the project cost; the bond estimate does not include all not retain the spirit or intent of the approved design
considerations ofrisk, fluctuations of material costs, project documents. Formal revisions are processed through
management, potential for revisions, and other common the approving jurisdiction and ensure that the proj-
conditions of construction. ect, client, and contractor remain in compliance
with local standards, regulations, issued permits,
6.1.3. Post-Design Services and binding agreements.
Once the final site plan is approved, the land development
Surveying
consultant can pursue the necessary permits required to
break ground at the site. During this phase of the project, the • Construction stakeout surveys
design work has been completed (except for potential revi-
• As-built surveys
sions or addendums) and the effort focuses on permit pro-
cessing, which often includes bonds, agreements, and permit General
applications. After the permits have been secured, the proj-
ect can move into the construction phase. Construction is • Green building documentation services: If formal
the final step in the land development process: it is the phase third-party certification is a project priority, addi-
where the project truly comes to life and all design efforts are tional documentation and submission of construc-
realized in tangible form. Although the contractor typically tion-related efforts may be required.
becomes the "lead" consultant at this stage, the design team
• Postconstruction services ranging from bond
remains a valuable resource.
reduction and release documentation to occupancy
Construction phase services for the design team will vary
permit procurement and public street acceptance
between projects and clients. The scope for the design team
are all "punch list" type items that the land devel-
often depends on the type of project, capabilities of the gen-
opment consultant often facilitates given their
eral contractor, the project schedule, and budget. When pos-
familiarity with the project and jurisdictional
sible, it is recommended that the site engineer be retained
requirements.
throughout construction to facilitate project completion and
ensure correct implementation of design strategies. Inevita- • Operations and maintenance training and educa-
bly, despite everyone's best efforts during the actual design tion for infrastructure systems. As consultants
phases, issues may arise during construction. Whether it's a move toward providing project life cycle services,
result of unforeseen conditions or different interpretations of this postoccupancy requirement will take on larger
 6.1 ■ PERMITS AND BONDS 649

significance: from initial user education to dynamic by improved technologies, computer applications, and the
as-built project logs (drawings linked to databases) implications of synergistically designed infrastructure sys-
such that owners, operators, and/or maintenance per- tems, these services represent the next step in comprehen-
sonnel have not only a record of what was built but the sive, client-focused project delivery. For more information
ability to access and store information-maintenance on construction phase services, refer to Construction Practices
or replacement logs, complaints, ownership notes, for Land Development (Dewberry).
etc.-on individual site and building features.
REFERENCE
Construction, postconstruction, and postoccupancy land Virginia Water Control Board. 1992. Richmond, Virginia: Virginia
development services are evolving at a rapid pace. Hastened Water Control Board.
 CHAPTER 6.2
CONSTRUCTION DOCUMENTS
AND CONSTRUCTION PHASE
SERVICES

6.2.1. Introduction once the contract is signed, the package is referred to as the
For a project to be successful, the project requirements must contract documents.
be fully and properly communicated to the construction The content of the construction documents, particularly
contractor-this often requires more information from what as it relates to the contract terms and conditions, will dif-
is provided with the site plan. Additional information may fer depending on whether the developer is a public sector
include specifications, details, and performance criteria. The entity, (local, state, or federal government) or a private sec-
communication of these requirements is achieved through tor business or corporation. In general, public sector clients
the project construction documents. The term "construction have prescribed requirements, regulations, and standards
documents" refers to the inclusion of all information neces- that must be incorporated into the contract and construction
sary for the construction phase of work. Chapter 5.1 provides documents. This may include public bidding and procure-
reference to some of the design information that is often ment regulations and procedures, required design standards
included in the construction documents. The composition of and specifications, and special documentation and report-
construction documents has evolved over time and will often ing requirements. Private sector clients generally have more
vary by project, but generally the drawings and specifications flexibility regarding construction bidding and procurement.
are compiled with a legal agreement (contract) to establish Because the deliverables and process can vary with private
the construction documents. sector clients, it's important to communicate the require-
The construction documents are often organized ments for construction documents.
to include bidding documents and a project manual. It is important to recognize that after the construction is
Figure 6.2A provides reference to the information that is complete the project will need to be maintained and man-
provided in each set of documents. In general, the project aged. This demands that the design team give proper consid-
manual includes information for the contractor related to eration and weight to minimizing the project impacts to the
bidding, contract forms, and the contract conditions. The environment, operational, and life cycle costs. During con-
project specifications (defined in this chapter) are often struction, the design team can continue to advise the devel-
associated with the project manual. When the project man- oper and contractor on low-impact development strategies
ual is combined with the design plans, the set is referenced by considering materials used, the source of materials, trash
as the bidding documents-this set of information is used by and recycling operations, site cleaning and maintenance, and
the contractor to bid the project. Any additional changes other operational considerations. Eventually, a new develop-
to the design or contract are included within the final set of ment program may be established to modify or reconstruct
information referenced as the construction documents, and the project. This project cycle is illustrated in Figure 6.2B.

650
 6.2 ■ CONSTRUCTION DOCUMENTS AND CONSTRUCTION PHASE SERVICES 651

CONSTRUCTION DOCUMENTS

CONTRACT DOCUMENTS

FIG uRE 6. 2 A Components of the construction documents: biding documents, typical project
manual, and contract documents.

DEVELOPMENT
6.2.2. Construction Documents
PROGRAM
As the typical land development project progresses through
the different design and permitting phases, the design pro-
fessional is generally focused on preparing the project draw-
PRE-DESIGN ings and specifications. After final design is complete, the
design professional often prepares and assembles the other
documents that constitute the construction documents.
Because these documents become a legal binding agreement,
it is important to have the owner's legal counsel address the
contract form and provide a review of the contract docu-
ments. The documents typically include
PRELIMINARY
DESIGN 1. Construction drawings
2. Specification
3. Bidding/procurement requirements
DETAILED
DESIGN 4. Contracting requirements

Additional content on these documents is provided herein.

Construction Drawings. The site plan drawings for a proj-
ect go through various stages of development from con-
ceptual to final as addressed in Chapters 2 through 5. The
drawings at each stage of development also serve a purpose
POST- in the project development, permitting, approval, bidding,
DESIGN and construction process. The site plan that is approved for
permit will generally be used within the construction docu-
ments, but in some cases supplemental information will be
included.
Construction drawings may expand upon the permit set
OPlllATIONS AND
MAINTENANCE to include additional details. Developer requested details
may include enhanced landscaping plans, specialty hard-
FIG uRE 6. 2 B Project cycle. scape, site furnishings, or value engineering decisions that
&52 fatUhi!i F41Mitii/i,134U\lhii,i/i
go beyond the requirements for site plan approval from the may be authored by the utility provider. Similarly, specifica-
local jurisdiction. These additional details can be included in tions for erosion and sediment control measures may come
the permit set of documents but may be intentionally sepa- from the jurisdiction. If publicly available specifications are
rated from the permit. The decision on how the construction used with the project, they should be reviewed by the design
drawings are formatted is determined by the design team team to verify they are applicable or they should be modified
and the developer. as needed.
Specifications. The specifications provide a written As an example of specification scope and language, some
description of the project requirements, construction mate- text from the FHWA "Standard Specifications for Construc-
rials, and the quality and performance standards for the tion of Roads and Bridges on Federal Highway Projects" is
products, systems, and equipment to be incorporated into provided in Figure 6.2C.
the project. Specifications complement the drawings by pro- The information and requirements contained with the
viding an opportunity to communicate additional informa- specification (as noted in the FHWA example) supplement
tion to the contractor that would otherwise be difficult to the details and information shown in the construction draw-
include within the construction drawings-project specifica- ings. The requirements of the specifications should match
tions can be hundreds of pages of text. the notes within the construction drawings and extend into
The specifications are typically organized under gen- details about how construction should be performed to
eral requirements and technical specifications. The general ensure the desired result of the finished product. In many
requirements address requirements that apply broadly to the cases, the specifications also place conditions on when work
entire project. This includes project administration, quality can be performed based on soil moisture conditions or out-
control, temporary facilities, payment procedures, and proj- door temperature.
ect closeout requirements. The general specifications are also With the importance of energy conservation and sustain-
referred to as front end specifications. ability in the design and construction industry, it is critical
The technical specification sections are organized by to incorporate into the technical specifications the desired
major work type (i.e., site preparation, utilities, grading, etc.) environmental performance requirements and criteria of the
and define in detail the requirements for the products, equip- products and materials to be used in construction. This starts
ment, materials, and workmanship. Technical specifications in the early stages of the design process when the design
are written in four ways: professional and owner make decisions on the project goals
and strategies relative to energy efficiency, sustainability,
1. Descriptive specifications provide a very detailed and environmental performance. These goals and strategies
description of the properties, workmanship, and are carried forward through the design process and devel-
installation requirements of a product, material, or opment of the final construction documents, including the
equipment item. technical specifications. These environmental performance
2. Performance specifications provide a description of requirements become even more important if the project is
the required end product or results. The specifica- seeking a certain certification level for sustainability as pro-
tions set performance criteria and allow the con- vided through various standards. Additional specification
tractor the flexibility to choose materials, systems, requirements for sustainability goals may include require-
and equipment to meet the specified performance ments such as listing acceptable sources of material used in
requirements. construction (often based on distance from the project) or a
management plan for waste and recycling.
3. Reference standard specifications use standard Bidding/Procurement Requirements. The bidding/
specifications developed by recognized trades, procurement requirements are the instructions and infor-
professional, and government organizations. These mation to prospective bidders (contractors) for a project.
standards are simply incorporated into the technical In general, the bidding/procurement requirements allow an
specifications by reference. owner to solicit competitive bids for the project with all bid-
4. Proprietary specifications are very specific and pro- ders basing their estimates or proposals on the same infor-
vide the contractor limited or no flexibility to choose mation and subject to the same contracting requirements.
amongst varying options. Proprietary specifications One important item addressed in the bidding/pro-
provide the supplier or manufacturer's name, prod- curement requirements is whether the bidder/contractor
uct name, and specific characteristics. In general, would need to provide a performance and payment bond
proprietary specifications are not allowed in public for the construction work. A performance and payment
sector work as it limits open and fair competition. bond is a warranty to the owner that provides protection
to the owner in the event the contractor does not properly
In some cases, a project can reference public specifications perform the work, does not pay his subcontractors and
for applicable project work. For example, the specifications suppliers, and/or defaults on the contract (this is a dif-
for roads, curb, and storm drains may come from the Depart- ferent bond from those described in Chapter 6.1, but is
ment of Transportation. Sanitary and water specifications analogous in intent).
 6.2 ■ CONSTRUCTION DOCUMENTS AND CONSTRUCTION PHASE SERVICES 653

Section 609. - CURB AND GUTTER

Description

609.01 This work consists of constructing or resetting curb, combination curb and gutter, or wbeelstops.

Material

609.02 Conform to the following Sections and Subsections:

Asphalt concrete 403

Bedding material 704.02
Concrete coloring agents 711.05
Minor concrete 601.
Mortar 712.02
Reinforcing steel 709.01
Rock for masomy structures (stone curbing) 705.03
Sealants, fillers, and seals 712.01

Construction Requirements

609.03 General. Excavate and backfill according to Section 209. Place and compact the bedding material.
Compact the bedding material with at least three passes of a lightweight mechanical tamper, roller, or
vibratory system.

609.04 Stone and Precast Concrete Curb. Do not use stone with visible drill marks on the exposed
faces.

Conform to the dimensions of stone curb specified and the following:

(a) Type l. Saw or point the top surface of vertical stone curb to an approximate true plane with no
depression or projection on that surface of over ¼ inch (6 millimeters). Pitch the front and back arris
lines straight and true. Limit projections or depressions on the back surface to not exceed a batter of
1 inch (25 millimeters) horizontal to 3 inches (75 millimeters) vertical.

Saw, point, or smooth quarry split the front exposed face of the vertical stone curb and form to an
approximately true plane. Limit projections or depressions on the remaini_ng face di tance to I inch
(25 millimeters) or less from the plane of the exposed face.

Square the ends of vertical stone curb with the top back and face and finish so when the sections are
placed end to end, shows no space more than ½ inch (13 millimeters) in the joint for the full width of
the top surface and for the entire exposed front face. The remainder of the end may break back no
more than 4 inches (100 millimeters) from the plane of the joint. Cut the joints of circular or curved
stone curb on radial lines.

Make stone curb segments at least 48 inches (1200 millimeters) long, but the length may vary where a
depressed or modified section of curb is required for driveway , crossings, or closures.

(b) Type 2. Confonn to the requirements of Type 1 stone curb for slope stone curb, except as follows:

The maximum allowable projection or depression on a horizontal top surface is limited to ½ inch
(13 millimeters). On other exposed faces, the maximum allowable projection or depression is limited
to 1 inch (25 millimeters) .

For unexposed surfaces, the maximum allowable projection or depression from a true plane on a
24-inch (600-millimeter) length is 3 inches (75 millimeters).

The maximum allowable space showing on exposed faces between adjacent segments of slope stone
curb is ¾ inch (19 millimeters). Make slope stone curb segments at least 24 inches (600 millimeters)
long.
FIG uRE 6. 2 C Example of a specification section, from Federal Highway Administration, Standard Specification for Roads
and Bridges on Federal Highway Projects.
&54 fatUhi!i F41Mitii/i,134U\lhii,i/i
Clean the curb material thoroughly and wet it just before setting. Set the curb in bedding material so the
face and top lines are to line and grade. Make the joints ½ to I inch ( 13 to 25 millimeters) wide and fill the
joints with mortar.
Complete the first 25 feet (8 meters) of curb to demonstrate the ability to build a curb conforming to these
requirements. Do not continue construction until the 25-foot (8-meter) test section is approved.

Where a concrete pavement is constructed contiguous to the curb, construct the joints in the curb directly
in line with the pavement expansion joints.

Make the curb joint ¾ inch (I 9 millimeters) wide and fill it with expansion joint filler of the same nominal
thickness as the pavement joint. Fill voids between the joint filler and the curb with mortar.

609.05 Concrete Curb or Curb and Gutter. Perfonn work according to Section 60 I. The curb or curb
and gutter may be cast-in-place or sLip-formed.

(a) Cast-in-place. Use forms that extend for the ful I depth of the concrete. Use curved fonns for curb
with a radius of300 feet (90 meters) or less.

(1) Contraction joints. Construct curb in section of unifonn I 0-foot (3-meter) leni:,>ths.
Construct contraction joints ½ inch (3 millimeters) wide. se metal divider plates. When the
curb is constructed adjacent to or on concrete pavement, match the contraction joints in the
pavement.
(2) Expansion joints. Form expansion joints at intervals of 60 feet ( 18 meters) using a ¾-inch
( 19-millimeter) thick preformed expansion joint filler. Where the curb is constructed adjacent to
or on rigid pavement, match the expansion joints in the pavement.
Finish the concrete smooth and even with a wood float. Broom finish parallel to the curb lin
according to Subsection 552.14(c)(2). When an exposed aggregate finish is required, finish according
to Subsection 552.14(c)(4). Leave forms in place for 24 hours or until the concrete has set sufficiently
so the fom1s can be removed without banning the curb.

(b) Slip-formed. Use a self-propelled automatic curb machine or a paver with curb attachments. Use a
machine that is heavy enough to obtain consolidation without the machine 1iding above the foundation.

Adjust the concrete aggregate gradation, if necessary, to produce a curb or curb and gutter that has well
defined web marks of water on the surface.. Remove and replace sections with craters larger than
3/i 6 inch (5 millimeters) or other sections determined to be damaged or defective. Repairing surface
craters and other defective sections by plastering is not permitted.

After the concrete has hardened ufficiently to permit sawing without damage, saw contraction joints
according to Subsection 609.0S(a)(l). Construct expansion joints according to Subsection
609.05(a)(2).

609.06 Asphalt Concrete Curb. Where curb is constructed on a pavement, place a tack coat according to
Section 412 on the area under the curb.

Construct asphalt concrete curb according to Section 403. Use a self-propelled automatic curb machine or
a paver with curb attachments that is heavy enough to compact a curb without riding above the foundation.
Make the curb unifonn in texture, shape, and density. Curb may be constructed by other means only in
short sections or sections with short radii.

609.07 Resetting Stone or Precast Concrete Curb. Carefully remove, clean, and store the curb. Cut or fit
the curb as necessary for installation. Replace lost, damaged, or destroyed curb. Reset the curb according
to Subsection 609.04.

609.08 Wheelstops. Pin the wheelstops in place with two 36-inch (900-millimeter) sections of o. 6
( 19M) reinforcing steel or ¾-inch ( I 9-mill imeter) steel rods. Reset wheel stops in the same manner.
FIG uRE 6. 2 C (Continued)
 6.2 ■ CONSTRUCTION DOCUMENTS AND CONSTRUCTION PHASE SERVICES 655

609.09 Acceptance. See Table 609-1 for ampling, testing, acceptance requ irements.

Material for mortar will be evaluated under Subsections I 06.02 and I 06.03. Mortar wi ll be eval uated
under Subsection 106.04.

Precast units (curb and wheel stops) will be evaluated under Subsections 106.02 and 106.03.

Bedding mat rial wi ll be evaluated under Subsections I 06.02 and I 06.04.

Stone for stone curbing will be evaluated under Subsections 106.02 and 106.04.

Construction of curb and gutter, and wheelstops will be evaluated under Subsections I 06.02 and I 06.04.

Excavation and backfi ll will be evaluated under Section 209.

Asphalt concrete will be evaluated under Section 403.

Minor concrete will be evaluated under Section 60 I.

Measurement

609.10 Measure the Section 609 pay items listed in the bid schedule according to Sub ection 109.02 and
the follow ing as applicable:

When measuri ng for curb or curb and gutter, make no deduction in length for drainage structures in talled
in the curb section or for driveway and handicap access ram p openings where the gutter is conti nuous
across the opening.

Payment

609.ll The accepted quantitie will be paid at the contract price per unit of measurement for the Section
609 pay items listed in the bid chedule. Payment will be full compensation for the work prescribed in thi s
Section. See Subsection 109.05.

FIGURE 6.2C (Continued)

Other typical and important requirements for bidding/ Contracting Requirements. The contracting require-
procurement include the type of bid and pricing requested ments provide the form of agreement, the form for bonds
(stipulated firm price, cost plus fee, unit price), minimum (if required), and other terms and conditions (often referred
bidder qualifications, location and time of bid submittal, to as general and supplemental conditions) related to the
time allowed for completion of project, damage provisions contract. As previously addressed in this chapter, the writ-
for failure to deliver project on schedule, and criteria for ten agreement (or contract) is only one document of the set
evaluation of the bids and award of the contract. of contents of the contract documents. The actual agree-
For public sector projects bids are typically received as ment, or contract form, serves to legally obligate the sign-
sealed bids at a specified place and time. Bids are then pub- ing parties, addresses certain contractual obligations, and
licly opened, read, and posted for public viewing. Any bidder enumerates the other documents (specifications, drawings,
that fails to comply with a bidding requirement is typically project manual, etc.) that constitute the full set of contract
disqualified (e.g., the submittal is late or doesn't include all documents.
required information). The bid is typically awarded to the Standard construction agreements and contract forms
lowest, responsible bidder. are published and available from professional organizations
For private sector projects, the owner has significant and agencies. These are widely accepted and used for pub-
flexibility in terms of soliciting and awarding a construc- lic and private sector construction projects. Standard form
tion contract. In general, the owner is not required to obtain agreements are addressed in more detail in this chapter.
competitive bids, and may choose to solicit bids from one Often public and private sector owners will have their own
or a selected few contractors. The owner then may negoti- custom contract form or, at a minimum, standard terms
ate a contract with the selected contractor deemed to be the and conditions that are incorporated into a standard agree-
client's best option. ment form.
656 fatUhi!i F41Mitii/i,134U\lhii,i/i
6.2.3. Preparing Contract Documents When authoring and formatting project specifications:
The preparation of the various documents that constitute the
full set of construction documents is critically important to • Determine if the owner has standard specifications to
the success of project. It is important because these docu- be used for the project. If the land development work
ments will ultimately be used to communicate the project is part of a larger project, consult with the design
team lead (may be the project architect) on specifica-
design and requirements to the contractor and will become
the legal binding agreement or contract between the owner tion standards and preferred organization.
and the contractor. • Address the sustainability and environmental design
The information in this section provides an overview on requirements of the project. This may include certain
the preparation of contract documents while highlighting performance criteria required to obtain desired level of
issues and items that are important on typical land develop- certification as a LEED (or other registration) project.
ment projects.
Drawings. The site engineer is primarily responsible for • Specifications should be consistent with and compli-
compiling the site plan and associated design documents ment the information shown on the drawings but
(such as landscape plans, traffic management plans, and should not repeat or duplicate this information.
survey plats). Other drawings, such as building informa- • Avoid language that defines work of specific subcon-
tion, will likely be managed by the building design team. tractors or trades. The contract documents, of which
In some cases, the architect from the building design team the specifications are one element, typically encom-
will take responsibility for compiling all drawings associ- pass the entire project and obligate the contractor for
ated with the construction documents. The design docu- the entire project.
ments should be consistent with project specifications (as
identified in this chapter). • Where reasonable, specify by referencing to an
The maintenance of project drawings is necessary to established and recognized industry standard.
ensure the right information is used for construction. Organizations that develop and support such stan-
Many projects will require plan revisions based on design dards include American Society of Testing and
changes that occur after the issuance of the permits. In Materials (ASTM), American National Standards
many cases, design revisions are required to be resubmitted Institute (ANSI), American Water Works Associa-
and approved before the revised scope of work can be com- tion (AWWA), American Concrete Institute (ACI),
pleted. Revisions may come from value engineering, scope National Fire Protection Association (NFPA),
changes from project budget, or layout edits from tenants International Code Council (ICC), and Associa-
or homeowners. During the final phases of the project, tion of State Highway and Transportation Officials
the revisions are often minor but frequent-this requires (AASHTO). Also, many state transportation depart-
careful management of the drawings to verify that the ments have standard specifications and construction
development team is always referencing the most current details widely referenced and used in the construc-
information. tion industry in their respective state.
Specifications. Generally, when writing specifications for • Specifications have legal consequences and should be
a land development project, existing standard specifications prepared with care, coordinated with the drawings,
are referenced or could be modified to suit the project. The and contain only that information applicable to the
standard specification may have been developed by the pro- project.
fessional design firm based on years of project experience,
provided and required by a public agency, or developed by a When writing specifications, remember the goal is to
recognized organization and commercially available for use. clearly and concisely communicate the design and construc-
Such commercially available standards include Masterspec• tion requirements to the contractor. Therefore, be clear and
and the Unified Facilities Guide Specification (UFGS) used direct using simple sentence structure; be concise, to the
by federal military agencies. point, and accurately present the information.
There are also industry standards for the organization of Bidding/Procurement and Contracting Requirements. The
specifications. The most widely accepted and used speci- bidding/procurement requirements generally consist of an
fication organization standard is the CSI (Construction advertisement or solicitation for bid, instructions to the bid-
Specifications Institute) MasterFormat. MasterFormat pro- der, and the actual bid form for the project. The contracting
vides a list of specification topics by work results or con- requirements generally consist of the contract or agreement
struction practice. At the front of the specification list is form, general conditions related to the contract including
usually procurement and contract requirements, followed bonding requirements if applicable.
by general project requirements. There are various sub- One option for development of bidding/procurement and
groups for the different design disciplines with a subgroup contracting documents is to use standard documents that
for infrastructure. have been developed by recognized agencies and professional
 6.2 ■ CONSTRUCTION DOCUMENTS AND CONSTRUCTION PHASE SERVICES 657

organizations. Such agencies include the American Insti- Further, owners, occupants, tenants, and management orga-
tute of Architects (AIA), and the Engineers Joint Contract nizations utilize the as-built information for operations and
Documents Committee (EJCDC) comprised of the National maintenance purposes. The format of the as-built survey
Society of Professional Engineers, the American Consulting depends on local requirements. Depending on the site con-
Engineers Council, and the American Society of Civil Engi- ditions and jurisdiction, there are six different types of as-
neers. When using these standard documents, it is important built surveys that can be required:
to understand that these documents have been developed as
a family of documents, with consistent language and for- 1. Water: All water utilities constructed are located
mat, common definitions, and cross references. Therefore, including dimensions to houses and structures. This
when using standard documents, select the most appropriate allows the water utility provider to locate the utilities
standard for the project and use this family of documents in the future even under adverse weather conditions
throughout the contract documents. and recover them in the event the utility gets dam-
Important items and issues in preparation of bidding/ aged. In many municipalities the fire hydrants must
procurement and contracting requirements documents for be located in the North American Datum (NAD 83)
land development projects include so they can be input into the emergency 911 System
for reference during an emergency.
• Determine the bidding requirements of owner: if a
public sector project, the owner will have specific bid- 2. Sewer: All sewer utilities constructed are located
ding requirements for sealed competitive bids; if a pri- and documented including such items as pipe and
vate sector owner, determine whether the owner will structure size, type, and slope. Comparison of these
seek competitive bids, seek bids from a selected list of characteristics to the approved plans allows confir-
contractors, or negotiate with a preferred contractor. mation of adequate conveyance systems. This also
guarantees all sewer utilities are located within pro-
• Determine if owner requires contractor to provide a
vided right-of-ways and easements.
performance and payment bond for the project.
• Determine if owner has standard contract form and 3. Storm drain: All storm drain utilities constructed
contracting requirements. are located and documented including such items as
pipe and structure size, type, and slope. Comparison
• Determine method for pricing/bidding the work. For of these characteristics to the approved plans allows
land development work, typically the pricing and confirmation of adequate conveyance systems. This
bids are based on a stipulated firm price bid for the also guarantees all storm drain utilities are located
project or some portion of the project; or based on within provided right-of-ways and easements.
unit price bids with corresponding estimated quanti-
ties resulting in a total bid for the project; or some 4. Stormwater management facilities: These as-built
combination of stipulated and unit price bids. The surveys are required to ensure ponds or other storm-
bid form would be prepared according to the method water management structures provide, hold, and
of bidding and payment. treat the correct volume of water per the approved
construction plans. This verifies the pipes, trash
• Determine with the owner the contract time to be
racks, and risers (or other control structures) were
allowed for construction and if a penalty (liquidated
constructed and set in place properly. It also ensures
damages) would be assessed for noncompliance.
core trenches, antiseep collars and emergency spill-
ways are in place as per the plans. This also guaran-
6.2.4. Postconstruction Services tees the stormwater management facility is located
Postconstructions Services consist of as-built surveys, bond within the easement or designated lot.
releases, and street acceptance. All these services can be
5. Roads: This as-built survey guarantees the road is
required in a given jurisdiction and often are performed by
built in accordance with the approved plans, has
the site engineer on behalf of the client given their familiarity
proper grades, and is in the correct location with
with both the project and jurisdictional requirements.
respect to existing and proposed right-of-ways.
As-Built Surveys. As-built surveys (record drawing) are
Often signage and other required traffic control
essential to acquire the necessary dimensions for establish-
devices are documented as well.
ing a permanent record of the location of the modifications
made in the field by construction contractors (see Figure 6. Parking: The as-built survey in some jurisdictions
6.2D for a sample as-built drawing, with as-built data shown must indicate the location, dimensions, number, and
in color). The purpose of these surveys is to present govern - type (loading spaces, American with Disabilities Act
ment agencies with the final opportunity to verify that the accessible spaces, etc.) of parking spaces as required
construction complies with local regulations and standards. by zoning to be shown.
&5a fatUhi!i F41Mitii/i,134U\lhii,i/i
In some instances, as-built surveys are a contractual Operations and Maintenance. Construction and final
requirement for the contractor. This verifies that the con- as-builts no longer represent the conclusion to land devel-
tractor built the project according to design and entitles opment consulting services: the long-term success of land
him to payment. The as-built survey, also known as record development projects is dependent on proper operations
drawings, is prepared on the original plans. Appropriate and maintenance. Who better to ensure and implement ade-
information is shown in a specific manner to differentiate quate operation and maintenance (O&M) procedures than
it from the design information already on the drawings. the designers who developed the building and infrastructure
One method is to enclose the as-built survey information systems and the surveyors who have documented (in most
in boxes and to use larger and bold lettering to distinguish cases electronically) the construction? Whether it is a com-
it from previous design information. Many jurisdictions mercial development managed entirely by a professional
now require a different color, commonly red, to indicate management group, a large residential or master planned
as-built changes. community managed by one or more Home Owner's Asso-
The as-built plans are considered legal documents and ciations (HOAs), or an individual homeowner taking care of
must be signed by a licensed surveyor, engineer, landscape their property, O&M responsibilities and procedures must
architect, and/or others as required by the local ordinance. be clearly delineated and defined in order to ensure that the
Bond Release. In general, a developer has two options in design intent of constructed facilities is achieved.
terms of bond release. The first option allows the developer Proper O&M procedures involve three distinct steps:
to carry out an agreement that accommodates for the future
installation and improvements within a specified period 1. Identify O&M responsibility-often tied to owner-
of time. At which point, a financial security, such as a let- ship and/ or location of the facility, it is important
ter of credit or a bond is posted with the jurisdiction. This to understand who is responsible for carrying out
allows the developer to secure approval of final plans and long-term maintenance of each building and site
plats prior to construction. During the construction pro- component.
cess, occupancy permits can be obtained upon completion
2. Provide O&M procedures-depending on the spe-
and inspection of the structures. Note that the public infra-
cific facility or infrastructure system, maintenance
structure for the development might not yet be completed
procedures can vary widely. At a minimum, clarify
and the improvements may still be under bond. It is often
what needs to be done: prepare directions for main-
local practice to delay completion of the streets until all con-
tenance activities and a recommended schedule for
struction equipment is taken off the site. A base pavement
completion. Disseminate this information to respon -
coat may be installed, with the final top coat installed as the
sible parties.
last step prior to bond release. This approach minimizes the
potential for damage from the construction equipment or 3. Develop management tools to facilitate proper
moving vans, that the developer would otherwise be respon- O&M-accurate, informative mapping is vital to
sible for repairing. Depending on the time of year, landscap- successful O&M. Maps often contain the answer to
ing improvements may also be delayed until the start of the the first step in O&M-Who is responsible?-and
growing season. Where landscaping is required and included aid in the second step by providing a means of track-
as a bonded item, the jurisdiction may allow the execution of ing or recording O&M processes. The land develop-
a substitute agreement or cash escrow deposit and release the ment consultant who has been part of the design
developer's primary bond. and construction process likely has all the relevant
The second option calls for completion of all improve- information spatially referenced. It is merely a mat-
ments such as streets, utilities, and storm water management ter of taking this process one step further to package
facilities prior to the approval and recordation of the final the information in a manner that is useful to the des-
record plats. ignated maintenance personnel. Whether it is tying
Street Acceptance. Street acceptance is when a newly the map to an online database or providing hard
constructed or improved public road is ready to be turned copies in the form of a comprehensive map book or
over to the municipality in perpetuity. Final paving, signage atlas, the information must be readily available and
and marking, street lighting, street side landscaping, and any in keeping with the management system employed
utilities must be complete, correct per plan/permit, and fully by the client-developer.
located within the right-of-way. All broken, cracked, or oth-
erwise damaged curbing, driveways, or other street compo- Many jurisdictions require certain components of the
nent must be repaired or replaced. Finally, all right-of-way O&M program to be specified on the plans and plats,
monuments must be set where required. Once the street is namely maintenance responsibility-is the noted facil-
fully functional, it can be legally accepted into the public ity publicly or privately maintained? While the presence
street system; at this time, all maintenance responsibilities or lack of an easement is often a good indicator of main-
transfer to the public entity. tenance responsibility, this is only helpful if the map or
 ---- .- ~--~-· ----
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,
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11

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-·-
---
:,=Rog:0.22\111<>-ft
As-Built
107.77
112.18

2-YrQ(olo)
10-YrWSEL
10-YrQ(<ls)
100-YrWSEL
100-YrQ(da)
Conat~Top
SellledTop
Fr<roboord

FIGURE 6 •2 D Example of an as-built plan.

660 fatUhi!i F41Mitii/i,134U\lhii,i/i
"I hereby certify that to the best of my knowledge that this As-Built is in compliance with the PROFILE ALONG TOP OF EMRANKMENT
design, and the pond/basin as oonstructed meets the requirements of the Maryland Soil vrRTl.CAL SCALE 1·::;:,5·
Conservation Service - Maryland S1andards and Specifications for ponds (MD-378) and/or the HOR1ZONTAL SCALE 1• .. 50·
appropriate standards and specifications on the approved Stormwater Management Plan. The
vegetative cover for the stormwater management facility shown on this as-built plan meets or
exceeds 95% of that shown an the approved pond plan.ft
130 130

Eric R. Becker - Professional Engineer - MD #21440

120 120

IMAlNiENANCt BENCH UE.v. 114,@• 1

J.ao• r
_,....!NTENANCE 8£NCH ElEV. , 1
SIJ'£TY BENCH EllV. 11 1.50
110 SAFETY BENCH ElEV. 11 1.JO

BOTTOM OF B,\Slt< EllV. • - [jri;fil

• lYPICAL MAINTENANCE BENCH El.£V. EXCEPT
WHERE MIN MUM PIPE COVER IS REQUIRED.
(SEE PtAN FOR LAYOUT)

100 "I hereby certify that the best of my knowledge that this As-Built truly represents existing field
100
conditions including but not limited to sizes, diameters, line and grade, and elevations."
0""""•84.27 CFS
o,o • 20.54 as
V,o--,w. • 4.18 f /S
V1~ =7.JO F/S 117.
George A. Wigfield - Professional L.S. MD #10948 S,•0.25lt

JUUa; 0,00•.31.52 CFS

1. ANn-sC£P C0UARS SHIU BE PLACED A Mlfoa!UM OF V1 DIHW.c.6. ◄ 2 F/S
90 2 n raow Pf't:JOIHl'S. V,--~7.93 f/S 90
2. THC rltST J0CHl wt«.£: LAVINC PF'C MUST BE LOCA.lED S, •0.59lt
J.. JU. Nffl-5££P ClOUARS ANO PIP[ OONNECTIONS Ylllli
RIS(R STRvcn.,.RC SHAU. 8( WATDl'TlCKT.
4. FU. M,,\l'EJ!W. FOR THE CENTER OF TliE £MBAJ,1KM£HT
AHO cur-off lRENCH 51-W.L ~ TO U/'WICD
SOtL C~F\CI\TlON CC. SC. CW 0A a.
5. OfT SITC BORROW OR S90l. AAOS WUST .,.._\'£"
AN ~ A.'IID AC1'M SEDOil£NT COH'TROf.. Pl.AN. g
OATU~0 ELEV ' - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ' o , , , + _= =ll!f..1'1---- - - - - - - - - '-' -1!,_•rmr_--------'
RETENTION POND #J ""'""--
CROSS- SECTION A-A ~ ~~
T.. I,L..;...
VERTICAL SCA!.£ l "•5'
HORIZONTAL SCA!.£ , ·- so·
"'!
-
Ooscripoon; fi!..i~
... ,..,,..... ~,/11(•+
0
,•
T--.- ,,.... .*~s •-..
I,... ~

FIGURE 6.2D (Continued)

drawing showing the easement is available for viewing maintenance criteria included on the plan. This will
when ownership or maintenance responsibility is brought become increasingly common as low-impact development
into question. Easements are not visible in the field: sig- and sustainable design continue to become mainstream
nage or other physical indicators are required in order to approaches to large- and small-scale development. In fact,
assess maintenance responsibility unless refined maps, as many of the green building certification programs recog-
discussed above, are available. Further, "privately main- nize and award credits/points for O&M training/education,
tained" can be a vague description particularly when mul- monitoring, and postconstruction facility optimization.
tiple utility providers, HOAs, or other management entities Thus by providing clear operating instructions, conduct-
are involved. For instance, a private utility pole may belong ing maintenance staff training and occupant education, and
to the electric company, the cable company, the telephone disseminating accurate facility information (inherently col-
company, or an HOA; without a field indicator or accurate lected during the process), the land development consul-
mapping, it is an iterative process to determine responsibil- tant can continue to aid clients-developers in meeting their
ity. Figures 6.2E and 6.2F provide examples of plan sheets green building goals.
depicting maintenance responsibilities. Facility management tools such as interactive maps
Occasionally jurisdictions do require maintenance are easier to develop and increasingly common given the
instructions for certain facilities on plans or plats- advances in CAD including Building Information Model-
stormwater management, landscaping, and on-site waste- ing (BIM) and GIS technology. The ability to link spatially
water treatment facilities, when specified, typically have referenced data to interactive maps, customized databases,
 ::, ..J
"' < E. 112TH AVENUE
H AVENUE ----t 1 - - - - - - - -E_. _
112TH AVENU=.
E _ _ _ __

lI

--1 ' · ™™-A~

- N-UE _ _ _ __

**
Street Lights Status
Maintenance Responsibility

COMMERCE CITY/ UNITED POWER

s
,...
REUNION METRO DISTRICT

600 300 0 600

PENDING

Reunion Metropolitan District

Street Lights -
GE

-
I FIG uRE 6. 2 E Reunion Metropolitan District Maintenance Responsibilities. (Geomatic Science ''Reunion Metropolitan District: Maintenance Responsibilities.')
_ ,_.L194TH AVE NUE

,...s
,4()0 200 0 400

Reunion Metropolitan Dis trict

Fence Ownership & Maintenance Responsibility

FIG uRE 6. 2 F Reunion Metropolitan District Fence Ownership and Responsibility. (Geomatic Science "Reunion Metropolitan District: Fence Ownership and Responsib
 6.2 ■ CONSTRUCTION DOCUMENTS AND CONSTRUCTION PHASE SERVICES 663

online web resources and query systems-to name a few packaging step is a means of consolidating all the design
options-is merely the beginning of life cycle project and surveying efforts into a single useful tool-an accu-
management. This final deliverable may take many forms rate record of the facility, its systems, its O&M require-
(digital or hard copy, manual or map book) and is created ments, and a means of tracking or logging activity related
during the course of design and construction as informa- to successful function of the building and infrastructure
tion is developed, gathered, and assembled. This final systems.
This page intentionally left blank
PART V

APPENDIX
This page intentionally left blank
CHAPTER 7

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

667
 CHAPTER 7.1

TECHNICAL APPENDIX

Conversion Factors
MULTIPLY BY To OBTAIN MULTIPLY BY To OBTAIN
Acre-feet.. ........................... 1,233.49 .............. cubic meters Cubic feet/second ................ 0.6463 ................. million gallons/day
Acre-feet. ............................ 43,560 ................. cubic feet Cubic feet/minute ................ 62.43 ................... pounds water/minute
Acre-feet. ............................ 0.0504 ................. second-foot-day Cubic feet/second ................ 448.831 ............... gallons/minute
Acre-feet.. ........................... 1,235................... cubic yard Cubic feet.. .......................... 0.02832 ............... cubic meters
Acres .................................. 10 ........................ square chains Cubic foot.. .......................... 7.48 ..................... U.S. gallon
Acres .................................. 4,046.87 .............. square meters Cubic feet/second ................ 28.316 ................. liter/second
Acres .................................. 0.4047 ................. hectares Cubic inch ........................... 16.3870 ............... cubic centimeters
Acres .................................. 1.562 x 10-3 ........ square miles Cubic meter ......................... 35.3147 ............... cubic feet
Acres .................................. 43,560.0 .............. square feet Cubic meters/second ........... 35.312 ................. cubic feet/second
Angstrom units .................... 3.937 x 10-9 ........ inches Cubic meters ....................... 1,000 ............ ....... liters
Angstrom units .................... 1 x 10-4. .............. micrometers Cubic meters/second ........... 15,800 ........ .. ....... gallons/minute
Atmosphere ......................... 101.325............... kilopascals Cubic yard ........................... 27 .............. .. ........ cubic foot
Atmospheres ....................... 14.696 ................. pounds/square inch Cubic yard ................ .. ......... 0.7646 ........ .. ....... cubic meter
Atmospheres ....................... 76.0 ..................... centimeters of mercury Cubic yards ......................... 202.0 ............ ....... gallons
Atmospheres ...................... .33.8995 ............... feet of water Day (mean solar) .......... .. ...... 86,400 ................. seconds
Atmospheres ....................... 20.921 ................. inches of mercury Day (sidereal) ....................... 86, 164.09 ............ seconds
BTU/hour ............................. 0.2931 ................. watts Degrees (angle) ................... 0.0174533 ........... radians
BTUs ................................... 2.928 x 10--4 ........ kilowatt-hours Degrees (angle) ................... 17.7778 ............... mile
BTUs ................................... 3.931 x 10--4 ........ horsepower-hours Degrees/second ................... 0.1667 ................. revolutions/minute
Calories, gram (mean) .......... 3.9685 x 10-3 ...... BTU (mean) Dynes .................................. 1.020 x 10-3 ........ grams
Centares ............................. 1.0....................... square meters Dynes .................................. 1 x 10-5 ............... joules/meter (newtons)
Centimeters ......................... 3.281 x 10-2 ........ feet Engineer's link ..................... 1.......................... feet
Centimeters ......................... 10.0..................... millimeters Ergs .................................... 7.3670 x 1o-8 ...... foot-pounds
Centimeters ......................... 0.3937 ................. inches Ergs .................................... 2.778 x 10-14 ...... kilowatt-hours
Centimeters ......................... 1 x 10-2 ............... meters Ergs ....................................9.480 X 10-11 ...... BTUs
Centimeters ......................... 1 x 10-5 ............... kilometers Fathoms .............................. 6.0 ....................... feet
Centimeters/second ............. 0.03281 ............... feet/second Fathoms .............................. 1.839 ................... meters
Chain .................................. 22 ........................ yards Feet ....................................0.3048 ................. meters
Chain .................................. 66 ........................ feet Feet.. .................................. 1.645 x 10-4. ....... miles (nautical
Chain ................................. .4 .......................... rods Feet.. .................................. 1.894 x 10-4. ....... miles (statute)
Chains ................................. 792.0 ................... inches Feet .................................... 30.48 ................... centimeters
Cubic centimeters ................ 2.113 x 10-3 ........ pints (U.S. liquid) Feet/minute ......................... 0.5080 ................. centimeters/second
Cubic centimeters ................ 0.06102 ............... cubic inches Feet/second ........................ 0.3048 ................. meters/second

(Continued)
668
 7.1 ■ TECHNICAL APPENDIX 669

Conversion Factors (Continued)

MULTIPLY BY To OBTAIN MULTIPLY BY To OBTAIN
Feet/second ........................ 0.6818 ................. miles/hour Liters/second ....................... 15.85 ................... gallons/day
Feet/second ........................ 0.5921 ................. knots Meters ................................ 5.396 x 10-4. ....... miles (nautical)
Feet/second .......... .... .......... 30.48 ................... centimeters/second Meters ................................ 100.0 ................... centimeters
Foot-pounds .......... .... .......... 3.766 x 10-1 ........ kilowatt-hours Meters ...... .... ...... .. .... .... ...... 6.214 x 10-4. ....... miles (statute)
Foot-pounds ...... .... .. .. .......... 1.286 x 10-3 ........ BTUs Meters ...... .... ...... .. .... .... ...... 1 x 10-3 ............... kilometers
Foot-pounds ...... .... .. .. .......... 1.356 ................... joules Meters ...... .... .. .. .. .. ...... .. ...... 3.281 .......... .. ....... feet
Furlongs ............. ........ .. ....... 660.0 ...... .. ..... ...... feet Meters ................ .. ...... .. ...... 1,000.0........ .. ...... millimeters
Furlongs .................. .. .......... 0.125 ................... miles (statute) Micrometers ........ .. ...... .. ...... 1 x 10-5 ...... .. ....... meters
Gallons/minute .................... 2.227 x 10-3 ........ cubic feet/second Miles (nautical) .................... 6,080.27 .............. feet
Gallons ............................... .3.785 ................... liters Miles (nautical) .... .. ...... .. ...... 1.853 .......... .. ....... kilometers
Gallons/minute .................... 8.0208 ...... .. .. .. ..... cubic feet/hour Miles (nautical) .... .. ...... .. ...... 1.1516 ........ .. ....... miles (statute)
Gallons of water .......... .. ....... 8.3453 ...... .. .. .. ..... pounds of water Miles (statute) ...... .. ...... .. ...... 0.8684 ........ .. ....... miles (nautical)
Grads ......................... .. ....... 0.9 ....................... degrees (angle) Miles (statute) ...... .. ...... .. ...... 1.609 ........ .... ....... kilometers
Grads ......... .. ... ... ........ .. ....... 0.01570797 ......... radians Miles (statute) ...... .. ...... .. ...... 320 .............. .. ...... rods
Grams ........ .... .... ........ .. ....... 3.527 x 10-2 ........ ounces (avoirdupois) Miles (statute) ...... .. .............. 5,280 ........ .... ....... feet
Grams ........ .... .... ........ .. ....... 2.205 x 10-3 ........ pounds Miles (statute) ...................... 80 ........................ chains (surveyor's)
Grams ................................. 3.215 x 10-2 ........ ounces (troy) Miles/hour ........................... 88.0 ..................... feet/minute
Hectares .............................. 10,000 ................. square meters Millibar ................................ 0.01 43 .................. pounds/square inch
Hectares .............................. 1.076 x 105 ......... square feet Milligram/liter ...................... 1.0 ....................... parts per million
Hectares .............................. 2.471 ................... acres Milligrams/liter ..................... 8.345 ................... pounds/million gallons
Horsepower ......................... 745. 7................... watts Milliliters .............................. 1 x 10-3 ............... liters
Horsepower ......................... 0.7457 ................. kilowatts Millimeters .......................... 3.937 x 10-2 ........ inches
Horsepower ........................ .42.42 ................... BTU/minute Mils ..................................... 3,037,500 ............ minutes
Horsepower ......................... 550 ...................... foot-pounds/second Mils ..................................... 0.05625 ............... degrees (angle)
Hours .................................. 5.952 x 10-3 ........ weeks Minutes (angle) .................... 0.29630 ............... mils
Hours .................................. 4.167 x 10-2 ........ days Minutes (angle) .................... 0.000290888 ....... radians
Inches ................................. 25.4 ..................... millimeters Minutes (mean solar) ............ 60 ........................ seconds
lnches ................................. 1.578 x 10-5 ........ miles Minutes (sidereal) ................ 59.83617 ............. seconds
Inches ................................. 2.540 ................... centimeters Newtons .............................. 1 x 105 ................ dynes
Joules ................................. 9.480 x 10-4 ........ BTUs Newtons/square meter ......... 1.. ........................ pascals
Joules ................................. 1 x 107 ................ ergs Ounces ............................... 6.25 x 10-2 .......... pounds
Kilograms ............................ 2.205 ................... pounds (avoirdupois) Ounces ............................... 28.349527 ........... grams
Kilometers ........................... 1,000.0 ................ meters Ounces (troy) ....................... 1.09714............... ounces (avoirdupois)
Kilometers ........................... 3,281.0 ................ feet Outs .................................... 10 ........................ 33-foot chains
Kilometers ........................... 0.6214 ................. miles Outs .................................... 330 ...................... feet
Kilometers/hour ................... 0.5396 ................. knots Pints (liquid) ......................... 0.125 ................... gallons
Kilowatt-hours ..................... 3,413.0 ................ BTUs Pints (liquid) ......................... 28.87 ................... cubic inches
Kilowatts ............................. 1.341 ................... horsepower Pints (liquid) ........................ .473.2 ................... cubic centimeters
Knots .................................. 1.852 ................... kilometers/hour Pints (liquid) ......................... 0.5 ....................... quarts (liquid)
Knots .................................. 0.5144 ................. meters/second Pounds ................................ 0.4536 ................. kilograms
Knots .................................. 1.0....................... nautical miles/hour Pounds ................................ 14.5833 ............... ounces (troy)
Knots .................................. 1.151 ................... statute miles/hour Pounds ................................ 1.21528 ............... pounds (troy)
Knots .................................. 6.080.0 ................ feet/hour Pounds ................................ 16.0 ..................... ounces
Labors ................................. 177 .14 ................. acres Pounds/cubic foot.. .............. 16.02 ................... kilograms/cubic meter
Leagues ............................. .4,428.40 .............. meters Pounds (force) .................... .4.4482 ................. newtons
Links (gunters) ..................... 66 ........................ feet Pounds (mass) ..................... 0.4536 ................. kilograms
Links (surveyor's) ................. 7.92 ..................... inches Pounds/square inch ............. 6.895 ................... kilo Newton/square meter
Liters .................................. 61.02 ................... cubic inches Pounds/square inch ............. 6.895 ................... newtons/square meter
Liters .................................. 0.2642 ................. gallons (U.S. liquid) Pounds/square foot.. ............ 47.880 ................. pascals
Liters .................................. 1,000.0 ................ milliliters Quarts (dry) ......................... 67.20 ................... cubic inches
Liters .................................. 2.113 ................... pints (U.S. liquid) Quarts (liquid) ..................... 57.75 .................... cubic inches
Liters .................................. 1,000.0 ................ cubic centimeters Quarts (liquid) ..................... 0.9463 .................. liters
Liters/minute ....................... 5.886 x 10-4 ........ cubic feet/second Quarts (liquid) ..................... 0.25 ...................... gallons

(Continued)
&10 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH
Conversion Factors (Continued)
MULTIPLY BY To OBTAIN MULTIPLY BY To OBTAIN

Radians ............................... 3,438.0 ................ minutes Square meters ..................... 10.76................... square feet
Radians ............................... 57°17' 44.806" .... degrees (angle) Surveyor's link ..................... 7.92 ..................... inches
Radians ............................... 57.2957795 ......... degrees (angle) Surveyor's link ..................... 0.66 ..................... feet
Radians/second ................... 9.549 ................... revolutions/minute Tons (long) .......................... 1.120................... tons (short)
Revolutions .......................... 360.0 ................... degrees Tons (long) .......................... 2,240.0 ................ pounds
Revolutions/minute .............. 6.0 ....................... degrees/second Tons (long) .......................... 1,016.0 ................ kilograms
Rods ................................... 1.......................... poles Tons (metric) ....................... 2,205 ................... pounds
Rods ................................... 16.5..................... feet Tons (short) ......................... 907.1848 ............. kilograms
Rods ................................... 5.029 ................... meters Tons (short) ......................... 0.89287 ............... tons (long)
Rods ................................... 1.......................... perches Tons (short) ......................... 2,000.0 ................ pounds
Rods (surveyor's measure) .... 5.5 ....................... yards VARA (California) .................. 33 ........................ inches
Seconds .............................. 1.667 x 10-2 ........ minutes VARA (Texas) ....................... 33.333 ................. inches
Seconds (angle) ..................... 4.848137 x 10-6 .... radians Watts .................................. 1.341 x 10-3 ........ horsepower
Seconds (sidereal) ................ 0.9972696 ........... seconds (mean solar) Watts .................................. 1.0....................... joules/second
Slug/cubic foot ..................... 515.4 ................... kilograms/cubic meter Watts .................................. 3.4129 ................. BTU/hour
Slugs .................................. 32.17 ................... pounds Yards .................................. 5.682 x 10-4 ........ miles (statute)
Square miles ....................... 640 ...................... acres Yards .................................. 4.934 x 10-4 ........ miles (nautical)
Square miles ....................... 27,878,400 .......... square feet Yards .................................. 0.9144 ................. meters

Properties of Water In U.S. Customary Units

VISCOSITY*
SPECIFIC HEAT OF VAPOR PRESSURE
DENSITY WEIGHT VAPORIZATION ABSOLUTE KINEMATIC (IN. OF HG)
TEMP. ( 0 F) (SLUGS/FT3) (LB/FT3) (BTU/LB) (LB-S/FT2) (FT2/S) (LB/IN2)

32 1.940 62.418 1075.5 3.746 1.931 0.180 0.089

40 1.940 62.426 1071.0 3.229 1.664 0.248 0.122
50 1.940 62.409 1065.3 2.735 1.410 0.362 0.178
60 1.938 62.366 1059.7 2.359 1.217 0.522 0.256
70 1.936 62.301 1054.0 2.050 1.058 0.739 0.363
80 1.934 62.216 1048.4 1.799 0.930 1.032 0.507
90 1.931 62.113 1042.7 1.595 0.826 1.422 0.698
100 1.927 61.994 1037.1 1.424 0.739 1.933 0.950
120 1.918 61.713 1025.6 1.168 0.609 3.448 1.693
140 1.908 61.379 1014.0 0.981 0.514 5.884 2.890
160 1.896 61.000 1002.2 0.838 0.442 9.656 4.742
180 1.883 60.580 990.2 0.726 0.386 15.295 7.512
200 1.868 60.121 977.9 0.637 0.341 23.468 11.526
212 1.860 59.828 970.3 0.593 0.319 29.921 14.696
*To obtain values of viscosity, multiply values shown in table by 1Q-5.
 7.1 ■ TECHNICAL APPENDIX 671

Properties of Water in SI Units

VISCOSITY*
SPECIFIC HEAT OF VAPOR PRESSURE
DENSITY WEIGHT VAPORIZATION ABSOLUTE KINEMATIC (MM HG)
TEMP. (°C) (KG/CM 3) (KN/M 3) (cALIG) (cP) (CST) (G/CM 2)

0 999.87 9.805 597.3 1.781 1.785 4.58 6.23

5 999.99 9.807 594.5 1.518 1.519 6.54 8.89
10 999.73 9.804 591.7 1.307 1.306 9.20 12.51
15 999.13 9.798 588.9 1.140 1.140 12.78 17.38
20 998.24 9.789 586.0 1.002 1.003 17.53 23.83
25 997.08 9.777 583.2 0.890 0.893 23.76 32.30
30 995.68 9.764 580.4 0.798 0.801 31.83 43.27
40 992.25 9.730 574.7 0.653 0.658 55.34 75.23
50 988.07 9.689 569.0 0.547 0.554 92.56 125.83
60 983.23 9.642 563.2 0.466 0.474 149.46 203.19
70 977.80 9.589 557.4 0.404 0.413 233.79 317.84
80 978.12 9.530 551.4 0.355 0.365 355.28 483.01
90 965.34 9.466 545.3 0.315 0.326 525.89 714.95
100 958.39 9.399 539.1 0.282 0.294 760.00 1033.23
*1 poise (P) = 0.1 ON-s/m 2 :. 1 centipoise (cP) = 1 x 1Q-3 N-s/m 2
1 stoke (St) = 1 cm 2/s :. 1 centistoke (cSt) = 1 x 1Q-6 m2/s

Relationship Between Temperatures Prefixes for Use with SI System

Of = 32 + (%)°C oc = %(0f - 32) MULTIPLE PREFIX SYMBOL
Of oc oc Of 1012 tera
-20 -28.9 -20 -4 109 giga G
0 -17.8 -10 14 106 mega M
20 -6.7 0 32
103 kilo k
32 0.0 10 50
102 hecto
40 4.5 20 68
60 15.5 30 86 10 deka
80 26.6 40 104 10-1 deci d
100 37.8 50 122 10-2 centi C
120 48.9 0 140
10-3 milli m
140 60.0 70 158
10-6 micro µ
160 71.1 80 176
180 82.2 90 194 10-12 nano n
212 100.0 100 212 1o-1s pico p
0 Rankine (°F Absolute) = °F + 459.58

°Kelvin (°C Absolute) = °C + 273.1

&12 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH
SCS 24-Hour Rainfall Distribution (at Half-Hour Increments)
FRACTION OF 24-HOUR RAINFALL DEPTH FRACTION OF 24-HOUR RAINFALL DEPTH
TIME (H) TYPE I TYPE IA TYPE II TYPE Ill TIME (H) TYPE I TYPE IA TYPE II TYPE Ill

0.0 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 12.5 0.70925 0.68300 0.73500 0.70200
0.5 0.00871 0.01000 0.00513 0.00500 13.0 0.73200 0.70100 0.77200 0.75000
1.0 0.01745 0.02000 0.01050 0.01000 13.5 0.75225 0.71900 0.79900 0.78350
1.5 0.02621 0.03500 0.01613 0.01500 14.0 0.77000 0.73600 0.82000 0.81100
2.0 0.03500 0.05000 0.02200 0.02000 14.5 0.78625 0.75281 0.83763 0.83406
2.5 0.04416 0.06600 0.02813 0.02519 15.0 0.80200 0.76924 0.85350 0.85425
3.0 0.05405 0.08200 0.03450 0.03075 15.5 0.81725 0.78529 0.86763 0.87156
3.5 0.06466 0.09800 0.04113 0.03669 16.0 0.83200 0.80096 0.88000 0.88600
4.0 0.07600 0.11600 0.04800 0.04300 16.5 0.84625 0.81625 0.89119 0.89838
4.5 0.08784 0.13500 0.05525 0.04969 17.0 0.86000 0.83116 0.90175 0.90950
5.0 0.09995 0.15600 0.06300 0.05675 17.5 0.87325 0.84569 0.91169 0.91938
5.5 0.11234 0.18000 0.07125 0.06419 18.0 0.88600 0.85984 0.92100 0.92800
6.0 0.12500 0.20600 0.08000 0.07200 18.5 0.89825 0.87361 0.92969 0.93581
6.5 0.13915 0.23700 0.08925 0.08063 19.0 0.91000 0.88700 0.93775 0.94325
7.0 0.15600 0.26800 0.09900 0.09050 19.5 0.92125 0.90001 0.94519 0.95031
7.5 0.17460 0.31000 0.10925 0.10163 20.0 0.94225 0.92489 0.95844 0.96336
8.0 0.19400 0.42500 0.12000 0.11400 20.5 0.94225 0.92489 0.95844 0.96336
8.5 0.21900 0.48000 0.13225 0.12844 21.0 0.95200 0.93676 0.96475 0.96944
9.0 0.25400 0.52000 0.14700 0.14575 21.5 0.96125 0.94825 0.97094 0.97523
9.5 0.30300 0.55000 0.16300 0.16594 22.0 0.97000 0.95936 0.97700 0.98075
10.0 0.51500 0.57700 0.18100 0.18900 22.5 0.97825 0.97009 0.98294 0.98598
10.5 0.58300 0.60100 0.20400 0.21650 23.0 0.98600 0.98044 0.98875 0.99094
11.0 0.62300 0.62400 0.23500 0.25000 23.5 0.99325 0.99041 0.99444 0.99561
11.5 0.65550 0.64500 0.28300 0.29800 24.0 1.00000 1.00000 1.00000 1.00000
12.0 0.68400 0.66400 0.66300 0.50000
 7.1 ■ TECHNICAL APPENDIX 673

Physical Properties of Selected Materials

SPECIFIC HEAT
UNIT WEIGHT MELTING POINT BOILING POINT (CONSTANT PRESSURE
MATERIAL Le/fT3 SPECIFIC GRAVITY"' Of Of FOR GASES}

Acetylene 0.0732 0.00117 -114.7 -118.5 0.383

Air 0.0802 0.00129 0.238
Alcohol:

methyl 0.792

Ammonia 0.0481 0.00077 -108 -28 0.520

1
Antimony 6.684 2620 0.049

Asbestos 125-175 2.0-2.8 0.195

Basalt 150-200 2.4-3.2 0.20-0.24

Bauxite 159 2.55
Benzene 55 0.879 42 176.2 0.42
Bismuth 611 9.80 520 2590-2840 0.034
Borax 106-112 1.7-1.8

546 8.75 1880

Brick:
common 112 1.8
fire 145
Bronze, comm. 90 Cu, 10
Butane:
iso- 0.165 0.00264 -240 12
n 0.158 0.00252 -213 31
Cadmium 539 8.64 610 1410 0.055
Calcite 168 2.7
Calcium 97 1.55 1550 2200 0.149
Carbon:
diamond 219 3.51 6700 7600 0.12
graphite 141 2.25 6700 7600 0.165
Carbon dioxide 0.1234 0.00198 -70.6 -112 0.20
Carbon monoxide 0.0781 0.00125 -340.6 -312.7 0.25
(Continued)
&14 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH
Physical Properties of Selected Materials (Continued)
SPECIFIC HEAT
UNIT WEIGHT MELTING POINT BOILING POINT (CONSTANT PRESSURE
MATERIAL Le/fT3 SPECIFIC GRAVITY"' Of Of FOR GASES)

Cement, Portland:
loose 94 1.51
solid 197 3.15
Chalk 119-175 1.9-2.8 0.214
Chlorine 0.2006 0.00321 -155 -30 0.113
Chromium 448 7.19 3430 4000 0.11
Coal:
anthracite 87-112 1.4-1.8
bituminous 75-100 1.2-1.6
Cobalt 555 8.9 2700 5250 0.099
Concrete 144-150 2.3-2.4 0.156
Copper 556 8.92 1980 4700 0.092
Dolomite 177 2.84
Earth:

95 1.5
moist, loose 80 1.3
moist, packed 100 1.6
mud, flowing 105 1.7

160-170 2.56-2.73
164 2.63
Fluorine 0.1059 0.00169 -365 -305 0.182
Gasoline 41-47 0.66-0.75 160-190 0.500
Glass 153-172 2.45-2.75 0.16-0.20

Gneiss 150-170 2.4-2.7 0.18

Granite 165-170 2.65-2.7 0.192
Gravel:

100-120 2.5-2.7

Helium 0.0111 0.000178 -458 -452 1.25

Hydrogen 0.0056 0.000090 -434 -423 3.39
Ice 55-57 0.88-0.92
Iridium 1400 22.42 4450 9600 0.032
Iron 490 7.86 2800 5430 0.11
Ivory 114-120 1.83-1.92
(Continued)
 7.1 ■ TECHNICAL APPENDIX 675

Physical Properties of Selected Materials (Continued)

SPECIFIC HEAT
UNIT WEIGHT MELTING POINT BOILING POINT (CONSTANT PRESSURE
MATERIAL Le/fT3 SPECIFIC GRAVITY"' Of Of FOR GASES)

Lead 708 11.34 621.3 2950 0.031

Leather 54-64 0.86-1.02
Limestone 130-180 2.1-2.86
Linseed oil 58 0.934 -4 550
Magnesium 109 1.74 1200 2030 0.249
Manganese 450 72 2300 3900 0.115
Marble 160-180 2.6-2.86

Methane 0.0448 0.000717 -300 -258.5 0.593

Mica 165-200 2.7-3.1 0.21
Molybdenum 636 10.2 4750 6690 0.06
Neon 0.0562 0.000900 -415.6 -410.6
Nickel 555 8.9 2650 5250 0.11
Nitrogen 0.0781 0.00125 -345.75 -320.4 0.244
Osmium 1405 22.48 4400 9900 0.031
Oxygen 0.0892 0.001429 -361.1 -297.4 0.218

Petroleum 0.87 0.50

Porcelain 143-156 2.3-2.5 0.26

Pumice 23-56 0.37-0.90

Quartz 160-170 2.6-2.7 0.17
Salt 49-78 0.78-1.25
Sand:

wet 118-129 2.4-2.7

Slate 160-205 2.6-3.3
Sulfur 129 2.07 246 832 0.18
Tar, bituminous 64 1.02
Tin 456 7.3 449 4100 0.055
Titanium 281 4.5 3270 >5400 0.126
Tungsten 1204 19.3 6120 10.650 0.032
Turpentine 54 0.873 14 320 0.411
Vanadium 372 5.96 3110 5430 0.12
Water:
fresh 62.43 1.00000 32 212 1.000
sea 63.5-64.2 1.02-1.03
Zinc 445 7.14 787 1665 0.093
*Specific gravity measured at 32°F and 1 atmosphere.
676 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH
ENG INEERS & SURVEYORS I STJTUTE
Peer Review Checklist
FAJRFAX COUNTY
-~
S IT E PL AN

Plan Name: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Plan #: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ District: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Subm itti ng Firm: Project Coordinator: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Des ignated Plans Examiner #:_ _ _ ame: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Phone #:_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Rev iew Date: _ _ _ _ _ ESI Reviewer: Reviewer's firm: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Pl an 1s 11011-accepta bl e1"f any *box 1s chec ked w/ o exp anat1on on p an or a ternate so ut1011 note d .
LINE COD E SECTION REQUIR EM ENT S HEET OK NO N/A FFX
COVER S HEET
I LOS Notice 2/24/2016 3/1 6 edition of cover sheet used *
Plan Ao orova l Information Table
Plan Approval Information completed (identification numbers,
2 LOS Notice 2/24/2016
approval dates and sheet numbers)
LOS Tech Bu lletin 02- Line I: Concurrent processing indicated. Documentation of
3
16 approval is included in the plan.
Li ne 4: Affordable dwe ll ing unit des ignation shown on specific lots
112-2-802
4 or un its except for multi-family (if entire project contains 50 un its
112-2-806
or more)
107-1-3 Li ne 12 : Soil report requ irement indicated if construction is
5 112-17- 106.32 proposed in class Il l or IVA soils or a dam is proposed requiri ng a
PFM 6- 1605.1 B & 2A report per PFM Plate 48-6
Line 12: Limited soil report requi rement is ind icated if construction
I 12- 17- 106.32
6 is proposed in a IVB soil. Limited report included in the I st
PFM 4-0206.1
submission plan.
LDS Tech Bulletin 02-
Li ne 22: Zoning case number with approval date & sheet number
7 16
prov ided, unless concurren t processing is approved
LOS Notice 2/24/2016
Line 22: Approved (stamped) and valid (not exp ired) rezo ning plan
(RZ) with proffers and all interpretations ,vi th ex hibits included in
8 112-17- 106.26 *
the plan, all at original cale, unless concurrent proces ing is
approved
Line 22: Approved (stamped) and valid (not exp ired) Special
112-17- 106.26
Permit (SP)/Special Exception (SE) plat or Variance (VAR) wi th
9 LOS Tech Bu lletins 02- *
development conditions and all interpretations with exh ib its
16 & 17-02
included in plan, all at original scale
LOS Tech Bu lletins 02- Line 23: Clerk to BOS/BZA approval letter to app licant included
10 *
I 6 & 06-15 fo r RZ, SE or SP tmless concurrent processing is approved
112-17- 106.26, LOS
Li ne 24: Proffer and developmen t conditions compliance narrative
II Tech Bulleti ns 02- 16 & *
submitted digita ll y
17-02
LOS Tech Bu lletin 02- Li ne 3 7: All approved waivers/modifications and
12 16 waiver/modification requests are listed, incl uding the ones approved *
LOS Notice 2/24/2016 with the zonine: aoolication
Zon in e: Reauirements Tabulation
Zoning Req uirements Tabu lation fi lled in correctly. If plan is
LDS Notice 2/24/2016
assoc iated with a zoning application, the tabulation shows what was
112-17- I06.12
13 approved (provided) with the zon ing application or any *
112-17- 106.17
interpretation as requ irement. Appropriate zoning documen ts
112- 17- 106.26
referenced.
14 LDS Policy Line 7: Minimum yard li nes shown and labeled on site layout
15 I 12- 17- 106.12 Line 8: Floor Area Ratio (FAR) matches thro ughout the plan
16 Zoning plan Layout, includ ing clearing li mits, is in genera l conformance with the
Updated I/3/20 I 9 Site Plan Page I of 10
 7.1 ■ TECHNICAL APPENDIX 677

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-
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zoning plan
Preliminary plat (PL) is valid if subdividing and no development
IO l-2-3(d)
17 plan or re-approval has been requested. (PL is optional for
15.2-2260
subdivisions involving 50 or fewer lots)
Site Plan (SP)Tabu lation
Site Plan (SP) Tabulations fil led in correctly. Information sbown is
18 LDS Notice 2/24/2016 *
consistent with the plan.
Line 3: Site and building proposed uses ind icated. Proposed use is
112-17- 106.12
19 a by right use within the zoning di trict unless an RZ, SE or P or *
I 12 Articles 3, 4, 5, 6
concurrent processing has been approved.
Line 4: Number and type of units (if townhouses or multifami ly or
20 112-17-106.12
condominium) shown *
112-17-1 06.12
Line 12: Building heigh t shown. Building hei gh t calculations are
2 1 LDS Tecb Bu lletin 06- *
provided for each townhouse un it.
13
22 I 12-1 7- 106. 12 Line 13: Number of floors shown *
Lines 18 and 19: Required and proposed parking and loading shown
112-17- 106.14
and match parking/loading tabulation. Parking tabulation shows
23 I 12-1 I. 103 through I 06 *
parking rate per each use and the minimum number of spaces
112-11 -200
required vs. provided.
Other Cover Sheet Requirements
ES! Tech Bulletin At least one set of plans has an original signature and date on seal
24 11/5/2015 from each professional on the cover sheet. DPE certificate signed if *
112-17- 106.1 DPE plan. Post submission conference date fi lled in .
25 PFM 9-0202.2C Fire Marshal notes data filled in
26 PFM 10-1 04.IA Sanitary sewer information filled in
Tree Preservation information til led. lf"yes", deviation request is
27 PFM 12-0308.4A(I) *
included in a letter format in the landscape plan
28 LDS Notice 2/24/2016 Potential for wetlands filled in *
Information Regarding Activities in a Resource Protection Area
29 LDS Notice 2/24/2016 *
filled in
,- 30 LDS Notice 2/24/2016 Stormwater Information filled in
- - ----- - - *
112-17- 106.3 Vicinity map shows sidewalk/trail maintenance responsibilities for
31 *
PFM 8-020 I .6 existing and proposed (VDOT County or privately maintained)
,__32 112-17-106.4 Tax ma reference number<i) fi lled in correct!)"__ *
-- Name, contact informat ion and address of the owner and developer
I- - - - -
33 112-17-106.4
filled in
34 112-17-106.4 Magisterial district shown and is correct
Certificate signed by the surveyor or engineer setting forth the
35 112-17- 106.6 source of title of the owner of the site and the place of record of the *
last instrument in the chain of title
Soi l map shown, with site identified. Soils map is based on current
36 112-17- 106.7 *
Countv So ils MaP.
Soi l data chart filled in per " Descrigtion & lntergret ive Guide to
37 112-17- 106.7 *
Soi ls in Fairfax Countv"
I 12-1 7- I06. I6 Solid waste statement tilled in. Trash and recycling containers are
38
PFM I0-030 I & 305. l shown and labeled on the site plan.
39 I 12- 17-1 06.25 Owner/developer wetlands certi ti cation signed *
40 LDS Policy Sheet index and sheet titles match
PUBLIC STREETS
112-17- 106.1 1 Road name and rou te number shown for exi ling state maintained
41
streets
Street widths, pavement and right-of-way shown for existing and
42 I 12- 17-1 06.1 1
proposed streets
VDOT Road Design Right of way, driveways, intersections, medians, curb or edge of
43
Manual pavement shown and labeled on both sides of existing roadways
44 112-17-201.3 Vehicular travel lanes, services drives, driveways or other access
Updated I/3/20 I 9 Site Plan Page 2 of 10
&10 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH
LINE CODE SECTION REOUIREMENT SHEET OK NO NIA
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connections to adjoining properties are proposed or service
drive/travel lane waiver is annroved
PFM 7-0101.2
45 VDOT Road Design Curve data shown for new treets and conform with street category
Manual Appendix A
PFM 7-0 105.1
46 VDOT Road Design Street category and traffic volume shown for each new street
,___ Manual Appendix A --- - -
47 PFM 7-0 I 07.5A & 5B Stop or yie ld signs shown at all intersections
PFM 7-0201.lC A ll proposed street construction is within existing or dedicated street
48
PFM 7-0304. l 3 right-of-way
Curb-cut ramps provided where required (at site entrance curb
PFM 7-0301.IA & . I B returns , along accessib le routes , at major crosswalk , HC acce sible
49
PFM 8-0 IO1.8 parking spaces, etc.). Curb cut ramps are entirely within right of way
ifVDOT maintained
Profi le shown for all proposed streets including widening and turning
lanes on existing streets. Elevations, percent grade, culverts,
50 PFM 7-0304 storm/sanitary sewer and utility crossings shown on street profile. *
Existing grade or existing treet centerline profile is shown for an
additional min. 200'.
Centerline stationing shown in plan view for existing and proposed
51 PFM 7-0304 *
streets
PFM 7-0305, 112-2-505 Sight distance plan and profile shown. Required or availab le sight
VDOT Road Design distance shown a long the path of the sighted vehic le and not along
Manual Appendix F the li ne of sight. Sight triangle is clear of obstructions. Sight
52
(intersection, Stopping distance easement exists or proposed where the sight li ne leaves the *
and Commercial Sight right of way. Sight distance easement is shown on layout, grading,
Distance) tree preservation and landscape plans.
Typical section wi th dimensions, street category and design speed
53 PFM 7-0306.6B
shown for each proposed street *
54 County Policy Posted speed shown at existing street intersections *
VDOT Road Design
Distance shown Lo neare t intersection or median break in each
55 Manual Appendix F
direction on existing divided roadways
Section 2
VDOT Road Design
Distance shown between centerline of all existing or proposed
56 Manual Appendix F
intersections or driveways
Section 2
VDOT Road Design
57 Manual Appendix F Length of all existing, or proposed, turn lane and tapers shown
Section 3
VA Administrative Code Profile of any proposed stub street is extended beyond property line
58
24VAC-92-AII Sections to indicate fun1re constrnctabil itv
VDOT Road Design
Manual Appendices A, Additional ROW is provided for insta ll ation of guard rail on
59
B, B( l ), 8(2), VDOT high/steep lopes or roadside obstacles
GRIT Manual
At least one curb ramp provided acros from new intersections on
VDOT IIM-LD-55
60 existing curb and gutter roadways. One curb ramp provided in each
PFM 7-0301
direction of intersection crossings.
61 ADA VDOT IIM-LD-55 Curb ramp width matches connecting sidewalk/trai l
Cu rb ramp spot e levations provided to contim1 ramp slopes, gutter
62 VDOT llM-LD-55
pan transitions, etc.
63 VDOT Policy Latest version of VDOT genera l notes provided
VDOT Drainage Manual
64 Flow arrows provided for each storm pipe
Chapter 9
IO 1-2-2(2) (Townhomes Street names and route numbers shown for adjoining streets. Street
65
only), 112-17-106.3 , names are shown for proposed streets.

Updated ! /3/20 I 9 Site Plan Page 3 of 10

 7.1 ■ TECHNICAL APPENDIX 679

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PFM 7-0 107
PRIVATE STREETS
P rivate streets in a residential development that is to be owned and
66 112-1 1-302.2 ma intai ned by a nonprofit organization does no t exceed 600 feet in
length un less approved bv the Director
Deed book and page number shown for Co un ty ma intained right-of
67 I 12-1 7- 106. I I
wavs and private ingress-egress easements for private roads *
68 I l 2-1 7- 106. 14 Pa rking/load ing spaces are delineated wit h dimens ions
Pla ns proposing private street contai n the app lica ble fu ll sta tement
112-17- 106.2 1
69 as req uired by the referred code to advise that the streets will not be
PFM 7-0306.14
ma intai ned by either the State or the Cou nty.
PF M 7-0402.28, PF M
7-0402.4B, PFM 7-
0402.5 B, PFM 7- Pavement des ign/typ ical sectio n shown for private streets, parking
70 0402.6, surface, and pipestem driveway. Pavemen t material specifications
PFM 7-0403 , VDOT are in accordance with VDOT standards.
Road and Bridge
Specifications
Private streets for townhouses, patios and garden cou rts, geometric
design is in accordance with PFM Plate 4-7 (TS-5A). 2 ' min imum
PFM 7-0402.2
71 stri p between back of curb and edge of sidewa lk, or if sidewalk is
LDS Notice 7/22/ 20 16
adjacent to th e back of curb, it is 6' wide. Roll -top curb is not
allowed.
Sin gle fa mily condominium and single fam il y re idential
72 PFM 7-0402.3 developments wi th five or less lots, the geometric design meets
pipestem driveway standards.
Single fa mily residentia l subdivi sions with average lot size 18,000 sf
PFM 7-0402.4A
o r more and when the street serves more than 5 un its: the geometric
73 VDOT Road Design
design meets VDOT standards fo r shoulder and di tch section streets
Ma nual
and PFM Plate 1-7.
Single fa mily resident ial subd ivisions with average lot size < 18,000
PFM 7-0402.5
sf and when the street serves more than 5 uni ts: the geometric des ign
74 VDOT Road Design
meets VDOT standards for curb an d gutter section streets and PFM
Man ual
Plate 2-7.
PFM 7-0403. 1A
Private d riveway entrances on curb and gutter streets conform to
75 VDOT Road Design
VDOT standards. CG-9B is preferred.
Ma nu al Ch 2D- l 0
PFM 7-0403. IA
Private d riveway entrances on streets with no curb an d gutter
76 VDOT Road Design
conform to PFM Plate 20-7 (DE-5).
Manual
Acces ible park ing spaces, related acces ai Jes, ramps and curb
ramps, railing, slopes, surface treatments, s igns and access ible routes
PFM 2-0208.20
prov ided. Van accessi ble spaces idem itied. Parki ng tabulatio n
77 PF M 7-0602.4
shows accessible parkin g requirements referenced to USBC.
USBC 1106. 1
Access ible spaces are provided for each park ing fac ili ty ( urface and
structural) separately.
STREET LIGHTS
Existing and proposed utility poles and streetlig hts shown and
78 PFM 7-0802.3
labeled
PF M 7-0805.58, LOS Light ing computations are shown and sealed by li ghti ng professional
79
Tech Bulletin 14-07 fo r proposed non-standard streetlig hts
EROSION AN D SEDIMENT CONTROL
PFM 2-0203.IC Limits of c learing and grading shown and incl udes all work to be
80 PFM 2-0208.1 2 done (offs ite, ut ili ty extensions, outfa ll s, etc.) and matches between *
grading;, erosion and sedi men t conrrol , landscape plans
LDS Tech Bulletin l 1- Priority Rating Fonn for E&S control is shown and physiographic
81 *
08 prov ince is correctly identified

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&ao fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH
LINE CODE SECTION REOUIREMENT SHEET OK NO NIA
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LOS Tech Bu ll etin 03-
82
11
Compl eted ce1tified E&S Con trol Checklist provided *
VESCH Un ifom1
83
Coding Svstem
Eros ion & sedi mentation controls identified *
84 PFM 11-0104. 1 2 ohase olans orovided for erosion and sed imentation control
Pbase I initial li mits of clearin g to install controls needed with
85 P FM 11-0104. 1
minimal clearance is shown and described in E&S ohase I narrative
VESCH 3. 13 Sediment trap computation provided (P ipe outlet req uired if
86
PFM 11-0106.20 drainage is greater than I acre) *
VESC H 3.14
87
PFM 11 -0 I 06.2C
Sediment basin calcu lations provided *
88 P FM 11 -0104.3 Region specific temporary and permanent seed ing tab les prov ided
Drainage divides shown fo r E&S measures that have d rainage area
VESCH 3.05 (SF), 3.07 li mitations. Drainage areas do not exceed ¼ ac/ft for SF, I acre for
89 (IP), 3.09 (DD) 3. 13 IP, 5 acres for DD and 3 acres for ST. Drainage divides for SSF are *
(ST) only requ ired when it needs to be demonstrated that concentrated
now to SSF does not exceed 5 cfs.
DRAINAGE & STORM SEWERS
If d ischarge is to an open channe l, it is an existing natural
90 PFM 6-0201.2 watercourse (a stream with a defined cha nnel) or man made channel
with suffic ient capacity
Drainage system honor natural divides for both concentrated and
9 1 PFM 6-0202.2 non-concentrated stormwater runoff leaving the site, un less a written
iustification is orovided and aoproved by the Director.
Concentrated runoff d ischarge leaving the site shall not aggravate o r
create a condition where an ex isting structure under an approved
92 PFM 6-0202.4
buildi ng permit floods. If such a stru cture ex ist, detention for the *
100-year storm event is provided.
93 PFM 6-0202.5 No concen trated surface water discharged offsite wi thout easements
94 PFM 6- 1103.3 Inlet ondi ng is within an easement -
- Sheet flow into lower lying prope1ties: Pre- and post-developed
- ,-

runoff computations prov ided to demonstrate that increase in peak

95 PFM 6-0202.6 flow runoff wo uld 1101 cause or aggravate drainage prob lem on the *
downstream properties. Description is included in the outfall
narrative.
Cross-secti on with equa l horizontal and vertical sca le, water surface
96 PFM 6-0203 .2C e levatio n and computati on shown for ex isting natura l defined *
cha nnels
Adequacy verified for a ll natural watercourses, channels, and pipes in
accordance with channel protection and flood protection
97 PFM 6-0203.3
requirements in Chapter 124. arrative provided w ith adequacy *
conclusion.
HGL computations provided fo r all storm systems. HG L is at least I
PFM 6-0904.2
98 PFM 6-0904.4
foot below established ground elevation and no more than 5 fee t
above the crown of the pipe
P FM 6-0905, 6-1007 Design computatio n provided for clo ed and open systems,
99
and 6- 1200 includi ng d riveway culverts
Quantities of surface runoff greater than 2 cfs or crossing more tha n 3
100 PFM 6- 1108.1
lots is conveyed in a closed drainage system.
PFM 6- 1501.2A Location and approxi mate exten t of the overland relief paths shown
101 PFM 6-1502.2 in proximity of buildin gs. Calcul ations provided. No building is *
P FM 6-1 502.3 flooded by the I00-)'ear flow.
Compl eted a nd accurate Stormwater Manag ment Pl an Compl eteness
102 LOS Notice 7/24/2014
Checkl ist if sto rmwater managemen t plan is incorporated into plan
STORMWATER MANAGEMENT: QUALITY CONTROL (BMP)
124-1- 11 If project qualifies for time limits or grandfathering, a Stormwater
103
124- 1-1 2 Management Ordinance Determination (SWOD) may be submitted to

Updated I /3/20 I 9 S ite Plan Page 5 of 10

 7.1 ■ TECHNICAL APPENDIX 681

LINE CODE SECTION REOUIREMENT SHEET OK NO NIA

-
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determine if Article 4 or 5 of the Stormwater Management Ordinance
aoolies
If subject plan is within Water Supply Overlay District (WSPOD) no
104 I24-4-2(b) *
offsite credit is allowed
If plan is subject to Technical Criteria under Arbcle 4, computations
124-4-2
105 demonstrate comp liance with water quality control requirements,
124-4-3
including VRRM spreadsheet
If plan is subject to Technical Criteria under Article 5, computations
106 124-5-4 demonstrate comp liance with water quality contro l requirements per
the Occoquan Method
Offsite nutrient credit compliance can only be used if less than 5
107 124-4-5 acres of area is disturbed or IO pound per year or 75% nutrient
removal is achieved on-site
PFM 6-0303.6A All BMP facilities are privately maintained. (Private maintenance
108
PFM 6-1300 agreement shall be executed prior to the final approval of the plans.)
A brief narrative provided summarizing how water quality control
109 PFM 6-0402.8A
requirements are being provided for the site
Statement of maintenance responsibility for the BMP (Public or
110 PFM 6-0402.8G
Private)
Depth between the bottom of the SWM/BMP facility and the
PFM 4-070 I . I
seasonal high water table (SHWT) or bedrock is shown. SHWT from
111 PFM 4-0702.3
June to October i determined by a certified professional using
PFM 4-0703
geomorphology,
STORMWATER MANAGEMENT: OUANTITY CONTROL
11 2 PFM 6-0301.3 SWM faci lity provided on-site with required calculations *
11 3 PFM 6-0301.3 SWM provided off-site with plan number and approval date shown *
Waiver requested for use of off-site SWM detention. Waiver request
11 4 PFM 6-0301.1 or approval letter is on plan and listed in approval information table
on cover sheet with JD number and approval date
A PFM modification request is submitted or approved for
11 5 PFM 6-0303.68
underground faci lities other than li sted in PFM 6-0303.68
PFM 6-1306.3E
PFM Plate 54-6 All -weather vehicular access with a minimum 12 feet wide surface i
11 6 PFM 7-0403. l A provided for all faci lities. lfaccess is through curb, a curb entrance
VDOT Road Design is provided.
Manual Anoendix F-89
For underground chambers, two or more acce s points are provided,
11 7 PFM 6-1306.31-1 al least one of which shall be a 4-foot x 4-foot access door BILCO
Model
If plan is subject to Technical Criteria under Article 4, computations
I 18 124-4-4.A *
demonstrate como liance with channel orotection reauirements
1f plan is subject to Technical Criteria under Article 4, computations
11 9 124-4-4.B *
demonstrate comoliance with flood orotection reauirements
lfp lan is subject to Technical Criteria under Article 4, computations
120 124-4-4.D demonstrate comp liance with 2-year and I0-year detention *
requirements
RESOURCE PROTECTION AREAS (RPA)
PFM 6-1701.3 Site specific RPA boundary shown. Label references approved RPA
121 *
112- 17- 106.33 delineation study number and approval date
WQIA with proper mitigation submitted or approved for water-
122 I 18-4-2
dependent improvements (outfalls) or redevelopment within RPA
An RPA Exemption request is submitted or approved and provided
123 118-5-3
for trails, sidewalk, site amenities, public utilities within RPA
118-6-9 An RPA Exception request is submitted or approved and provided
124
PFM 6-0303.3 for SWM facilities or other uses within RPA
FLOODPLAIN (FP)
125 PFM 6-0704.1 Proposed structures do not adversely affect the existing I00-year
Updated I/3/20 I 9 Site Plan Page 6 of 10
&02 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH
LINE CODE SECTION REOUIREMENT SHEET OK NO NIA
-
FFX
noodplain elevation. An approved I 00-year water surface e levation
is soecified.
T he lowest part of the lowest floor level of any proposed res identi al
126 PFM 6-0704.2 tructure i at least 18 inch above the I 00-yea r water surface *
e levation. A minim um horizontal distance of 15 feet is provided.
A floodp lain study is submitted or approved. 100-year floodp lain
PFM 6- 1401.1
127 li mits are shown. 'Floodplain and drainage easement" exists or
PFM 6-1405
l£!:_OJJOsed.
A Floodp lain Use Determination (FPUD) req uest is sub mitted or
-- -
128 112-2-903 approved and provided fo r pub li c ut ilities, roadway crossi ng or
outfall within floodp lain
I 12-2-903 A Special Exception (SE) is submitted or approved for maj or fil l or
129
112-2-904 use that are not permitted wi thi n the floodp lain
SAN ITARY SEWER
PFM 10-0102.5A(4) & Vertical and horizonta l separation shown between sanitary sewer
130
(5) ma in and waterli nes and storm sewer lines
PFM l 0-0 l 02.5A(7) Sanitary sewer crossing strea m or 011 fill or deeper than 18' proposed
131
PFM 10-0 l02.5L to be DIP
PFM 10-0102.58 Sa nitary sewer main extended to the nearest property li ne of the last
132
lot to be served
PFM 10-0102.58 Sanitary sewer easement extended to the property li ne where
133
adio inin g areas must be served
134 PFM I0-0l02.5C Sanitary sewer setback 15 ' from all buildings
135 PFM l0-0102.8D Sanitary sewer grade not less than I% to term inal manho le
136 PFM I 0-0 I 04.2A Sa nitary sewer profiles on same sheet as plan
137 PFM I0-0 I 04.2C Bearings and distances on centerlines of sanitary sewers sho wn
PFM 10-0l04.2D Location of existing tructu re , ho uses, uti li ty crossings, curbs,
138 property lines, ra il road crossings, culverts and bridges shown on plan
view
139 PFM I0-0 I 04.2D Locatio n of utility crossings shown on profile
FAJRFAX COUNTY WATER AUTHORJTY
PFM 9-0 I 02.2
140
112-17- 106.29
Locatio n size and type of proposed and existing water ma in · shown *
141 PFM 9-0 102.3A Proposed tie- ins to existing water system shown *
PFM 9-0 I 02.3A
142 Water ma in station ing on the plan and profile *
FCWA Pol icy
143 PFM 9-0 102.38 Watermains have 4 ' of cover un less otherwise noted
144 PFM 9-0 102.3D Utility crossin gs shown on the profiles *
145 PFM 9-0 l02.3S Profi le of all proposed public water mai ns inc luded *
146 PFM 9-0 l 02.3V Test holes shown where req uired
FIRE MARSHAL
All fire hydrants are located minimum of 50 feet from all buildi ngs to
147 PFM 9-0202.1 F
be prote.c ted
148 PFM 9-0202. I H Maximum of 100' from hyd rant to Siamese connec tion, if shown
Siamese connecti ons are located on the street fron t, address side of
149 PFM 9-0202.1 K
buildings and are be visible and accessible from the street
150 PFM 9-0202.1 l Fire coverage requirements are met.
PFM 9-0202.2
151 Location of fire lanes shown
62-2-8-503
PFM 9-0202.2C(l) &
152 Use group classification and type of construction shov,n
(2)
PFM 9-0202.2C(3) Existing and proposed water ma ins with size and fire hydrants shown
153
through (5) and labeled
Emergency veh ic le access prov ided to withi n I 00' of main entrance
154 PFM 9-0202.21
o r principal entrance of every building
PFM 9-0202.21
155 All build ing entra nce shown and main entrance identifi ed
Fire Marsha l Policy
Updated l /3/20 I 9 S ite Plan Page 7 of 10
 7.1 ■ TECHNICAL APPENDIX 683

LINE CODE SECTION REOUIREMENT SHEET OK NO NIA

-
FFX
156 PFM 9-0202.21(4) Fire lanes are minimum 20' wide
URBAN FORESTRY
PFM 12-0204.3
157 Tree protection shown on demolition plan
PFM 12-0305. 1A
158 PFM 12-0300. I Tree conservation plan provided for all land disturbing activities *
159 PFM 12-0301.1 B Existing Vegetation map (EVM) *
Tree preservation target calculation and narrative including any
160 PFM 12-0301.1 C *
deviation requests.
161 PFM 12-0301.1D I 0-year tree canopy requirements and calculations *
Tree inventory and conditions analysis if removing or preserving
162 PFM 12-0302. l A
existi ng trees
Landscape plan (if planting required to meet I 0-year tree canopy
163 PFM 12-0302.1 F
requirements) *
Existing tree line for gro ups of trees clearly shown with graphic key
164 PFM 12-0304. I A
provided
165 PFM 12-0304. 1B Proposed limits of clearing and grading shown and labeled
PFM 12-0309.2 & 12-
166
0309.3
Tree preservation plan and narrative *
167 PFM I 2-0309.2E Tree oreservation fence and measures shown and identified
168 PFM 12-0314.4 Interior parking lot landscaping calculation
169 PFM 12-0314.5 Trees indicated for interior parking lot landscapi ng
170 PFM I 2-03 I 5.2A Required transitiona l screening }lards shown and labeled
MISCELLANEOUS
All sheets have engineer' and/or surveyor' s/landscape architect' s
171 112-17-106.1 *
seal and sig nature
Plan is drawn to a scale of not less than I " = 50 ' . Match lines are
172 112-17- 106.2 *
shown where sheets join. P lan is legible at the sca le provided.
I 12-17- 106.5 North arrow referenced to State Grid System (VCS 83) and reference
173 *
IO l-2-5(c)(6) note is provided
Two adjacent corners or two points with coordinate values are shown
112- 17- 106.5
174 on each sheet. Metes and bounds are provided around the site
IO l-2-5(c)(6)
boundary.
112-17-1 06.5 Vertical darum reference note is provided and it refers to NGVD
175
IO l-2-5(c)(6) 1929
Existing topography drawn at maximum 2' intervals. Where existing
I 12-17-106.9
slope is less than 2%, additional spots or I-foot contours are
176 112-17- 106.10
provided. Sufficient elevation numbers shown on existing and
LDS Policy
proposed contour lines.
112-17- 106.9
177
LOS Policy
Existing topography not screened excessively so as not legible *
178 PFM 2-0 I 06.1 Proposed grading shown by contours and soot elevations
Proposed easements shown and identified as "proposed". All
112-17- 106.1 1
179
LOS Policy
existi ng easements are sho wn and labeled with deed book and page *
numbers. Easements are shown on all app li cable sheets.
180 112-17-106.16 Location of solid waste and recycling storage containers are shown
Sufficient existing condition information (i.e. topography structures,
112- 17- 106.18
181 etc.) is shown beyond property boundaries, so impacts on adjacent *
124-2.7.B.8.e
properties can be evaluated
Sidewalks provided among buildings within the site and pedestrian
182 112-17-201.1
connection is provided to adjacent sites
Trai l or wa lkway are provided in accordance with the
Comprehensive Plan or waiver request submitted or approved.
I 12-17-201.2
183 Adequate right of way is provided for trails within the right of way.
PFM 8-0202.2C
Public access easements are shown where required. Trail shoulder
shown.
184 112-16-403 Trails and wa lks are orooosed as shown on GDP FOP, SE or SP. *
185 112-17-106.15 Horizontal location of all ro_posed trails and vertica! locati_2!1 of an y_ ~ . ~-
~-- - - -- - - - - ~

Updated I /3/20 I 9 Site Plan Page 8 of 10

&a4 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH
LINE CODE SECTION REOUIREMENT SHEET OK NO NIA
-
FFX
trail wbich is proposed to exceed an 8% grade
PFM 2-0 10 1.1 All approved waivers are valid and shown on the plan , wi th waiver
186
County Policv condition como li ance narrati ve
187 PFM 2-0208.12 C learing limits match among all site plan sheets
Horizontal and vertical location of ex isting transmiss ion lines and
188 PFM 2-0304.2
Ioioelines and associated easements shown
Prints legible not too light or too dark to digit ize. Proposed
189 LDS Policy *
imorovements can be clearlv differentiated fro m ex isting.

PEER REVIEWER: COMPLETE NEXT PAG E -- FOR PLA CO TROL EARLY RO TING I FORMATION.
Note to Peer Reviewer: T he Peer Review Team has been requested to a · ist the Site Applicat ion Center in identifyi ng th e necessary
distribution of plans to agenc ies that are not invo lved in the norma l review functi on. This will a ll ow the plan to be distributed to those
agenc ies in a timelier fashion.

Updated I /3/20 I 9 S ite Plan Page 9 of 10

 7.1 ■ TECHNICAL APPENDIX 685

Site/Subdivi ion Plan Routing Slip

FROM: ESI PEER REVIEW

TO: Site Application Center

Plan Name: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Plan Number: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Date: _ _ _ _ __

This plan should be routed to the Agencies indicated

(Peer Reviewer: circle reasons for additional reviews needed and reference proffer/condition #)

AGENCY YES PROFFER/CONDITION# N/A

rban Forestry
Any plan wh ich ha a rezoning, special exception, pecial use permit or
variance. Plans with tree preservation target deviation or modification.
Park Authority
(Proffer requiring Park Authority review/Work on Park Land/Dedication to
Park/ Site is Adjacent to Park/BOS Directed Park Review/Stom, outfall
directed onto parkland/Planned Mixed Use development (Transit Station
Area , Community Busines Centers, Suburban Center , Reston,
Tysons)/Countywide Trail construction/ Development of property
containing a floodplain)
Heritage Resources
(Proffer/Condition/Directed Review by BOS or Historic Overlay District)
Planning Commission
(BOS Directed PC Review)
Board of Supervisors
(BOS Directed BOS review)
Health Department
(Septic/WeiI/Pool)
1 VSWCD
(DPWES, FCPA, Fairfax Water, FCPS Project/Pohick Watershed/within 3
miles of Potomac river/problem soils/steep slopes)
Other

Other

When peer review has been completed and both the plan and the checklist have been reviewed by ESI staff reviewer remove this sheet
from the checklist and wrap it around the plan and put the plan in the pigeon hole for "ES! peer review plans OK to log in".

Updated I/3/2019 Site Plan Page IO of IO

 CHAPTER 7.2
TYPES OF STORMWATER
MANAGEMENT FACILITIES

7.2.1. Introduction The first three categories are outlined in the following sec-
This chapter includes a series of detailed "fact sheets" on the tions. The fourth category of proprietary BMP includes any
various types of stormwater management facilities (adapted system that is developed by a manufacturer through propri-
primarily from Chapter 19 "New Development and Rede- etary treatment methods. The proprietary systems include
velopment Program;' Appendix II of the CO DOT Drainage manufactured filters, engineered soil media in a tree box fil-
Design Manual). These facilities have been broadly catego- ter, or other structural systems. Each jurisdiction will likely
rized by their types and include a description of the facility, have a list of approved proprietary systems and the recog-
guidelines on how to properly select or apply a design alter- nized efficiency.
native, as well as general design criteria for their successful
7.2.2. Integrated Management Practices and
implementation.
Low-Impact Development
As described in Chapters 3.5 and 5.5, the purpose of storm-
water management systems includes water quantity as well as Low-impact development technology employs microscale
water quality control. Each jurisdiction will have requirements and distributed management techniques, called integrated
for stormwater management systems. Historically, stormwater management practices (IMPs) to achieve desired post-
management was achieved through an "end of the line'' solu- development hydrologic conditions. These IMPs can be
tion (detention facility, regional pond). This strategy is chang- used to satisfy the storage volume requirements described
ing as design philosophies of stormwater best management in Chapters 3.5 and 5.5. In contrast to traditional BMPs, LID
practices (BMPs) transitions to treating rainfall and runoff practices are recognized for reducing runoff and the associ-
"at the source" and replicating the predevelopment hydrologic ated discharge from a site through infiltrations and vegeta-
characteristics (decreasing the peak rate of runoff and recharg- tive uptake.
ing groundwater supplies). There are four primary categories IMPs are the preferred method of addressing stormwa-
of stormwater management systems: ter management requirements because they can maintain
the pre-development runoff volume as well as integrate
1. Integrated management and low-impact easily into the site design. The design goal is to locate IMPs
development at the source of runoff, ideally on level ground within
individual parcels of the development, within parking lot
2. Structural BMPs
islands, or associated directly with a building. Manage-
3. Traditional BMPs ment practices that are suited to low-impact development
include
4. Proprietary BMPs

686
 7.2 ■ TYPES OF STDRMWATER MANAGEMENT FACILITIES 687

PARKING LOT
GRASS
C HANNEL
(LESSTNAN1%
SLOPE)

BYPASS - - - - -- ,LJ
(TO DETENTION FACILITY)

INFILTRATION - -- + - - H -
TRENCH
Wlltt PEA GRAVEL
FILTER LAYER
OVERWASHEO
BANK RUN GRAVEL
AGGREGATE

PLAN VIEW

PROTECTIVE LAYER OF FILTER FABRIC

~~P,d:!1f.ifr-- TRENCH 3-8 FEET OE.E.P

Fll.LEOWITtt 1.5• 2.SINCH DIAMETER
CLEAN STONE
(BANK RUN GRAVEL PREFERRED)

PROFILE

FIG uRE 7. 2 A Plan and profile views of an infiltration trench.

Infiltration Trench and Basin • Both should not be used on or adjacent to steep
Description. A structural BMP used to capture and treat a slopes and are typically used for drainage areas less
volume of stormwater runoff. The infiltration system con- than 5 acres.
sists of a stone-filled trench in which runoff is collected and
• Trenches should only be used in well-drained soils of
percolated to the surrounding soils. Grass channels, veg-
hydrologic soil groups A or B. However, they can be
etated filter strips, or forebays can be used to reduce sedi-
used in hydrologic soil groups C and D soils if used
ments entering the trench. Generally, the trench is 3 to 8 feet
for a very small drainage area, such as the backyard
deep and filled with 1.5- to 2.5-inch-diameter clean stone or
of a single family residence.
bank run gravel. The basin has a flat floor with an underd-
rain system. There is a diversion/ overflow structure or weir • The bottom of both facilities should be 4 feet higher
for higher volumes of flow. An illustrative detail is shown in than the seasonal high water table or bedrock.
Figures 7.2A and 7.2B. A detail for application adjacent to a
• Trenches recharge surface runoff directly to ground-
parking lot is shown in Figure 7.2C.
water and should not be used in areas where there
Application Guidelines are concerns about contamination of groundwater
with dissolved pollutants.
• Both can be used to enhance stormwater quality,
reduce peak discharges, and recharge groundwater. • Neither should be installed in highly permeable sand
or gravel seams that are directly connected to aquifers.
• Structures are prone to clogging by suspended solids
and are best used in conjunction with other BMPs • Both can be connected to parking lot drains, roof
that are more effective in removing suspended solids. downspouts, or inlet structures.
&88 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH

/ ~5: GRASSCHANN~----~

STILLING
••
•• ••••
/ •••••••••••••• EMERGENCY
BASIN ••
•••••••• •••••••••••••••••••••••
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
SPILLWAY

•••••• •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
1t••• ••
......................................
........................ ....... .
FLAT BASIN FLOOR WITH•••••••*
<t • •
*.,........*.,....*.,....: ~-.-.:. ~R;A~~ It!Rf.,:".".~....*.,..*.,......*.,..

..................... . .......
.,.. .,..
.,.. .,..
••••• •••••••II-*•• BACKUPUNDERDRAIN
• • • • • • • • • .,.. • • • • • • 11 """'·"""" " """" • ·

•••••••••••••••
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
·························••11-•
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
...........................
••••••••••••••••••••••••
••••••••••••••••••••••
••••••••••••••••••
...............

PLAN VIEW

Cp, or 2 YEAR LEVEL

BACKUP UNDERDRAIN PIPE IN CASE OF

STANDING WATER PROBLEMS ANTI-SEEP COLLAR o r _ /
FILTER DIAPHRAGM

PROFILE

FIGURE 7.28 Plan and profile views of an infiltration basin.

 7.2 ■ TYPES OF STDRMWATER MANAGEMENT FACILITIES 689

Top View Side View

Berm Dripline of tree should

{Grassed) not extend over trench

Slope of
Parking Lot
7 ~
Slotted Curbs Act
as a Level Spreader
-
Cars
~~ -:-:-:
//.!:? = :-:-:
~ :::::: u-:::::
- ---
---- ~ !!I JI~
! Filter Strip
Directly Abuts
Protective Filter
Cloth Layer
~ =::::: o?: Pavement
- - i j }::.~-:::::
Sand Filter
Storm Drain
(if Partial Exfiltration)
Slotted Curb
Spacers

FIG uRE 7. 2 C Plan and typical section of a parking lot perimeter trench. (Courtesy of Thomas R. Schueler, 1987, Controlling Urban Runoff: A Practi-
cal Manual for Planning and Designing Urban BMPs, Washington, D.C.: Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments, 777 No. Capital St. NE, Suite 300,
Washington, D.C. 20002-4226, 202/962-3256.)

• Upstream stilling basins can be used to pretreat por- • Periodic observations should also be made to moni-
tions of the water quality volume. tor any decrease in performance.
• Basins should only be used with well-drained soils of • A dense vegetative cover needs to be established over
hydrologic soil groups A or B. all contributing pervious areas before runoff can be
conveyed to the trench
Basic Design Criteria
• Dewatering methods need to be designed in the
• Generally, they are designed to infiltrate retained event of a failure.
runoff within a 48-hour period.
• The trench can be designed with a perforated drain
• Accumulated sediments render these facilities inef- pipe placed near the top of the trench. This allows
fective and regular inspections are needed. These the volume of stormwater in the trench (below the
sediments must be controlled to lengthen the effec- level of the drain pipe) to infiltrate into the subsoil.
tive life span. Any stormwater in excess of this volume will then be
• No vehicular traffic and minimal pedestrian traffic carried in the drain pipe to the outlet.
should be allowed over the trench. • Overland relief must be provided so that runoff from
• Observations should be made to observe the time very large storms does not cause unnecessary flood-
required for water to infiltrate into the soil after a ing or damage.
storm event.
&9o fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH
PARKING LOT SHEET FLON

l
$TOME DIAPHAAGM

.+,, -_,...- GRASS FILTER

STRl•

omoNAL
SAND LAYER

GRAVEL CURTAIN
OVERFLOW DRAIN OVERFl.ON
•CATCH BA.Sltr

PLAN VIEW

-
r 10 12" PONDING
2•..3• MUlC

2.6' 10-4' PR.OTECTIV5 LAYER

Pl.ANTING SOIL OF FILTER FABRJC

PROFILE

6. PERFORATED
P1F>E IN It' GRAVEL
JACKET

TYPICAL SECTION
FIG uRE 7. 2 D Plan and profile views of a bioretention facility.

Bioretention • Upstream grass channels or grass filter strips can be

Description. A structural BMP used to capture and treat used to help protect the integrity of the facility.
a volume of stormwater runoff. The bioretention area is an • Generally suited for drainage areas of 10 acres or less
excavated area filled with planting soil or a sand/planting but multiples systems can be located in the same area.
soil mix. Runoff accumulates in the depression on top of the
bioretention area and percolates through the sand/soil later. • Runoff sources can be overland flow from impervi-
Flows are then conveyed by an underdrain system connected ous areas or discharges from drainage pipes.
to a storm sewer, open channel, or stream. An illustrative • Most effective if the retention area can be located as
detail is of a bioretention system is shown in Figure 7.2D. close as possible to the runoff source.

Application Guidelines Basic Design Criteria

• Structure can be used to enhance stormwater quality, • Generally, basins are designed to infiltrate retained
reduce peak runoff, and recharge groundwater. runoff within a 40-hour period.
• Can be used in residential and nonresidential devel- • Regular inspection and maintenance is necessary to
opment areas. remove surface sediment, trash, debris, and leaf litter,
and dead or diseased plant material.
• Excavated area is lined with layers of filter fabric.
• A dense vegetative cover needs to be established over
• Efficient for removing a wide variety of pollutants
all contributing pervious areas before runoff can be
including suspended solids and nutrients.
conveyed to the bioretention facility.
• Structure can be off-line, receiving runoff from over-
• Planting soil typically has a depth of approximately
land flow or other structures in a traditional drainage
2.5 to 4 feet.
system, or on -line, where structures are located in
grass swales or other conveyance systems that have • The top of the bioretention area is depressed to allow
been modified to enhance pollutant removal. for 6 to 12 inches of stormwater ponding.
 7.2 ■ TYPES OF STDRMWATER MANAGEMENT FACILITIES 691

RIPRAP

-
INFLOW

-ROADWAY-

PLAN VIEW

2'T08' SHOULDER-
BOTT MWIDTH

WOv LEVEL
2: 1 SLOPE OR FLATTER

30" PERMEABLE SOIL

SECTION

FIG uRE 7. 2 E Plan and typical section of a dry swale.

Dry/Wet Swales • Swales are used in low-density residential areas or for

Description. Dry/wet swales are structural BMPs used to very small impervious areas.
filter pollutants as stormwater runoff moves through them. • Runoff sources can be overland flow from impervi-
These BMPs are constructed as an open channel with grass or ous areas or discharges from drainage pipes.
other wetland vegetation to provide conveyance and to filter
• Well suited for flat or rolling terrain.
pollutants. Other features such as check dams, pretreatment
forebays, gravel pads, and riprap can be used to temporarily • Swale depressions can be used in place of above-
inhibit stormwater runoff and enhance treatment. Illustra- ground islands in large parking lots.
tive details of dry and wet swales are shown in Figures 7.2E • Wet swales are ideal for treating highway runoff in
and 7.2F, respectively. flat terrain areas.
Application Guidelines • Wet swales can be used in residential areas if ponded
water can be flushed frequently and wetland vegetation
• Structure can be used to enhance stormwater quality
in the bottom of the channel can be established and
and reduce peak runoff.
maintained. Extended periods of standing water may
• Efficient for removing a wide variety of pollutants result in nuisance conditions and mosquito problems.
including suspended solids and nutrients.
• Flows from wet swales are generally conveyed
• Swales work best in conjunction with other BMPs through a surface outlet structure to an open channel
and can be used as an alternative to or enhancement or stream, or directly into a storm sewer.
of a conventional storm sewer.
• If designed with check dams and/or depression stor-
• Excavated area is lined with layers of filter fabric age, the swale can satisfy site runoff capture storage
around the permeable soil. requirements for water quantity control.
• Flows that infiltrate into the dry swale channel soil • Swale depressions can be used in place of above-
are conveyed by an underdrain system. ground islands in large parking lots.
&92 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH
ADDITIONAL STORAGE

RIPRAP

INFLOW

-ROADWAY-

PLAN VIEW

SHOULDER-
2'-8" ROADWAY
BOTTOM WIDTH

~
~ 2:1 SLOPE OR FLATTER

WATER TABLE (VARIABLE)

PROFILE
FIG uRE 7. 2 F Plan and profile views of a wet swale.

Basic Design Criteria should also be constructed early in the construc-

tion schedule before grading and paving increase
• Generally, swales are designed to temporarily store
runoff rates.
the water quality volume for a maximum of 48 hours.
• The maximum ponding depth is generally no greater
• Regular inspection and maintenance is necessary to
than 1.5 feet at the outlet.
remove surface sediment, trash, debris, and leaf litter,
and dead or diseased plant material. • Longitudinal slope should be as flat as possible, to
minimize velocities and enhance pollutant filtering.
• A vegetative cover needs to be established as soon
as possible to prevent erosion and scour. They • Frequent mowing is not required.
 7.2 ■ TYPES OF STDRMWATER MANAGEMENT FACILITIES 693

POROUS ASPHALT COI.RSE

• 2- V2" to 4" thiel<

FILTER COLRSE
• V2" aggegate
2" thiel<

RESERVOIR COLflSE
• 1" to 2" BQIJ'egate
• Thickness ,s based on
storage r~ired and rrost
penetration

FIL TEA FABRIC

EXISTING SOIL
MinilTUTI COITl)action to retain
porosity and permeability
FI GuRE 7 . 2 G Some of the various porous pavement options-
gravel pave, grass pave, open grid, and porous pave. (Photo courtesy of
Invisible Structures and Pavestone.) FIG uRE 7. 2 H Schematic of typical porous pavement section.

Porous Pavements • Can be used to reduce flooding by infiltrating or

Description. This structural BMP consists of porous slowing down stormwater runoff.
asphalt, concrete, lattice pavers, concrete blocks, or stones.
• Lattice pavers, blocks, or stones can enhance site
The surface material is laid on a gravel subgrade and the
aesthetics.
surface voids are filled with sand or a sandy loam turf.
Stormwater flows percolate through the pavement into Basic Design Criteria
the underlying soil. Using this BMP, streets, parking lots,
sidewalks, and other impervious surfaces retain infiltra- • Initial pollutant removal rates are high but decrease
tion capacity. The three major types of porous pavements as the porous materials become clogged. Careful
include open grid, concrete/asphalt, and gravel/grass pave. attention to maintenance is necessary to reduce clog-
Illustrative details of porous pavement systems are shown in ging. Maintenance should include vacuum sweeping
Figures 7.2G and 7.2H. and jet hosing.

Application Guidelines • Suitable sites are generally limited to low traffic areas
with a minimum soil infiltration capacity of 0.5 in/h.
• Best used in areas oflow traffic volumes and loads.
• Porous pavements should not be used in areas of
• Alternate approach is to use grass turf reinforced with high contaminant loads such as gas stations or load-
plastic rings and filter fabric underlain by gravel. ing docks and the proximity of the pavement to
groundwater needs to be considered.
• Porous pavements function to decrease the effective
imperviousness of a project site. • Pavement thickness should be sufficient to protect
the subgrade.
• Most often used in the construction of parking lots
for office buildings and shopping centers. Other uses • Quality base and subbase materials should be used to
include traffic islands, emergency stopping areas, support the applied loads.
road shoulders, residential driveways, airport park-
• Underdrain system can be used if subsoils cannot
ing aprons, and maintenance roads.
adequately infiltrate the expected flows.
• Structural and functional characteristics of the sur-
• Adjacent unpaved areas should be stabilized to
faces they replace are maintained.
prevent sediment from washing into the porous
• Potential for high particulate pollutant removal. pavement area.
&94 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH

FIG uRE 7. 21 Dry well detail/picture. (MOE & CWP, 2000, and Maine DEP Conservation Practices for
Homeowners Factsheet Series.)

Dry Wells Basic Design Criteria

Description. A structural BMP used to capture and • The dimensions of the dry well are determined based
treat a volume of stormwater runoff. This BMP provides on the design storm (usually a 0.5 to 1 inch of rain-
stormwater storage prior to infiltration and may meet fall or the 1- or 2-year storm) and the drawdown
groundwater recharge requirements. A dry well is very sim- time (typically 48 to 72 hours) both of which vary
ilar to an infiltration trench with several important differ- depending on the jurisdiction.
ences: it is much smaller and is usually connected directly • Dry wells should be located at least 4 feet above the
to a rooftop downspout. Illustrative details of dry wells are seasonal high groundwater level.
shown in Figure 7.21.
• The maximum depth of dry well can be determined
Application Guidelines by using the formula:
• A dry well infiltrates water through the stone media
dmax = fTsln {J.2A)
into the underlying soils.
where dmax is the depth of dry well (inches),fis
• Use of dry wells can reduce the amount of storage the permeability rate (in/h), T; is the storage time
required in other downstream BMPs.
(hours), n is the porosity of stone (typically 0.40).
• Dry wells are smaller than infiltration trenches typi- • Once the well depth is determined based on the
cally treating about 500 square feet (sf) to as much as above equation and/or the groundwater elevation,
one acre of imperviousness. the area of the well is determined as follows:
• Typically considered a stormwater quantity control
BMP; however, some jurisdictions allow water qual- A= 'Vsl(nd+ fTs) (7.2B)
ity control credit for the pollutant removal attained where A is the area of dry well (feet), Vs is the
through infiltration. required storage volume based on design storm, and
• Common in residential settings, dry wells are often dis the depth of the well as determined above (feet).
directly connected to downspouts. • Flows in excess of the design storm will bypass the
• Dry wells should be located at least 10 feet from dry well via a surcharge pipe.
the building foundation to prevent seepage into the • Crushed stone size should be between 1½ and 3 inches.
basement/foundation. • Geotextile is typically placed at the interface of the
• Dry wells should also be located at least 100 feet from soil and stone.
any drinking water well to prevent contamination. • During construction the subsoil (soil below the
• Soil permeability must be at least 0.2 in/h and for stone) should not be compacted.
groundwater recharge applications, a minimum soil • Provide observation well to monitor clogging.
permeability rate of 0.5 in/h is typically required. • Inspect well after significant rainfall events and if
• Do not use dry wells in areas where there is high sed- there is standing water on top of the dry well or in
iment loading (this can lead to rapid clogging of the the observation well for longer than 72 hours.
well) or areas that have hazardous chemicals or other • Clean/replace aggregate and filter fabric when clogged
pollutants which can contaminate groundwater. or every 3 to 5 years as part of routine maintenance.
 7.2 ■ TYPES OF STDRMWATER MANAGEMENT FACILITIES 695

Leaf screan
Roof - Approximately 1,200 sq ft covers gutters

I
Mosquito screen
covers cistern entrance
oof washer - wastes initial 12 gallons

~ ~-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-~~--~,, ~ trickle valve with hose to swale at base

1,500 Gallon cistern

Cistern Ultraviolet
overflow sterilizer

Valve

Check valve

(a) (b)
FIG uRE 7. 2 J (a) Schematic section of a functioning cistern (Experiments in Sustainable Urban Living); (b) detail of a typical rain barrel installation
(Composters.com, a subsidiary of the Green Culture).

Rain Barrels/Cisterns • Facilities may be placed in series to increase storage

Description. Primarily a quantity control BMP, rain barrels volume.
and cisterns are generally used to detain (or retain) small fre-
• Inlet and outlet conditions should be carefully con-
quency storms and hold water for on -site reuse applications. A
sidered to minimize insect attraction and contamina-
small orifice or other manually operated outlet control (hose
tion while facilitating overflow or bypass.
or nozzle) is used to control the outflow from the rain barrel
or cistern. Secondary water quality benefits can be obtained as • Collected rainwater in barrels/ cisterns is not potable
runoff (typically from the rooftop) is screened at the inlet and and should only be used for landscaping or other
depending on the facility sizing may be detained long enough grey water applications
for sedimentation to occur or in large applications, filtered.
Common reuse applications include irrigation and gray water Basic Design Criteria
uses internal to the building/structure. Illustrative details of
• Determine the volume of rooftop runoff available:
rain barrels and cisterns on shown in Figure 7.2J.

Application Guidelines V= Ax Rx Ex 7.48 (7.2C)

• Post-development volume reduction is possible when where A is the rooftop area (sf), R is the rainfall (feet),
reuse is employed. E is the efficiency of the system (usually estimated
at 90%), and 7.48 is the conversion from gallons to
• The facilities are flexible and can provide detention or cubic feet.
retention by adjusting the outlet control device-partially
open to detain or closed to retain for a given storm. • Determine allowable drawdown time typically in the
range of24 to 48 hours but varies depending on cli-
• Rain barrels are common in residential applications as
mate, average rainfall, and intended reuse application.
they tend to be the smaller of the two similar facilities
with a minimum size of approximately 55 gallons. • Size outlet control device based on drawdown time
and detention volume.
• Cisterns are common in nonresidential and large-
scale residential applications; they may be above or • Provide/design pumps if a gravity-based discharge
below ground and range in size and material from system is not possible.
fabricated or precast tanks similar to rain barrels to
• Account for overflow from larger storms with an
cast-in-place vaults of nearly any size.
appropriate bypass system.
• Useful in rural, suburban, and urban applications
• Maintenance is required-a low flow or dewater-
and is relatively space conscious in that it is generally
ing spigot is required and sediment levels should be
small enough to be screened in residential applica-
checked periodically and removed to allow proper
tions or buried or included in structured parking
functioning.
areas in nonresidential or condo type applications.
696 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH
Stormwater Inlet Pipe

Oil
Separation
Chamber
Q)

::::_ \ ...:=-·~ ~
t5
2
ci5
Q)
Trash Rack a5
u
C
Sediment Trapping 0
Chamber {)
0
Q)
u
0
c
&

FIG uRE 7. 2 K Schematic of a water quality inlet. (Courtesy of Engineers & Surveyors Institute and Northern Virginia Planning District Commission.)

Structural BMPs • Since flows are only detained for a short time, pollut-
Water Quality Inlet with Oil/Grit Separator ants not removed as effectively as facilities that retain
Description. This structural BMP is similar to a stan- runoff for longer periods.
dard curb inlet with modifications made to the under-
• Although flows are only detained for a short time, inlet
ground portion of the structure to separate oil and grit
can be used as an effective first stage of treatment by
into discrete chambers. Generally, this BMP consists of
removing oil, grease, and sediments from stormwater
a three-chamber system designed to remove heavy par-
before the flows enter a larger BMP such as a pond.
ticulates and trap hydrocarbons from stormwater runoff.
Illustrative details of water quality inlets are shown in • Inlets can be installed in most areas and drainage
Figure 7.2K. area to inlet is generally less than one acre.

Application Guidelines Basic Design Criteria

• Generally used at sites expected to receive heavy • Inlets can be installed in any soil or terrain and
vehicular traffic. are best used when they are installed at or near the
impervious area that generates stormwater runoff.
• Also used at sites where oils, grease, and petroleum
products could be carried by stormwater. • Area above inlet needs to be large enough for main-
tenance access.
• Inlets are often placed in parking lots, service sta-
tions, or in truck loading areas. • The inlet should be designed with a permanent pool
approximately 4 feet deep with a total chamber vol-
• Inlets can be used to reduce the maintenance ume of 400 cubic feet of water per acre of contribut-
required at downstream BMPs. ing drainage area.
• Multistage underground retention system. • Higher levels of pollutants can be removed by incor-
• Upstream chamber trap sediments, center chamber porating surface skimmers in the structure.
trap oils and other heavy substances, downstream • Structure should be inspected regularly and cleaned
chamber discharge flows. at least twice per year to remove accumulated sedi-
ment, oil, grease, and other pollutants.
 7.2 ■ TYPES OF STDRMWATER MANAGEMENT FACILITIES 697

UNDEROl¼IN COL!.JlCTION
S YSTE.l\f
BYPASS Fl.,O\V DIVERSION

.......
i :
:' DIITFI aw ..

t
PRE'JRliATMENT
SEDIMENTATIO
CHAMBER

PLAN VIEW
PERFORATED
STANDPIPE

UNDllRDl¼IN COI.J..ECTION SY TllM

-
OlITFLOW

PROFILE

J"TOPSOIL

IS" CLEAN WASHED GEOTllXTILB

-CONCRETE" SAND ) ALL SIDES, TOP & BOTTOM

6" PERFORATED PIPE/GRAVEL

UNOERDRAIN SYSTEM

TYPICAL SECTION

FIG uRE 7. 2 L Plan, profile, and typical section of a surface sand filter. (MOE & CWP, 2000.)

Sand Filter. There are a variety of different sand filters avail- chambers designed for various levels of treatment. Flows
able for use depending on jurisdictional standards/preferences enter the structure through surface grates and exit the
and the development application. They include structure through underground pipes. Generally, one
chamber collects sediments while the other chamber
Surface sand filter (Figure 7.2L): A structural BMP used
filters runoff.
to capture and treat a volume of stormwater runoff. This
BMP is an excavated basin underlain by a sand filter bed Organic filter: A structural BMP used to capture and
with an underdrain system. Runoff collects in the basin treat a volume of stormwater runoff. This BMP is identi-
and gradually infiltrates into the sand bed. The underdrain cal to a surface sand filter. However, the runoff storage
then dewaters the sand bed and flows are conveyed to a zone is underlain by a 50/50 peat and sand mixture filter
nearby swale or storm sewer. An overflow is used to divert bed with an underdrain system. This filter is used in
higher volumes of flow. areas where maximum nutrient or trace metal removals
are desired. The underdrain system then conveys flows
Subsurface sand filter: A structural BMP used to capture
to a swale or storm sewer.
and treat a volume of stormwater runoff. This structure
consists of an underground concrete vault with distinct Pocket sand filter: A structural BMP used to capture and
chambers designed for various levels of treatment. Flows treat a volume of stormwater runoff. This BMP is similar
enter and exit the structure through underground pipes to a surface sand filter, but smaller in surface area. The
and flows from the filter are conveyed into a storm sewer filter consists of a small excavated basin with a runoff
or open channel. storage zone underlain by a sand filter bed. For this BMP,
the lower portion of the sand bed has a pea gravel "win-
Perimeter sand filter: A structural BMP used to capture
dow" on the surface that allows runoff into the filter if
and treat a volume of stormwater runoff. This BMP
the surface becomes clogged.
consists of an underground concrete vault with distinct
&9a fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH

t
WO,ONLY-.

PLAN VIEW

TEMPORARY
PONDING

PERMANENT
POOL

SUBMERGED :
WALL - .

TEMPORARY
PONDING
(VARIA8LE)

DEBRIS SCREEN (1")

24" CLEAN
WASHED SAND

6" PERFORATED PIPE

IN 11 " GAAVEL JACKET

TYPICAL SECTION

FIG uRE 7. 2 M Plan, profile, and typical section of a subsurface sand filter. (MOE & CWP, 2000.)

General Sand Filter Application Guidelines • Most effective in treating runoff from small storms
or early stages oflarger storms.
• Filter is used to enhance stormwater quality.
• Filters are generally used in areas where sediment
• Filter is subject to clogging if moderate to high levels loads are low and there is no base flow.
of silts and clays flow into facility and must not be
used while construction is occurring in the upstream • Subsurface sand filters are used to treat drainage
catchment. areas of 5 acres or less.

• Upstream grass channels, grass filter strips, or other • Useful in watersheds where groundwater quality is
BMPs can be used to help remove sediments and a concern or where low permeability soils prevent
particulates before they enter the filter, reducing infiltration.
maintenance requirements. • Upper chamber filters out finer materials and
• Particularly useful at sites with limited space for sediments. Flows percolate through a sand filter in
water quality treatment or in high-value real estate the lower chamber and into an underdrain system.
areas. The subsurface and perimeter sand filter vault • Perimeter sand filter is also practical for small sites
can be installed under parking lots and streets. with flat terrain or a high water table.
 7.2 ■ TYPES OF STDRMWATER MANAGEMENT FACILITIES 699

parnlng lot runoff

Inlet grate

.soo dete 1below

underdraln plPQ
Re. storage access grate
co lection system
PLAN VIEW

CURB STOPS

ACCESS GRATES

S7 TEMPORAAY PONDING

SEDIMENTATION
CHAMBER

PROFILE

TEMPORARYr
PONDING
6" -12"

1
·:. -
·:. -
·:. -
·:. .- --------t .
_. _ ·- ·:. ·:. ·:. ·:. ·: . _. _ ·:. ·:

·. ·:. ·:.·:.·:.·:. ·."':.·:. ·:. ·:. ·:. ·:. ·:.·:.

18"CLEAN ...
·:. ·:. ·:, ·:. ·: . _ ·:. ·:. ·:. ·:. ·:·. ·.-. ·:. ·:
. ·:. ·:.·:.·:.·:.·:.·:.·:.·:. ·:.·:. ·:.·:. ·
·:.·:. ·:.·:. ·:.·.·.·:. ·:.·:.·:.·:.·.·.·:.·:
WASHED SAND .. ...... ..... , ............ .. , . .. .
.. .... -·.. .." ....
.... .. .. .. ........
.. .. .. , .....

FIG uRE 7. 2 N Plan, profile, and typical section of a perimeter sand filter. (MOE & CWP, 2000.)

Basic Design Criteria • Filter bed typically has a depth of between 18 and
30 inches.
• Regular inspection and maintenance is necessary to
remove surface sediment, trash, debris, and leaflitter. • In certain cases, layers of sand will need to be
replaced every 3 to 5 years.
• A dense vegetative cover needs to be established over
all contributing pervious areas before runoff can be • Outlets and chambers will be cleaned/repaired when
conveyed to the filter. drawdown times in the filter exceed 36 hours.
• Screens/grated inlets should be considered in design
to keep debris out of filter chambers.
100 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH

PLAN VIEW PROFILE

FIG uRE 7. 2 0 Plan and profile of an extended detention stormwater management pond. (MOE & CWP, 2000.)

Traditional BMPs. The traditional BMPs listed here • Ponds also work well in conjunction with other
address the requirements of local jurisdictions for quality BMPs used to control upstream and downstream
control by extended detention of the "first flush'' of runoff. sediments.
This extended detention time is intended to capture sedi-
• Ponds can attenuate peak stormwater discharges and
ment and allow the pollutants attached to the sediment suf-
for water quality treatment.
ficient time to settle out of the water. These facilities can be
enhanced by the inclusion of sediment forebays and micro- • Pond size can be reduced if effectively combined with
pools to increase their effectiveness. other water quality BMPs.
Extended Detention (Dry) Pond with Micropool
• Pond can also be used for recreation and open
Description. A structural BMP is used to capture and treat
space and in some cases, wildlife habitat if wet-
a specific volume of stormwater runoff. Because of a smaller
lands or shallow pools are incorporated into the
outlet, the pond releases stored flows over a period of a few
design.
days and drains totally dry sometime after the storm ends.
The pond is considered dry, although the formation of Basic Design Criteria
small wetland marshes or shallow pools in the bottom can
enhance the effectiveness of the pond. Illustrative details of • If possible, pond should be incorporated into existing
an extended detention dry pond is shown in Figure 7.20. facility or flood control basin.

Application Guidelines • Consider other urban uses such as recreation, open

space, and/or wildlife habitat.
• Pond can be used to enhance stormwater quality and
reduce peak discharges. • Generally, minimum drain time of 40 hours is rec-
ommended to allow finer particulates found in urban
• Most applicable in residential, commercial, and stormwater runoff to settle.
industrial areas.
• Generally, land required is approximately 0.5% to
• If constructed early in development of a particular 2.0% of tributary development area.
site, the pond becomes an effective means of trapping
sediment from construction activities. • Account for groundwater elevations in the design
and construction of the basin.
• Ponds can be retrofitted into existing flood control
facilities. • Review regulatory requirements for dam embank-
ments and storage volumes if minimum dam heights
• Ponds are used to improve quality of urban runoff. and volumes are exceeded.
• Used for regional and/or follow-up water quality
treatment but are also effective as an "on-site'' BMP.
 7.2 ■ TYPES OF STDRMWATER MANAGEMENT FACILITIES 701

FIG uRE 7. 2 P Photograph of the Farrcroft Wet Pond that serves as a BMP facility as well as a community amenity.

Wet Pond • Basins can be effective if they are combined with

Description. A structural BMP used to capture and treat BMPs that attenuate peak stormwater discharges or
a specific volume of stormwater runoff. This structure reduce runoff volumes. If needed, flood routing deten-
has a permanent pool and runoff from each rain event tion volume can be designed and captured by the
is detained and treated in the pond until it is displaced pond, above volume used for water quality treatment.
by runoff from the next storm. The permanent pool
• Pond size can be reduced if effectively combined with
enhances the effectiveness of the pond by promoting bio-
other BMPs.
logical uptake. Illustrative details of wet ponds are shown
in Figures 7.2P and 7.2Q. • Basins can also be used for recreation and open space
and in some cases, wildlife habitat if wetlands or
Application Guidelines
shallow pools are incorporated into the design.
• Pond can be used to enhance stormwater quality and
reduce peak discharges. Basic Design Criteria
• Most applicable in residential, commercial, and • Generally, water quality flows require a minimum
industrial areas. drain time of 40 hours to allow finer particulates
found in urban stormwater runoff to settle.
• If constructed early in development of a particular
site, the pond becomes an effective means of trapping • If possible, pond should be incorporated into existing
sediment from construction activities. facility or flood control basin.
• Pond can be retrofitted into existing flood control • Consider other urban uses such as recreation, open
facilities. space, and/or wildlife habitat.
• Ponds are used to improve quality of urban runoff. • Generally, land required is approximately 0.5% to
2.0% of tributary development area.
• Basins are used for regional and/or follow-up water
quality treatment but are also effective as an "on-site'' • Account for groundwater elevations in the design
BMP. and construction of the basin.
• Pond also works well in conjunction with other • Review regulatory requirements for dam embank-
BMPs used to control upstream and downstream ments and storage volumes if the minimum dam
sediments. heights and volumes are exceeded.
102 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH

~ EMERGENCY
SPILLWAY

IRREGULAR POOL SHAPE

6 to 8 FEET DEEP

RISER IN
EMBANKMENT

PLAN VIEW

EMBANKMENT\

RISER\ \
S7 100 YEAR LEVEL

S7 10 YEAR LEVEL
-=-

REVERSE PIPE (;
BARREL
ANTI-SEEP COLLAR or
FILTER DIAPHRAGM

PROFILE
FIG uRE 7. 2 Q Plan and profile views of a "wet" stormwater management pond. (MOE & CWP, 2000.)
 7.2 ■ TYPES OF STDRMWATER MANAGEMENT FACILITIES 703

Figure 7.2R relates the expected long-term efficiency of 100

pollutant removal as compared to the volume of the reten- IO Sediment ... .... .. .. ......... .... ........ ........... .. .... ..

tion basin (VB/VR ratio). As can be seen in the figure, the l..., 80 .. ....... r•-~;ad
larger the VB/VR ratio, that is, the larger the basin size, the ~ Total Phosphorus

,,,,,.,,,.,,..--... ------•--4------
0
70
:I
greater the efficiency that can be expected. However, the
figure also illustrates that after a certain point only a small
.
w
a: 60
,,,,_.a,,, Total Nitrogen

increase in efficiency can be expected for a large increase in

~
:I
50 .,, -0-- - -0----0----0----0-·

2 40 : // ,,., -- -~.:::.:+ ..--...

gY:~··• - Zinc, Cq,per
BOD, -------·-
basin volume. :I : / _?
a: 30 '~ ;
Pond shape is important in that it is desirable to provide
the maximum possible distance between the inlet(s) and
i9 20
:/d
,'//
the outlet provided that the incoming water displaces water 10 /
0
already in the pond. 0 10

The average depth of the pond is recommended to be VOLUME OF BASIN/VOLUME OF RUNOFF FROM MEAN STROM

between 3 and 6 feet. Shallower ponds are more efficient, since NOTE: Average results from U.S. EPA (1986), and adapted to reflect modifications of Walker (1986).

settling is the primary removal mechanism, and removal is FIG uRE 7. 2 R Estimated removal of selected urban pollutants as a
considered accomplished when the particles reach the pond function of permanent pool size.
bottom. However, a very shallow pond causes resuspension
of settled particles by wave action and promotes vegetation
throughout the entire pond. A very deep pond could become
thermally stratified, which can result in anoxic conditions
and possible subsequent resuspension of pollutants in the
lower layers.

a) Negative Sloped Pipe from Riser

Negatively Sloped Pipe A negatively sloped pipe one foot

Draws Water at Least below the water surface reduces
One root Below Pool the risk of clogging from floating
and partially su bmerged debris.
The rele ase rate is controlled by
the size of the pi pe.

b) Hooded Orifice on Riser

~ A
Concrete Box Riser

The orifice Is protected against

clogging from floating debris by
a hood which extends below the
wa ter surface elevation. Wire
mesh allows free flow and also
prevents clogging by suspended/
submerged debris.

Elevotlon Section A- A

FIG uRE 7. 2 S Design techniques to minimize the risk of clogging while providing extended detention time in stormwater management ponds.
(Courtesy ofThomas R. Schueler, 1987, Controlling Urban Runoff: A Practical Manual for Planning and Designing Urban BMPs, Washington, D.C.: Metro-
politan Washington Council of Governments, 777 No. Capital St. NE, Suite 300, Washington, D.C. 20002-4226, 202/962-3256.)
104 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH

LIMIT 25% OF POND

PERIMETER OPEN GRASS
--✓---- ---

/ / /~ ,- - -~ =
(

RISER IN
EMBANKMENT

LOW MARSH
(WATER DEPTH BElWEEN 6" and 18")

PLAN VIEW

WETLANDS
HIGH MARSH

PROFILE

FIG uRE 7. 2 T Plan and profile views of a shallow wetland stormwater management facility. (MOE & CWP, 2000.)

Shallow Wetland • Small existing wetlands can be enlarged and incor-

Description. A structural BMP used to capture and treat a porated into constructed wetland (requires state and
specific volume of stormwater runoff. This structure is sim- federal permits).
ilar to a stormwater pond. However, wetland vegetation is
added to the bottom of the pond to enhance the pollutant • Requires an area sufficiently large for impounding
removal capability of the structure. A perennial base flow stormwater in shallow basins.
is needed to promote wetland vegetation and water quality • Wetland cells can be arranged in a series of terraces.
treatment is provided in the shallow pool. Illustrative details
of shallows wetlands are shown in Figure 7.2T. • If needed, flood storage can be provided above
volume used for water quality treatment.
Application Guidelines
• Wetland can be used to reduce peak discharges. • Wetlands can provide effective follow-up treatment
to on-site and other basin BMPs.
• Can be used as a follow-up structural BMP or as a
stand-alone facility.
 7.2 ■ TYPES OF STDRMWATER MANAGEMENT FACILITIES 705

• State and federal regulations protecting natural wet- petroleum products, water conservation, litter control, and
lands recognize classification of wetlands constructed controls for minimizing erosion from disturbed ground.
for water quality treatment. These most fundamental types of BMPs may only be oflim-
ited use in land development engineering, but should be rec-
• Constructed wetlands generally not allowed on
ognized as alternatives to be considered for a development or
receiving waters and cannot be used to mitigate loss
community along with the following options.
of natural wetlands.
Catch Basin Inserts
• Advantage is in aesthetics and creation of wildlife Description. Catch basin inserts hang from the open-
habitat, disadvantage is need for continuous base ing of a curb inlet or below the grate of an area inlet. These
flow to maintain wetland growth. inserts catch debris and other sediment and pollutant par-
ticles before they flow downstream. Some inserts have more
Basic Design Criteria than one treatment mechanism (i.e., oil absorption areas and
• Generally, minimum drain time of 24 hours is sediment trapping sections) and are generally placed in areas
recommended. where oil/grit separators cannot be used. Illustrative details
of catch basin inserts are shown in Figure 7.2U.
• Wetlands constructed outside of the waters of the
United States and explicitly designed for stormwater Application Guidelines
management, are not subject to the provisions of the • Generally, inserts are not suitable for removal of fine
Clean Water Act (Sections 401 and 404). When aban- particulates such as metals, clays, silts, or nutrients.
doned, they may be regulated as natural wetlands.
• Some inserts are designed with more than one treat-
• Consider other urban uses such as recreation, open ment mechanism. One such method is an inner com-
space, and/or wildlife habitat. ponent that contains oil absorbent materials.
• Loamy soils are required in the wetland bottom to • Can be used in areas where coarse sediments or
sustain plant growth. materials are expected in stormwater.
• Perennial base flow is needed and is determined • Suitable for sites where substantial amounts of debris
through a water budget analysis. are found in stormwater.
• Exfiltration through pond bottom is not reli- • Can be used in areas of unpaved roads or parking
able because oflow permeability soils and/or high areas, construction sites, unpaved industrial sites,
groundwater elevations. and lumber yards.
• Review regulatory requirements for dam embank- • Inserts can be used in areas where oil/grit separators
ments and storage volumes if minimum dam heights cannot be used.
and volumes are exceeded.
• Inserts should have a high-flow bypass to prevent
Alternative BMPs. A public education program may be resuspension and washout.
considered a nonstructural BMP. Educating the public about
activities that contribute to pollution and about practices • Inserts have limited ability to remove pollutants and
that may help to reduce pollution can provide incentive and should be used in conjunction with other BMPs.
the ability for homeowners to be directly involved in reduc- • Best suited as pretreatment for sediment and debris
ing NPS pollution and improving water quality. Such prac- removal before flows are conveyed to downstream
tices include the proper use of fertilizers, disposal of used BMPs.

--------- - --- ----

[CATCH BASIN

now~ j ___..I GRATE

_ _ J FILTERTRAYS

[ /
_.j
18YPASS

FIG uRE 7. 2 U
l I l .ow

Catch basin insert options-filter insert or geotextile wrap. (Modified from COOT Drainage Design Manual Appendix II.)
10& fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH
Basic Design Criteria • Street sweeping can be used in conjunction with
inserts to reduce maintenance frequency and extend
• Inserts should be designed for a reasonable design storm
service life.
(i.e., 2 years), based on the characteristics of the site.
• Inserts should not interfere with storm events greater
Sheet Flow to Buffers
than or equal to the 10-year storm.
Description. A structural BMP used to filter pollutants as
stormwater runoff moves to a swale, stream, or other flow
• Regular inspection and maintenance is required. area. This BMP protects streams, lakes, and/ or wetlands
from high concentrations of sediment in runoff. The flows
• Inserts should be cleaned after every two or three major
are discharged over the buffer zone where sediments and
storms.
other pollutants can be filtered out before the flows reach the
• Maintenance is more intensive for inserts configured natural drainageway. Illustrative details of sheet flow to buf-
to remove oil and grease. fers are shown in Figure 7.2V.

··- .. - -·- ··-··- ·· - ··- ·· 1··-··-· ·- · _,,_ .. ,, _

_,_,, ______ ____ ,, __,,·-··-

..-!'!--...i rDRAINAGE
DIVIDE
r. ~.""'!I ' •

PLAN VIEW

150' MAXIMUM OVERLAND FLOW ' INIMUM

WITH AVERAGE SLOPE Of' 5% OR L£SS. BUFFER
BUFFER MAY BE
FOREST/ MEADOW OR MIX

LEVELSPREADER ----,JWJ,,,~H:;>11
(WHERE NECESSARY)

FIG uRE 7. 2 V Sheet flow to buffer detail.

 7.2 ■ TYPES OF STDRMWATER MANAGEMENT FACILITIES 707

Application Guidelines • Types of sweepers and practices include vacuum-

assisted, mechanical sweepers, regenerative air sweepers,
• Zone where stormwater runoff is treated by a natural
vacuum-assisted dry sweepers, and tandem sweeping.
buffer before it enters a stream or forested area.
• Runoff from pervious and impervious areas is dis-
Basic Design Criteria
charged through buffer. • Sweepers need to be operated at optimum speeds and
• Buffer generally consists of grass, meadow, forest, or sweeping patterns, with brushes properly adjusted,
a mix. for maximum particulate removal from surfaces.

• Generally used to treat overland flow in the green • Generally, 50% of particulates can be removed if
space of a development site. sweeping is done at least once between storms with
two passes per run. Depending on local traffic condi-
• Level spreader or similar BMP can be used along tions and storm frequencies, sweeping may need to
upstream edge of buffer zone to enhance treatment. be done at more frequent intervals to achieve desired
particulate removal.
Basic Design Criteria
• Maintenance requirements are greater for certain
• Minimum buffer width is 50 feet and is measured types of sweepers.
from the bank elevation of the stream.
• Ensure that arrangements are made for the disposal
• Maximum contributing length is 150 feet for pervi- of collected wastes.
ous surfaces and 75 feet for impervious surfaces.
• Street sweeping is more effective if upstream ero-
• Runoff will enter the buffer as sheet flow. If sheet sion control and stormwater BMPs are implemented,
flow cannot be achieved at the edge of the buffer, a especially at construction sites.
level spreader or similar BMP will be used to estab-
lish sheet flow. Vegetated Roofs
• Contributing overland slope should be less than 5%. Description. A quantity and quality control BMP, vegetated
roofs (aka "green roofs") provide stormwater, aesthetic, open
• Buffer is not applicable where rooftop or non-rooftop space/habitat, and energy efficiency benefits when utilized as
disconnections are already in place. a component of the roofing system. A reduction in the peak
• Buffers should be located within conservation ease- rate and volume of runoff occurs through interception and
ments or other enforceable areas that will ensure evapotranspiration while improved water quality is realized
future protection of the buffer area. through capturing, filtering, and plant uptake. Other ben-
efits include improved heating/cooling within the building
Street Sweeping itself and reduced "heat island effect'' and in certain applica-
Description. In this BMP, mechanical vehicles are used to tions (depending on the project goals); habitat creation, noise
physically remove solids and other pollutants from imper- reduction, and recreational open space. Two types of vegetated
vious surfaces. New street sweeping technologies, includ- roofs exist: extensive and intensive. They are differentiated
ing vacuum -assisted sweeping, can potentially reduce total by media depth, type of plant material, and roof function. A
annual suspended solids and pollutants up to 80%. completed green roof is shown in Figure 7.2W and illustrative
details of green roof systems are shown in Figure 7.2X.
Application Guidelines
Application Guidelines
• Well suited in urban environments where little land is
available for structural or sedimentation-based controls. • Vegetated roofs are commonly applied to nonresiden-
tial structures and may be used on residential applica-
• Can be used in commercial districts and industrial
tions where roof slopes are not extreme (less than 33%).
sites, and in intensely developed areas near receiving
waters. • Most beneficial in urban areas or constrained sites
where the bulk of the buildable area is dedicated to
• Consider for highway applications along road shoul-
the building or structure.
ders, rest stops, parking areas, or maintenance yards.
• Vegetated roofs may be installed as either modular
• Best results when most sophisticated sweepers are
(grid) systems or as a layered application.
used at a weekly to bimonthly frequency, depending
on local regulations and conditions. • Construction of the vegetated roof must be coordi-
nated with the planting season.
• Not a preferred application in the removal of oil and
grease. • Most jurisdictions enforce a coverage requirement
(i.e., 90% plant establishment within 2 years) through
• Older mechanical sweepers are limited in their ability implementation of a bond.
to remove fine sediment.
100 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH

FIG uRE 7. 2 W llinois Central College-CougarPlex Fitness Center green roof. Low-impact, drought-resistant
plant materials were used throughout.

Basic Design Criteria • Incorporate maintenance access-typically a 1- to

General 2-foot-wide nonvegetated strip around the perimeter
and any roof penetrations.
• All vegetated roof systems shall have the structural
roof, a waterproof membrane, a drainage layer, • Account for irrigation needs during plant establish-
growth media ranging in depth from approximately ment and periods of drought.
3 to 12 inches depending on the type of roof and • Provide overflow relief for larger storms.
plants. Optional cross-sectional components include
a root barrier, an insulation layer, a leak detection Extensive
system, and irrigation.
• Growth media is typically 3 to 6 inches.
• Roof slope shall be between 2% and 33% to ensure
drainage and vegetation stabilization.
• Common plant species include mosses, sedums,
herbaceous plants, and grasses (native plants are
recommended).
• C-value of0.5 or CN of70 for post-development
Vegetation
hydrology.
Growing medium Intensive
Drainage, aeration, water storage
and root barrier
• Growth media is typically 6 to 12 inches, poten-
tially greater depending on intended use and plant
Insulation
type.
Membrane protection
and root barrier • Roof slope shall be between 2% and 10% to ensure
Roofin membrane drainage and vegetation stabilization.
Structural support • Common plant species include mosses, sedums,
herbaceous plants, grasses, shrubs, and small trees
(native plants are recommended).

FIG uRE 7. 2X Detail of a typical green roof including various design • C-value of 0.4 or CN of 65 for post-development
elements anticipated. (American Wick Drain Corporation.) hydrology.
 CHAPTER 7.3
SOILS

7.3.1. Introduction glossary of terms is provided to define common soil terms

Proper, thoughtful and deliberate site selection can often and review the fundamental soil properties and parameters
be paramount to creating a successful development project. used in the engineering industry.
The development team will do extensive research to choose a
Soil: Organic and inorganic material of the earth's surface
site which can yield the greatest return on investment. Such
that exists as a mixture of three distinct phases: water, air
research typically involves an analysis of site location, size,
(gasses), and solids.
shape, and topography (as described in Chapter 2.5 and
Chapter 3). Subsurface soil investigation is one of the most Phase diagram: Tool used to define weight-volume rela-
important, yet commonly overlooked, factors in the success tionships among the three phases that comprise soils.
of a project; it is often one of the last items on the developer's From the specific quantities measured in a phase dia-
check list. Many times, it is the least funded aspect as well. gram, inferences as to the soil's physical and engineering
The purpose of this chapter is to familiarize the site engi- properties (including such things as the unit weight, spe-
neer with some of the fundamentals of geotechnical engi- cific gravity, porosity, void ratio, shear strength, loading
neering that are likely to be encountered during the planning, and deformation behavior, permeability, consolidation,
design, and alteration of the site for the intended use. Knowl- and shrink-swell behavior) can be made. The phase dia-
edge of the basic properties of soil and its physical character- gram and the inherent weight-volume relationships are
istics is helpful to site engineers when planning site grading, summarized in Figure 7.3A and Tables 7.3A to 7.3D.
stormwater management structures, roadway and parking
area subgrades, retaining structures, and foundations for all
types of structures. Also included in this chapter are typical
geotechnical problems that may be encountered during site
development, an overview of the engineering properties of
soils, as well as guidance to aid in the understanding of soils
reports and geotechnical engineering design parameters
provided by geotechnical engineers.
Many questions need to be addressed prior to choosing a
site including whether the local community has experienced
landslides, earthquakes, sinkholes, swelling, and shrinking
soils and other geohazards. While this chapter discusses these
issues, retention of an experienced geotechnical engineer as
part of the project design and construction team can help
limit some of the problems.

7.3.2. Soil Properties and Characteristics

Fundamental Properties and Parameters. To establish a
consistent vernacular for use throughout the chapter, a brief FIG uRE 7. 3 A Three-phase schematic of soil sample.

709
110 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,1:/iidtHLMH
TAB L E 7. 3 A Volume Relationships
PROPERTY DEFINITION 5= 100% 5< 100%

Vs Vol. of solids ~ VT- (Va+ Vw) VT(1 - n) v; V.

Gsrw 1+e e

Vw Vol. of water WW Vv- Va SVv SVre SVse

Yw 1+e

Va Vol. of air 0 VT- (Vs+ Vw) Vv- Vw (1 - S)Vv (1-S)VTe (1 - S)Vse

1+e

Vv Vol. of voids VT- Vs Vse

WW V, - ~ ~n VTe
Yw T Gsrw 1-n 1+e

VT Total volume Vs+ Vw Vs+ Va+ Vw ~ Vs(1 + e) V,(1+e)

1-n e
n Porosity V. 1- ~ 1- ~ --
e
VT VT GsVTYw 1+e

e Void ratio V. n WWGS

VT -1 GsVi-Yw -1
~ ~ 1-n ~s ~

(Taken from the Civil Engineering Reference Manual, 4th ed., by Michael R. Lindeburg, with permission from the publisher, Professional Publications, Inc., copyright 1989)

TA BL E 7. 3 B Weight Relationships
PROPERTY DEFINITION 5= 100% 5< 100%
Ws weight of solids Measured Wr GVpJ1 - n)
(1+W)

Ww weight of water Measured e~S V-p 0 • W

G

WT total weight of sample Ws(1 + W)

(Taken from the Civil Engineering Reference Manual, 4th ed., by Michael R. Lindeburg, with permission from the publisher, Professional Publications, Inc., copyright 1989.)

Density: The weight of a given amount of soil for a spe- Gradation: Used to determine particle size and clas-
cific volume (typically expressed as pounds per cubic sification of soil. Soil gradation is typically specified for
foot) and is often expressed as wet unit weight or dry controlled backfill material, dam embankments, soil
unit weight. Density or unit weight also can be expressed filters (to prevent piping), as well as subbase for roads
as in situ (in-place) density or as a specific soil target and foundations. Gradation is determined by the relative
density based on a reference standardized compaction amounts (by dry weight) of individual particle sizes in a
of soil performed in a laboratory (standard Proctor test, sample. Two standard test methods exist for gradation
ASTM D-698 and modified Proctor rest ASTM D-1557). analysis: sieve analysis (ASTM D-422) or hydrometer
 7.3 ■ SOILS 711

TAB LE 7. 3 C Unit Volume Relationships

PROPERTY DEFINITION S= 100% S< 100%

Y□ry Dry unit wt. ~ ~ WT Gsrw(1+n) GsYw GsYw

~+Vw VT V(1+w) 1+e 1+wGs
-
s
Ywet Wet unit wt. ~+WW ~+WW Yo(1+W) Gsrw(1- n) * (1 + w) (Gs+Se)rw (1+w)rw
~+Vw VT 1+e w 1
-+-
s G
Ysat Saturated unit wt. ~+WW ~+V.rw ~ rwe (Gs +e)rw (1 + w)rw
-+--
~+Vw Vr V 1+e 1+e 1
w+-
Gs
(Taken from the Civil Engineering Reference Manual, 4th ed., by Michael R. Lindeburg, with permission from the publisher, Professional Publications, Inc., copyright 1989.)

TA BLE 7. 3 D Additional Relationships

PROPERTY DEFINITION S= 100% S< 100%

w Moisture content n
(1-n)Gs

s Degree of saturation 1.00 wGs w

e Yw _ _!_
Yo G
Specific gravity Se
w
(Taken from the Civil Engineering Reference Manual, 4th ed., by Michael R. Lindeburg, with permission from the publisher, Professional Publications, Inc., copyright 1989.)

analysis (ASTM D-1140). A sieve analysis chart is shown Cohesionless soils (i.e., sands and gravels): Coarse-
in Figure 7.3B and particle-size distribution curves for grained soils most effectively characterized by particle-
three different soil samples subjected to a standard sieve size distribution.
analysis are shown in Figure 7.3C. Terms associated with
Cohesive soils (i.e., clays): Fine-grained soils whose
soil gradations used to identify soil properties further
behavior (and engineering properties) ranges greatly
include
from solid to liquid based on moisture content; thus,
o Effective size-grain diameter at 10% finer (D10) cohesive soils are best characterized by properties related
to plasticity.
o Uniformity coefficient (Cu) is an indicator of
the shape of the particle-size distribution curve. Atterberg limits: A measure of the consistency of cohesive
Given as soils represented by the moisture content associated with
the shrinkage limit, plastic limit (PL), and liquid limit
(LL) of a given soil. The plasticity index (PI), commonly
(7.3A)
used to characterize cohesive soils (i.e., as a clay or silt),
is a measure of the range of water content over which the
where Cu is less than 2 is a poorly graded or uniform soil and soil remains plastic and is given as PI = LL - PL. The PI
Cu is greater than 4 is a well-graded soil. ranges from 10 to 20 for most silts and 20 to 40 for many
clays although highly plastic clays may have a PI upward
(7.38) of 80. See Figure 7.3D.
712 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,1:/11 dfj,jii@tJ

Coarv.l Sle .. Size USA Sieve Series (ASTM Specification E-1 1-70) Showing the Corresponding Soil
Grain Size ASTM D-2487
Standard Alternative Descrietion Standard Alternative Descrietion
125mm 5 2.00 mm No. 10
106mm 4.24 Cobbles* 1.70 mm No. 12
100mm 4 1.40 mm No. 14
90mm 3½ 1. 18mm No. 16 Medium
Intermediate 75mm 3 1.00mm No. 18 Sand
Slew Sins
63mm 2½ 850 µmF No. 20
53 mm 2.12 7 10µm No. 25
50mm 2 600µm No. 30
45mm I¾ Coarse 500µm No. 35
37 .5 mm I½ gravel 425µm No. 40
31.5 mm !¼ 355µm No. 45
26.5 mm 1 .06 300 µm No. 50
25mm 250 µm No. 60
22.4 mm Is 212 µm No. 70 Fine Sand
19mm ¾ 180 µm No. 80
16mm Is 150 µm No. 100
13 .2mm .530 125 µm No. 120
12.5 mm ½ 106 µm No. 140
11 .2mm 116 Fine gravel 90 µm No. 170
9.5 mm Is 75 µm No. 200
8.0mm 1 16 63 µm No. 230
6.7mm 0.265 53 µm No. 270 Fines
6.3 mm ¼ 45 µm No. 325
5.6mm No. 3 ½ 38 µm No. 400
4.75 mm No.4 32 µm No. 450
4.0mm No. 5 25 µmo No. 500
3.35 mm No. 6 Coarse Sand 20 µm No. 635
2.80 mm 0. 7
2.36 mm No. 8
f I Gu RE 7. 3 B Sieve analysis.

Permeability. The study of geotechnical engineering • Foundation design-rate of settlement of fine-

requires a thorough understanding of the sometimes com- grained soils
plex integration of soil, water, and air. Variation in a soil's • Roadway subgrade and drainage design
water content can dramatically alter its physical and strength
characteristics. For instance, one can easily walk or even • Stormwater management facility design particularly
drive on wet sand and dry clay. But doing the same on wet if implementing low-impact development techniques
clay and dry sand would prove very difficult (Liu). which often rely on infiltration
Water flow through soil or any other porous material is • Drainage, capillary action, and frost action
dependent on an engineering property called "permeability.'
Permeability is an important property of soil and influences Because soils are often deposited in relatively horizontal lay-
the design and constructability of nearly all land development ers, vertical and lateral permeability of soils varies widely even
projects. A few examples of common land development project in the most homogeneous soil deposits. Nonhomogeneous
components in which permeability should be considered are layering in soil deposits increases this natural variability. For
engineering purposes, the permeability of a soil is based on
• Seepage of water through dams and levees Darcy's law and is discussed in terms of the "constant of pro-
• Water well recharge times and dewatering of portionality ("K):' also known as the coefficient of permeabil-
excavations ity, and has the units of velocity. The determination of a soil's
 7.3 ■ SOILS 713

U.S. Standard Sieve Number

l.0(0,..._a:).__,....
ON'<t COOLOOLO
,....C\IC\JC")C")
l000008~~!28gf2
~l.0 (0,..._CX),....,....,-- C\J('\JC'\J

WELL GRADED

80

en
C:
'iii
ti)

a.
C'II 60
:a!!
0

40
(Ill) Poorly Graded

20

Particle Diameter (mm)

FIG uRE 7.3C Particle-size distribution curves.

coefficient of permeability ( K) is made in one of several ways.

Approximate values can be obtained from laboratory testing
using the constant head (ASTM D-2434) or falling head per-
meability test. Table 7.3E provides some information on the
range of the coefficient of permeability, drainage characteris-
Brittle Solid Somi•olid Plastic Viscous Li quid Uq u id tics, and applicable testing methods for determining K values
for common soil classes.
Field pump testing utilizing an extraction well in con-
cert with a series of radial spaced observation wells can be
used for large-scale dewatering design. Single well tests, such
., as "slug" testing, can also be used to estimate permeability.
E
0
~
Finally, there are some empirical formulas which can be used
>
Pta,ticily to obtain rough orders of magnitude of the coefficient of
Index permeability.
., For clean cohesionless soils Hazen (1911) proposed:
"'
"
.:,. u
-; =
li
Vl ..J a:"E
::;
(7.3C)

Weter Con tent (w)

where K is the coefficient of permeability in mm/ s, D10 is the
effective grain size in mm, and C is the a constant ranging
FIG uRE 7. 3 D Atterberg limits-phase diagram. from 10 to 15.
114 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,1:/iidtHLMH
TAB LE 7. 3 E Permeability Characteristics of Soils

PERMEABILITY CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS AND THEIR METIIODS OF MEASUREMENT *

Coefficient of Permeability k, cm/s (log scale)

102 101 10 0 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-s ,o-6 10-1 10-8 10·9

Drainage I
I
I I
Good ~rainage
I
I
I
I
I
PoorIdrainage!
, I
I I I
I
I
Practically impervious
I ' I
I
I I t 1
I I Very fine sands; organic and I I

Types of soil
I
I
Clean gravel
Clean sand
I
Clean sand and
I
I
'
I
I
inorganic sil ts; mixtu res of sand,
silt, and clay; glacial till
I
I
I
"Impervious soils,
e. g.,homogeneous
stratified clay deposits; etc. I clays below zone
I gravel mixtures I
, I
I I
I
"Impervious soils" which are modified by ' of weathering
I I
I I I
I
the effects of vegetation and weathering
I I I I I
I
I I I
Direct
Dire::. testing of soil in1 its original position

'
le. g. field-pumping tes_ts)
I' I I
I
I
I
I
I I
I
!
determination
of coefficient
of permeability
I
I
I
I

I
'
Constant- head permeameter
I
I
I
I
I
:I
I !
I
I I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

!I
I I
I I
I
I I I
I I
Falli ng-head permeameter
t I I
I I I
I I '. I I I I
I I
Computations I I I
Indirect
determination
from grain size distribution, porosity, etc.
I
I I I I I
'
I
I
I I I
I
I '
I
of coefficient I I ! I I, I Computations
of permeability
I I I from time rate of consoli-
1 I J I Horizontal capillarity test
dation and rate of pressure
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I drop at constant volume

'After Casasrande and Fadum (1940), from Hunt (1984).

Shear Strength. The stability of a soil is largely dependent as pore water and pore pressure. Water flowing through
on its shearing strength, which is a measure of the resis- the soil skeleton, although usually very slow, affects the
tance to sliding between soil particles. Internal friction and transmission of the resisting forces among the soil parti-
cohesion are the two components that combine to produce cles, thus influencing the compression and shear resistance
the shearing resistance. True cohesion is the magnetic-like of the soil. Within the context of soil strength, two terms
attraction between particles due to the molecular structure commonly used are drained and undrained shear strength.
of the individual particles. Many partially saturated soils, The drained strength is the tested strength of a saturated
including clays, silts, and even sands, also have apparent soil sample as the water is allowed to dissipate out of the
cohesion brought about by capillary action of the soil mois- soil while the loading is applied. This strength parameter
ture binding the soil particles together. This apparent cohe- is applicable for use when the underlying soils are granu-
sion is lost when the soil becomes saturated or loses all or lar (i.e., pervious). Hence, as the surface load (e.g., shallow
most of its moisture. True cohesion is inherent in all clays footing) is applied to an upper saturated soil layer, the water
as well as some other fine-grained soils. Friction is the resis- in the soil would permeate into the granular soil. However,
tance of the particles rubbing across one another. Frictional if the lower soil layers are impermeable or have very low
resistance depends on the physical characteristics of the soil permeability, the undrained strength parameter is used in
grains, such as particle angularity, surface roughness, sphe- the design analysis.
ricity, gradation, and relative density. The measure of this The shearing strength of a soil is given by the Coulomb
resistance is referred to as the angle of internal friction (</>). equation,
The direct-shear test (ASTM D-3080) is especially useful for
S= c+ atan</) (7.30)
determining the angle of internal friction(</>) for compacted
backfill soils adjacent to retaining walls. where s is the shearing strength, c is the cohesion, CJ is the
The voids between soil particles are called pore spaces. normal stress on the shear plane, and </> is the angle of inter-
The water and the corresponding pressure are referred to nal friction.
 7.3 ■ SOILS 715

ratio) in the supporting soil matrix due to the weight of the

new structures. Other causes of settlement include dynamic
forces, changes in the groundwater table elevation, and
nearby excavations (Liu).
V)
V) Settlement generally takes the form of relatively immediate

-
Q)
I.. subsidence and then, in some soils, a longer term, time depen-
( /')
dent subsidence. Compression (consolidation) is the result of
I..
0 soil particles rearranging themselves into a tighter more com-
Q)
..c: pact state. For dry soils, which are made up of soil particles
(/')
and air voids (a two-phase system), settlement typically occurs
quite rapidly under the application of an increased load. The
air voids are easily compressed as the soil grains continue to
Normal Stress a slide past each other until equilibrium is achieved between the
increased stress and the resisting friction generated from adja-
a) Granular Cohesionless Soil
cent soil grains. This type of settlement behavior is referred to
as immediate or distortion settlement (Sa).
Soils, which are characterized by a three-phase system
composed of soil, air voids, and water (or when a soil matrix
is 100% saturated), undergo a time dependent consolidation
V)
V) since the applied load is initially carried by the soil and water.

-
Q)
I.. With the passing of time, the water is squeezed out of the soil

T
( /')
allowing the grains to move closer together.
I..
0
The rate at which the water is displaced is governed by
Q)
..c: C the soils permeability. Soils with high permeability (i.e.,
(/') course-grained soils) require relatively short time periods to
consolidate and most of the settlement is complete by the
time construction operations are completed (Liu).
Normal Stress a Soils of low permeability (i.e., fine-grained clay soils) can
experience consolidation settlements for many years and in
b) Cohesive Soil fact may continue to be compressed well beyond the useful life
of the structure; this is especially true of organic or peat soils.
FIG uRE 7. 3 E Shear strength for (a) granular soil and (fJJ cohesive soil.
Note also that the rate of consolidation for a given soil is also
related to the thickness of the soil layer since that controls the
distance the pore water has to travel to escape the soil layer.
Shearing strength of a soil is a combination of the cohesive Settlement associated with the displacement of pore water
properties and the friction properties. Figure 7.3E illustrates out of a soil layer is referred to as "primary consolidation
this relationship for both cohesionless (c = 0 and</>= constant settlement" (Sc). Following the primary consolidation, additional
therefore s is proportional to a) and cohesive (</> = 0 therefore consolidation settlement may occur although it will be at a
s is entirely dependent on c) soils. reduced rate and magnitude. This additional, often-negligible
Common land development applications where shear settlement is known as "secondary compression" (S,) results
strength is a design consideration include from the reorientation and breaking of the day-to-clay bonds.
Secondary compression is also referred to as soil "creep:'
• Outfall stability particularly when assessing natural The total settlement (S) to be anticipated is obtained by
channels summing the aforementioned settlement components and
• Slope stability when determining acceptable grading is represented by the following formula (Winterkorn 1975):
schemes
(7.3E)
• Erosion and sediment control analysis
where S is the total settlement, Sa is the distortion settlement,
• Cohesive soils within the foundation area
Sc is the primary consolidation settlement, S, is the secondary
Compressibility. Settlement has plagued the designers and compression settlement.
builders for more than 700 years (consider the leaning tower A few examples of common land development project
of Pisa). Countless other structures and civil projects have components in which soil compressibility should be a pri-
suffered a similar or more catastrophic fate (Sowers). mary design consideration are
Structures built on soil are subject to settlement. Most
• When structural loads are large
often settlement results from increased stress, which causes
compressive deformation (i.e., a reduction in the soils void • Developing within known deposits of clays and silts
11& fatUhiii F·\,j,@,1:/iidtHLMH
7.3.3. Soil Classification

Movement down
As described in Chapter 2.5, there are several standardized
soil classification methodologies commonly in use today
i including: the Unified Soil Classification (USC) system, the
American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Fill soil Officials (AASHTO) System for roads, the Natural Resource
Conservation Service system, and others. Geotechnical engi-
Natural soil Rock neers will typically use the USC classification in describing
soils for land development purposes.
Unified Soil Classification System (ASTM D-2487). Typi-
FIG uRE 7. 3 F Illustrative of differential settlement. cal soils that are encountered during land development are a
mixture of gravels, sands, clays, and silts. Other earth mate-
rials are bedrock, weathered rock, boulders, loam, organ-
ics, loess, and topsoil. ASTM D-2487 "Standard Practice for
• Developing over recently deposited soils, which may Classification of Soils for Engineering Purposes (Unified Soil
be settling under their own weight Classification System)" groups soil into two broad catego-
• Where large deposits of engineered fill is required to ries: coarse-grained soils and fine-grained soils. The letters
reach finished grade G, S, C, and M designate textural categories of gravel, sand,
clay, and silt, respectively. Additionally, this system uses W
Another type of settlement that can occur is differential and P to indicate a well-graded or poorly graded soil, and
settlement. Differential settlement occurs when one part H to indicate high, or L for low, plasticity. The underlying
of the structure moves, or settles, relative to another part, assumption for the USC system is that the engineering prop-
with the difference referred to as "differential settlement:' erties of any coarse-grained soil depend on the particle size
A common example of differential settlement occurs when distribution. For fine-grained soils, the engineering proper-
a portion of a building is founded on rock while the other ties are determined by the soil's plasticity (Figure 7.3G).
side is founded on compacted (engineered) fill soils. When To determine the classification using the USC system, a
the building load is applied to the foundations, the softer fill sieve and/or hydrometer analysis test is run and the results
soils compress, whereas the stronger rock foundation com- are compared to the appropriate flow chart. First the soil is
presses very little, resulting in uneven settlement across the classified as to whether it is a coarse-grained soil or fine-
structure. This often results in structural distress and/ or grained soil. This is based on the weight fraction larger or
cracking (Figure 7.3F). smaller than the No. 200 sieve (0.075 mm).

For classification of fine-grained soils and

fine-grained fraction of coarse-grained soils
50 Equation of "A" -line
Horizontal at Pl = 4 to LL= 25.5, then

-
~ 40
X
Pl= 0.73 (LL -20)

Equation of "U" -line

w Vertical at LL= 16 to Pl= 7,
C then Pl= 0.9 (LL-8)
~ 30
~ MH or OH
0
~ 20
j
ll..

10
7
4 ---------,.......aa....,
30 50 60 70 80 90 100 110

Definition of Terms: LIQUID LIMIT (LL)

C - Clay
M-Silt
0 - Organic Materials
H - Highly Plastic
L - Low Plasticity

FIG uRE 7. 3 G Plastic chart. (Copyright ASTM. Reprinted with permission.)

 7.3 ■ SOILS 717

Coarse-grained soils are those that have 50% or more of depth below the surface. The allowable bearing pressure
the soil sample larger than 0.075 mm (No. 200 sieve). As takes into consideration both bearing capacity (resistance
shown in the flowchart of Figure 7.3H, coarse-grained soils against shear failure) and expected settlement performance
are divided into either sands or gravels. If more than 50% (usually total less than 1 inch, differential less than¾ inch).
of the coarse fraction is larger than 4.75 mm (No. 4 sieve), The allowable bearing pressure at the column footing is
the sample is a gravel. For a sample with more than 50% of presented as pounds per square foot. The allowable bear-
the coarse fraction smaller than the No. 4 sieve, the soil is ing pressure along a continuous wall footing is presented as
a sand. The symbols G and S identify the soil as a gravel or pounds per linear foot. The recommendations will also pres-
sand. Gravels and sands are further classified according to ent the estimated total and differential settlements that are
gradation, including the amount and type of fines 1 in the anticipated from the structural loads.
sample. If the amount of fines is less than 12%, the unifor- Deep foundations are recommended when the near
mity coefficient, Cu, and gradation coefficient, C" are used surface soils are poor or when the estimated settlement is not
to further classify the soil. For a sample with the amount of acceptable. Deep foundations include: drilled piers/ caissons,
fines greater than 12%, the plasticity chart of Figure 7.3G is driven piles (wood, concrete or steel), and augered cast-
used to further classify the sample. in-place piles. The recommendations will typically include
The soil is classified as a fine-grained soil if 50% or more the type of pile, pile size, allowable capacity, and estimated
passes the No. 200 sieve. Figure 7.31 is used to determine length of the pile.
the fine-grained soil classification. These soils are classi- Pavement Recommendations. There are two main types
fied as clays (C) or silts (M) (M is from the Swedish word of pavement: flexible and rigid. Flexible pavement is con-
"mo" for silt) according to the liquid limit and the plasticity structed of asphaltic concrete and rigid pavements are con-
index from Figure 7.3G. Organic, silty, and clayey soils are structed of portland concrete. Porous or pervious pavement
divided according to the liquid limit (LL). Those with high is being used more and more today to help designers control
LL (i.e., greater than 50) are CH or MH. A liquid limit less stormwater runoff issues. The porous pavement can be either
than 50 results in a soil designation as CL or ML (L indicates a special asphaltic paving material or open jointed concrete
low plasticity). The flow chart for organic fine-grained soils blocks that allow stormwater to permeate through the pave-
(Figure 7.3J) is used if organics are predominant in the soil. ment section at a higher rate than a normal pavement design.
The runoff is temporarily retained below the pavement
(LL- oven dried)/(LL - not dried) <0.75 (7.3F) within an aggregate base and discharged to a storm sewer
system or infiltrated into the underlying in situ soils. The
Table 7.3F provides general guidelines on the properties designer should check with the local municipality as to the
of soils classified by the USC system. individual requirements for pervious pavement such zoning
ordinance or design requirements including the underlying
7.3.4. Soil Types by Origin
substrate infiltration rate. Conditions that will influence the
Physical properties of some soils can be inferred from the design can be summarized as follows:
mode of transportation displacing the soils and the geologic
factors that influenced this formation. Table 7.3G summa- • Bearing values of the subgrade. These can be repre-
rizes the geologic description of soils and their pertinent sented by a California Bearing Ratio (CBR) (ASTM
engineering characteristics. D 1883) for the design of flexible pavements, or a
modulus of subgrade reaction (k) for rigid pavement
7.3.5. Soils Report Other Recommendations
structures (Table 7.3H).
As described in Chapter 2.5, the geotechnical consultant pro-
vides the site engineer with the geotechnical information in • Groundwater conditions, variations in water
the form of a report. In addition to the content introduced in levels, expansive considerations and necessity for
Chapter 2.5, the soils report will usually include other rec- underdrains.
ommendations regarding the foundation, pavement, retain-
• Vehicular traffic, in terms of the number and fre-
ing wall, and construction considerations.
quency of vehicles and their range of axle loads.
Foundation Recommendations. Based on the field explo-
ration and laboratory analyses, the most feasible foundation • Typical recommendations include the thicknesses
type is presented. The type of foundation will depend on the of each layer of the pavement section including the
subsurface conditions and the anticipated structural loads. asphaltic concrete or Portland cement concrete,
Typical foundation types include shallow foundations, mat base course, subbase (if required), and existing sub-
foundations, and deep foundations. grade requirements. Also given are the compaction
Shallow foundation recommendations will typically requirements.
present a net allowable soil bearing pressure at a specific
Retaining Wall Recommendations. Typically, the geo-
1Fines are soil particles smaller than 0.075 mm (No. 200 sieve). technical engineer will provide the following soil parameters
-....
OQ

--
Group Symbol Gmup Name

<5':1.llnes ~ Cu 2: ~aoo SCcSJ. GW -.e:::::::::: <15'osand Wel-gaded!Javef

--
2'15"1,sand V."Et-g,adad gra'!!I ...u,
Cu <4,and.•or I> Cc >3 ---------------► GP --=:::::::::::: <1:s~. sand Pt:aly graded gra-,el
2:l~osand. Poooy gra!led gra-,el ""

< -- ·
<
lines =ML orM GW-GM --=:::::::::::: <1.S"o sand -goaded s,a1:!I '"' l7
Cu 2: 4and s Cc s 3 2: 5~ sand ',\'el'graded gawl ..,;o,
GW-GC --=::::::::::::

--
fines = CIL. CH. (or CL- J <1 S.'i, sand -giade<! ga-el 'loi!l7
GRAVEL 5 -12", 2:1S $'o .sand VI -grad!!.: gllY€!I 'loilt
% gr.a-Ail > . sand
ss'fhan.50% fines = ML or M -----------<► GP-GM --=:::::::::::: <1.S'l.:. sand Poody !J'aded gra.el w

---
passes 4 Sie-.<e) Cu< 4.an<£'cc I > Cc>3 < 2:1!5% ·sand Poorly graded~ l'i
es=ct. •CH.(orCL- ] GP-GC --=:::::::::::: <l5•.o sand Poolly graded l!f'a"ia w
2:15 sand Poolly grad'ed~ w

lines = "'.L 0, I --=:::::::::::: s.~ sand

------
GM <1 Sity: !Javef
2:15 io sandi Sity gllY€!I will> sand
>· 1~ fines v lines = Cl or CH GC--=:::::::::::: <15 sard Claye y gra.¥el
~1!.S%Scl00 ~-eygrawl sa!ll(

lines = Cl - ML - - - - - - - - GCGM ~ <1 s. sard SJty. clayey ,grdiel

s

--
2:1 • sanlil ""'M ,gra,el

<5%fines ·~ Cu.2:&and J ! Cc! 3 SW--=:::::::::::: <1!>'l: sand ef.gB:1e(l 53<'id

~1 5 i:'-a ·s.ar.1 ~said-
Cu < and.or 1 > Cc > 3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - S P ~ <15"', sand Poorfy gsaded sand

-----
2:1 sand Pooly g<aded san<I

$ .W:,SM ~ dS.»sand \'~sand

;,,15,% sat.:! W~sand
s.w~sc-=:::::::::::: <1f>'l';saCIII Wel-gralled :sand
~ND 2:l5'lc sard

-----
Wel-gl'a!led sa;ncl
gra,.11!1 ~ ... sand!
(mon,l!lan51J%. SP-SM~ < S'r.,!Sc:lld Poo<fy graded sand wit
pa= No..4 Siwe] ~15.% .sard Poorly graded sand wit
SP-SC-=:::::::::::: <15'%> :sand Poo<fy Qlclded sand wit
;,,1 5~ sand Poorly g a ded sand writ

-============ ::::~ ---------

:st.II~ <15% :sano
;,,15,%. sand ---
-----
Sity sand
Sity sand with 9 .........
> 12'141ines

-----------= lines= CL- '4. - - - - - -- -

:sc-=:;:::::::: <15'%,saoo
SC<SMI-=::::::::::::
.
;,,15~sand
< 15'%. :sand
:;>tS~sand
Clayey. safllJ
~ sand with sand

---
Sity; daJM san,j
SJty. da'fE'/ saaai

FIGURE 7.3H USC flow chart for classifying coarse-grained soil.

 pj > 7 and! plolS oo -----'I► CL
. or allioYe ' A"- lille < <- -
Gro11p 5¥fflboll

. < 300!, pll.lS Na. .200 ~ < 15% plllS Na..!W

115 - 29%plusNo..200 ~

% sand 2: %grai,el
%sand?% gravel -- -
_...,...___ % sand < %. gr,w,11 - -
c:::::::::::::: < 15% gra,,e1
--==----
2: 30% plllS No. 200
'% sand< '%gravel <:.::.:....: 2: 15% gra¥et - - - -
< 15% sand - - - -
2: 15% sand - - - -

4~Pl~7andp'lols
on or aboYe "A' • fine
____. CL, ML
< < <30'1. p6\JsNo. 200

2:30% plUsNo. 200

~ < 15%-pi,JsNo.200
------.. 15-2!r%,plusNo.200 ~

% salifd2: '% gravel

_____ ;,
'% sand2: ~ !JlM!f - -
- - - - - o/. ,sandl< '% •Qra\'l!I - -
--=----::.:: < 15% g;.r,ei
15%.gravel - - - -

- - .
% sand< % gra.vel C::::::::::::::.< 15%.sand
? 15%.samd - - - -

LL < 50

Pl< 4 or plots
*A" • ine
below·- ---- UL < < < 30% plm Na. 200 ~ < 15% plus Na. 200

2:30% plus Na. 200

15 • 29% •plus No.200 ~

%- sand 2: % gravel

%sand<°' grarel
% sand 2: % gra,,el -
- ~ - - - % sand< %.gravel
C:::::::::::::: < 15% gravel
-=----
----=::::: 2: t 5~ gravel - - -
< 15% sand - - - -
--

- - .
2: 15% sand

-----1► OL ---►

'
IR.eler lo Flow Chart :tor (Kganic Fine Grained Simi

< <
( ~: : : : < 0.75 )

< 30'l1. plus . 200 ~ < 15'%- plus No. 200

~
Pl plots on or
aboYe "A* - line
CH

2: 30'1, p us.No. 200

15 ·• 29% plll&S No. 200

% sand 2: 'JI. grarel

-=----
_--=::::::::::::
., . .__
s
. a ·n d 2: %- grao;el - -

'r. sand < % •glll\'el - -

< 15%- gravel
2: 15% gravel - --

- - .
%sand< % gra C:::::::::::::: <15%-sand
2: 1-5%,sand

LIL .2: 50 Pl plots below

*A"' --ine < <
IIHI
<30'4 plus No..200

2: 30% plus No..200

~ < 15% plus Na. 200

. ·
15 - 29%

% same! 2: % gravel

' sand< i,avel

--=----
i:Ais No.200 ~

C::::::::::::::
c::::::::::::::
·
% sand 2: %-gta\'Ef - -

% sand<% gravel - -
< 15% gravel - - -
2:· 15%gmel - - -
< 15% sand
? 5% sandl

( ~ :::: < 0.75 )----..-OH ---+- IRclef to Row Chart lor Orgamic R oo Grained Sols!

FIG uRE 7. 31 USC flow chart for fine-grained soils .

.......ca
Group Symbol.
1

< 30%, plus No. 200 ~ < 15% plus. No. 200 (

L <
--...._ 15 - 29% plus No,. 200 ~ % sand 2 % gravel (
· % sand < % graYel (

Pl 2 4 and plots Oil % sand 2 % gravel -C::::::::::::: < 15% gravel

or above "A" - I" e .:: 30% pkls t\lo. 2001 • 2 15% gra1<1el - - - - - - -
% sand< % gravel ---=.::::::::.: 15% sand - - -- -
<

- . .
215% sand

Ol

Pr< 4 or plot.s
ber.ow "A· - line
L < < 30% plus No. 200 --.~,---

2 30% plus. No. 200

► < 15% ,plus No. 200
15 - 29o/., p'lu s No. 200

% sand 2 % gra,.,.el
<:.::::::· % sand 2 % gra.,.,el
% sand<
---=.::::::::.: < 15% •g:rave'I
% sand < % g:ravel --c:::::::::::::=---
giravel
-----
..
2 15% gravel - - - - - -
► < 15% sane!

. - . . _ ·
215%sal1id

l?klts on o:r
abow "A" - e
L < < 30'¾ plus No, 200 ~ < 15% plus No. 200

2 30% pl s No. 200

5 - 29% plus .o. 200

% sand 2 % g:ravel

% sand <
<:.:::::: % san d ~% g,avel
% .san d< % gravel
---=.::::::::.: < 15% graYel - - - - -
-.,----1► 2 15% gravel - - - - - - -
gr.a'i'el -C::::::::::::: < 15% sand
215%sand

-=-::::: < 15% plus No•. 200

15 - 29'% ~us No. 200 ~ % sand 2 % graYel .
<
% sand < % gravel
Plots below % sand 2 % gra•,el <.:..:::::.!..~ 15% Q.Javel
"A· - r e 2 15% grravel - - - - -
% sand < % g:ravel -<.:..:::::.!..=---
► < 15% sandl - - - - -
2 15% sand

FIG uRE 7. 3 J USC flow chart for organic fine-grained soils.

 TAB LE 7. 3 F Engineering Uses for USC Soils
RELATIVE DESIRABILITY FOR VARIOL

IMPORTANT PROPERTIES

SHEARING ROLLED EARTH DAMS CANAL SECTIONS FOUNDA

STRENGTH
WHEN COMPRESSIBILITY WORKABILITY
PERMEABILITY COMPACTED WHEN ASA COMPACTED
TYPICAL NAMES OF GROUP WHEN AND COMPACTED AND CONSTRUCTION HOMOGENEOUS EROSION EARTH SEEPAGE
SOIL GROUPS SYMBOLS CoMPACTED SATURATED SATURATED MATERIAL EMBANKMENT CORE SHELL RESISTANCE LINING IMPORTANT

Well-graded gravels, gravel-sand GW Pervious Excellent Negligible Excellent

mixtures, little or no fines
Poorly graded gravels, gravel-sand GP Very pervious Good Negligible Good 2 2
mixtures, little or no fines
Silty gravels, poorly graded gravel- GM Semipervious Good Negligible Good 2 4 4 4
sand-silt mixtures to impervious
Clayey gravels, poorly graded GC Impervious Good to fair Very low Good 3 2
gravel-sand-clay mixtures
Well-graded sands, gravelly sands, SW Pervious Excellent Negligible Excellent 3 if 6
little or no fines gravelly
Poorly graded sands, gravelly SP Pervious Good Very low Fair 4if 7 if
sands, little or no fines gravelly gravelly
Silty sands, poorly graded SM Semipervious Good Low Fair 4 5 8 if 5 erosion 3
sand-silt mixtures to impervious gravelly critical
Clayey sands, poorly graded SC Impervious Good to fair Low Good 3 2 5 2 4
sand-clay mixtures
Inorganic silts and very fine sands, ML Semipervious Fair Medium Fair 6 6 6 erosion 6
rock flour, silty or clayey fine sands to impervious critical
with slight plasticity
Inorganic clays of low to medium CL Impervious Fair Medium Good to fair 5 3 9 3 8
plasticity, gravelly clays, sandy
clays, slity clays, lean clays
Organic silts and organic silt-clays OL Semipervious Poor Medium Fair 8 8 7 erosion 7
of low plasticity to impervious critical
Inorganic silts, micaceous or diato- MH Semipervious Fair to poor High Poor 9 9 8
maceous fine sandy or silty soils, to impervious
elastic silts
Inorganic clays of high plasticity, CH Impervious Poor High Poor 7 7 10 8 volume 9
fat clays change critical
Organic clays of medium to high OH Impervious Poor High Poor 10 10 10
plasticity
Peat and other highly organic soils Pt
....N
- *No. 1 is most desirable, no. 14 is least desirable .
(Source: Lambe, T.W., and R.V. Whitman. Soil Mechanics. Copyright 1979. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)
122 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH
TA BLE 7. 3 G Summary of the Principal Geologic Soil Deposits
MAJOR DIVISION PRINCIPAL SOIL DEPOSITS PERTINENT ENGINEERING CHARACTERISTICS

Transported Soils
Alluvial Floodplain deposits. Deposits laid down by a stream
within that portion of its valley subject to inundation by
floodwaters.
Material Point bar. Alternating deposits of arcuate ridges and Generally favorable foundation conditions; how-
transported and swales (lows) formed on the inside or convex bank of ever, detailed investigations are necessary to
deposited by mitigating river bends. Ridge deposits consist primarily of locate discontinuities. Flow slides may be a prob-
running water. silt and sand; swales are clay-filled. lem along riverbanks. Soils are quite pervious.
Channel fill. Deposits laid down in abandoned meander Fine-grained soils are usually compressible.
loops isolated when rivers shorten their courses. Com- Portions may be very heterogeneous. Silty
posed primarily of clay; however, silty and sandy soils are soils generally present favorable foundation
found at the upstream and downstream ends. conditions.
Back swamp. The prolonged accumulation of floodwater Relatively uniform in a horizontal direction. Clays
sediments in flood basins bordering a river. Materials are usually subject to seasonal volume changes.
are generally clays but tend to become more silty near
riverbank.
Alluvial terrace deposits. Relatively narrow, flat-surfaced, Usually drained, oxidized. Generally favorable
river-flanking remnants of floodplain deposits formed by foundation conditions.
entrenchment of rivers and associated processes.
Estuarine deposits. Mixed deposits of marine and alluvial Generally fine-grained and compressible. Many
origin laid down in widened channels at mouths of rivers local variations in soil conditions.
and influenced by tides of body of water into which they are
deposited.
Alluvial-lacustrine deposits. Material deposited within lakes Usually very uniform in horizontal direction.
(other than those associated with glaciation) by waves, Fine-grained soils generally compressible.
currents, and organochemical processes. Deposits consist of
unstratified organic clay or clay in central portions of the lake or
typically grade to stratified silts and sands in peripheral zones.
Deltaic deposits. Deposits formed at the mouth of rivers, Generally fine-grained and compressible. Many
resulting in shoreline extension. local variations in soil condition.
Piedmont deposits. Alluvial deposits at foot or hills or moun- Generally favorable foundation conditions.
tains. Extensive plains or alluvial fans.
Glacial Glacial till. An accumulation of debris, deposited beneath at Consists of material of all sizes in various
Material the side (lateral moraines) or at the lower limit of a glacier proportions from boulders and gravel to clay.
transported and (terminal moraine). Material lowered to ground surface in Deposits are unstratified. Generally present
deposited by an irregular sheet by melting glacier is known as a ground favorable foundation conditions, but rapid
glaciers or by moraine. changes in conditions are common.
melting water from
the glacier. Glacio-fluvial deposits. Coarse- and fine-grained material Many local variations. Generally present
deposited by streams of meltwater from glaciers. Material favorable foundation conditions.
deposited on ground surface beyond terminal of glacier is
known as an outwash plain. Gravel ridges known as kames
and eskers.
Glacio-lacustrine deposits. Material deposited within lakes Very uniform in a horizontal direction.
by meltwater from glaciers. Consisting of clay in central
portions of lake and alternate layers of silty clay or silt and
clay (varved clay) in peripheral zones.
(Continued)
 7.3 ■ SOILS 723

TABLE 7. 3 G Summary of the Principal Geologic Soil Deposits (Continued)

MAJOR DIVISION PRINCIPAL SOIL DEPOSITS PERTINENT ENGINEERING CHARACTERISTICS

Marine Shore deposits. Deposits of sands and/or gravels formed by Relatively uniform and of moderate to high
Material the transporting, destructive, and sorting action of waves on density.
transported and the shoreline.
deposited by
ocean waves and Marine clays. Organic and inorganic deposits of fine- Generally very uniform in composition.
currents in shore grained material. Compressible and usually very sensitive to
and offshore areas. remodeling.

Eolian Loess. A calcareous, unstratified deposit of silts or sandy or Relatively uniform deposits characterized by
Material clayey silt traversed by a network of tubes formed by root ability to stand in vertical cuts. Collapsible
transported and fibers now decayed. structure. Deep weathering or saturation can
deposited by wind. modify characteristics.
Dune sands. Mounds, ridges, and hills of uniform fine sand Very uniform grain size; may exist in relatively
characteristically exhibiting rounded grains. loose conditions.
Sedimentarv Soils
Residual
Material formed by Residual sands and fragments of gravel size formed by Generally favorable foundation conditions.
disintegration of solution and leaching of cementing material, leaving more
underlying parent resident particles; commonly quartz.
rock or partially
indurated material. Residual clays formed by decomposition of silicate rocks, Variable properties requiring detailed
disintegration of shales, and solution of carbonates in investigation. Deposits present favorable
limestone. With few exceptions, becomes more compact, foundation conditions except in humid and
rockier, and less weathered with increasing depth. At tropical climates, where depth and rate of
intermediate stage may reflect composition, structure, and weathering are very great.
stratification of parent rock.
Peat. A somewhat fibrous aggregate of decayed and Very compressible. Entirely unsuitable for
decaying vegetation matter having a dark color and supporting building foundations.
odor of decay.
Accumulation of Muck. Peat deposits that have advanced in decomposition
highly organic to such extent that the botanical character is no longer
material formed evident.
in place by the
growth and
subsequent decay
of plant life.
Colluvial Talus. Deposits created by gradual accumulation of Previous movement indicates possible future
Material unsorted rock fragments and debris at base of cliffs. difficulties. Generally unstable foundation
transported and Hillwash. Fine colluvium consisting of clayey sand, sand conditions.
deposited by silt, or clay
gravity.
Landslide deposits. Considerable masses of soil or rock that
have slipped down, more or less as units, from their former
position on steep slopes.
Pyroclastic Ejecta. Loose deposits of volcanic ash, lapilli, bombs, etc. Typically shardlike particles of silt size with larger
Material ejected volcanic debris. Weathering and redeposition
from volcanoes produce highly plastic, compressible clay.
and transported Unusual and difficult foundation condition.
by gravity, wind, Pumice. Frequently associated with lava flows and mud
and air. flows, or may be mixed with nonvolcanic sediments.
 TA BL E 7. 3 H Soil Characteristics Pertinent to Roads and Airfields

VALUE AS VALUE AS
SUBGRADE SUBBASE VALUE AS BASE
WHEN NDT WHEN NDT WHEN NDT POTENTIAL COMPRESS·
MAJOR SUBJECT TO SUBJECT TO SUBJECT TO FROST IBILITY AND DRAINAGE COMPACTION
DIVISIONS LETTER NAME FROST ACTION FROST ACTION FROST ACTION ACTION EXPANSION CHARACTERISTICS EQUIPMENT

Coarse-grained soils

Gravel and GW Well-graded gravels or Excellent Excellent Good None to Almost none Excellent Crawler-type tr
gravelly soils gravel-sand mixtures, very slight rubber-tired rol
few or no fines steel-wheeled 1

GP Poorly graded gravels or Good to Good Fair to good None to Almost none Excellent Crawler-type tr
gravel-sand mixtures, excellent very slight rubber-tired rol
few or no fines steel-wheeled 1

GMd' Silty gravels, gravel-and- Good to Good Fair to good Slight to Very slight Fair to poor Rubber-tired ra
silt mixtures excellent medium sheepsfoot roll1
control of mois

u* Good Fair Poor to not Slight to Slight Poor to practically Rubber-tired ra

suitable medium impervious sheepsfoot roll!

QC Clayey gravels, gravel- Good Fair Poor to not Slight to Slight Poor to practically Rubber-tired ra
sand clay mixtures suitable medium impervious sheepsfoot roll1

Sand and SW Well-graded sands or Good Fair to good Poor None to Almost none Excellent Crawler-type tr
sandy soils' gravelly sands, few or very slight rubber-tired rol
no fines

SP Poorly graded sands or Fair to good Fair Poor to not None to Almost none Excellent Crawler-type tr
gravelly sands, few or suitable very slight rubber-tired rol
no fines

SMd' Silty sands, sand silt Fair to good Fair to good Poor Slight to Very slight Fair to poor Rubber-tired ra
mixtures high sheepsfoot roll1
control of mois

u' Fair Poor to fair Not suitable Slight to Slight to Poor to practically Rubber-tired ra
high medium impervious sheepsfoot roll1

SC Clayey sands, sand-clay Poor to fair Poor Not suitable Slight to Slight to Poor to practically Rubber-tired ra
mixtures high medium impervious sheepsfoot roll!
 Fine-grained soils

Silts and clays 1.1 ML Inorganic silty and very Poor to fair Not suitable Not suitable Medium to Slight to Fair to poor Rubber-tired ro
is less than 50 with fine sands, rock very high medium sheepsfoot roll1
floor, silty or clayey silts control of mois
slight plasticity

CL Inorganic clays of low to Poor to fair Not suitable Not suitable Medium to Medium Practically Rubber-tired ro
medium plasticity, grav- high impervious sheepsfoot roll1
elly clays, sandy clays,
silty clays, lean clays

DL Organic silts and organic Poor Not suitable Not suitable Medium to Medium to Poor Rubber-tired ro
silt clays of low plasticity high high sheepsfoot roll1

Silts and clays 1.1 MH Inorganic silts, mica- Poor Not suitable Not suitable Medium to High Fairto poor Sheepsfoot roll
is greater than 50 ceous or diatomaceous very high rubber-tired rol
fine sandy or silty soils,
elastic silts

CH Inorganic clays of high Poor to fair Not suitable Not suitable Medium High Practically Sheepsfoot roll
plasticity, fat clays impervious rubber-tired rol

OH Organic clays of medium Poor to very Not suitable Not suitable Medium High Practically Sheepsfoot roll
to high plasticity, organic poor impervious rubber-tired rol
soils

Highly organic Pt Peat and other highly Not suitable Not suitable Not suitable Slight Very high Fairto poor Compaction no
soils organic soils practical

Courtesy of The Asphalt Institute. 1986. Soils Manual for Design of Asphalt Pavement Structures. MS-10, College Park, MD.
d. indicates LL,;; 25 and Pl,;; 5, otherwise u· .

....N
en
12& fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH
so that the structural engineer can design and specify any of the layer being placed, compaction effort, and any
retaining walls that may be required: allowable deviations from optimum moisture content
during field placement.
Pa = active earth pressure
• Floor slab-on-grade-depending on the exiting soils,
r= unit weight of backfill both the natural soil and fill recommendations may be given to improve the near
soils behind the retaining wall
surface soils beneath the slab-on-grade foundations.
Ka = coefficient of active earth pressure This may include proof-rolling the area or replace-
ment of soft or loose materials.
/3 = angle between backfill surface line and a horizontal
line if known. • Groundwater-the report should discuss anticipated
groundwater problems, such as perched water con-
</J = angle of internal friction of the backfill material
siderations, groundwater level, and any anticipated
Pp = passive earth pressure fluctuations to this depth based on seasonal and local
precipitation factors.
Kp = coefficient of passive earth pressure
• Aboveground and underground utilities-existing,
Construction Recommendations/Considerations. This functional above ground and underground utilities
section of the soils report can be the smallest or the larg- that are present should be discussed if they will be
est depending on the subsurface conditions and the planned within the construction area and if they will need to
development program. Depending on the nature of the be realigned and/or removed prior to development,
project some of the listed recommendations/considerations or protected during development.
may or may not be included
• Seasonal frost-frost heave and thaw settlement of
• Topsoil-may include removal of excessively organic seasonally frozen ground can subject buried struc-
topsoil beneath pavements, floor slabs, structural tures to large forces and destructive movement. The
fills, and shallow foundations. depth for frost protection in the area should be given.
• Earthwork-depending on the topographic and All exterior foundations should be below this frost
geologic conditions at the site, extensive earthwork depth.
may or may not be required to achieve the proposed • Drainage control during construction-adequate
final project grades at the site. Cuts and fills must drainage during the construction operation needs to
be carefully designed and properly constructed to be considered. This can be accomplished by main-
limit differential settlements across the site as well as taining positive slopes, temporary ditches, swale fea-
potential slope failures. tures, and pumping equipment (dewatering facilities)
• Existing fill soils-existing fill soils are typically to maintain the soils in a dry condition.
erratic in composition and consistency and are not • Sheeting and shoring-shoring may be necessary in
reliable to support building foundations without deep excavations where there is a limited space to lay
soil improvements. If fill soils are encountered at back the slopes at a stable repose. A discussion of the
the site a description of the material (construc- natural soils should address the existing conditions
tion debris, pavement debris, trash, or soil that was (loose to very loose or soft zones) and necessary
dumped) should be given. If the fill material is not measures to protect the excavation. Safety and health
suitable to support the planned development, then requirements on-site shall conform to local, state,
the depth of removal should be given. Depending and federal regulations.
on composition, occasionally existing fill soils can
be reused in other nonstructural areas of the site to • Inspections- many geotechnical reports and design
avoid expensive hauling of waste soils off-site and/or drawings will specify that various inspections should
replacement. be performed during construction. They can vary
from a visual inspection by a geotechnical engineer
• Fill requirements-the geotechnical engineer should to verify that the soils described in the report
specify what the fill requirements are at the site. are those encountered during construction to in situ
The requirements should be separate for structural testing by a geotechnical engineer. Typically inspec-
fill (fill material beneath foundations) and fill out- tions are required for bearing capacity of shallow
side the building footprint beneath sidewalks and foundations, pile load tests to verify pile capacities,
pavements. compaction testing of fill areas, and proof-rolling of
• Compaction-compaction requirements should be pavement areas. When practical, the geotechnical
given for the fill being placed throughout the site. engineer of record should be the engineer that per-
The recommendations should include the thickness forms the inspection.
 7.3 ■ SOILS 727

Implementation of the geotechnical recommendations are influenced by the geometry of the retaining wall and the
presented in the report is the responsibility of the site engineer. retained earth within a given distance to the wall. Since move-
For the most part, the site engineer can merely incorporate ment of the retaining wall is a primary factor in developing
the necessary details (e.g., pavement typical sections, dam the earth pressure forces, acting against the wall, and the
embankment requirements, and adequate grading or slope characteristics of the soil influence these earth pressure forces
provisions) into the final design drawings. Specialty design the design of the wall system becomes indeterminate.
features such as retaining walls or corrective measures and Design engineers typically calculate two categories of earth
ground improvements, if warranted, may require a signifi- pressures, active earth pressure and passive earth pressure,
cant design effort. Further collaboration with the geotechni- when designing retaining structures. A third category, namely
cal engineer and/or the need for a subcontractor such as a earth pressure at rest, reflects a condition where absolutely
structural engineer may also be required. no movement of the wall system occurs.
Active earth pressures are developed when the soil mass
7.3.6. Lateral Earth Pressure and Retaining Walls behind the wall system moves outward as a result of some
Lateral earth pressure is a significant design parameter asso- horizontal movement of the wall. Movement of the wall
ciated with land development. Retaining walls, foundation in the opposite direction (i.e., toward the soil) will in turn
walls, braced and unbraced excavations, bridge abutments, mobilize the shear strength of the soil and is referred to as
underground tunnel structures, and their headwall and passive earth pressure.
wingwalls are all subject to lateral earth pressures and thus Analysis and design of unbalanced fill retaining walls and
require a quantitative estimate of the forces acting on the structures requires an in-depth knowledge of soil mechanics
structure (Bowles). and use of appropriate computational methods beyond the
Earth retaining structures facilitate an abrupt change in scope of a general engineer without the requisite training and
grade where two neighboring masses of earth must be main - experience. Indeed, these are structural walls comprising soil
tained at differing elevations. The urban development setting and structural members to support numerous live loads and
has promulgated the use of retaining structures to allow greater should be addressed appropriately by professionals trained
unit density. When designed properly, retaining structures, and experienced in this area.
although not the most economical solution when compared Two of the earliest earth pressure solutions used to satisfy
to nonstructural or conventional earth grading methods, may static equilibrium ( LF;, LFv = 0) of the retaining wall system
be the only feasible engineering solution in many cases. were the Coulomb Theory (1776) and later the Rankine
Preliminary cost estimates and comparisons to alternative theory (circa 1857). Because of its simplicity, only the
(nonwall) solutions often reveal retaining wall solutions that Rankine theory is described.
appear economical: "However, on detailed analyses of the Rankine theory is based on several assumptions:
design drawings and cost estimates it is often observed that
the construction of the retaining wall has been given only • No adhesion or friction exists between the wall and
trivial consideration, without paying attention to the often the backfill.
costly details" (Rodriguez). Many wall designs are engineered • The ground surface behind the wall is either flat or
without proper consideration of substantial and effective wall sloping.
drains, control of backfill material, and proper evaluation of
special foundation conditions. Improperly designed walls are • A sliding wedge type failure occurs along an assumed
predisposed to failure and a greatly reduced life span. Retaining failure plane (i.e., shear plane) which is represented
walls are often associated with roadways and parking lots and as a function of the soils angle of internal friction (</>).
thereby receive a great deal of visual traffic. Distressed or • The back of the wall is vertical.
failed retaining walls can lead to a poor perception the site
engineer and tarnish the reputation of the design firm. Figure 7.3K represents the active and passive conditions
Earth Pressures Against Walls. Earth pressure is the force associated with Rankine analysis of wall design.
per unit area exerted by the soil on the retaining structure. The equations for computing lateral earth pressure based
"Lateral;' meaning "sideways;' combined with "earth pres- on the Rankine theory are as follows (Liu, p. 365):
sure'' results in the term "lateral earth pressure;' which is the
1
force or pressure exerted in the principally horizontal direc- Pa =-yH
2
2K
a (7.3G)
tion against the retaining structure. Retaining structure design
considers the analysis and determination of these lateral earth K =COS /3 cos f3 -,Jcos f3 - cos 2 <fJ
2
(7.3H)
forces, their magnitude, and their applied direction (Liu). a cos f3 + ,Jcos /3- cos 2 1/J
2

The magnitude of the earth pressure depends on the physi-

cal properties and characteristics of the soil, the soil-structure pp =IyH2K
2 p
interaction, which occurs at the interface of the soil mass and
K =COS /3 cos f3 -,Jcos /3- cos2 <fJ
2
the adjoining retaining structure, and the deformation behav- (7.31)
ior of the soil-wall system. The directions of the applied forces a cos f3 + ,Jcos 2 /3- cos 2 1/J
120 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH

Wall
Movement

a) Active Case

a) Vertical Wall Backside

Wall
Movement
Failure
Zone
·--
b) Passive Case

FIG uRE 7. 3 K Active and passive failure zones for Rankine theory.

where Pa = active earth pressure b) Inclined Wall Backside

r=unit weight of backfill soil
H = height of the wall FIG uRE 7. 3 L Lateral earth pressure for Rankine theory.
Ka = Coefficient of active earth pressure
f3 = angle between backfill surface line and a horizontal line
¢ = angle of internal friction of the backfill material Design Considerations for Retaining Walls Retaining wall
Pp= passive earth pressure performance has a checkered past and for many designers
Kp = coefficient of passive earth pressure the visual intensity of a failed or failing wall system can mar
their reputation in the industry.
When the backfill behind the wall is horizontal (i.e., level) Statistical studies of retaining wall failures are provided in
/3 = 0°, the coefficients of earth pressure become Figure 7.3M and can be summarized as follows:

• Improper design of the drainage system and/or the

K = 1-sin¢ (7.3J) walls foundation base is the main cause of retaining
a 1+sin¢
wall failure.
K = 1+sin¢ (7.3K) • Clay soils as backfill or as foundation bearing mate-
P 1-sin¢ rial are involved in most retaining wall failures.

For convenience, Table 7.3I provides Rankine earth pres- Structural failures of the wall system could be a result of
sure coefficients for level backfill (/3 = 0° for various </>values). the walls structural integrity, but are most probably caused
The resultant lateral earth pressure forces acting on a sim- by the inability of the designer and/or geotechnical engi-
plified wall section are depicted in Figure 7.31. Special atten- neering to recognize one or more of the unique soil or load-
tion is given to walls with inclined backsides as depicted in ing conditions that could dramatically impact the forces
Figure 7.3L(b). on the wall. Improper construction practices also lead

TAB LE 7. 31 Rankine Earth Pressures for Level Backfill

10° 12.5° 15° 17.5° 20° 22.5° 25° 27.5° 30° 32.5° 35° 37 .5° 40°

0.70 0.64 0.59 0.49 0.45 0.45 0.41 0.37 0.33 0.30 0.27 0.24 0.22
1.42 1.55 1.70 1.86 2.04 2.24 2.46 2.72 3.00 3.32 3.69 4.11 4.60
 7.3 ■ SOILS 729

UNSATISFACTORY DIMENSIONING
OF WALL BASE

MISSING OR INADEOUA TE
25% DRAINAGE SYSTEM

COULD NOT BE
CLASSIFIED---r::...;;.;;:.--

CARELESS
CONSTRUCTION
STRUCTURAL FAILURE
OF STEM

FIG uRE 7. 3M Causes of failure of rigid concrete retaining walls.

to premature wall failures. The practical designer should • Excessive backfill compaction and/or use of heavy
consider: equipment adjacent to the top of the wall can induce
very high residual pressures against the wall.
• Proper drainage through redundant methods, includ-
ing proper surface drainage, weep holes, longitudinal Types of Retaining Walls. Retaining walls come in many
drain pipes, and/or commercial drainage products. different styles, shapes, materials, and design complexity.
• Proper free draining backfill material and filter layers However, most retaining walls can be classified into one of
to protect the drainage system from becoming clogged. the following types: gravity, cantilever, anchored, or mechan-
ically stabilized earth (MSE).
• Detailed plans and specifications and adequate field The choice of the type of wall selected for a project is
compaction testings and inspections oversight dur- often a function of constructability, aesthetics, and of course
ing construction (inspection of retaining wall drain-
economy (Fang). Gravity retaining walls have been used for
age and backfill operations are often omitted). centuries and can be found in all walks of life. Most walls
• Insufficient geotechnical exploration and laboratory constructed in the last hundred years or so have been canti-
testing prior to the design stage resulting in the use lever walls constructed of reinforced concrete.
of "assumed soil parameters" with inadequate safety MSE Wall Systems. MSE walls have grown in popu-
factors. larity, especially in highway construction (Figure 7.3N).

FIG uRE 7. 3 N Photo of reinforced earth wall.

130 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH
MSE walls utilize the natural forces of an engineered fill • Geosynthetic reinforcement is stable under chemi-
with small quantities of materials in a composite arrange- cal and biological conditions normally occurring in
ment of equilibrium. The basic components of MSE walls soils. Since facing elements play only a secondary
consist of soil, reinforcement and facing elements. A vari- structural role, a greater flexibility is available to
ety of facing elements and reinforcement are being used meet aesthetic requirements than for conventional
in MSE walls. Metal strips, steel rods, woven geotextile retaining walls. Facing arrangements range from
fabrics, and high strength plastic geogrids have all been concrete panels of various shapes, textures, and col-
successfully used as reinforcement materials. ors to provision of vegetation at the exposed face of
Likewise, facing materials have evolved over recent years the soil.
and come in a variety of material shapes, architectural fin-
Disadvantages of MSE systems
ishes, and colors. Facing elements constructed of precast
concrete panels, prefabricated metal sheets, welded wire • Corrosion of metallic reinforcement occurs and
mesh, and in some cases plastic geogrids have all been used must be assessed on a project basis by determin-
successfully. The popularity of MSE walls is related to many ing the potential aggressiveness of the soil. Special
factors the most significant of which is cost. MSE walls have coatings such as galvanized zinc and resin-bonded
proven very cost efficient compared to their traditional epoxy are used with a sacrificial thickness of steel
counterparts. This is especially true when the wall is in a fill added in the design to give the required service
condition with a surface area greater than 2000 square feet, life.
and an average wall height of 10 feet.
• Although geotextile and geosynthetic reinforcement
The advantages and disadvantages of MSE wall systems,
is a robust material, some allowance must be made
summarized from (Mitchell and Villet 1986) (ret & flood
for decrease in strength due to abrasion during con-
walls) are outlined below:
struction. This will vary with the type of reinforce-
Advantages of MSE systems ment material.

• Mechanically stabilized backfill systems are economi- • Different polymers and fabrics have different creep
cal when compared to conventional retaining walls. characteristics. Allowable loads in the grid should be
selected based on allowable deformations, as well as
• Construction of mechanically stabilized backfill the results of creep tests (10,000 hours).
systems usually is easy and rapid. It does not require
skilled labor or specialized equipment. Many of the • The construction of mechanically stabilized embank-
components are prefabricated allowing relatively ments in cut areas requires a wider excavation than
quick construction. conventional retaining walls.

• Regardless of the height or length of the wall, the • Post-excavation behind the mechanically stabilized
structure remains stable during construction. wall is restricted.

• When compared to conventional retaining walls, Segmental retaining wall systems are very much like
mechanically stabilized backfill systems are relatively MSE wall systems except that the facing units are usually
flexible and can tolerate large lateral deformations constructed of relatively small precast concrete block units
and large differential vertical settlements (when this with aesthetic face finishes; the earth reinforcing is usually
is anticipated, vertical-sliding joints can be installed at geogrid. Because of their aesthetic appeal, segmental walls
intervals to compensate for movement). The flexibil- are often used in land-development projects.
ity of mechanically stabilized backfill systems allows Modular Wall Systems. Modular components come in
the use of a lower factor of safety for bearing capacity a variety of shapes and designs and are usually fitted with
design than conventional, more rigid structures. a type of interlocking mechanism that forms a composite
wall system (Figure 7.30). Most modular wall systems are
• Mechanically stabilized backfill systems are poten-
designed as gravity walls and are especially popular where
tially better suited for earthquake loading than con-
aesthetics are an important factor.
ventional retaining walls because of the flexibility and Crib walls are constructed with some type of exoskeleton
inherent energy absorption capacity of the coherent elements made of wood, precast concrete, or steel and filled
earth mass. In designing mechanically stabilized with compacted fill (Figure 7.3P).
backfill systems for earthquake regions, provision The advantages and disadvantages of the precast concrete
should be made for slippage of reinforcement ele- modular systems are provided below (Mitchell and Villet,
ments rather than tension failure of the elements, 1986, extracted from Retaining and Flood Walls, ASLE, 1994):
resulting in a ductile structure (McKittrick 1979).
Advantages of modular systems
• Mechanically stabilized backfill systems, because of
their flexibility and mass, are capable of withstanding • Modular systems are economical when compared
dynamic loads imposed by wheel loads. to conventional retaining walls in cut situations,
 7.3 ■ SOILS 731

FALSE HEADER

FRONT STRETCHER
_¢¢'> ·nr:-:~:~t·
~c,~, ✓- particularly where the retaining wall has a total sur-
face area greater than 500 square feet and average
wall heights greater than 8 feet.

Hr~""
• Assembly of the wall components requires no fas-
teners and the modules may be reused easily and
economically.
S INGLE DEPTH WALL
___ l • The precast concrete modular retaining wall does not
utilize reinforcing elements and therefore is not sub-
ject to corrosion damage.
• Excavation behind the precast concrete modular
DIOU18:.1E DEPTH WALL retaining wall does not adversely influence the stabil-
ity of the system as might occur for the mechanically
COMPACTED GRANULAR stabilized wall.
, _ _ _t_TCKFILL

Disadvantages of modular systems

TREBLE DEPTH WALL

___l • The precast concrete modular retaining wall could

sustain cracking of interior connecting members
due to relatively small (0.5 foot per 100 feet of
NOTE , FALSf HEADERS ARE wall length) longitudinal differential settlement
NOT USED IN THE INTERIOR
SECTIONS OF MULTIPLE tolerance.
DEPTH WALL S.
MULTIPLE DEPTH WALL (TYPICAL)
NO SC ALE Various engineering companies involved will provide
site-specific plans and limited designs for their propri-
etary systems. Stability is evaluated in a manner similar to
2 '-6"
a conventional gravity retaining wall. For stability calcula-
tions, the interlocking precast concrete modular system is
assumed to behave as a single coherent block. The system
must be stable against sliding along the base of the structure,
overturning about the toe of the wall, bearing capacity fail-
ure of the foundation soil, differential settlement, and over-
all slope stability.

WALL ELEV ATION (TYPICALi

0
7.3. 7. Slope Stability
NO SCALE
A slope refers to an earth mass, natural or man-made whose
FIG uRE 7. 3 0 Schematic diagram of Criblock retaining wall. surface forms an angle with the horizontal. Land develop-
ment practices usually include engineering design and
construction of man-made slopes such as found in embank-
ments, earth dams, levees, foundation excavations and
trenches, and natural slopes found in hills, mountains, river
banks, and coastal boundaries.
No slope, natural or man-made, is completely stable.
Gravitational forces combined with climatic changes, espe-
cially changes involving water, are forever altering slopes.
Occasionally slopes are altered or influenced by earthquakes,
glaciers, or wind.
Slope stability is measured by its factor of safety, the ratio
of the resisting forces (or moments) to the driving forces
(or moments). The factor of safety is associated with several
different soil parameters. For example, the factor of safety
with respect to strength (F,) is the ratio of available (i.e.,
maximum) strength to the required strength to sustain a
load. In terms of the Coulomb equation this is written as

(FS) = (c+crtanef>)avail (7.3L)

FIGURE 7.3P PhotoofaCribwall. s (c+crtanef>)req
132 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH
The factor of safety with respect to cohesion (Fe) is the ratio underlying soil, and the drainage characteristics of both.
between actual cohesion and the cohesion required for sta- Fills on deep soils with low strength fail due to inadequate
bility. Similarly the factor of safety with respect to friction bearing capacity. Reducing failure potential in such cases
and critical height2 are includes the use of lightweight fill material, flat slopes for
the embankment, or a counter weight buttress at the toe.
(FS) Jatantf>)avail If the weak underlying soil stratum is not very thick, it
¢ (atan¢),,q may be more economical to remove and replace it with an
adequate foundation soil. In the worst case, where neither
(FS)H = Havail (7.3M) of the two preceding remedies is feasible, some structural
H,,q support will be needed.
Organic silts, organic clays, and peat are highly com-
respectively. For dry granular soils with c = 0, the factor of pressible. Although these soils may have sufficient bearing
safety is (tan </))/(tan /J) where /3 is the angle of the slope with capacity to support the embankment without failing in shear,
respect to the horizontal. The factor of safety must be greater excessive settlements are the concern. Remedies for neutral-
than I for a slope to be considered stable. In practice, a factor izing excessive settlement include preconsolidating soft clays
of safety of about 1.5 is desirable. by careful overloading, slow construction, or removal of the
From this discussion, the following general statements inadequate material. Analyses for preconsolidation measures
can be inferred regarding slope stability: require calculations for primary and secondary consolida-
I. Since the shear strength of granular soils increases tion rates. The cost for delaying construction, until second-
with increased normal stress, the stability of a granu- ary consolidation is achieved, must be evaluated against the
lar slope does not decrease as the height increases. cost for removal and replacement.
The potential for failure exists when embankments are
2. The stability of a clay slope decreases as the height placed on thin layers of soft clays, particularly if the clay
increases since the shearing strength of a clay is layers are inclined in an unfavorable orientation. The fail-
independent of the normal stress. ure occurs by sliding horizontally or at the angle of the clay
layer. The clay layer gains strength as it consolidates under
There are numerous methods available to perform slope
construction and embankment loadings. If the imposed
stability analysis. Most are described in soil mechanics and
stresses increase faster than the consolidation, failure
geotechnical engineering texts. The conditions, parameters
results. This type of failure occurs during or soon after
and assumptions, such as soil moisture conditions, kine-
construction for this reason. In this situation, construction
matics of slope failure, shear strength, density, and slope
and fill placement must proceed at a slower pace to allow
geometry vary considerably for each method. The level of
the clay to consolidate. Also, lighter embankment material
reliability of these factors dictates the acceptable factor
may be used or the embankment slopes could be flattened.
of safety and the method used for the analysis. Most cases
Again, removal and replacement of the clay layer can also
require the analysis to account for seepage, various moisture
be a consideration.
conditions, and soil stratification. The geotechnical report
Several types of slope failure are illustrated in Figure 7.3Q.
typically provides the results from the analysis and recom-
Slope failure occurs whenever the available resisting
mendations for slope angles. Despite the apparent similarity
forces are less than the activating forces causing instability. In
of the engineering properties of the soils on a site, the recom-
effect, when the strength of the soil is less than the downslope
mended slope angles may vary depending on the function
force component of the soil weight and other applied loads,
of the slopes. Soils reports often recommend different slope
the result is slope movement.
angles for road embankments, cut slopes, slopes around
An imbalance of the two countering forces results in a
stormwater management ponds, etc. Maintenance consider-
couple of ways: increasing load (driving force) and decreasing
ations sometimes dictate that a slope should be flatter than
strength or resistance (resisting force). An increase in loading
required for adequate stability.
at the top of slope can be brought about through the addition
Analysis and construction of an embankment that is strong,
of a structure or by steepening the slope. Weakening of the
incompressible and stable requires specifying a soil with
slope can occur as a result of undercutting the toe of the
certain engineering properties and characteristics. Ideally, the
slope or a rise of the water table under the slope.
specified soil is within haul distance of the site, or even better,
Soil strength, particularly in cohesionless soils, is reduced
available as excess at the site. Of course, the embankment is
by an increase in groundwater (i.e., pore water) pressure.
only as stable as the underlying foundation soil.
Groundwater pressures are increased by raising the water
The mode of failure of an embankment depends
table through excessive rainfall and snowmelt or seepage
on the strength of the fill material, the strength of the
from underground springs and lakes.
Piping (internal erosion) and drawdown often causes
slope failure on dam embankments. Rapid drawdown of a
2Critical height is defined as the maximum height for which the slope remains stable. reservoir behind an embankment can cause an increase
 7.3 ■ SOILS 733

Pile Buildup

Translational slips occur

along bedding planes, faults
or fissures . May be caused
by release of stresses due
to excavation downslope.
Upper soil mass slides along
lower strata of inadequate
shear resistance.

Soil Strata

-,.»-:
~ Movement Face Failure

Rotational circular slides are

typically associated with
cohesive homogeneous soil
conditions. The location of
failure depends on variation
Toe Failure of shear strength with depth .
Failure may be caused by
release of horizontal stresses
by excavation and/ or presence
of weak underlying strata .

Base Failure

FIG uRE 7. 3 Q Types of slope failures.

in the effective weight of the embankment, analogous to Natural processes such as weathering, leaching, creep, and
adding weight at the top of the slope. Piping is a term used to mineralogical changes in soil and rock masses can reduce
describe the progressive removal of soil particles caused by shear strength of the soil and result in slope movement.
percolating water (seepage) through an embankment dam. Examples of two cut slope (shear) failures due to
Vibrations from earthquakes, blasting, and pile driving oversteepening are shown in Figure 7.3R.
can cause densification ofloose sands, silts, and some other
highly compressible soils located below the groundwater 7.3.8. Soil Compaction
level, which increases the pore water pressure and The stability of any structure founded on soil depends on
correspondingly reduces the available soil shear strength. the strength and stability of the soil itself. Engineering
Cyclic stresses can also cause liquefaction of loose uniform properties and characteristics of in situ soil can be mark-
saturated sand layers. edly different than the same soil that has been excavated
134 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH

(a)

(b)
FIG uRE 7. 3 R Cut slope failures.

and used elsewhere. In some cases the existing soil in its 3. Slope stability of soil used in embankments
natural state is not suitable as a foundation base, whereas it
4. Slope stability of soil in cut areas
may be if properly recompacted or prepared. In other cases,
excavated soil may not be suitable for any reuse beyond The strength depends on the void ratio and the mois-
landscaping purposes. The site engineer relies on the rec- ture content of silty and clayey soil. Compaction usually
ommendations of a geotechnical expert on the strength increases the strength characteristics of soil, decreases
and stability of a soil and what methods might be used for the settlement potential, and increases slope stability of
improving its performance. Methods for increasing soil embankments, by decreasing the void ratio, and increasing
strength include adding material or chemicals to the soil the density of the soil. Minimum compaction requirements
or by increasing the density by controlled compaction. For are identified in the specifications or dictated by local stan -
many land development projects, the site engineer is typi- dards. Usually, the geotechnical consultant recommends
cally concerned with the following recurring situations: compaction requirements in the instances where none exist
in local standards.
1. Bearing capacity and settlement potential of the
Compaction. Increasing soil density occurs by rearrangement
existing soil to sustain the structure loads of build-
of the soil particles-fracture of the grains or bonds between
ings or pavement
them and then rearrangement. To do any of this requires energy
2. Bearing capacity and settlement potential of exca- and compactive effort. The amount of energy needed depends
vated soil that is reused on the site on the soil material and the method used to apply the energy.
 7.3 ■ SOILS 735

The intra-particle bonds of cohesive soils resist the compac- Controlled Fill. For most soils, the soil will compact to its
tion efforts. Increasing the water content to an optimum value theoretically greatest density at an optimum moisture con-
decreases the cohesive resistance (molecular bonds) and hence, tent. This OMC is around 8% for sands, 15%, for silts, and
increases the effects of the compaction efforts. Distortion and 15% to 20% for clays. Fill areas that support structures must
reorientation of the particles attain the density of such soils. be placed under rigidly controlled conditions in order for the
Resistance to compactive efforts of cohesionless soils is due stability to be reasonably ensured. Typically, the controlled
to the intergranular friction that is aided by capillary tension. fill areas are identified on the plan sheets as "controlled fill-
Increased density in these soils is mostly through rearrange- see specifications;' with reference to the compaction speci-
ment of the particles. Again, increasing the moisture content fication requirements relative to the maximum dry density
may increase the effects of the compaction efforts by decreasing and OMC of the fill material. Additionally, a maximum lift
capillary tension. (layer) thickness will also be specified.
The two most widely used standard laboratory tests to deter- The specification for compaction might appear as ''All
mine the maximum dry unit weight and optimum moisture fill shall be compacted to minimum 95% of the theoreti-
content (OMC) of a soil are the standard Proctor test (ASTM cal maximum density and within ±2% of the optimum
D-698) and the modified Proctor test (ASTM D-1557). moisture content in accordance with the specifications of
The degree of compaction is measured relative to the ASTM D-698:' Here, the theoretical maximum density is
maximum dry unit weight of the soil. Water added to the soil the density obtained from laboratory tests (i.e., standard
during compaction acts as a lubricant. The soil particles slip Proctor). The 2% is the allowable tolerance of the moisture
over each other and form a denser arrangement. For a given content from optimum. This allowable tolerance may vary
soil and constant compaction energy the dry unit weight somewhat depending on the compaction curve of the soil
increases as the moisture content increases up to a certain and the type of project. Specifying a percentage rather than
point. The increase in unit weight is the result of fitting a unit weight allows for the inherent variability of soils.
more and more soil particles into the same volume, in effect This ensures a compactive effort in the field comparable to
decreasing the void spaces. Beyond a certain moisture con- the laboratory test. The required density of the placed fill
tent, the unit weight of the soil begins to decrease due to the depends on the purpose of the compacted soil. Consider-
incompressibility of water. At this stage the moisture in the able cost savings can be realized by matching the density
soil begins to occupy the space that could have been occu- to the purpose. Table 7.3J provides recommendations for
pied by the soil particles. The moisture content, which maxi- compaction requirements.
mizes the unit weight of the soil with a constant compaction Spreading a layer of soil to an appropriate thickness and
effort, is referred to as the optimum moisture content (OMC) using the proper equipment to compact the layer helps to
(Figure 7.3S). control compaction during construction. When compaction
of that layer is completed, another layer is spread and the
125 ~-..---.-..---........---,-----r---r---, 19.85 equipment compacts the next layer. This process is repeated
until the fill area is brought to the desired elevation. The
Sandy clay thickness of the soil layers, also known as "lifts;' depends on
Line of
Optimum Liquid limit= 31 the type of soil. Cohesive soils are typically placed in lifts of
Plastic limit = 26 19 6 to 8 inches. Lifts for well graded gravel and sands are 10 to
120
~, 12 inches. The practice of compacting soils in small uniform
lifts helps maintain a uniform strength throughout the fill
Zero-air
void curve depth.
blows/layer (SpGr = 2 .7) Controlling moisture content during construction is

0~~~
115
18 relatively easy for sandy soils and those that are drier than
OMC. Dry soils are sprinkled with water before or as the soil
is being compacted. The soil needs to be thoroughly mixed
110
~ 5 blows,1aye,
-
'i:
::,
>,
for even distribution of moisture. Soils wetter than the OMC
can be spread to dry or mixed with other drier suitable soils
11 0 before being placed. In general, plastic (clayey) soils are more

105 0 /\Obliye, sensitive to moisture content, and must be compacted within

a smaller range of the OMC to attain maximum density.
Specifications for controlled fill require that certain
materials be excluded. These materials reduce the ultimate
16 attainable strength or exacerbate settlement problems.
100 .___ _.___...,___ _.__ _.___~---~ 15.2 Materials, such as soils, with excessive organic contents (more
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 than 10%), trees, and vegetation cause excessive localized
settlements after degradation. Large boulders, cobbles, flat
Moisture content, w (%)
shale fragments, and construction debris also adversely affect
FIG uRE 7. 3 S Effect of compaction energy on dry-unit weight. compaction.
13& fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH
TAB LE 7. 3 J Compaction Requirements*
REQUIRED TOLERABLE MAXIMUM
DENSITY RANGE OF PERMISSIBLE
FILL UTILIZED % OF STANDARD MOISTURE ABOUT LIFT THICKNESS,
FDR: PROCTOR OPTIMUM,% COMPACTED (IN) SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS

Support of 95 -2 to +2 12 Fill should be uniform. Blending or processing of borrow

structure may be required. For plastic clays, investigate expansion
under saturation for various compaction moisture and
densities of loads equal to those applied by structure, to
determine condition to minimum expansion. Clays that
show expensive tendencies generally should be compacted
at or above optimum moisture to a density consistent with
strength and incompressibility required of the fill.
Lining for 90 -2 to +2 6 For thick linings, GW-GC, GC, SC are preferable for stability
canal or small and to resist erosive forces. Single-size silty sands with Pl
reservoir less than 5 generally are not suitable. Remove fragments
larger than 6 in before compaction.
Earth dam 95 -1 to +2 12(+) Utilize least pervious materials as central core and coars-
greater than est materials in outer shells. Core should be free of lenses,
50 ft high pockets, or layers of pervious material and successive lifts
well bonded to each other. Amounts of oversize exceeding
1% of total material should be removed from the borrow
prior to arrival on the embankment.
Earth dam less 92 -1 to +3 12(+) In small dams that lack elaborate zoning, materials that are
than 50 ft high the most vulnerable to cracking and piping should be com-
pacted to 98% density at moisture content from optimum
to 3% in excess of optimum.
Support of 95% within top -2 to +2 8(+) Place coarsest borrow materials at top of fill. Investigate
pavements: 2.0 ft; 90% top expansion of plastic clays placed near pavement subgrade
Highways below 2.0 ft to determine compaction moisture and density that will min-
imize expansion and provide required soaked CBR values.
Backfill sur- 90 -2 to +2 8(+) Where backfill is to be drained, provide pervious coarse-
rounding grained soils. For low walls, do not permit heavy rolling
structure compaction equipment to operate closer to the wall than a
distance equal to about½ the unbalanced height of fill at
any time. For highwalls or walls of special design, evalu-
ate the surcharge produced by heavy compaction equip-
ment and specify safe distances back of the wall for its
operations.
Backfill in 90 -2 to +2 8(+) Material excavated from trench generally is suitable for
pipe or utility backfill if it does not contain organic matter or refuse. If
trenches backfill is fine-grained, a cradle for the pipe is formed in
natural soil and backfill placed by tamping to provide the
proper bedding. Where free-draining sand and gravel are
utilized, the trench bottom may be finished flat and the
granular material placed saturated under and around the
pipe and compacted by vibration.
(Continued)
 7.3 ■ SOILS 737

Drainage 90 Thoroughly 8 Ordinarily vibratory compaction equipment is utilized.

blanket or wetted Blending of materials may be required for homogeneity.
filter Segregation must be prevented in placing and compaction.
For compaction adjacent to and above drainage pipe, use
hand tamping or light traveling vibrators.
Subgrade of 95 -2 to +2 For uniform bearing or to break up pockets of frost-
excavation for susceptible material, scarify the upper 8 to 12 in of the
structure subgrade, dry or moisten as necessary and recompact.
Certain materials, such as heavily preconsolidated clays
that will not benefit by compaction, or saturated silts and
silty fine sands that become quick during compaction,
should be blanketed with a working mat of lean concrete or
coarse-grained material to prevent disturbance or soften-
ing. Depending on foundation conditions revealed in explo-
ration, a substantial thickness of loose soils may have to be
removed below subgrade and recompacted, or compacted
in place by vibration or pile driving.
Rock fill Thoroughly 2 to 3 ft For fill containing sizes no larger than ft, place in layers
wetted not exceeding 24 in, thoroughly wetted and compacted by
travel or heavy crawler tractors in spreading. Material with
sizes up to 2 ft may be placed in 3-ft lifts. Placing should
be such that the maximum size of rock increases toward
the outer slopes. Rocks larger than 1 yd 3 in volume should
be embedded on the slope.
Notes:
1. Density and moisture content refer to standard Proctor test values (ASTM D 698).
2. Generally, a fill compacted dry of OMC will have higher strength and a lower compressibility even after saturation.
3. Compaction of coarse-grained, granular soil is not sensitive to moisture content so long as bulking moisture is avoided. Where practicable, they should be placed saturated
and compacted by vibratory methods.
'NAVFAC DM7.2.

Methods for Monitoring Field Compaction. Specifications and the reflected emissions are counted. Knowing how the
typically dictate the desired results for compaction in order density and water reflect the emissions determines the unit
to ensure a result that will have a reliable performance. Part weight and moisture content of the soil. The advantages of
of the assurance, dictated by specifications, involves the field this method are that the test does not require a hole and that
testing of in-place fill. Several standard methods exist for the results are available immediately.
field testing the in-place soil to determine if the compaction An example will illustrate how data from the sand cone
efforts are producing specification quality. test measures compaction.
The sand cone test (ASTM D-1556) and the rubber bal- Compaction Example. The test results from a sand cone
loon test (ASTM D-2167) use material of known density to test are shown in Table 7.3K. Determine if the compaction
fill a small-excavated hole in the compacted area. In the sand meets the required specifications. The project specifica-
cone test the excavated hole is filled with sand. The balloon tions require compaction to 95% of the maximum dry den-
test inserts a balloon into the hole and fills it with water. In sity (MDD) with moisture content to be within 2% of OMC
either case the volume of the hole can be determined from as determined by the Proctor test. Laboratory test results
the amount of sand or water used to fill the excavated hole.
The excavated material is then weighed, oven dried, and
weighed again to determine the water content. The results TAB LE 7. 3 K Sand Cone Test Results
are then compared to the specification. WET WT. DRY WT. SAND WT.
Another method of determining compaction uses a
nuclear density gage to measure the density and water Hole #1 9.66 lb 8.75 lb 9.05 lb
content. The gage consists of a radiation source, radiation
Hole #2 8.45 lb 7.41 lb 7.25 lb
detector, and counter. The gage emits radiation into the soil
130 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH
indicate the MDD as 119.5 lb/ft3 at an OMC of 13.0%. At the be as rigidly controlled as in the laboratory, affect the
project site two tests were made. The sand used in the sand actual degree of compaction. Such factors as the thickness
cone test had a density of 114.5 lb/ft3. of the lift, intensity of pressure applied, area of applied
Specification requirements for this soil: pressure, and number of times pressure is applied all
determines the ultimate unit weight attained at the project
Dry density, Ya= 0.95 x 119.5 = 113.5 lb/ft3 site. Effective compaction is attained by applying a large
Moisture content, w: Min. 11.0%, Max. 15.0% enough force to reorient and densify the soil particles,
however, too large of a force can cause the soil mass itself
For test #1: to be sheared.
Rollers are the primary method for field compaction.
Vol = 9,0 5 lb 0.079 ft 3 Rollers compact the soil by expelling air from the voids and
1 114.5 lb/ft3 forcing the soil particles into a compact arrangement. Com-
w, = 9.66-8.75x100=10.4% (7.3N) mon rollers are smooth drum roller, pneumatic rubber-tired
8.75 roller, sheepsfoot roller, and vibratory roller. Figure 7.3T
8.75Ib shows a vibratory smooth drum and sheepsfoot roller work-
110.8 lb/ft 3
y d1 = 0.079 ft 3 ing in tandem to compact an engineered fill. Rollers are
available in various sizes and weights. Roller weights can be
For test #2:
varied somewhat by filling the drums or body with fluid or
sand. The type of roller used depends on soil characteristics,
Vol = 7·25I b = 0.063 ft3 maneuvering space, intended function of the soil, and eco-
2 114.5 lb/ft3 nomic considerations. Table 7.31 summarizes commonly
W2 = 8.4 5 - 7.4 1X100 = 14.0% (7.30) used compaction equipment and methods.
7.41
7.41 lb 7.3.9. Ground Improvement Methods
rd 2 = _
0 063 tt 3 117.6 lb/tt3 Numerous ground improvement techniques have been
developed and/or perfected in the last half century. Geo-
The results show that compaction in the area of test #1 technical engineers have found new ways to compensate for
does not meet specifications. The moisture content is less less than desirable subsurface conditions and for continued
than 2% of optimum and the unit weight is less than 95% redevelopment of urban areas. This rapid growth and use
MDD. Test #2 meets the compaction requirements. of ground improvement techniques has been fueled by the
Compaction Equipment. In the laboratory, soil type and increasing need to develop marginal land and develop cost-
moisture content are the main factors affecting maximum effective solutions for land development and redevelopment
density. However, in the field other factors, which cannot applications.

FIG uRE 7. 3 T Vibratory and sheepsfoot rollers.

 TA BLE 7. 3 L Compaction Equipment and Methods
REQUIREMENTS FOR COMPACTION OF 95% TO 100% STANDARD PROCTOR MAXIMUM DENSITY
EQUIPMENT COMPACTED LIFT PASSES OR
TYPE APPLICABILITY THICKNESS, INCHES COVERAGES DIMENSIONS AND WEIGHT OF EQUIPMENT p

Sheepsfoot For fine-grained soils or 6 4-6 passes for Soil type Foot contact Foot contact F
rollers dirty coarse-grained soils fine-grained soil; area, in 2 pressures, lb/in 2 fi
with more than 20% pass- 6-8 passes for le
Fine-grained soil Pl> 30 5-12 250-500
ing the No. 200 sieve. Not coarse-grained soil 0
suitable for clean coarse- Fine-grained soil Pl< 30 7-14 200-400 s
grained soils. Particularly d
Coarse-grained soil 10-14 150-250
appropriate for compaction Ii
of impervious zone for earth Efficient compaction of soils wet of optimum requires less t,
dam or linings where bond- contact pressures than the same soils at lower moisture a
ing of lifts is important. contents. 0

Rubber tire For clean, coarse-grained 10 3-5 coverages Tire inflation pressures of 60-80 lb/in 2 for clean granular V
rollers soils with 4%-8% passing material or base course and subgrade compaction. Wheel ti
the No. 200 sieve. For fine- load 18,000-25,000 lb. C
grained soils or well-graded, s
6-8 4-6 coverages Tire inflation pressure in excess of 65 lb/in 2 for fine-
dirty, coarse-grained soils e
grained soils of high plasticity. For uniform clean sands
with more than 8% passing h
or silty fine sands, use large-size tires with pressures of
the No. 200 sieve. d
40-50 lb/in 2.
I,
a
Smooth Appropriate for subgrade 8-12 4 coverages Tandem-type rollers for base course or subgrade 3
wheel or base course compaction compaction, 10-15 ton weight, 300-500 lb per lineal n
rollers of well-graded sand-gravel inch of width of rear roller e
mixtures. May be used for 2
fine-grained soils other than 6-8 6 coverages 3-wheel roller for compaction of fine-grained soil; e
in earth dams. Not suitable weights from 5-6 tons for materials of low plasticity 0
for clean well-graded sands to 10 tons for materials of high plasticity n
or silty uniform sands. s

....w
ca
 TABLE 7. 3 L Compaction Equipment and Methods (Continued)
REQUIREMENTS FOR COMPACTION OF 95% TO 100% STANDARD PROCTOR MAXIMUM DENSITY
EQUIPMENT COMPACTED LIFT PASSES OR
TYPE APPLICABILITY THICKNESS, INCHES COVERAGES DIMENSIONS AND WEIGHT OF EQUIPMENT p

Vibrating For coarse-grained soils 8-10 3 coverages Single pads or plates should weigh no less than V
baseplate with less than about 12% 200 lb. May be used in tandem where working space h
compactors passing the No. 200 sieve. is available. For clean coarse-grained soil, vibration s
Best suited for materials frequency should be no less than 1600 cycles/min. C
with 4%-8% passing ~
No. 200 sieve, placed s
thoroughly wet. ir
Crawler Best suited for coarse- 10-12 3-4 coverages No smaller than 08 tractor with blade, 34,500 lb weight, T
tractor grained soils with less than for high compaction
4%-8% passing No. 200
sieve, placed thoroughly
wet.
Power For difficult access, 4-6 in for silt 2 coverages 30 lb minimum weight. Considerable range is tolerable, V
tamper or trench backfill. Suitable for or clay, 6 in for depending on materials and conditions. 4
rammer all inorganic soils. coarse-grained
soils
 7.3 ■ SOILS 741

Some of the ground improvement techniques available light industrial structures (Moseley and Priebe: Ground
today include Improvement 1993).
Dynamic Compaction. Dynamic compaction, or occasion-
• Undercut and replace ally referred to as ground pounding, has increased consid-
• Vibro compaction/replacement erably in popularity and is a widely accepted technique for
improving weak soils, rubble fills, solid waste, collapsible soils,
• Dynamic compaction and liquefiable soils. The simplicity and economic benefits of
• Wick/band drains dynamic compaction have made it an attractive alternative to
preloading, vibro techniques, or deep foundation systems.
• Lime and cement stabilization Dynamic compaction involves the systematic dropping of
• Geosynthetics large weights onto the ground surface to compress and con-
solidate weak or soft soil and rubble material. Heavy weights
Ground improvement techniques described herein have of 5 to 20 tons falling from heights of 30 to 85 feet are typi-
been successfully employed globally to facilitate construc- cally used to improve the bearing capacity and reduce differ-
tion on otherwise undesirable properties. These techniques ential settlement of the underlying ground to depths of up to
are briefly discussed so site engineers can offer potential 30 feet or more (Mayne et al. 1984).
solutions to clients who would like to develop problematic Dynamic compaction is most widely used to improve
building sites. primarily sandy materials and granular fills, but also has
Vibro Compaction/Replacement. Vibro compaction/ been used to improve sites containing fine-grained soils
replacement has been used for over 50 years to reduce set- (Figure 7.3V). The degree of improvement varies with soil
tlement and improve bearing capacity on noncohesive soils type and groundwater depth.
(Figure 7.3U). The addition of stone through special vibro- Poor subsurface soil conditions including sites proposed
replacement equipment allows improvement of weak ground for office buildings, warehouses, townhouses, highways,
and poorly controlled man-made fills. Vibro techniques have airports, and industrial sites have been successfully improved
been successfully used on housing projects, warehouses, and using dynamic compaction.
Wick/Band Drains. Wick/band drains are used to acceler-
ate the consolidation of low permeability fine-grained soils.
Discussion of time rate consolidation earlier in this chapter
indicated that settlements of clayey soils were dependent
upon the dissipation of pore water out of the void spaces.
The faster the water can be squeezed out of the soil layer, the
faster the settlement will occur.
The installation of wick or band drains vertically into the
compressible layer on a predetermined spacing reduces the
flowpath length of the water and speeds up consolidation.
Wick/band drain installation is usually associated with
preloading or large fill projects where settlement times must

FIG uRE 7. 3 U Vi bro-replacement ground improvement method

using stone column. FIG uRE 7. 3 V Photo of dynamic compaction.
142 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH

Separation
Geotextiles - - - - - - - - Cushioning
Filtrat i on
Geocomposites, Geonets _ _ _ _ _.......,__ Transmission
Geomembranes - - - - - - - - Isolation
FIG uRE 7. 3 Y Functions of major types of geosynthetics.

The addition of between 4% and 6% of hydrated lime by

weight is common for subgrade improvement.
Geosynthetics. Available since the 1960s, geosynthetics
have exploded within the engineering/construction mar-
FIG uRE 7. 3 W Wick drain installation.
ket over the last 20 years. Applications for geosynthetics are
rapidly expanding and will likely continue to gain popular-
be shortened to accommodate future construction or civil ity as cost-effective alternatives to traditional construction
projects such as highway approaches to bridge structures and methods.
airport runways (Figure 7.3W). This industry includes product categories such as geogrids,
Lime and Cement Stabilization. Lime and cement stabili- geotextiles, geocomposites, geonets, and geomembranes all
zation are used where poor near surface soil conditions can of which serve distinct and varied purposes (Figure 7.3Y).
be economically altered through the introduction of lime
or cement. Soil stabilization with admixtures has been used Reinforcement-by adding tensile strength to the
extensively in the highway construction field for many years. soil geogrids and geotextiles can support horizontal
Soil-Cement. The term commonly adopted from cement loads like those found in MSE walls and vertical loads
stabilization research is a mixture Type I Portland cement like those experienced beneath wheeled traffic loads
and soil. The use of soil-cement has proven to be very suc- (Figure 7.32).
cessful for improving sandy and silty subgrade soils for Separation-keeping two unlike or different materi-
support of airfields, roadways, and large parking lots. The als apart is accomplished through the use of geotextiles
addition of between 3% and 8% cement by weight is typical, (Figure 7.3AA).
depending on the strength characteristics desired.
Lime Stabilization. Also referred to as lime modification Cushioning-provides separation and absorbs impact or
when smaller amounts of lime are utilized in an effective abrasive action which could damage critical membranes.
method to alter the undesirable characteristics of highly plas- Common in ponds which are lined but require ballast to
tic clayey soils when used for subgrade support (Figure 7.3X). hold down the liner (Figure 7.38B).
Generally, stabilization techniques with hydrated lime are lik- Filtration-allows water to pass unrestricted while
ened to those with cement. The difference, however, is that retaining soil or other materials. Common for trench
lime is more effective with fine-grained soils having plasticity. drains and erosion control measures (Figure 7.3CC).
Transmission- Drainage allows water or other fluids to
move along or within the geosynthetics. Geocompos-
ites/geonets used for a variety of applications. Common
uses include drainage behind walls and wick drains
(Figure 7.3DD).
Isolation-can be the retention of one fluid or the separa-
tion of two fluids. Geomembranes is landfills and pond
liners are examples of isolation products (Figure 7.3EE).
Common uses include

• Roadway subgrade stabilization

• Asphalt overlay support
• MSE wall reinforcement
• Filters and drains for roadways, walls, and trench
FIG uRE 7. 3 X Lime stabilization. drains
 7.3 ■ SOILS 743

Supports a Planar Load

a)

Supports a Combination Planar and Normal Load

b)

FIG uRE 7. 3 Z Reinforcement function: (a) tensile member, (b) tensioned member.

Protects one material from

Prevents intermixing of Two Solids damage by another

FIG uRE 7. 3 AA Separation function. FIG uRE 7. 3 BB Cushioning function.

- -- -:>

- -- -> ----➔

~~ Wate r '' : : " f : F ~ G e o t e x t ile Filter

Medium
Retains soil but allows
water passage across Transmits fluids within its
it's own plane own plane

FIG uRE 7. 3 CC Filtration function. FIG uRE 7. 3 DD Transmission function.

144 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH
• ASTM D-1452 Standard Practice for Soil Investiga-
tion and Sampling by Auger Boring
• ASTM D-1556 Standard Test Method for Density
of Soil in Place by the Sand-Cone Method
• ASTM D-1557 Standard Test Methods for Moisture-
Density Relations of Soils and Soil-Aggregate Mix-
Prevents a fluid from intermixing
with other materials tures Using IO-Pound Rammer and 18-Inch Drop

FIG uRE 7. 3 EE Isolation function. • ASTM D-1587 Standard Practice for Thin-Walled
Tube Sampling of Soils for Geotechnical Purposes
• ASTM D-1883 Bearing Ratio ofLaboratory-
• Erosion control and silt fences
Compacted Soils
• Consolidation drains • ASTM D-2166 Unconfined Compressive Strength
• Impermeable liners of Cohesive Soil

• Slope stability • ASTM D-2167 Density of Soil in Place by the Rubber

Balloon Method
7.3.10. Summary
• ASTM D-2487 Classification of Soils For Engineering
It is paramount that the development team be aware of the Purposes
nature of subsurface conditions at the site. These conditions
• ASTM D-2434 Standard Test Method for Perme-
will not only have an impact on how and where specific features
ability of Granular Soils (Constant Head)
are constructed, but also will affect the cost to develop the site.
During the early stages of the design, subsurface informa- • ASTM D-2435 Standard Test Methods for One-
tion obtained from existing data is often adequate to make Dimensional Consolidation Properties of Soils Using
preliminary decisions about development of the site. This Incremental Loading
information is also useful in the planning of the detailed
• ASTM D-2573 Standard Test Method for Field
subsurface investigation. Results from the preliminary (or
Vane Shear Test in Cohesive Soil
desktop) investigation produce the information needed to
make decisions on whether to proceed with the project, or • ASTM D-2850 Unconsolidated, Undrained
abandon the site and seek another site altogether. If the proj- Strength of Cohesive Soils in Triaxial Compression
ect proceeds, additional subsurface exploration is likely to be • ASTM D-3080 Direct Shear Test of Soils Under
required for design and construction purposes. Consolidated Drained Conditions
The site engineer must rely on the expertise of the geo-
technical engineer for recommendations pertaining to slopes • ASTM D-3282 Classification of Soils and Soil-
in cut and fill areas, acceptability of soils for dams and infil- Aggregate mixtures for Highway Construction
tration facilities, bearing capacity for foundations and pave- Purposes
ment designs, and the identification of problem soil condi- • ASTM D-6151 Standard Practice for Using
tions that would affect the proposed development program. Hollow-Stem Augers for Geotechnical Exploration
and Soil Sampling
7.3.11. List of Selected ASTM Testing Methods
Listed below are selected ASTM test methods that are com- REFERENCES
monly used during a geotechnical investigation. Detail pro- Hazen, A. 1911. Discussion of "Dams on Sand Foundations" by
cedures of these and other test can be found on the ASTM A.C. Koenig. Transactions of American Society of Civil Engineers
website (www.ASTM.org). 73:199-203.
Mayne, et al. 1984. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering 110:6
• ASTM D-422 Particle-Size Analysis of Soils (June 1984).
• ASTM D-423 Standard Test for Liquid Limit of Soils McKittrick, D. 1979. Design, Construction, Technology, and Perfor-
mance of Reinforced Earth Structures. Proceedings, Symposium
• ASTM D-424 Standard Test Method for Plastic on Earth Reinforcement, American Society of Civil Engineers.
Limit and Plasticity Index of Soils Mitchell, J.K., W.C.B. Villet, and A.F. DiMillo. December 1984. Soil
Reinforcement for Stabilization ofEarth Slopes and Embankments.
• ASTM D-698 Standard Test for Moisture-Density
Public Roads 48(3): 88-95. U.S. Department of Transportation.
Relations of Soils and Soil Aggregate Mixtures Using
Moseley, M.P. 1993. Ground Improvement 1993; https://trove.nla
5.5-Pound Rammer and 12-Inch Drop
.gov.au/work/20894997?q&versionld=46588645.
• ASTM D-1140 Standard Test Method for Amount of Winterkorn, Hans Friedrich, and Hsai-Yang Fang. 1975. Founda-
Material in Soils Finer Than The No. 200 (75 µm) Sieve tion Engineering Handbook. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
 CHAPTER 7.4
FLOODPLAIN STUDIES

7.4.1. Introduction 7.4.2. Updates to the National Flood Insurance Program

Historically, development has occurred near the water, As introduced in Chapter 2.5, one of the primary tools
whether it was a navigable stream or a coastline, for recre- in administering the National Flood Insurance Program
ation or for commerce. Although the benefits of being on (NFIP) is the flood hazard map that identifies flood-prone
the water are numerous, the potential problems also exist. areas, called Flood Insurance Rate Map (FIRM).
Floodplain studies are used to understand and communi- Flood Map Revisions. Federal Emergency Management
cate the risk of being near the water. These studies are valu- Agency's (FEMA) inventory of flood maps contains over
able to a wide variety of users-the building community 100,000 map panels that cover most of the flood-prone areas
so they can properly design for and mitigate flood risks, in the nation. Maintaining these maps is an enormous
the regulatory community so they can develop proper ordi- challenge. Development and other man-induced and natural
nances and enforce proper building codes, and the public changes are constantly altering the floodplains throughout
so they can understand the risks ofliving and working near all areas of the country. FEMA conducts flood studies rou-
water bodies. tinely in an effort to keep its maps updated. However, given
Changing land use such as developing vacant land into its limited resources and the pace of the changes, FEMA is
commercial use inevitably results in a decrease in pervious unable to conduct detailed studies of every area in need.
surface and an increase in impervious surface. This change Consequently, FEMA has established several different meth-
in basin imperviousness results in increased degradation of ods of amending and revising their flood maps, as described
surface water quality, runoff volumes, flow rates, and, often, below.
the frequency of flooding events. Low-impact development Community and Property Owner-Initiated Amendments
(LID) attempts to minimize this change, but floodplains and Revisions.
may still be impacted by new development. To accommo- Letter ofMap Revision. Often, the NFIP maps require revi-
date the increased runoff, conventional systems consisting sion to reflect alterations to the floodplain caused by construc-
of curb and gutter, storm sewer, ditches, and paved chan- tion or improvements (e.g., bridge, channelization, culvert,
nels are developed to safely convey the runoff through the retention pond, etc.), to map previously unmapped flood-
basin. These systems directly increase flow velocity and plains, or to reflect newer or better data (e.g., newer topo-
decrease the basin time of concentration resulting in higher graphic data). A community may request that the maps be
peak flow rates. revised to reflect such changes by providing technical data to
In a typical moderately developed watershed, the support the revision. If the changes are not extensive enough
increase in peak discharge could be from two to five times to warrant republishing of entire map panels, a Letter of Map
higher than pre-developed conditions. The volume of Revision (LOMR) may be issued. A LOMR is a form letter
runoff can be increased by as much as 50%, and the time that describes the change and contains an attachment showing
of concentration may be decreased by an even greater the revised area. Because the community must adopt changes
percentage. Although such effects from one site may seem and revisions to the maps in their local floodplain ordinances,
inconsequential, the collective effects of numerous sites, all such LOMR requests must be submitted by, or with the
throughout the watershed, can have substantial impact approval of, the community CEO. If a project is proposed that
on the anticipated flood elevation, especially in the lower will impact the flood data on the FIRMs, but it has not yet
reaches of a watershed.
745
74& fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH
been built, a conditional LOMR (CLOMR) may be requested. FEMA will perform a new flood study. FEMA'.s flood study
A CLOMR is simply a letter from FEMA stating whether a process consists of a number of major tasks:
project, if built as proposed, will warrant a revision to the map.
Some municipalities require a CLOMR to be obtained prior Scoping: FEMA, the community, and other key stake-
to approval of the project to ensure that the changes to the holders meet to plan the flood study.
FEMA technical requirements can be met and the maps can Data collection: The collection of topographic, planimet-
be approved via a LOMR once the project is complete. ric, engineering, and other required data.
Letters of Map Amendment and Letters of Map Revision
Based on Fill. Although NFIP maps are prepared using Engineering analysis: Hydrologic and hydraulic analyses
the best available topographic maps at the time they are pre- using state-of-the-art computer models.
pared, due to limitations of scale and topographic definition, FIRM production: Production of maps and associated
a property may appear to be in a special flood hazard area products, including the Flood Insurance Study (FIS)
(SFHA) even though it is actually above the 100-year flood report and Digital Flood Insurance Rate Map (DFIRM)
elevation. If no fill 1 has been used to elevate the property or database.
structure, the property owner or lessee may submit a request
to FEMA requesting a Letter of Map Amendment (LOMA). Preliminary issuance and appeal period: FEMA issues
A LOMA is a letter from FEMA stating that the property/ draft or "preliminary" maps to the community and holds
structure is not in the SFHA. a 90-day appeal period during which the public may
To obtain a LOMA, the requestor must submit survey or appeal or protest the maps.
topographic data certified by a registered land surveyor or Compliance period and final issuance: Upon resolution
professional engineer to FEMA certifying that the lowest of any appeals or protests, the community is given
ground elevation adjacent to the structure (lowest adjacent 6 months to update their local ordinances to reference
grade or "LAG") or lowest elevation on the property is above the new/updated maps. At the end of this 6-month
the BFE. If the property is located in an SFHA for which no period, the maps become the final "effective'' FIRMs for
BFEs have been determined (e.g., floodplains designated as the community.
Zone A), FEMA will assist the requestor in calculating the
base flood elevation (BFE) for that location. Upon review Traditionally, FEMA used its own contractors to perform
and acceptance of the data, FEMA will issue a LOMA that flood studies. However, recently, in addition to using their
officially removes the property or structure from the SFHA. own contractors, FEMA has been partnering with states
If a property is located within the boundaries of an SFHA, and large municipalities that have the technical capabilities
but has been elevated above the BFE by fill, the property to assist FEMA with the creation or update of the FIRMs.
owner may submit certified survey or topographic data to Under FEMA'.s Cooperating Technical Partner (CTP) pro-
FEMA to request a Letter of Map Revision Based on Fill gram, a state or community enters into a written agreement
(LOMR-F) removing the property from the SFHA. The sub- with FEMA that specifies the tasks they are responsible for,
mission must show that both the LAG and the lowest floor as well as funding and schedule requirements. A CTP's level
(including basement/crawlspace) are above the BFE. Fill of participation can vary, with their contributions ranging
used for structural support must meet specific engineering from performing a very limited role such as assisting in col-
criteria for erosion, stability, and compaction. LOMR-Fs are lecting existing data, to performing all aspects of the FIRM
not permitted in coastal SFHAs designated as V-Zones. creation/update process.
It is important to note that the FEMA maps are not
revised or republished when a LOMA or LOMR-F is issued, 7.4.3. Preparing a Floodplain Study
and these letters do not affect the SFHA delineation or any To ensure that the studies and restudies meet the minimum
other features of the NFIP map. Unlike LOMRs, LOMAs and standards required by FEMA, certain technical methods have
LOMR-Fs are simply letters stating whether a given property been reviewed and accepted by FEMA. These methods include
is in or out of the SFHA. When issued, LOMAs and LOMR- hydrologic and hydraulic models and computation methods
Fs are sent to the requestor, and a copy is sent to the local used in the detailed engineering analyses conducted as part
community. Copies of all Letters of Map Change (LOMCs) of most studies/restudies. Because FEMA occasionally reviews
(LOMRs, CLOMRs, LOMAs, and LOMR-Fs) can be obtained and approves new models and methods and updates existing
from FEMA'.s Map Service Center (www.msc.fema.gov). models and methods, FEMA'.s website should be consulted to
Studies and Restudies. When new FIRMs need to be cre- obtain the most up-to-date list of approved models.
ated, or updates are warranted that are too large to be done When performing a flood study, one should be aware
through the LOMR process (e.g., greater than one panel), that some communities have more stringent requirements
than FEMA and/or require specific technical methods due
to local conditions. Therefore, it is imperative that anyone
1"Fill"
is defined to include any earthen material used to raise the ground elevation and performing a flood study should be familiar with local regu-
includes both structural and nonstructural fills. lations and policies.
 7.4 ■ FLOODPLAIN STUDIES 747

Hydrologic Analysis. A hydrologic analysis is performed to be modeled. The limits should be set such that no hydrau-
in order to estimate the flood discharge at a location along lic control sections in the floodplain occur near the limits,
the flooding source. The first step in performing a hydro- such as a severe constriction, a bridge, or a weir, that will
logic analysis should be to determine if there is a stream gage have a significant impact on the reach being modeled.
on the stream in question. If a stream gage is available, a sta- Flood elevations for riverine areas are normally deter-
tistical analysis of the gage data generally provides the best mined by step-backwater computation models, like HEC-RAS,
estimate of the design storm discharge. WSPRO, or WSP-2. The most common is the USACE
Often in the land development process, however, the HEC-RAS program, although the land development engi-
drainage areas of the flooding sources in question are rela- neer should consult the local regulations to determine which
tively small (less than 1 square mile) and not gaged. In trying of the noted programs is acceptable for use.
to determine the flood discharge for an ungaged stream, sev- Step-backwater models compute results such as flood
eral techniques can be employed. Often, more than one tech- depth, width, velocity, etc., at cross sections placed intermit-
nique will be utilized in order to support the results. These tently along the stream. These results are then interpolated
techniques can be broken down into two categories, namely between the cross sections. The selection of cross-section
Regression Equations and Rainfall-Runoff Modeling. Fed- locations is therefore a very important step in setting up a
eral, state, and local ordinance should be consulted to deter- floodplain model. The topographic map should be used in
mine which technique is approved for use in the jurisdiction. conjunction with field information to determine the best
Regression Equations. The land development engineer locations for cross sections. Cross sections should be located
should once again determine if any federal, state, or local at points along the stream where the shape of the section
agency has established flood discharges previously for the changes, where the slope of the stream changes, at bends in
ungaged stream under consideration or should check the the stream, and at locations where the floodplain conditions
FEMA's effective FIS. In the absence of such an analysis, otherwise change from the conditions up- or downstream.
the land development engineer can use the regression equa- Consideration should be taken of the entire floodplain, not
tions presented in the most recent regional flood flow fre- just the channel portion, when locating cross sections. In addi-
quency report, published by the U.S. Geological Survey tion, cross sections should be located up- and downstream
(USGS). These reports are generally available on a statewide of bridges and culverts and downstream of tributary inflows
basis and provide simple equations that frequently require only where the cumulative flow should be adjusted. Cross sec-
a few easily obtainable parameters, such as watershed area and tions should also be placed at locations where conditions may
mean annual precipitation. Caution should be exercised when change due to the land development project or at locations
applying these equations, for there are limitations to the size where floodplain elevations are desired for a specific purpose.
and condition of the watershed to which they are applicable Note, local regulations may dictate a maximum allowable dis-
and they typically have a wide range of standard errors. tance between cross sections for a floodplain study.
Rainfall-Runoff Modeling. Where USGS regional flood At each cross-section location, the cross-section geometry
flow frequency reports have not been developed or are is required. This may be determined from a topographic map,
not applicable due to either rapid watershed development, if the map provides an acceptable level of detail for the study.
storage, or stream regulation, the land development engineer Often, field surveys will be required to obtain the cross-section
can develop a rainfall-runoff model using models such as geometry necessary for a floodplain study. Using a greater
HEC-HMS or TR-20. number of cross sections will increase the level of detail of
Regardless of method, often, incremental changes to the the study, but it will also increase costs for data collection and
flow discharges may need to be calculated along the stream modeling. Also, a greater level of detail in cross sections may
reach, particularly for large project areas where the discharge be unwarranted if other aspects of the study have a greater
changes significantly from the upstream limit to the down- level of uncertainty. For example, increasing the number of
stream limit. This occurs where tributaries or storm sewers cross sections won't improve the results if the flow discharges
discharge, or where the drainage area increases significantly, are questionable. Therefore, considerable judgment must be
within the project area. used in selecting cross-section locations.
Hydraulic Analysis. The basic data necessary to perform Roughness coefficients must be determined for each
the required hydraulic analysis includes study limits, topo- reach of stream. Most floodplain models use Manning's n
graphic mapping, flow discharges (determined from hydro- values to estimate the roughness of the stream channel and
logic analysis, as discussed in the preceding section), cross overbanks. Selection of n values is very important because
sections, and Manning's n values. Once the study limits of the influence of roughness on water surface elevations.
have been determined, some additional distance upstream Furthermore, n value selection is the one parameter that
and downstream should also be included in the study to cannot simply be measured in the field but instead must
ensure that the appropriate reach is covered and to account be determined largely from engineering judgment. Proper
for downstream and upstream impacts. The topographic selection of n values will provide a greater level of confidence
mapping should be used to lay out the limits and to inves- in the floodplain model. Manning's n values for several types
tigate the stream upstream and downstream of the section of channels are presented in Table 7.4A.
 TA BL E 7. 4 A Values of the Roughness Coefficient n
TYPE OF CHANNEL AND DESCRIPTION MINIMUM NORMAL MAXIMUM TYPE OF CHANNEL AND DESCRIPTION

Excavated or dredged 7. Sluggish reaches, weedy, deep pools

a. Earth, straight and uniform 8. Very weedy reaches, deep pools, or
1. Clean, recently completed 0.016 0.018 0.020 floodways with heavy stand of timber an
2. Clean, after weathering 0.018 0.022 0.025 underbrush
3. Gravel, uniform section, clean 0.022 0.025 0.030 b. Mountain streams, no vegetation in chanrn
4. With short grass, few weeds 0.022 0.027 0.033 brush along banks submerged at high sta~
b. Earth, winding and sluggish 1. Bottom: gravels, cobbles, and few boulde
1. No vegetation 0.023 0.025 0.030 2. Bottom: cobbles with large boulders
2. Grass, some weeds 0.025 0.030 0.033 2. Floodplains
3. Dense weeds or aquatic plants in deep 0.030 0.035 0.040 a. Pasture, no brush
channels 1. Short grass
4. Earth bottom and rubble sides 0.028 0.030 0.035 2. High grass
5. Stony bottom and weedy banks 0.025 0.035 0.040 b. Cultivated areas
6. Cobble bottom and clean sides 0.030 0.040 0.050 1. No crop
c. Dragline-excavated or dredged 2. Mature row crops
1. No vegetation 0.025 0.028 0.033 3. Mature field crops
2. Light brush on banks 0.035 0.050 0.060 c. Brush
d. Rock cuts 1. Scattered brush, heavy weeds
1. Smooth and uniform 0.025 0.035 0.040 2. Light brush and trees, in winter
2. Jagged and irregular 0.035 0.040 0.050 3. Light brush and trees, in summer
e. Channels not maintained, weeds and brush uncut 4. Medium to dense brush, in winter
1. Dense weeds, high as flow depth 0.050 0.080 0.120 5. Medium to dense brush, in summer
2. Clean bottom, brush on sides 0.040 0.050 0.080 d. Trees
3. Same, highest stage of flow 0.045 0.070 0.110 1. Dense willows, summer, straight
4. Dense brush, high stage 0.080 0.100 0.140 2. Cleared land with tree stumps, no sprou
Natural streams 3. Same as above, but with heavy growth c
1. Minor streams (top width at flood stage <100 ft) sprouts
a. Streams on plain 4. Heavy stand of timber, a few down trees
1. Clean, straight, full stage, no rifts or deep 0.025 0.030 0.033 little undergrowth, flood stage below
pools branches
2. Same as above, but more stones and weeds 0.030 0.035 0.040 5. Same as above, but with flood stage
3. Clean, winding, some pools and shoals 0.033 0.040 0.045 reaching branches
4. Same as above, but some weeds and stones 0.035 0.045 0.050 3. Major streams (top width at flood stage> 100
5. Same as above, lower stages, more ineffective 0.040 0.048 0.055 minor streams of similar description, because
slopes and sections a. Regular section with no boulders or brush
6. Same as 4, but more stones 0.045 0.050 0.060 b. Irregular and rough section
Source: Courtesy of Chow, V.T. 1959. Open-Channel Hydraulics. New York: McGraw-Hill. Reproduced with permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.
 7.4 ■ FLOODPLAIN STUDIES 749

With Geographic Information Systems (GIS), many 3. Technical documentation regarding the determina-
hydraulic and hydrologic models steps are done in an auto- tion of the floodplain elevations and limits
mated or semi-automated manner. Many popular hydrologic
4. Professional certification of base mapping or survey
and hydraulic models have been GIS-enabled, including the
USACE HEC-HMS and HEC-RAS models. GIS allows the This documentation may include calculations and/or
user to collect, view, and process spatial data, including the computer modeling inputs, parameters and results, a writ-
input and output model parameters. It allows the results of ten description of the methods used, sources of data, special
these models to be mapped using digital elevation models or unusual items that affected the modeling, assumptions
(DEMs), as well as permits the use of a wide variety of visu- made, and limitations of the model.
alization tools. Many communities have GIS capabilities, Figure 7.4A shows a typical plan and profile sheet for a
which allow floodplain data results to be combined with a flood study. If a floodplain study is prepared to determine
wide variety of local data sets, such as tax and parcel data, and document the changes to flood elevations or floodplain
permitting data, etc. boundaries due to a development project, both pre-developed
Special Considerations. The preceding section applies and post-developed floodplains should be presented. If a
primarily to floodplain analysis for typical riverine situa- floodway is required, the floodway boundaries should also
tions. While this comprises the most common floodplain be presented. A typical plan and profile sheet of a floodplain
study situation, floodplains also exist in coastal areas that study should include the following information:
require the use of other specialized models and method-
ologies. Similarly, other special situations, such as ice jams, • Cross-section location, orientation, and numbering
closed basin lakes, and alluvial fans, also require very spe- • Floodplain and floodway boundaries
cialized models and methods. These situations are out-
side the scope of this handbook. If a project is in a coastal • Water surface profiles
area or involves other special considerations, it is recom- • Water surface elevations
mended that the local authorities and FEMA be consulted
• Locations of bridges and culverts
on the accepted methods for evaluating and mapping these
flood hazards. • Locations of incoming tributaries
Preparation of Deliverables. While the final deliver- • Floodplain tie-in to existing floodplains on tributaries
ables for a flood study are dictated by the needs of the
project and client, common flood study products include • Location and elevation of any critical structures
the following: within or near the floodplain

1. A plan view of the stream being studied, usually on

If the flood study is to be submitted as a request to FEMA
to revise a FIRM (e.g., a LOMR), there are specific forms that
a topographic base, with the floodplain boundaries
are also required. These forms, referred to as MT-2 forms,
delineated along the stream
can be found on the FEMA website. Also, if a flood study is
2. A profile (longitudinal cross section) of the stream, done for FEMA or its partners for the purposes of creating or
with the stream invert elevations and flood eleva- revising a FIRM, it must comply with FEMA's Guidelines and
tions delineated Specifications for Flood Hazard Mapping Partners.
....en
=

~ / ---C:.

•
/
/

-,. .l -

::: -== -= :i::f IL:.:l. -~-

-=

- ~-=:: -~== .....

.- r ·-----ri-·----- f=±irii --
C.'.

'5'F'''
---
~ ··- --
--~· ,rr,nt, 'rili
°"." -~:::=--
---· 'P .
___ :_
w mrn.:t n. .m.
-- ,F·ffiir - '·:':,1; $' " "'-'. .,, ; : ~ .; ': ; ..
___ :; ..

. ' .. ·: --:-~ ~ ~-: ·:-- .

" =~-- ----
.....
- ,j-

.j. ,:<: ' ~ ;.

~:--
'

FIGURE 7 ,4A Typical plan profile sheet for a floodplain study.

 CHAPTER 7.5

STREAM RESTORATION

7.5.1. Introduction to its condition prior to disturbance, restoration is a holistic

Stream systems, which are complex and dynamic, form in approach where both the stream and watershed are consid-
response to conditions within the watershed. Changes in ered. Rehabilitation actions are focused on the stream and
the land use, water use and channel characteristics affect the riparian areas (FISRWG, 1998). Stream restoration, reha-
peak flow rates, duration, and volume of stream flow, which bilitation and stabilization are often used interchangeably.
impacts sediment transport and stream stability. In a natu - Discussion in this chapter focuses on the elements of stream
ral process, streams will tend toward a dynamic stability by stability, which is a balance of cross section, profile, and plan
responding to changes in the system through adjustment of form to transport sediment and water without the net long-
the stream geometry and sediment transport. term deposition or erosion of either the bed or banks within
In the absence of natural or man -made controls, altera - a stream reach (Fischenich, 2000).
tions in the watershed or within a stream can result in the
7.5.2. Project Goals
stream becoming unstable as it adjusts to the changes. The
tendency toward dynamic stability can result in an imbalance There are a variety of reasons to initiate a stream restoration
of the sediment transport capacity, excessive bank erosion, project. The most common factors that require stream res-
and degradation or aggradation of the stream bed. Stream toration are loss of property, damage to infrastructure, loss
instability can result in the loss of property, habitat (benthic, of habitat, decreased habitat diversity, excessive sediment
aquatic, and riparian), and infrastructure. Water quality deposition, safety, or even aesthetics. Whatever the impetus
can be adversely affected by the production of excess sedi- for the stream restoration project, specific and realistic goals
ment. Sediment is considered a pollutant because its volume must be established to ensure that they can be achieved. Dis-
reduces stream and lake capacities; it can cause high turbid- cussion of the expectations and goals must occur early in
ity; and other pollutants can be absorbed by or attached to the process and must include identification and inclusion of
the soil particles so it is transported along with the sediment. the potential stakeholders. At a minimum, stakeholders will
A variety of measures can be used to stabilize a stream. include the client, regulatory and permitting agencies (local,
Long-term stability can be provided by hardening the state, and federal), design team, and property owners. Addi-
stream bed and banks. Hardening measures include con- tional stakeholders could include utilities, transportation
crete, riprap and wire baskets (gabions). These stabilization agencies, environmental organizations, and citizen groups.
measures confine the stream and do not allow adjustment. In developing the goals of the project, consideration must be
Hardening of the stream does not provide habitat enhance- given to the cost-effectiveness of the project, whether the project
ment and can create problems elsewhere in the stream sys- fits within the budget, attainability of permits needed to allow
tem that need to be evaluated. construction, site conditions that could negatively impact con-
The goal of stream restoration and rehabilitation is pro- struction, acceptable level of risk should the project fail, and sup-
vide dynamic stability that allows the stream to change over port of the stakeholders for the project. Typical goals of a stream
time but maintain its geometric relationships. Both resto- restoration project may include one or more of the following:
ration and rehabilitation reestablish the general structure,
• Provide stability to stream
function and dynamic behavior of the stream. Although nei-
ther restoration nor rehabilitation returns the stream system • Restore aquatic and benthic habitat

751
152 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH
• Adequacy of stormwater outfalls There may be stakeholders who will oppose one or
more goals or even the project itself. A frequent objection
• Establish and expand riparian cover using native
to stream restoration projects is the degree of disruption to
plant materials
the environment that will occur. The loss of, or damage to,
• Improve stream temperature conditions mature trees is a frequent concern as are temporary aquatic
impacts related to construction activities. The concerns of
• Add to riffle/pool complexity
the stakeholders must be adequately addressed by members
• Improve meander patterns of the design team. The goals of the restoration project may
need to be modified to address stakeholder concerns. How-
• Reduce sediment loads
ever, the project must also meet the original objectives to be
• Increase groundwater level considered viable. Monitoring of the site during and follow-
ing construction can be used to assess the effectiveness of the
• Enhance aesthetics or provide a site amenity
measures used to control potential collateral impacts.
Figure 7.SA depicts a stream before restoration efforts
occurred and after the restoration work was completed. 7.5.3. Design Approach
Stakeholder input will be used to establish and refine the Restoration measures are designed to return dynamic stabil-
goals and objectives of the project. Because not all stakehold- ity and environmental function to the streams. These mea-
ers will be familiar with the components of stream restoration, sures tend to be self-maintaining because they have been
an educational component may be useful. An educational developed to work with the stream, but are not necessarily
component can help to avoid potential misunderstanding. For maintenance free. To achieve dynamic stability, the design
example, stream restoration plantings may have a "too natural" approach is to provide a geometry (cross section, profile, and
appearance. It may be necessary to adjust the planting plan to plan form) that the stream will tend to reach. Restoration
suit individual taste. Raising the groundwater level may lead to measures include bioengineering (vegetation), stream shap-
complaints of wet yards. The educational component should ing and realignment, and revetments (grade control mea-
include field visits to the project site, to other restoration proj- sures and redirective techniques). The methods to be used
ects under construction, and to completed projects. for stream restoration must be selected based upon the fol-
lowing considerations:

• Stated project objectives

• Technically sound design
• Desired level of protection
• Risk of failure
• Cost-effectiveness
• Durability
• Required permits
• Constructability
• Construction budget

The initial step in the design is to gather available infor-

mation from existing sources. Available data can include
mapping (topographic, land use, soils, geologic and prop-
erty boundaries), aerial photographs, watershed studies or
plans, Flood Insurance Studies, and stream gage informa-
tion. Much of the information may be available in a GIS for-
mat, which can facilitate the review process. After reviewing
the data, a site assessment must be conducted. During the
site assessment, the entire segment of stream to be restored
should be observed; preferably from within the channel. In
addition, the overbank areas on either side of the stream
need to be observed. Elements to be observed during the
site assessment should include areas of stability and instabil-
FI GuRE 7 .5A Stream restoration photos before/after. (Photo courtesy ity, natural or man-made controls, indications of previous
of Paul Makowski.) stabilization or alteration, and potential constraints. Possible
 7.5 ■ STREAM RESTORATION 753

constraints to the proposed restoration may include utili- (FISRWG 1998). Published literature may contain informa-
ties, private property, buildings, roadways, wetlands, unique tion that can be used to establish reference conditions. The
vegetation or habitat, or significant trees. Field observa- reference condition will be used to develop the profile, plan
tions should be photographed and their location recorded and cross-section relationships for the proposed design.
on a site map. To obtain a more complete understanding The design process will include the development of the flow
of the stream segment to be restored, the stream upstream rates for the stream. Flow rates can be obtained from previous
and downstream of project should also be observed. The studies or developed from regional regression equations,
distance to be observed can vary depending on the stream analysis of historical stream flow data, and hydrologic
characteristics but should include a minimum of two mean- modeling. For comparison, flow rates should be developed
der wavelengths or 20 to 30 times the stream width. using more than one method. The design flow rate is related to
Depending on the quality and age of the topographic the degree of protection that is required and the acceptable level
information, an engineering survey may be needed to pro- of risk of failure. Usually a range of flow rates are developed
vide or supplement the required information. The survey and evaluated. Typical flow rates correspond to storms with
should include potential constraints, geomorphologic char- return intervals of 1, 2, 5, 10, 25, 50, and 100 years. The 100-
acteristics (described below) and permit-related information. year flow rate is related to FEM.A'.s Flood Insurance Program
The site assessment will include collection of detailed and must be used in a hydraulic model, such as HEC-RAS
information required to evaluate the existing conditions (USACE) to assess whether the proposed stream restoration
based on the stream's geomorphologic characteristics. These measures would have any effect on the water surface elevation
characteristics will include the following: and ensure that there were no adverse impacts to roadways,
bridges, buildings, or property. The restoration can impact
• Profile elevations the water surface elevation by increasing the roughness,
decreasing the slope or cross-sectional area, or raising the
o Thalweg (the line connecting the lowest points
along the stream bed) profile of the stream relative to the overbank area.
The bankfull flow rate is used to represent the flow rate that
o Edge of water shapes the stream. In natural streams, the 2-year flow rate is
o Bankfull used as the bankfull discharge in the eastern half of the United
States. However, flow rates corresponding to return frequencies
o Floodplain, top of bank or terrace ofbetween 1 and 10 years may be appropriate (USACE, 1994).
o Pool and riffle Rosgen and Silvey (1996) reference the bankfull discharge as
having a return frequency of 1.5 years. It was also observed
o Valley that, from moderately developed watersheds, bankfull occurs
• Plan view as frequently as three to four times per year (Schueler, 1987).
The bankfull stage can be estimated through field methods
o Sinuosity (Rosgen and Silvey, 1996). However, incised streams that are
o Meander geometry not in dynamic equilibrium will not have reliable indicators of
the bankfull stage. Having multiple bankfull elevations along
• Cross section the profile of the stream will allow various flow rates to be used
o Bankfull width in the hydraulic model to estimate a flow rate that best repre-
sents the bankfull flow rate. The estimated flow should then
o Bankfull elevation be compared to published bankfull flow rates appropriate for
o Floodplain, top of bank or terrace elevation the level of development in the watershed. Hydrologic mod-
els such as HEC-HMS (USACE) allow a variety of land use
o Flood prone width scenarios to be developed for the watershed. For example, a
o Flood prone elevation hydrologic model could be used estimate flow rates associated
with the present, future, or some other stage of development,
• Channel material which can be used for the restoration design.
o Bed Dynamic stability is a function of stream geometry, sedi-
ment load, flow rate, and bed and bank materials. Therefore,
o Bank it is necessary to develop an understanding of the sediment
o Bar stability as part of the restoration. The size distribution of
sediment can be obtained using particle count or by collecting
A reference condition, which has similar geomorphologic sediment samples and conducting a particle size analysis. The
characteristics to the proposed restoration, can be used as a sediment should be characterized at multiple locations along
design template for the proposed design. The reference condi- the section to be restored taking care to collect samples at rif-
tion can be found either in a stable reach along the stream to fles and pools. Sediment stability is assessed by comparing the
be restored or in a neighboring stream that shares hydrologic, critical shear stress of the sediment to the shear of the flow
geologic, geomorphologic, and physiographic characteristics in the stream. The critical shear stress of the sediment is that
154 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH
when exceeded by the shear stress produced by the stream, ■ Live soil lifts
movement of sediment will occur. Hydraulic models such as
■ Brush mattresses
HEC-RAS calculate the shear stress produced by the stream.
Because the stream will need to remain stable throughout a ■ Branch layering
range of flow rates, additional bank and bed protection mea-
o Redirective
sures may be necessary.
Protection of the stream bed and profile is provided by ■ Rockvanes
grade control structures, which are divided into two catego-
■ "J"-hook vanes
ries. Bed control structures provide hardened points to resist
erosion. Hydraulic control structures reduce the energy ■ Wing deflectors
slope by providing a stable drop.
■ Dikes
Bank protection practices are divided into three categories.
Bioengineering is a vegetative method that stabilizes the bank ■ Logvanes
by providing a root system that binds soil particles, which
■ Bendway weirs
increases the shear strength of the bank The vegetation also
reduces the flow velocity acting against the soil. When using o Resistive
bioengineering practices it is important to provide a stable toe
■ Brush bundles (cedar tree revetments)
to prevent undercutting of the bank Redirective techniques
reduce the shear stresses against the stream bank by directing ■ Rootwads
the flow into the center of the channel. Redirective measures
■ Imbricated rock walls
frequently cause sediment deposition between the structures,
which adds to the protection of the stream bank Resistive ■ Crib walls
methods are structures constructed to resist shear stresses.
■ Rock toe protection
Resistive methods may cover the bank or be limited to the toe.
A partial list of potential bank and bed protection mea- ■ Log bundles
sures follows:
■ Riprap
• Grade control ■ Gabions mattresses
o Bed control structure ■ Articulated concrete blocks
■ Rock cross vanes ■ Interlocking concrete jacks
■ Rock "W" -weirs
These bank and bed protection measures can either
■ Rockweirs be used alone (for small stabilization projects) or used in
combination. When selecting a method, the durability, per-
■ Rock sills
formance and environmental setting of the construction
o Hydraulic control material needs to be considered. Design will include a num-
ber of considerations such as sizing of the rock, specifica-
■ Drop structures
tion of the filter material, determining extent of coverage,
■ Log drops developing spacing of the structures, and establishing how
the structures are tied in to the soil interface to prevent ero-
■ Step pools
sion. With respect to bioengineering practices, the surviv-
■ "V" log drops ability of the plant materials is enhanced by the use of native
vegetation. The native vegetation, which will have a natu-
■ Rock chutes
ral appearance, also improves the aesthetics and habitat of
• Bank protection the area. Specifying native vegetation will ensure that the
plants are suited for hydrologic and temperature extremes,
o Bioengineering (see Chapter 5.7 for additional
animal foraging, insects and disease. To enhance the surviv-
information/ details)
ability of the plant material, irrigation may be required.
■ Native plant material In some instances, it will be necessary to consider
incorporation of traditional engineering solutions into the
■ Natural fiber matting
stream restoration design. For example, a drop inlet can be
■ Live stakes used to lower a storm drain outfall to be compatible with
an incised channel. The drop inlet will dissipate the energy
■ Natural fiber rolls
of the storm drain and allow the redirection of the outlet so
■ Live fascines that it is more closely oriented to the flow in the receiving
 7.5 ■ STREAM RESTORATION 755

Th e Virginia Str eam Restora ti on & The Vi rgi nia Stream Restoration &
Stabilization Bes t Man age m e nt P r ac tic es Guide Slabilizalion Best Management Practices Guide
DETAIL 1.3 : STACK ED STONE DETAIL 3 .H a): ROCK CROSS VANES
DEFINITION SKETCH ro~lde Elevat lon & Offset Seal All Str uc t ures. per Fig. 3.2 In
lntol"m atlon h Point s A, 8, C,0 St reams w/ Sand porti on I n the b-td
L'.'.l_
lf.l =Backfill Slope Angle (2h:1v Or Flatt er But 1/~ acr
10-ft
Max . H@lg ht
!I-JI Grea ter Than 5% )
Ol, =lnclinatlon Of Wall Fr om Horizon tal
(1h:6v To 1h:4vl
f- Width

Existin g Bankline
Topsoil (Depth Shall Be Sufficient
To Support Stabilizing Vegetation)
Rocks Shall Be Angu lar And Have A
Minim um Width Equal To 1/J The
Vertical Heig ht Of The Wall
De gree Of Setback Shall
De pend On Design Slope

Stream Bed
Invert

To e Riprap - See
Practice 1.5: Rock Filter Fabric
To e Reve tment
Below Scour Depth SECTION

Transition Using
Pradic:e 1. 7: Riprap Apated From CROSS SECTION
Milrylilnd's Waterway
PLAN Construction Guidelines ISource: Rosgen, 2001 !
CUDE CONTROL,
DECEMBER 2003 VIRGINIA DEPARTIHNT or CONSJ:RYATIOfl RECR!.I.TION SUUCTlFRES GUlllEl.f!t!.S
DEC!IIIBER 2'10:9 HICINl l lllPil'l ll U''T <IF C<l~lll.'U.TIOtl tl.CIE.f.'flDI

The Virginia Stream Restoratio n & The Virginia Stream Restoration &
Stabi l ization Best Management Practices Guide Stabilization Best Management Practices Guide
DETAIL 3.4(a): STEP POOLS DETAIL 4.1: ROCK VA NES
Seal All St r uctures pe r Fi g. 3.2 For
Strea ms w/ a Sa 11 d po r t io n i n th e bed.

Top Of
Bank 9<=~"",c-"~S:::C::c:L-/t,.,S;,;:,;,:----:;._c,
_~ "Z.,_'-
~--\~---

Toe Of
20 ·- t_~it~;~&~kJ~i;i~k:
Bank

Typically 1/4 - 1/3

Q.cf Width Max.
Boulders For 1/2 Max. In
Added Stabili ty Sma ll Streams

---------
PLAN
End Of Vane Should Be Secured
Open Clil'SS A!J:gt(!gatt PLAN In Bank At Qcf Height
Or Salva~ed Substn e
Qcf

At Or 6~l0w
t1n S-cour Depth At Or Be low Max Scour Deptt, __.::~;;.;.cc:.:,_ _,::~-7
SECTION Source =====-'-'~--~
Provide Elev.it lon an d Offse t PROFILE
t or Points A, B a nd C K{I T,chnologies
FLOY OE.fLECTIOM DECIUIBER 200:J VIRGINIA D!PAR111:KN7 Of COJriS!RVA710H RECREATION
llli!Ct:'IIBP.:11 2(103 CONCENTR ATI ON CU IDELINE:!!

FIGURE 7.58 Common stream bed and bank protection measures.

15& fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH
o E&S control practices
o Dewatering technique
o Site restoration (stabilization)
• Grading plan
o Existing and proposed contours
o Limits of grading and disturbance
o Proposed revetments and stabilization measures
o Construction notes
• Geometric plan
o Benchmark
o Traverse coordinates
o Horizontal and vertical datum
o Property information
o Source of the survey
o Line and curve, PC, PT data
o Stream centerline stationing
• Profile
o Existing and proposed ground elevations along
the proposed centerline
FIG uRE 7. 5 C Recently construction stream restoration project
illustrating band and bed protection measures (top) looking upstream and o Existing invert
(bottom) looking downstream. (Photo courtesy of Paul Makowski)
o Proposed grade control station and elevation
• Cross sections
stream (rather than directed at the opposite bank). Energy
dissipators (Thompson and Kilgore, 2006) are used at storm o Existing ground
drain outlets to decrease the energy entering the stream o Proposed cross-sectional shape with dimensions
or, for smaller streams, can be used to dissipate the energy and side slopes
within the stream. Utilities crossing beneath the stream will
require special protection measures such as encasement, drop • Planting (landscaping) plan
structures, hardening or a combination of these measures. o Plant location based on hydrophilic and sunlight
Stream restoration needs to be treated as a detailed engi- preference
neering design and will need to be incorporated into a drawing
set. The drawings will need to include sufficient information o Plant material list and specifications (over- and
to allow the project to be constructed as well as to satisfy understory trees, shrubs, herbaceous plants, seed)
the requirements of the owner and the reviewing agencies. o Plant installation description
Construction-related information will include material speci-
fication and installation requirements. The amount of infor- o Matting and mulching specifications
mation to be included in the drawing set is dependent on the o Guarantee or replacement information
complexity of the project. However, the minimum amount of
information to be included in the drawings is o Abatement and control plan for undesirable plant
species
• Erosion and sediment (E&S) control • Details
o Limits of disturbance
The drawing set may include items related to the stream
o Trees to be removed and protected restoration project such as utility relocation or stabilization
requirements, storm drain improvements, energy dissipa-
o Construction access
tors, floodplain information, pedestrian bridges, low-water
o Staging, storage, and material stockpile areas crossings, fencing, and retaining walls.
 7.5 ■ STREAM RESTORATION 757

Following the completion of the design, the quantity of into an area that has been stabilized so that pumped flow
items contained within the drawings may be developed. A does not suspend sediment and affect the downstream water
construction cost estimate can be made from the item quan- quality. Due to the cost of rental and operation, the pump
tities and unit costs. Cost information can be obtained from around technique is typically used for stream flow rates of
construction cost data sources such as those contained in several cubic feet per second (cfs) or less. Larger flow rates
R.S. Means Company, Inc. publications. Cost data may also require the use of the diversion technique in which a coffer-
be available from state and local agencies such as transporta- dam is constructed to allow a portion of the stream channel
tion and natural resources departments in either a published to convey the flow while a portion remains dry. With both the
format or as bid tabulations. pump around and diversion the techniques, the cofferdams
are relocated to allow construction to proceed. Working in
7.5.4. Construction a stream environment can yield water levels exceeding safe
conditions within 30 minutes following the onset of a storm
After the stream restoration design documents have been
event. Therefore, the evacuation of personnel and equipment
prepared, construction estimates can be solicited from
from the stream is a safety and economic issue that requires
qualified contractors. The uniqueness of stream restoration an evacuation plan. The weather conditions need to be fre-
construction requires that the contractors be qualified for
quently monitored to ensure personnel safety.
this specialized work. They must have access to, and have
A typical construction sequence would include the
experience in the use of, proper equipment. It will be neces-
following:
sary obtain references from the contractors. The references
should be contacted to determine how the construction pro- 1. Set up cofferdams within the daily work zone
ceeded and whether there were any problems or concerns.
2. Place the pumping system or construct the diversion
A field visit to the location of a completed project is helpful
to assess the workmanship of the contractor. The completed 3. Survey grade control and revetments
project should share similar characteristics to the proposed
4. Start rough grading operations
restoration. Close attention should be paid to the condition
of the revetments and plant material. 5. Stockpile and haul soil
The design engineer should be available for the pre-bid 6. Install revetments
meeting to respond to questions from the contractor. The
contractor should visit the site prior to the pre-bid meeting 7. Set invert elevation and construct thalweg
or, alternatively, the meeting could be held on site. Prior to 8. Final grade
preparation of the bid, the contractor will need to be made
aware of any design, permit requirement, concurrent con- 9. Amend soil as needed
struction activities, utility crossings, or other restrictions that 10. Seed graded area
will affect construction and may affect the cost. For example,
the stream may have a time of year restriction that prohibits 11. Install erosion control matting
work in the water during specific times of the year. Stockpile, 12. Stabilize upland disturbance and stockpile areas
equipment storage area, site access, vegetation preservation,
13. Remove pumps and cofferdams
and sensitive areas also need to be identified when on site.
Construction observation should be provided by the Because the construction sequence must be completed on a
design engineer. Being on site, the design engineer can daily basis, the construction project manager is required to
determine whether the restoration is constructed as intended coordinate and orchestrate multiple activities and crews in a
and can be available to respond to the contractor's questions. confined work space.
The design engineer can schedule time to be on site Following the completion of the grading and installation
depending on the pace and complexity of construction. Each of the temporary and permanent stabilization measures, the
site visit and request for information from the contractor plant material is installed. For survivability of the plant mate-
should be recorded as a field report. rial, it is required to install live stakes when they are dor-
It may be a requirement of the permit that construction mant. So depending on the time of year when the restoration
occurs either "in the dry" or that the water quality be moni- is complete, the contractor may need to return to install the
tored so that it does not exceed an established value. Turbidity live stakes. Other plant material may be installed throughout
is a water quality metric that is typically monitored. Depend- the year but they may require irrigation.
ing on the size of the stream, working in the dry may be easier. Prior to the removal of sediment control measures and res-
The "pump around" technique works best in smaller streams. toration (stabilization) of the site access, stockpile and equip-
In this technique, a sandbag cofferdam is constructed at the ment storage areas, the restoration construction should be
upstream end of the section of stream under construction. reviewed and documented in a punch list. Deficiencies on the
The purpose of the cofferdam is to keep water from entering punch list should be repaired before acceptance of the project.
the work area and to back up the stream flow so that it can be The guarantee (or monitoring) period (if any) should start
pumped around the work area. The flow should be discharged after the project has been accepted.
 TRAN51TION FROM EXl5TING
CHANNEL 5ECTION TO RJFFL.f
5/"CTION .A5 5HOWN ON
5HEITB

I
B'-24" DIA. BOULDERS PLACED AT
TOE OF FILL 5LOPt::---5EE TYPICAL
RIFFLE 5ECTION ON 5HEIT 7

I B'-24" DIA. BOULDERS \LACED AT·

TOE OF fill SLOPE. SEE TYPICAL
RIFFLE SECTION ON SHEET 7

I B"-24" DIA. BOULDERS PLACED AT

TOE OF FILL SLOPE. SEE TYPICAL
RIFFLE SECTION ON SHEET 7

I 8 "-24 " DIA. BOULDERS PLACED AT

TOE OF FILL 5LOPE. 5EE TYPICAL
RIFFLE 5ECTION 5Hl'fi 7 Of

I
B I
PLAN SHEET LEGEND GRADING ABOVE BANKFUIJ., ELEVATION I
\ I

= ROCK WALL*

' ' ..... .. , I

I
( ROCK WEIR *

'
CROSS VANE * NOTES:

1 COIR MATTING IS TO BE PLACED ALONG BANKS IN ACCORDANCE WITH PLANTING ZONE DETAIL ON SHEET 9 I '
* I
~ ROCK VANE 2. SPOT SHOTS WITH AN ASTERISK INDICATE BANKFULL ELEVATIONS.

LIMITS OF DISTURBANCE J. WHEN GRADING ABOVE BANKFULL ELEVATION, THE BANKS MUST BE GRADED TO ACHIEVE THE MINIMUM WIDTH, OR
GREATER, AT THE FLOOOPRONE EL.£\/ATION. THE REQUIRED MINIMUM WIDTHS AND FLOODPRONE ELEVATIONS FOR EACH
LIMITS OF GRADING LINE AND CURVE SEGMENT OF THE PROPOSED ALIGNMENT ARE LISTED IN THE TABLE LABELED 'GRAl)ING ABOVE BANKFULL
FLOOD PRONE LIMITS ELEVATION' ON Tl·HS SHEET.

A BANKFULL LIMITS
1so>iE:0 ~!I~~~~~~L~fTY~~ ~~t~ !~p~Aii5 :s M~N~~~MTR!~i_EA~TiL~s~~~~lviN1° T~~L~1t~CUOMMF;i~g~D~~IJNEG~g~NH~
LOW FLOW CHANNEL ACTUAL FIELD CONDITIONS SHALL DICTATE WHICH TREES CAN BE SAVED AND HOW THE BANKS SHOULD BE GRADED. THE
CENTERLINE MAXIMUM SLOPE BETWEEN THE BANKFULL AND FLOODPRONE ELEVATIONS SHALL NOT BE STEEPER THAN 2:1. ABOVE THE
FLOODPRONE ELEVATION, A MAXIMUM SLOPE OF 2:1 CAN BE USED ALONG BOTH BANKS TO TIE OUT.

• TREE TO BE REMOVED
5. IF THE MINIMUM FLOODPRONE WIDTH CAN BE ACHIEVED WITHOUT GRADING TO THE FLOODPRONE ELEVATION, TIE TO
EXISTING GROUND AT A SLOPE BETWEEN 2::: (MIN) AND 2:1 (MAX).
GRAPHIC SCALE
*NOTE: THESESYMBOLSARENOTTOSCALE. THEY
MERELYREPRESENTTHEQUANTITYANOLOCATIONOFTHE
STRUCTURES THEY REPRESENT. SEE THEIR DETAILS ON 6. CONTOURS BELOW BANKFULL STAGE ARE NOT TO BE USED FOR CONSTRUCTION. WHEN GRADING THE CHANNEL
SI-IEETS 10 & 11 FOR SPECIFICATIONS. BELOW BANKFULL STAGE, REFER TO THE APPROPRIATE CROSS SECTION (SHEETS 7 AND 8) ANO PROFILE (SHEET 6).

FIGURE 7.50 Typical plan/profile for stream restoration. (Courtesy of JCE, Inc., Alexandria, VA 22312.)
&SL
.,, ,. C)
"
a,
C i ii ~ ~ ~ : ii i I@
I
C:
:Ill
ffl I m,~ I
+
C
C !?;,~'" ,m ""°·" t Tl ANSITI N FRO~ EXIS ING Cf ANN EL SECTIC N TO

.... , RI FLE S CTION AS SH WN Of SHEE 8

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■

en I
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§

.
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~ ~ I
~

+
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I ,.
f-+- + - - + - - - + - - - + - - - +H-----;;-+-- -i-+-<H,.__+---+---+---+---+----+---+----+------,f---t-------,
I
i£ ~:
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I
" • I
) j I
/ /
I I
+ M. a5 • P l
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" - - - + - -1
~ \'lc---t---t----j-----j---+-----t------t-----t------,
i
fl'IM' ·

., }
e
I '}
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r, / ~ /-----+"~f--+----+--+--+-----+--+----+--+------,
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RCF.ELEV. - 69.00
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.
+
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l____,!""~~ "--+----+------<f----+---+---+---+---+-----,
~ ;~ 8
~ 1~ -~· -----,f----+---+---+---t--+--+--t--------,

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...-1--- ·•2:
fl'IWl' .ELEV. • 67.90

TRANS TION F~OM RII FLE SECTION O CULIIERT

ENTRA CE AS SHOWI ON S,EET 7

.g
+
1<+92 ..«l· LITCf" REHABTATION
XISTIN G EL •367.61 --------.

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1&0 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH
7.5.5. Maintenance Movement of sediment will occur for stream restoration
Although stream restoration projects are designed and con- projects, especially immediately following construction and
structed to be self-maintaining, they are not maintenance free. during large runoff events. However, the erosion or deposi-
Although the restored stream is most vulnerable immediately tion of the stream bed or bank should not be excessive. Ero-
following construction, maintenance may be required at any sion can be considered excessive if it results in failure of a
time. Without timely maintenance, the restoration project slope or revetment. Excessive deposition may fill in pools,
may not continue to meet the goals and objectives of the proj- cover plant material with sediment or adversely affect the
ect. Therefore, a monitoring plan must be developed to assess hydraulics. The cause of the excessive erosion or deposition
the condition of the restoration project, whether maintenance must be determined before any decision as to how to proceed
is required, and if the project meets the stated project goals can be made. The best course of action may be to monitor
and objectives. If monitoring is a regulatory requirement, the the situation and determine whether the condition is dete-
monitoring frequency, parameters, protocol and duration will riorating, staying the same or if it is improving. If the condi-
be detailed in the permit. A budget should be established for tion is worsening, a plan will need to be developed to address
expenditures associated with routine maintenance. the problem. Typical questions include
Typically stream restoration projects are inspected annu-
• What are the rate and severity of failure?
ally to determine maintenance requirements. The frequency
of inspection can be adjusted depending on the results. The • Is the failure localized or widespread?
frequency can be decreased if few problems are found or the
• What are the consequences of inaction?
problems are minor. Conversely, the frequency may need
to be increased if numerous problems are found or if the • Will the failure affect upstream and downstream
problems are major. In addition to the routine inspections, areas, if so, what are the effects?
it is recommended that the stream be inspected after major
• What are potential solutions?
flooding events. The inspector should look for indications
that the restoration is not functioning as intended such as • Are large or heavy equipment needed to implement
the potential solutions?
• Scour
• Is there site access?
• Undercutting of the banks
• How much time is needed the implement the solution?
• Deposition
• What is the available budget?
• Movement of structural components within any
revetments The responses to these questions will determine the
appropriate course of action. However, budgetary limitations
• Dead or missing plant material may require creative solutions. It is beneficial to apply les-
• Vandalism sons learned from the design process and previous projects
to development of potential solutions.
• Trash dumping
• Mowing within the buffer
REFERENCES
Fischenich, C. 2000. Glossary of Stream Restoration Terms. ERDC
• Blockages within the stream channel TN-EMRRP SR-01. February. Washington, DC: U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers.
• Presence of invasive plants
FISRWG (Federal Interagency Stream Restoration Working Group),
Stream Corridor Restoration: Principles, Processes, and Practices.
Plant material must tolerate hydrologic and temperature
GPO Item No. 0120-A; SuDocs No. A 57.6/2:EN 3/PT.653.
extremes, animal foraging, insects, and disease. Without ISBN-0-934213-59-3. October, 1998.
vegetation, the stability of the stream may be compromised
Rosgen, D., and H.L. Silvey. 1996. Applied River Morphology. Pagosa
as will the other environmental benefits. Replacement of Springs, CO: Wildland Hydrology.
missing or compromised plant material should occur as
Thompson, P.L., and R.T. Kilgore. 2006. Hydraulic Design of
soon as possible. A determination must be made as to why Energy Dissipators for Culverts and Channels, 3rd ed. FHWA-
the plant material failed initially so that the cause of fail- NHI-06-086, HEC-14. July. Washington, DC: Federal Highway
ure is addressed and the replanted material is afforded an Administration.
opportunity to successfully establish. Typical causes of fail- Thomas R. Schueler, Controlling Urban Runoff A Practical Manual
ure of plant material include animal browse, insect damage, for Planning and Designing Urban BMPs. July. Metropolitan
improper plant selection with respect to sunlight preference Washington Council of Governments, 1987.
or hydrophilic zone, drought or flood conditions, improper USACE (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers), Channel Stability Assess-
installation, soil conditions, competition from invasive ment for Flood Control Projects. EM 1110-2-1418. October.
plants, vandalism or mowing. Washington, DC: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1994.
 CHAPTER 7.6
ENGINEERING FEASIBILITY
STUDY

7.6.1. Introduction • Physical condition of the site such as topography,

As described in Chapter 3.1, the engineering feasibility study soils, utilities, drainage, and external influences cre-
evaluates the physical, environmental, regulatory, and/or ated by neighboring properties and uses
other constraints that must be overcome or accommodated
Such items have a significant impact on how the land is
in constructing the intended use. This study is usually pro-
developed and how successful the project will be.
duced by the design team for the developer and their busi-
As described in Chapter 3.2, base maps and site diagrams
ness team. The results of this study often affect the purchase
may compliment and support an engineering feasibility
price of a property, which is frequently based on presumed
study. The base map is a graphic representation of the exist-
development potential.
ing site conditions and development constraints. The site
The engineering feasibility study report requires a com-
diagram highlights these constraints and opportunities iden-
prehensive collection of all information that could affect the
tified on the site. These graphics help to visualize the infor-
site and its development. The research and analysis associ-
mation presented in the engineering feasibility study.
ated with an engineering feasibility study are generally cat-
The following example details the components of a
egorized into three types of information:
typical preliminary engineering feasibility study report. This
• Legal condition of the site such as easements, land example includes base maps and a series of site diagrams for
rights, and other property encumbrances the project. This should help to understand the scope and
process, and information contained within as described in
• Regulatory concerns of the site such as applicable Chapter 3.1.
master plans, zoning, ordinance requirements, pos-
sible citizen opposition, and governmental review
considerations

761
162 i@U4ii i·H@,!IOIMHWH
7.6.2. Example of a Preliminary Engineering Feasibility Study

Preliminary Engineering Feasibility Study

January 1992

TRACT LOCATION

The subject site consists of approximately 30 acres and is located in the Sully District of Fairfax County, Virgini a. The site is
identified on the Fai rfax County Tax Map as 45-2 ((1)) part of parcel 1. The property is bordered by the Lee-Jackson Memorial
Highway (Route 50) to the south, the Murray Farms Subdivision to the east, the Fairfax County Parkway (Rou te 7100) to the
northeast, and undeveloped property to the north and west. The mailing address for the subject site is 12908 Lee-Jackson Memo -
rial Highway, Fairfax, Virginia 22033 .

ZONING/COMPREHENSIVE PLAN

The study area is in the UPS Lee-Jackson Planning Sector of the Upper Potomac Planning District in Area Ill of the Fairfax
County Comprehensive Plan. The property is currently zoned R-1; low density residential use not to exceed one dwelling unit per
acre. The Comprehensive Plan recommends low to medium residential use at two to three dwelling units per acre. The Plan
further states that ". Complete consolidation of Parcels 1, 2, and 3 is a condition for consideration of the high end of the Plan
range, three dwelling units per acre." The portion of the Murray Farms subdivision located immediately east of the subject parcel
and south of the Fairfax County Parkway is planned for a residential use at one to two dwelling units per ac re. The Plan provides
an optional density of four to five dwelling units pe r acre for this area if all the land is consolidated. Please re fer to Attached 1,
Zoning Map.
The Fairfax County Zoning Ordinance pe rmits the establishment of golf driving ranges an d commercial golf courses in the R-1
District with the approval of a Group 6 Special Permit by the Board of Zoning Appeals. Included as Appendix #l is a copy of a
portion of Pan 6 of Article 8 of the Zoning Ordinance which specifies the standards for all Group 6 uses as well as the addit ional
standards applicable to golf courses and golf driving ranges.
The process for a Special Permit application takes approximately 90 days from the date the application is accepted by Fairfax
County. State statute requires action by the Board of Zoning Appeals within 90 days unless the applicant agrees to a deferral
beyond the 90 days period. The timeframe for the actual preparation of the Special Permit Plat will be dependent upon the
receipt of a conceptual design of the facility by your golf course consultant. Once that information is rece ived, the Plat can be
prepared in approximately ten (10) working days.

UTILITY AVAILABILITY
Water: The subject site is located in the Fairfax County Water Authority (FCWA) se rvice area. According to Mr. Don Hume of
FCWA, there are two water mains which could serve the subj ect site: (1) A 14-inch water main located along the south side of
Route 50, and (2) A 12-inch water main located along the north side of Route 50 approximately 450 feet east of the site . Please
refer to Attachment #2, Water Availabili ty Map .
Connecting to the existing 12-inch water main would require boring under the roadway for approximately 200 feet. An eight-inch
water main within a 20-inch casing would be required. The second alternative would require the extension of a 12-inch water
main approximately 1,000 feet from the existing terminus to the subject site. Preliminary calculations include that eithe r option
would cost approximately $50,000 to $55,000.
It appears that no offsite easements would be required with either water service alternative since all connections and extensions
would be within the Vi rgina Department of Transportation (VDOT) right-of-way.
Mr. Hume stated that further analysis by FCWA will be required in order to confirm exact line size requirements and to deter-
mine which alignme nt opt ion may best benefit the developer and FCWA.
Sanitary Sewer: The subject si te is located in Subshed T-2 of the Cub Run Sanitary Se wer service area. According to Mr. Jerry
Jackson of the Fairfax County Department of Public Works (DPW), sanitary sewer service is not readily available to the si te .
Although sanitary sewer service is available for the townhouse and garden apartment development immediately south of Route
50, Mr. Jackson stated that a majority of the subject site is in a different drainage shed and cannot he sewered by gravity flow to
this location. The closest available sewer by gravity fl ow is a 12-inch line approximately 2100 feet northwest of the property .
Please refer to Attachment #3 , Sanitary Sewer Availability Map.
This existing sanitary sewer, which is within the International Town and Country Club property, was designed to accommodate
flows from the subject site at a proposed density of two dwelling units per acre (current Comprehensive Plan density). Mr. Jack-
 7.6 ■ ENGINEERING FEASIBILITY STUDY 763

son stated that approximately 12 units of the subject site, which natural drains sou th across Route 50, could be developed so that
sewer would be diverted to the northwest. Given the topography of the site, the diverted sewer system should be able to cross the
natural drainage divide at a depth less than the allowable maximum of 16 feet. Mr. Jackson stated that this would be the align-
ment preferred by DPW. A 10-foot-wide offsit e sanitary sewer easement would be required from the owners of the adjacent Parcel
3 and the International Town and Country Club in order to construct the required eight-inch sanitary sewer line.
The Fairfax County Health Department was contacted fo r informaLion regarding the se ptic system used for the residence on the
subJecL property. The Health Depa rtment has not approved sepLic field plans or records for the property. Conversations with the
owners have determined that the septic field is located in the southwest portion of the property behind the gargage. The system
was constructed approximately 25 to 30 years ago.
A prelimina ry soils sLUdy, including test borings and other field observations, was conducted by Soil Tech, Inc. Preliminary find-
ings indicaLe that Lhere are two areas suitable for conventional septic drain fields: (1) The southwest portion of the property
immediately behind the onsite structures, and (2) the southeast portion of the property near Route 50. These areas appear to be
capable of processing from 600 to 1800 gallons of waste water per day. This would equate to a commercial/office establishment
with 20 to 60 employees. Additional areas may be suitable for more progressive systems such as elevated sand mounds. It should
be noted that additional studies and Fairfax Co unty Health Department app rova l will be required before the drain field locations
and types can be linalized .

TRANSPORTATION/ACCESS REQUIREMENTS

The more logical location fo r access along Rou te 50 appears to be opposi te the median break nea r the southeast com er of the
subject site. Based upon Fairfax County topography, this location does not appear to present any horizontal or ve rtical sight
distance problems; howeve r, this locati on would still need to be approved by the Fairfax County Office of Transportation (OT)
and the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT).
Route 50 is designated on the Comprehensive Plan as a six-lane divided facilit y. According to a spokesperso n from OT, the fol-
lowing transportation improvements wou ld be requested/required for the development of th is property:
Construction of a third through lane fo r westbound Route 50 or a monetary comribution fo r construc tion avoid-
ance
Construction of a lefl-LUrn lane imo the site eastbound Route 50
Construction of a right-tum lane into the site from westbound Roule 50
Construction of a service drive along the property's fro ntage un less a waive r can be obtained during the zoning
process
Additional development conditions may be imposed as the special permit application is reviewed by the appropriate State and
County agencies.
It should be noted that Route 50 is cu rremly being improved from Townwood Drive west to Plaza Lane. This construction is
being fund ed by a develope r in conjunction with the expansio n of Greenbriar Shopping Ce nter. Acco rding to a spo kespe rson
from VDOT, this project in volves the construction of dual left turn lanes for westbound Route 50 into Ma jesti c Lane, Plaza Lane
and the shopping ce nter entrance. Service drive improve mcms are also being constructed .

SITE CHARACTERISTICS/TOPOGRAPHY
The subj ect site contai ns fi ve structures, all of which are located in the southwestern portion of the property These stru ctures
include:
A one-story wood -framed residence with base mem and att ic
A wood-framed two-ca r ga rage
Th ree wood- frame d out buildings, evidently use d for the storage of farm equipment and tools
The entire property remains relati ve ly clea r of mature vege tation ; although cedar trees of three to six fee t in height are beginning
to overtake a large portion of the propert y. Overhead electri c and telephone lines, which serve the onsite residence , extend alon g
1&4 i@U4ii i·H@,!IOIMHWH

the site's Route 50 frontage for ap proximately 400 fee t. A concrete dra inage ditch also extends along the site's Route 50 lrontagc
for approximately 800 feet. This di tch drains into a 48-i nch cu lven which extends under Rou te 50 towards the Grays Point
subdiv ision.

O n site elevations vary from a high point of approximately 388.2 at the property's southwest corner to a low point of approxi-
mately 370.0 at the property's northwest corner where a swale exits the property. Onsite slopes are generally mild and primarily
range from 1 % to 10%. A small area of s lo pes in excess of 15% is located a long the northern property line. Please refer to Attach-
ment #4, Topograph y Map

The propert y contains three pronounced swales which convey stormwater runoff through the sub_1ect si te. These swales are not
identified on the U.S. Geological Survey Quadrangle Map (Herndon) as either perennial or intermittent streams ; th erefore , mini -
mal water now is probably onl y appa rent during sto rm eve nts Howeve r, during the fi eld investigation rn nducted January 7,
1992 , standing water was apparent in all three swales. For a mo re deta iled discussion o f stormwater run o ff and onsi te d rainage
patterns, please refer to the section entitled "Sto rmwater Management Requ ire ments."

The Fairfax County Soi ls Survey was reviewed for prelim inary geotechnical in formation. The soils su rvey indicates that the subj ect
site is comprised o f the fo llowing soil types:

Soil Numbe r So il Name Percentage of Si te

Mixed Alluv ial 1%:=

14 Manassas 79[) ±
67 Pen n FSL 41 %=
72 Bucks (L) < 15=
76 Calve rt on (L) 16%:!:
80 Croton 30%=
273 Readington 4% :!:

Please refer to Attach ment #5 , Soils Map

General ratings for d evelopment within these soil types can be summarized as follows:

Subsurface Foundation Slope Problem

Soil Name Drainage Suppo rt Stability Class

Mixed All uvial Poor Poor Good A

Manassas Marginal Fai r Good B
Penn Fair Good Good C
Bucks Good Good Good C
Calverton Marginal Poor Good A
Croton Poor Poor Good A
Readington Margin al Good Good B

A geotechnical engineering report is mandatory for all constructi on and grading within Group A Soils, i.e. the Mixed Alluvial ,
Ca lverton and Croton soils. Some of the ch aracteristics which are typical of soils within this probl em class include

Flood ing hazards fo ll owing storm events

Low bearing values for foundation supports
High seasonal groundwater tables in drainage ways or low-lying areas
Moderate to high shrink-swell potential often having slow 10 very slow permeabi lity rates
Sha llow de pth to bedrock

These soils co mprise approx imate ly 47 % of the si te.

A geotechnical engineee ring re port may n ot be required fo r the Group B So ils if adequate provisions to circu mvent soil- related
 7.6 ■ ENGINEERING FEASIBILITY STUDY 765

proble ms are incorporated into the site plan , or if the location of these so ils wi ll not impact the proposed development . Onsite
so il s wi thin this problem class a re the Manassas and Readington soils. Some of the characteristics which are typical of these soils
include
Low bearing values for foundation su pports
High seasonal grou nd water tab les in drainage ways o r low -lying areas
Perched groundwater above restricti ve soil or rock laye rs
Shallow depth to bedrock
These so il s comprise approximately 11 % of the su bj ect site.
A geotechnical engineering report is usually not required for the Group C Soils as long as construction is in natural soils and not
in co ntrolled fills. Onsi te soils within this problem class are the Penn and Bucks soils. So me of the characteristics which are
typ ical of these soils include
Shallow depth to bedrock
Slow pe rmeability rates
These soils comprise approximately 42% of the subject site.
In conclusion, based upon the info rmation rev iewed. a geotechnical investigation and repo rt will be required for the deve lopment
of the subject site.

WETLANDS/OFFICE INVESTIGATION
An office investiganon was conducted to determine the poss ible ex is1ence of wetlands on the sub1ect site. The US Fish & Wild-
life Service National Wetland Inventory (NWI) mapping for th is area (Herndon . Virginia-USGS Quad Sheet) was reviewed and il
shows an area of Palustrine Forested Wetlands along Oxlick ranch no rth west of the property. Please refer to Allachment #6, NW!
Map. Additional areas of Palustrine Forested Wetlands and Palustrine O pen Water Wetlands are shown on adjacent properties to
th e north and west of the subject site.
While the NW! Mapping is generally a reliable source for identi fying the most obvious a reas of wetlands, it is imp ortant to note
that the mapping is compiled from aerial photograph y and omissions of existing wetlands typically occur. For this reason, it is
essential that other sources of in fo rmation be utilized to determine the possible ex isten ce of additional wetlands.
As an additional source of information, the Fairfax County Soils Survey was reviewed LO determine if any of the onsite soils
exhibit characteristics commonly associated with nomidal wetlands. The prese nce of these soi ls, commonly referred to as Hydic
Soils. indicates a high probability of wetlands occu rring within a particular area. In thi s regard, the Fairfax County Soils Scie ntist
has assigned a Wetlands Probabilit y Index to every so il type that occurs within the Count y. Hydri c Soi ls. with the highest proba-
bility of supporting we tlands, we re assigned an index of one ( 1). As the index increases to a maximum value ol fi ve (5), the
likelihood of wetlands occurring decreases. The Wetland Probability Index associated with each of the onsite soils can be summa-
rized as follows:

Soil Wetlands Percentage

Number Soil Name Probabilit}'. Index H:r:dric of Site

Mixed Alluvial Yes 1%::':

14 Manassas 4 No 7%::':
67 Penn 5 No 41%::':
72 Buc ks (L) 5 No < 1%::':
76 Calverton (L) 4 No 16%::':
80 Croton 1 Yes 30%::':
273 Readington 4 No 4% ::':

Please refer to Allachmem #7 , Hydric Soils Map.

Based upon a countywide average , a Wetlands Probability Index of one (l ) suggests that from 80% to 100% of the area contain-
ing Mixed Alluvial and Croton soils may contain we tlands. An index of four (4) suggests that from 5% to 20% of the area con-
166 i@U4ii i·H@,!IOIMHWH
taining Manassas, Calverton and Readington soils may contain wellands. An index of five (5) suggests that from 0% to 5% of the
area comain ing the Penn and Bucks soils may contain wetlands. Based upon these probabilities, the total acreage of the subject
site which may comain wetlands can be summarized as follows:

Wetlands Possible Acreage

Soil Name Acreage Probability of Wetlands

Mixed Alluvial and Croton 9 .3:t 80 - 100% 7.4-9.3

Manassas , Ca lverton, and Readington 8. 1:t 5-20% 0 .4-1.6
Penn and Bucks 12.6:t 0-5% 0 .0-0.6

TOTALS 30.0 :t 7.8-11.5

In conclusion, based upon the information reviewed, the presence ol wetlands may have a significant effect on the development of
the subject site . For this reason , a field investigat ion is recommended to better defme the acreage which may fall under the juris-
dicti on of Section 404 of the Clean Water Act.

WETIANDS/FIELD INV£STIGATION
On January 10 , 1992, a preliminary wetlands assessment was conducted on the subject site. Wetlands were identified following
the procedures set fort h in the Corps of Engineers Wetlands Delineation Manual (1987). The field investigation involved the collec-
tion of data documenting hydrologic conditions, soil characteristics and dominant vegetation in order to establish an approximate
we tlands boundary.
So il saturation and inundation was observed in three areas. Soil color indicative of hydric soi l conditions was also present. Domi-
nant vegetation common to all wetlands on the site include soft rush, woolgrass, redtop bentgrass, marsh fern and several sedges.
Button bush, red maple and sweet gum we re the dominant shrubs in the southern and northwestern wetlands areas. The total
amount of jurisdictional areas delineated on the site was approximately 3.7 acres. Please refer to Attachment #6, National Wet-
lands Inventory Map.

flOODPlAIN
The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) and United States Geological Survey (USGS) maps were reviewed for the
possible existence of lloodplains in the vicinity of the subject site. Both sources indicate that the closest 0oodplain is located
offsite approximately 3,000 fee t northwest of the subj ect site along Oxlick Branch. Please refer to Attachment #8, FEMA Map.
Oxlick Bra nch passes within approxi mately 80 feet of the northeast corner of the property. This is just downstream of the triple
box cu lvert which carries the stream under the Fairfax Cou nty Parkway.
The drainage area contributing to Oxlick Branch at this point is greater than 70 acres and by Fairfax County definition will
require the delineation of a lloodplain . A review of Fairfax Count y Parkway storm computations and available topography ind icate
that the estimated 100-year llood elevation (approximatel y 4 feet above the stream bed) will not encroach on the subject site.

STORMWATER MANAGEMENT REQUIREMENTS

A ridge line bisects the site into two major drainage di vides. The northern portion (:t 18 ac res) drains into Oxli ck Branch, which
is a tributary of Flatlick Branch. The southern portion(::': 12 acres) drains such across Route 50, eventually entering Little Rocky
Run. The runoff draining from the northern portion of the site exits at two low points; approximately 12 acres exit at the north-
west comer of the site. There are approximately 14 acres, of which approximately eight areas are from offsite, exiting at the
northeast com er.
The subject site is located in the Cub Run drainage shed . This shed llows into the Occoquan Reservoir which is the water supply
source for a large portion of Fairfax County. Subsequently, development of this property is subject to the implementation of
specially designed water quality control measures for stormwater runoff, referred to as Best Management Practices (BMPs). De-
pending on the proposed development program of the subject site, stormwater management and BMPs could be accommodated
 7.6 ■ ENGINEERING FEASIBILITY STUDY 767

in the form of two or three detention ponds. One of these ponds could be located at the southern low point of the site near the
culvert crossing Route 50. The other pond(s) could be located at one or both of the low points along the northern boundary of
the site. Please refer to Attachment #9, Drainage Map
Preliminary calculations indicate that approximately 85 ,000 cubic feet of total storage volume may be necessary to satisfy deten-
tion and BMP requirements for the full development of the site. Fairfax County's "Policy and Requirements for Adequate Drain-
age" require that a developing site convey stormwater runoff into a natural watercourse or storm drainage pipe of sufficient capac-
ity without causing adverse impacts on the watercourse or downstream properties. A preliminary field investigation indicated that
the two outfalls to the north may be inadequate to accom modate concentrated stormwater runoff. The drainageway outfalling
northwest of the site is of particular concern. As a result, offsite watercourse improvements and/or storm sewer facilities and
associated offsite storm drainage easements may be necessary to remedy any inadequacies. A more detailed analysis of this situa-
tion will be required as development of the subj ect site progresses.

CHESAPEAKE BAY PRESERVATION ORDINANCE IMPACTS

A preliminary investigation was conducted to determine the potential impac t of the Chesapeake Bay Preservation Ordinance on
the development of the subject site. In this regard , the following Resource Protection Area (RPA) features were investigated:
Tidal Wetlands and Tidal Shores-Since this area of the County is not subject to the influence of tides, these features
are not applicable.
Tributary Streams-As mentioned previously, none of the onsite swales are depicted as tributary or perennial
streams on the USGS Quad Sheet; therefore, this feature is not applicable.
Water Courses With Drainage Areas Greater Than 70 Acres-As mentioned previously, Oxlick ~ranch, located north-
east of the subject site, drains an area greater than 70 acres; therefore, this stream is by defini tion ii RPA feature.
Nontidal Wetlands Connected By Surface Flow and Contingous to a Tidal Wetlands or Tributary Stream-As previ-
ously mentioned, there are no tidal wetlands or tributary streams within the immediate vicinity of this property;
therefore, the nontidal wetlands as discussed in the section entitled "Wetlands/Field Investigation" are not consid-
ered RPA features because they are not contiguous to tidal wetlands or tributary streams.
Based upon this phase of the investigation , Oxlick Branch is the only RPA feature in the vicinity of the subj ect site.
The provisions of the ordinance require the establishment of a buffer area to protect other components of the RPA from signifi-
cant degradation due to land disturbing activities. In this regard, the following components, which comprise a buffer area, were
investigated:
Any land within a fl oodplain-As mentioned previously, the estimated floodplain for Oxlick Branch does not impact
the subject site; therefore, this component is not applicable.
Any nontidal wetland that is continuously connected to a watercourse-None of the onsite wetlands are continuously
connected to Oxlick Branch; therefore , this component is not applicable.
Any land within 100 feet of a RPA feature-As mentioned previously, Oxlick Branch passes within 100 feet of the
subject site, therefore, this 100 feet buffer encroaches upon the subj ect site.
Any land with a slope greater than or equal to fifteen (15) percent where such slope begins within fifty (SO) feet of a
floodplain- As mentioned previously, a small area of slopes in excess of 15 percent are found on the subject site,
however, these slopes are not within 50 feet of the Oxlick Branch flood plain; therefore, this component is not applicable.
Oxlick Branch , as a RPA feature, is combined with the 100-foot setback, which acts as a buffer area, to form the Resource Protection
Area (RPA) as shown on Attachment #10, RPA Map. The remainder of the site is designated a Resource Management Area (RMA).
It should be noted that this investigation is based upon the Chesapeake Bay Preservation Ordinance as endorsed by the Fairfax
County Board of Supervisors (BOS) on May 20, 199 1. As a condi tion of approval, this ordinance is currently being reviewed by the
Chesapeake Bay Local Assistance Board (CBLAB). A date for official adoption of the Ordinance by the BOS has not yet been
established.
1sa fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH

In the event that the Chesapeake Bay Preservation Ordinance has not been officially adopted at the time the subject site moves
forward into the zoning process. the County will impose their Environmental Quality Corridor (EQC) policy as a condition of
development. Since the components of an EQC are essentially the same as those for a RPA. the impacted area would remain
unchanged.

QUALIFIER
This report is a preliminary engineering analysis of the subject site's development potential. Issues addressed were limited to
Tract location
Zoning/comprehensive plan
Utility availability (water and sanitary sewer)
Transportation/access requirements
Site characteristics/topography
Soils
Wetlands (office and field investigations)
Floodplain
Stormwater management requirements
Chesapeake Bay Preservation Ordinance Impacts
This report is a preliminary engineering analysis of the subject site's development potential. Issues addressed were limited to
relate to subjects beyond the scope of this study.
Much of the information presented herein was obtained from public offic ials whose opinions are generally reliable and sufficient
for preliminary planning purposes.
V

0 . ..,..
!J~ - 1'-(J;U

.. • ~TREICH / ROUTE SO
ZONING MAP

ATTACHMENT 1 SCALE: 1" •

 "
1"4fl11NATIONAL TOWN e, COUHTltY Cll.!I

WESTREICH / ROUTE 50
WATER AVAILABILITY MAP

ATTACHMENT 2 SCALE: 1" •

 EX. 12" SAN. SEW.

EX. 8" SAN. SEW.

"
H'1'£11N.1.Tl()frjAl. 'lOn & COUNTRY CLI.Je

SITE

WESUIBICH / ROUTE 50
SANITARY SEWER AVAILABILITY MAP

ATTACHMENT 3 SCALE: 1• x 400'

........
-
........
N

TOPOGRAPHY MAP

ATTACHMENT 4 SCALE: 1" •

 MANASSAS SILT LOAM
PENN FINE SANDY LOAM, UNDULATING PHASE
PENN FINE SANDY LOAM, ROLLING PHASE
BUCKS LOAM, UNDULATING PHASE
A+ CAL YERTON LOAM, NEARLY LEVEL PHASE
80 A+ CROTON SILT LOAM, NEARLY LEVEL PHASE SOILS MAP
80 B+ CROTON SILT LOAM, UNDULATING PHASE
273 Bl READINGTON SILT LOAM, UNDULATING PHASE
1 A+ MIXED ALLUVIAL LAND ATTACHMENT 5 SCALE: 1" •

........
w
114 kiiiUhiFI i·hiiiM/OidtWl@iJ

NATIONAL WETLANDS INVENTORY MAP

SCALE: 1" • 2,000'

 w @
0
7582

14 MANASSAS SILT LOAM

67 PENN FINE SANDY LOAM, UNDULATING PHASE
67 PENN FINE SANDY LOAM, ROLLING PHASE
72 BUCKS LOAM, UNDULATING PHASE
7& A+ CALVERTON LOAM, NEARLY LEVEL PHASE
80 A+ CROTON SILT LOAM, NEARLY LEVEL PHASE HYDRIC SOILS MAP
80 B+ CROTON SILT LOAM, UNDULATING PHASE
273 Bl READINGTON SILT LOAM, UNDULATING PHASE
1 A+ MIXED ALLUVIAL LANO SCALE: 1" •
11& fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH

FEMA MAP

ATTACHMENT 8 SCALE: 1" • 2,000'

DRAINAGE MAP

SCALI
........
co
 CHAPTER 7.7

DETAILED CASE STUDIES

The following two projects were completed by Dewberry and diverse to lend themselves to a textbook qualitative
(formerly Dewberry & Davis LLC) and exemplify the land or quantitative analysis. Economics, creative engineering
development design process that was described within this design solutions, compromise, communication skills, genu-
book. These detailed case studies follow each project from ine citizen concern, and raw politics are all elements of a suc-
initial conceptualization to ultimate completion. These show cessful planning/rezoning effort.
challenges encountered and describe how they were over- The two detailed case studies are of the Union Mills Proj-
come to ensure success. While some regulations and prac- ect and Merrifield Town Center. This chapter is separated
tices have changed since the completion of these projects, the into two parts: (A) Union Mills Project and (B) Merrifield
design and permit process is still relevant. Town Center.
The previous chapters have addressed the design and
approval process for residential and nonresidential projects. PART A-UNION MILLS PROJECT
The fact that there are a series of stages and many participants
The Union Mills project is located in Fairfax County,
involved in the planning process was also discussed. The
Virginia, and is located approximately 25 miles outside
federal, state and local controls, increased citizen participa-
of Washington, D.C. Having a population of 827,100 in
tion, and political awareness have transformed a once simple
1991 (1.2 million in 2018), Fairfax County has become the
process into an extremely complex one. In fact, there are so
largest jurisdiction in the Washington Metropolitan Region
many influences and participants that shape the outcome of
(Figure 7.7A). 1 It has been transformed from a suburban
a project, it is likely that the completed project may have little
bedroom satellite to a complex commercial, residential,
resemblance to the one originally envisioned by the developer.
office, and research community. Fairfax County experi-
This chapter reviews the design process two completed
enced a rapid rate of growth during the past three decades.
projects located in Fairfax County, Virginia. The projects
Much of the growth during the past decade has occurred
are described from the conceptual planning stage through
in the western portion of Fairfax County, where the Union
the local regulatory process and citizen input to the final
Mills project is located. This area's potential for develop-
approved plans. These case studies demonstrate how the
ment was enhanced by its proximity to the Washington-
efforts of a development team, in concert with the local
Dulles International Airport and ease of access to several
public officials, County planning staff and the surround-
major roadways. These features have attracted numerous
ing community resulted in successful projects. Addition-
employment centers and new residential developments to
ally, the review of the planning process specific to a project
this portion of the County.
will illustrate how many of the objectives and goals of all the
participants can conflict and how through negotiation and 7. 7.1. Due Diligence and Site Analysis
compromise they can be resolved. It must be stressed that
The western portion of the County was an ideal location
this chapter is not a "how to" account of conflict resolution,
for the development of the Union Mills site. As shown
but rather a discussion of how issues were identified by a
in Figure 7.7B, the property is located between two areas
myriad of interest groups and ultimately resolved. The vari-
ables in both the process itself and issues raised by interest
groups during the development process are too numerous 1Fairfax County, Office of Research and Statistics.

779
1ao i@U411 F·H@,j/OidHHMH
mixed use community consisting of a total of 368 residen-
tial units with a mixture of single-family detached homes
and townhouses at a density of 3.99 dwelling units per acre,
supporting recreational amenities, and a child care center.
In addition, a neighborhood shopping center including a
service station, fast food restaurant, and drive-in bank was
developed to serve the residents of the community and the
surrounding area.
Comprehensive Planning and Zoning in Fairfax County. As
discussed earlier, one of the first steps for the land develop-
ment team is to evaluate the County's Comprehensive Plan.
This step is crucial in Fairfax County since the Comprehen-
sive Plan is used as the basis for land use decisions. Although
a Comprehensive Plan is only a guide and not a legal docu-
ment per se, practically speaking, development in Fairfax
County must be in accordance with the Comprehensive
Plan. It is extremely rare for a development proposal to be
approved by the Planning Commission or Board of Supervi-
sors that is not in strict conformance with the Comprehen-
sive Plan.

SOURC~; FAIRFAX COUNTY OFFICE Of COMPREHENSIVf Pl.ANNING

$ The importance and emphasis on the reliance of the
County's Comprehensive Plan resulted from the Planning
FIG uRE 7. 7 A Washington metropolitan area. and Land Use System (PLUS) Program in the early 1970s.
This Plan evolved from the commitment of the Board of
Supervisors to achieve improved planning and growth con-
trol. The PLUS Program included widespread and effective
identified in the County's Comprehensive Plan as suburban citizen participation through the creation of task forces, sur-
centers. These areas are targeted for a complementary mix- veys, and countless public meetings. The County residents
ture of office, retail, and residential uses in a cohesive low played a major role in the preparation of the Comprehen-
to moderate intensity level. The Centreville Area, which is sive Plan and continue their influence on the land develop-
located to the west of the Union Mills project, consists of ment process today. The PLUS Program was implemented
commercial mixed use and high-density residential uses through the updating of the Countywide Plan and 14 Plan-
in the core area with a transition to lower residential den- ning District Plans in the Comprehensive Plan in 1975. The
sities on the outer edges. Located east of the Union Mills original 14 Planning District Plans were grouped in four log-
site is the Fairfax Center Area, "The Fairfax Center Area ical areas of the County, Areas I, II, III, and IV as shown in
is characterized by a mixture of uses including a substan- Figure 7.7D. Each Planning District is further broken down
tial amount of office space, housing of various types, public into Community Planning Sectors. Land use recommenda-
facilities and regionalcommunityneighborhood serving tions are presented for each Planning Sector. In addition to
retail uses" (Fairfax County, 1992). These development the parcelspecific land use recommendations, the County's
nodes are served by Interstate 66, which provides access to Comprehensive Plan includes jurisdictionalwide policies
Washington, D.C., and Lee Highway (Route 29), a principal relating to land use, transportation, environment, public
arterial roadway. All of these factors supported the devel- facilities, and housing.
opment of residential and commercial uses on the site. One significant element of the County's Comprehensive
The property which became the Union Mills project orig- Plan, which impacts land development, is the designation
inally consisted of two parcels containing a total of approxi- of an Environmental Quality Corridor (EQC) system. The
mately 108 acres and identified on the Fairfax County zoning EQC system contains environmentally sensitive areas that
maps as 553 ((1)) 43 and 46. A copy of the Zoning Map is consist of streams, their associated floodplains, poor soils,
shown as Figure 7.7C. The property is bordered by a fourlane wetlands, and steep slopes, which are to be protected as part
divided primary highway known as Lee Highway (Route 29), of an open space system. Since the preservation of EQCs
to the north and a two-lane minor arterial road identified as is only a recommendation of the County's Comprehensive
Braddock Road to the south. The surrounding area gener- Plan, dedication of these areas by a private land owner is only
ally consisted of older single-family detached development obtained through the rezoning, special exception, or special
on large parcels with a few spot commercial uses along Lee permit process.
Highway. As is typical of other jurisdictions, the County's Com-
After several years in the planning/zoning process, the prehensive Plan contains a map known as the Land Use
project was developed by Hazel/Peterson Companies as a Plan. This is a graphic representation of the land uses as
 FIG uRE 7. 7 B Concept map for future development.

....
-
OQ
102 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH

FIGURE 7, 7C Zoning Map.

 7.7 ■ DETAILED CASE STUDIES 783

FIG uRE 7. 7 D Planning areas and districts.

recommended in the Comprehensive Plan for the entire facility should be residential use in the 2 to 3 dwelling units
County. Residential development is categorized in the Plan per acre range as a transition away from higher-density uses
and Land Use Map with density ranges, that is, 1 to 2 du/acre, in the Centreville mixed land use areas. 2
2 to 3 du/acre, etc. Areas proposed for commercial uses, open Other applicable recommendations in the Comprehen-
space and recreation, and public facilities are also identified sive Plan which would have an effect on the development of
on the Land Use Plan. the subject property included the preservation of the Little
The review of the Comprehensive Plan by Dewberry & Rocky Run Stream Valley and its tributaries and the widen-
Davis LLC as related to the Union Mills project brought to ing of Lee Highway (Route 29) to six lanes.
the client's attention several considerations for the develop- The implementation element of the Comprehensive
ment of the subject property. The property was located in Plan contains Development Criteria for Residential Den-
Area III of the Bull Run Planning District and the Centreville sity Ranges, which was applicable to the development of
Community Planning Sector as shown in Figure 7.7E. the Union Mills project. Development Criteria are crite-
The Land Use Recommendation applicable to the prop- ria by which all proposed rezoning applications are evalu-
erty at that time was as follows: ated in terms of impacts on public facilities, transportation,
Land generally located: (1) between Interstate 66, Old Mill
Road, Newgate Forest and Route 28, and (2) between Little 2 Fairiax County. The Fairfax CountY, Virginia Plan, 1975 as amended through

Rocky Run, Clifton Road, and the Twin Lakes Golf Course July 1977.
104 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH

FIG uRE 7. 7 E Bull Run Planning DistricVCentreville Community Planning Sector.

 7.7 ■ DETAILED CASE STUDIES 785

environment, etc. To obtain a favorable credit for the criteria prior to the Planning Commission public hearing. It is diffi-
the applicable impacts must be mitigated. cult to receive a favorable recommendation from the Planning
Another important aspect of the comprehensive planning Commission or Board of Supervisors without the approval of
and zoning process is to be aware of how local governments these citizen groups. These groups typically meet at least once
operate in accordance with their jurisdiction size, structure a month to discuss land use matters and to listen to presenta-
of government, legislative authority granted by the State and tions from individual applicants for rezoning, special excep-
the amount of participation by the residents of the commu- tion, or Plan Amendment proposals. It is not uncommon
nity. In order to understand the land development process as to have to meet with these groups several times prior to the
it relates to Union Mills, it is important to become familiar Planning Commission public hearing in order to adequately
with the basic structure of the government of Fairfax County address their concerns.
and the participants in the process. In addition to the political decision makers, there are usu-
The governing body in Fairfax County is the urban ally homeowners in proximity to the proposed development
County Board of Supervisors. The citizens elect one Super- who have concerns or self-serving interest regarding the
visor from each of the nine Supervisor Districts and an At proposal. Sometimes, these citizens are not part of a home-
Large Chairman. The entire board is elected every 4 years. owners association and lack representation within one of the
The Board of Supervisors plays a major role in the land larger community citizen organizations. The members of the
development process. They formulate and adopt Ordinances Planning Commission and Board of Supervisors rely heavily
and policies relating to the development process as well as on input from the adjacent homeowners and their concerns
review and approve rezoning/special exception applications must also be addressed along with those of the larger citizen
and amendments to the Comprehensive Plan. Although organizations.
the Board of Supervisors delegates the preponderance of Site Analysis of Union Mills. As stated previously, the
the coordination and negotiations of issues relating to land Comprehensive Plan recommended the site for residential
use to the Planning Commission, the Board of Supervisors use at two to three dwelling units per acre. The base level
makes the final decision on the majority ofland use matters. or low end of the density range is two dwelling units per
The Planning Commission is a 12-member body appointed acre. In order to gain a rezoning to allow development at
by the Board of Supervisors. Each Board of Supervisor mem- this base level, the project must satisfy all applicable County
ber appoints a Planning Commission member to represent ordinances and policies. To achieve a density above the low
their district for a 4-year term and the entire Board approves end of the density range a detailed evaluation of the Devel-
three at-large members. Generally, the Planning Commis- opment Criteria set forth in the Comprehensive Plan is
sion holds public hearings twice a week. Historically, each used to determine an appropriate intensity of development.
Board member relies heavily on the Planning Commission These development criteria include development issues such
recommendation on land use matters. Although there have as proffering to a development plan meriting good design,
been rezoning cases in which the Board of Supervisors has commitment to phasing of the development where appro-
overruled a Planning Commission recommendation, it is priate, provision of transportation, affordable housing, open
atypical of the process. space, etc. above the minimum ordinance requirements.
As a result of the increased sophistication of the citizens The fulfillment of the development criteria is accom-
and their influence in the land development process in Fair- plished through the proffer system. The proffer system was
fax County, organizations made up of representatives of vari- introduced to the land development process in July 1975 as
ous homeowners associations have been formed within the a result of State legislation, which enabled Fairfax County to
individual Supervisor Districts to advise the Planning Com - accept commitments from developers during the rezoning
mission and Board of Supervisors on land use matters. For process to make a development proposal more acceptable.
example, the Western Fairfax County Citizens Association Proffers are, by State statute, voluntary commitments made
(WFCCA) is a bipartisan volunteer group established in 1980. by a landowner/developer and can range from cash contribu-
This group advised the Planning Commission and Board tion for transportation improvements to dedication of land
of Supervisors during the planning process of Union Mills. for schools or fire stations, to a commitment to provide a
Referred to in a local newspaper as the "Watchdogs of the specific number of Affordable Dwelling Units (ADUs). Since
Community;' the WFCCA is comprised of eleven members the introduction of the proffer system in Fairfax County, the
consisting of six voting members and five alternate members applicant proffers all development plans that accompany
(Barne Donna, 1987a). These 11 members are elected annu- rezoning applications. The proffering of the plan gives those
ally by the President or other appointed representative of each interest groups, including concerned citizens, a comfort level
of the 32 homeowner associations in the western portion of that the commitments made by the applicant will become
Fairfax County included in WFCCA. These types of citizen reality. The proffers become part of the rezoning and must
organizations have become so influential in the land devel- be honored by whomever eventually develops the property.
opment process, that many Supervisors and Planning Com- A change in a proffered plan requires a new zoning applica-
mission members strongly suggest that the applicants present tion and the same process as with the original zoning of the
their proposals to these groups for their recommendation property.
10& fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH
Another important early step in the land development was very familiar with the development process and expec-
process is to research the zoning history of the property. tations in Fairfax County due to their experience on other
As mentioned previously, the subject property consisted of large-scale projects in the area. Their knowledge and exper-
two large parcels containing approximately 108 acres. Dur- tise afforded them the ability to purchase land with confi-
ing the background investigation of this site it was learned dence that they have made a sound investment and assembled
that a rezoning application was submitted in 1974 for the the two parcels in 1981 with the intent to develop residential
entirety of the subject property, as well as, additional prop- uses as recommended in the Comprehensive Plan.
erties by a previous owner. The application was to permit a As described previously, Dewberry & Davis performed
mixture of townhouses and multifamily dwelling units. This a "quick and dirty" site analysis. This analysis entailed a
application was withdrawn due to problems in assembling review of the essential factors related to development of the
the land. In 1978, the applicant for the parcel located adja- property and identified potential constraints. Topography
cent to Lee Highway (Route 29) which consisted of approx- with a contour interval of 2 feet was compiled for the site
imately 39 acres, sought to rezone the property to the R-5 based on an aerial photographic survey and the lO0year
District3 at a density of 4.7 dwelling units per acre. However, floodplain was identified to be located on the western por-
the Board of Supervisors denied the request to the R-5 Dis- tion of the property. The presence of a floodplain neces-
trict and rezoned the property to the R4 District4 instead. sitated further evaluation to determine the limits of the
The approved rezoning was for 156 single-family detached EQC, as defined in the Comprehensive Plan. That analy-
residential units at a density of 4.0 dwelling units per acre. sis indicated that approximately 14 acres (of the 108-acre
Although at that time, the Comprehensive Plan recom- site) was included in the EQC. During the rezoning process,
mended the property for residential use at four to five dwell- the County requested and the applicant agreed to preserve
ing units per acre the Board of Supervisors did not believe this area and dedicate it to the Park Authority. However, it
that the application warranted a density of 4.7 dwelling unit should be noted that Fairfax County allows the density for
per acre. The approved proffers contained a commitment the property to be calculated based on the entire land area,
to develop in general concept with the Generalized Devel- including the EQC, in order to provide the incentive for pri-
opment Plan (GDP) shown in Figure 7.7F but with a lesser vate land owners to dedicate these areas viewed to be envi-
number of units as approved by the Board of Supervisors. ronmentally sensitive.
In addition, the proffers included a commitment to dedicate Given the existence of a stream on the property, a wet-
rightofway along Lee Highway, construction of turn lanes land analysis would have typically been performed. How-
into the site, and dedication of 9. 7 acres of open space to the ever, at the time this project was being developed, the
future homeowners association with development of passive Federal, State and Local controls relating to wetland pro-
recreation facilities. tection, investigation, and mitigation were not developed
Since the background investigation on this previous rezon- as they are today.
ing indicated that the site was at one point recommended As part of the feasibility study, the location of utilities was
in the Comprehensive Plan for residential use at four to five evaluated and determined to be adequate. The access to the
dwelling units per acre, Dewberry & Davis researched the property and planned improvements to the existing public
background and timing of an amendment which changed roads along the frontages of the site was evaluated to deter-
the recommendation to two to three dwelling units per acre mine probable rightofway dedication.
for this property. It was determined that subsequent to the Subsequent to the site analysis, a yield study was per-
approval of the 1978 rezoning, the Board of Supervisors ini- formed in order to determine the maximum number of resi-
tiated a study to evaluate the relationship of land use plan- dential units that could be developed on the site. Although a
ning and water quality in the Occoquan Reservoir, a source portion of the property was already zoned R4 for single-fam-
of drinking water supply for over 800,000 people. In an effort ily detached units, the applicant wanted to evaluate the pos-
to protect the public water supply, the Board of Supervisors sibility of the development of townhouses on the entire site.
implemented the recommendation of the study by adopting It was viewed that townhouses would be consistent with the
a new land use plan for the watershed and a comprehensive planned development to the south of the property. Using the
rezoning for a portion of the watershed in June 1982. The PDH (Planned Development Housing) District provisions of
Union Mills site is located in this watershed and, as a result the Zoning Ordinance to allow for greater flexibility in the
of the new adopted land use plan, was downplanned from design, the yield study was performed. As a result of the site
residential use at four to five dwelling units per acre to two to analysis and yield study, Hazel/Peterson Company decided
three dwelling units per acre. to pursue the necessary rezoning of the property to develop
Although a site analysis is typically performed prior to the townhouses on the entire site.
actual purchasing of the property, Hazel/Peterson did this The Rezoning Process. The development process in Fair-
evaluation subsequent to land acquisition. Hazel/Peterson fax County is complex and involves many submissions,
review, and approval steps before a development project can
Residential use at five dwelling units per acre.
3 be completed. The first step is to secure the necessary zon-
4Residentialuse at four dwelling units per acre. ing approvals to permit the proposed land uses. Since the
 7.7 ■ DETAILED CASE STUDIES 787

FIG uRE 7. 7 F Generalized development plan for single-family detached units.

188 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH
property was zoned Rl and R4 with proffers, a rezoning appli- the development of the property was not proffered to be in
cation was required to rezone the entire property to permit conformance with this plan.
the development of townhouses. A rezoning application was Nonetheless, certain elements of the plan were proffered,
filed in September 1981 to rezone the entire 108.5 acres from including the type and number of units, density, and amount
the Rl and R4 Districts to the PDHS District. The application of open space to be provided. After discussions with the staff,
was submitted along with a Conceptual Development Plan the initial CDP submitted with the rezoning application was
(CDP) to permit the development of 542 townhouse units for then revised to reduce the number of townhouses from
an overall density of five dwelling units per acre. 542 to 455 for a density of 4.19 dwelling units per acre. The
Once the application for rezoning (or special excep- reduction in the requested density from five dwelling units
tions) was filed with Fairfax County, a staff coordinator was per acre was based on several factors. First, the Comprehen-
assigned to the case. The staff coordinator is a professional sive Plan recommendation for the property was for residen-
planner employed by the County who manages the staff tial use at two to three dwelling units per acre. In recognition
evaluation of the application and prepares a staff report. The of the fact that a portion of the site was already zoned R4 and
staff coordinator distributes copies of the development plan, several surrounding properties were zoned RS but also prof-
which is submitted by the applicant showing the layout of fered at four dwelling units per acre, a compromise between
the proposed development to various County agencies for the Comprehensive Plan recommendation and the existing
review and comment. These agencies comment in terms zoning was developed. The density was calculated using
of the project's impact on public facilities and utilities, and the existing R4 zoning at four dwelling units per acre and
conformity with applicable regulations and policies. Given three dwelling units per acre for the remaining portion of the
that these various agencies have differing objectives, it is not site in accordance with the high end of the Comprehensive
uncommon to have conflicting goals, objectives, and com- Plan, plus using the bonus provisions set forth in the Zoning
ments. It is the staff coordinator's responsibility to dissemi- Ordinance for the PDH District. Bonus density was merited
nate these comments and to negotiate with the applicant on due to the excessive amount of open space to be provided by
proffers and revisions to the development plan. the development.
Typically, the applicant for a rezoning or special excep- The use of townhouses was accepted by the board of
tion application is the landowner or a contract purchaser of a supervisors along with a list of required proffers:
property. As mentioned previously, Hazel/Peterson Compa-
nies is the developer for the Union Mills project. During the • A 100-foot undisturbed buffer was proffered to be
planning/zoning process the project was identified as Cent- provided around the entire perimeter of the property.
reville Green. Subsequently, the project name was changed
• Recreational facilities, consisting of a tot lot, a multi-
to Union Mills for marketing reasons. The applicant for the
purpose court, and two tennis courts were proffered
rezoning of the property was actually Centreville Partner-
to be constructed to serve the future residents of the
ship whose general partners are John T. Hazel, Jr. and Milton
community.
V Peterson of Hazel/Peterson Companies. It is also typical
in Fairfax County for the applicant to retain a development • Transportation improvements included rightofway
team consisting of a land use attorney and engineering con- dedication along the public street frontages of the prop-
sultant to represent their interest in the rezoning process. erty with provisions of turn lanes into the entrances.
The engineering consultant should have strong professional
planning capabilities to adequately represent the applicant • A roadway was proposed to link from Lee Highway
or alternatively a professional planner is brought in to work on the north to Braddock Road to the south.
with the engineering consultant. • A $100,000 contribution toward the future improve-
A request for a rezoning to the PDH District is evaluated ment to Braddock Road was also proffered.
by two approval processes. That is, a CDP approved by the
Board of Supervisors and a Final Development Plan (FDP) The property was rezoned to the PDH4 District by the Board
approved by the Planning Commission. At the time of the of Supervisors in September 1982.
rezoning of the property, a CDP must be submitted to illus- The second approval process for the PDH District is the
trate conceptually how the property is intended to be devel- submission of a FDP. A FDP is a more detailed plan, which
oped. Public hearings before the Planning Commission and shows the layout for the subject property. The submission
Board of Supervisors are required. At that point in time, the and review process of the CDP and FDP are basically the
CDP was typically a blob plan, which identified the general same with the exception that only the Planning Commis-
location of proposed land uses. A CDP differs from a GDP, sion holds a public hearing and approves the FDP. The Plan-
which is prepared for rezoning applications to conventional ning Commission considers the FDP in accordance with the
zoning districts in that the GDP shows the locations of the approved CDP, and determines if it complies with the appli-
proposed buildings/structures. In this case, however, the cable zoning district regulations. The Planning Commission
CDP, which was ultimately approved, did reflect the location may establish conditions with the FDP to ensure compliance
of the proposed townhouses as shown in Figure 7.7G, but with the applicable regulations and CDP. A FDP can be filed
 7.7 ■ DETAILED CASE STUDIES 789

FIG uRE 7. 7 G Conceptual Development Plan for single-family attached units.

190 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH
and processed concurrently with the rezoning application the health, safety, and/ or welfare of the County, or where the
and CDP. existing land use recommendation is not in the best interests
Subsequent to the approval of the rezoning, Hazel/ of sound land use planning.
Peterson Company had Dewberry & Davis prepare a FDP During the 1985 APR process and the 1986 limited review
for 18 acres located on the northeastern portion of the prop- process, there were many nominations submitted for addi-
erty. The FDP shown in Figure 7.7H reflected 83 townhouses tional retail commercial facilities in the western portion of
and was approved by the Planning Commission in January the County. One of these nominations was a request filed in
1985. The development conditions imposed by the Planning December 1985 on behalf of Hazel/Peterson. The nomina-
Commission required that a left-turn lane from Lee Highway tion was submitted based on the criterion that the adopted
(Route 29) into the site be constructed and the main road- Plan contained oversights, inconsistencies, and inequities
way within the site be a four-lane, 48foot roadway within for the area and there were provisions, which unreasonably
a 60foot rightofway. The approval of this FDP would allow limited the ability of the County to achieve the objectives of
the developer to submit a site plan for the first section. Sub- the Plan. The applicant argued that the existing Comprehen-
sequent FDPs would have been required for the remaining sive Plan recommendation of two to three dwelling units per
90 acres; however, a complete reevaluation of land use was acre for the subject property was not compatible with the
undertaken. four to five dwelling units per acre and five to eight dwell-
Amendments to the Comprehensive Plan ing units per acre on adjacent parcels to the west. Therefore,
Changing Market/Reevaluation of Land Use. Since the it was inconsistent with the Plan's objective of promoting
Union Mills project was rezoned in 1981, a significant compatible development and providing effective transitional
amount of development had occurred in the Centreville densities. They further argued that the Comprehensive Plan
Area. In 1985, Hazel/Peterson and other developers came acknowledged that no local serving commercial uses were
to the realization that the amount of existing and planned located in the Planning Sector and that additional local serv-
commercial shopping centers in the western portion of ing centers would be required to satisfy growth projections.
Fairfax County was woefully inadequate to serve the built Therefore, it was requested that the Comprehensive Plan be
and planned residential growth. amended to permit residential development at four to five
During this same time frame, Fairfax County conducted dwelling units per acre on the site as well as the development
a full review of the County Comprehensive Plan. The State of a neighborhood retail center.
enabling legislation requires that "at least once every five In a letter to the Executive Director of the Planning
years the Comprehensive Plan shall be reviewed by the Commission dated February 19, 1986 regarding the Annual
local commission to determine whether it is advisable to Plan Review Nomination, Mr. John "Til" Hazel, Jr. stated
amend the Plan:'5 In furtherance of this requirement, Fairfax that a convenient neighborhood shopping center was nec-
County established an Annual Plan Review Process (APR) essary to serve the 3000 plus residential units under devel-
for the Comprehensive Plan. Every third year the Planning opment in the vicinity of the subject property. In the event
Commission conducts a full review of the Plan, in which that the retail center was accepted and the approved resi-
nominations can be submitted by citizens, developers, and dential density was maintained, Hazel/Peterson proposed
landowners for Plan Amendments to be considered at public to extend Union Mill Road as a four lane divided facility
hearings. Nominations must satisfy at least one of the fol- north to Route 29 (Lee Highway) and relocate Braddock
lowing criteria in order to be scheduled for a public hearing: Road as shown in Figure 7.71 as part of the shopping center
development. The applicant argued that these road exten-
1. Significant changes have occurred in the area of con - sions/improvements were important for Fairfax County
cern since the adoption of the Plan. since they were commencing construction of an elementary
2. The Plan contains provisions which unreasonably school and high school which would be accessed by existing
limit the ability of the County to achieve objectives Union Mill Road and Braddock Road both of which were
of the Plan. inadequate twolane roads.
Since the nomination was submitted in a Limited Plan
3. Oversights, inconsistencies, or land use related Review Year, an urgency or emergency must exist for the
inequities are contained in the adopted plan as they Planning Commission and Board of Supervisors to consider
affect the area of concern (Fairfax County, 1983). the amendment. The urgency of the Plan Amendment was
based on the fact that the plans for the development of the
In the intervening years, a limited review of the Plan is con- property in accord with the existing PDH4 zoning were well
ducted. However, an emergency (or urgency) must exist on their way to approval and since approval would negate the
to justify consideration by the Planning Commission. An opportunity for Fairfax County to satisfy transportation and
emergency or urgency is a situation that would jeopardize retail needs in the area.
Comprehensive Plan Amendment-Negotiations with Staff.
'Virginia. Local Planning Legislation Title 15.1, Chapter 11, Code of Virginia, 1950 as As a result of the many nominations for retail uses in the
amended, p. 144. western portion of the County, the County staff wanted to
 7.7 ■ DETAILED CASE STUDIES 791

FIG uRE 7. 7 H Final Development Plan.

192 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH

FIGURE 7, 71 Proposed Union Mill Road extended.

 7.7 ■ DETAILED CASE STUDIES 793

evaluate the retail demand for this area and develop guide- units on the east side of Union Mill Road extended, which
lines for locating retail commercial facilities. All of the APR was consistent with the Comprehensive Plan recommenda-
nominations, which were submitted for retail use in the west- tion north and south of this portion of the site.
ern portion of the County, were deferred pending completion Following extensive negotiations and discussions with
of the ""Retail Study" by County staff. Prior to completion the staff, it was determined that the Hazel/Peterson proposal
of this study, the County staff initially recommended that was, indeed, a better location for the neighborhood shop-
the APR nomination for the Union Mill project be screened ping center. Staff accepted the argument that the compet-
and not go forward to public hearing because staff believed ing site was adjacent to low-density residential development
that the nomination did not demonstrate any urgency or and thus did not satisfy the guideline for shopping center
emergency. It was staff's opinion, as stated in the staff report, locations. Staff further determined that the other site was on
"that neither the current planned densities nor the densities the outer edge of an area of very low-density development
permitted in the 1982 rezoning of the subject property will rather than in an area of suburban or urban density, as was
unreasonably limit the ability of the County to achieve the the Union Mill property. The staff ultimately recommended
objectives of the Comprehensive Plan'' (Fairfax County). that a neighborhood shopping center be developed on the
The staff indicated that the results of the pending Retail Hazel/Peterson site, consisting of 10 to 12 acres to serve sur-
Study would not recommend the site for a shopping center. rounding residential development. However, contrary to
Further, it was staff's judgment that the proposed two-lane Hazel/Peterson's nomination, staff recommended that the
spine road, proffered with the original rezoning application, residential development for the remaining portion of the
connecting Braddock Road west of Union Mill Road to Lee property be maintained at the existing planned density of
Highway (Route 29) would help convey northsouth traffic in two to three dwelling units per acre.
the Centreville area. Consequently, extension of Union Mill Comprehensive Plan Amendment-Negotiations with Citizens.
Road as currently proposed by Hazel/Peterson would not be As is typical of the Comprehensive Plan Amendment pro-
needed. cess, there was a public meeting held for interested citizens
The development team continued to argue that the pro- regarding all of the plan nominations for retail use in the
posed Union Mill Road extension would provide a direct western portion of Fairfax County, as well as public hearings
connection to Lee Highway (Route 29) for more than 3000 before the Planning Commission and Board of Supervisors.
residential units and future elementary and high school traffic In addition to this public meeting scheduled by staff, the
traveling on Union Mill Road. The Planning Commission lis- development team met with the neighboring citizen groups
tened to and was influenced by this argument and overruling individually to present their proposal. The issues raised at
staff recommended that the APR nomination go forward to those meetings were related to specific uses within the shop-
public hearing as soon as the Retail Study was completed. ping center, hours of operation of the uses and the proposed
Guidelines for locating retail commercial facilities in transportation improvements. Initially, there was not much
the County, which were to be included in the Retail Study, opposition to the proposal.
were adopted in July 1986. The study "Shopping Centers- In March 1986, a Comprehensive Plan Amendment for
Meeting the Demand for Retail Commercial Facilities in the Centreville area was adopted by the Board of Supervi-
Western Fairfax County'' was published in August 1986. sors after several years of extensive study and evaluation by
The Study identified sites for future retail commercial loca- a Citizens Task Force. The Centreville Area Plan included a
tions, which were considered in conjunction with those sites Transportation Plan as shown in Figure 7.7J.
nominated during the 1985, and 1986 Annual Plan Review This Plan proposed that Clifton Road located to the east
Process. The Study recommended a neighborhood shopping of the site be improved to complete the planned loop road
center on a 10- to 12-acre site located at the intersection of system around the Centreville Area. One of the citizens who
Braddock Road and Clifton Road southeast of the Union participated on the Citizen Task Force was strongly opposed
Mills property as shown in Figure 7.71. to the Hazel/Peterson proposed Plan Amendment since the
The Hazel/Peterson team argued that the site recom - extension of Union Mill Road conflicted with this recom-
mended by staff consisted of 34 separate parcels owned by mendation in the Transportation Plan. This citizen argued
30 separate owners with 12 existing dwellings and would be that the extension of Union Mill Road might entice com-
extremely difficult to assemble. In addition, Hazel/Peter- muters from adjacent Prince William County to use the
son noted that a shopping center on that site may impact Compton and Union Mill Roads which served the residen-
adjacent ResidentialConservation (RC) District zoned land tial areas as shortcuts to and from the work place. He further
(1 unit per 5 acres) which was downzoned as a result of argued that the extension of Union Mill Road might defer
the Occoquan Basin Study. In an effort to negotiate with the the funding and construction of another planned vital east-
staff, the development team refined its proposal to reduce the west arterial road in Centreville known as Braddock Road
total number of units from 455 townhouse units as permit- Extended. Braddock Road extended was proposed to be
ted under the existing approved PDH4 zoning to 340 town- extended from existing Union Mill Road to the west to Route
house units and 60 single-family detached units, for a total of 28 which would be part of the fourlane divided loop road
400 units. Hazel/Peterson proposed single-family detached system around Centreville. The Braddock Road extension
194 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH

FIG uRE 7. 7 J Centreville Area Transportation Plan.

was proffered in conjunction with another planned devel- therefore, recommended that construction of the retail
opment by Hazel/Peterson known as Centre Ridge, which center should not occur until such time as Braddock Road
is located in the core of Centreville. Hazel/Peterson was extended was constructed. Neighboring subdivisions includ-
committed to construct two lanes of the four-lane roadway ing the Board of Trustees for the Little Rocky Run subdivi-
extension prior to the issuance of a residential use permit sion, a 3000+ unit planned community located to the south
for the 2400th dwelling unit in Centre Ridge. 3350 dwelling of the property, supported the proposal. The testimony pre-
units were approved to be built in this planned development. sented during the public hearing before the Planning Com-
The remaining two lanes of Braddock Road extended were to mission was split by strong opposition of the WFCCA and
be funded by Fairfax County. considerable support of the neighboring citizens for the Plan
This citizen solicited and gained the support of the influ- Amendment.
ential Western Fairfax County Civic Association (WFCCA) Following the public hearing, the Planning Commission,
which took the position that they opposed the Union Mill on a motion by the District Commissioner, deferred the
proposal if it resulted in an increased density and delayed the decision on the Plan nomination for approximately 1 month.
construction of the Braddock Road extension. The WFCCA Such a deferral is typical when WFCCA is opposed to a
recognized that the roadway would not be constructed for particular development proposal. However, the Planning
many years based on the existing proffer. The WFCCA Commission did allow the record to remain open during
further realized that they could influence the process and, the deferral period to receive additional written testimony
 7.7 ■ DETAILED CASE STUDIES 795

from the public. The citizen activist opposing the Plan communities, a separate rezoning application was required
Amendment continued to encourage the community to join to rezone the approximately 16 acres of the property to the
WFCCA in the fight against the proposal. Consequently, a C6 District (Community Retail Commercial District). A suc-
petition was filed by approximately 50 homeowners in the cessful rezoning to the C-6 District would permit the devel-
Little Rocky Run subdivision opposing the Plan Amend- opment of the neighborhood shopping center, service station,
ment. The petition stated that the testimony at the Plan- fast food restaurant, and drivein bank. A combined CDP/
ning Commission public hearing, by the Little Rocky Run FDP was prepared for the residential portion of the develop-
homeowners association supporting the proposal, was only ment to include a childcare center as shown on Figure 7.7K.
the opinion of Board members and not a consensus of the A CDP and FDP was combined showing the location of
individual homeowners in the area. The other neighboring the proposed townhouses, single-family detached lots, and
subdivisions to the east continued to support the proposal. child care center in order to expedite the review process. A
In an effort to address concerns expressed by the Planning separate GDP was prepared for the shopping center with
Commission members at the public hearing, a traffic analysis companion special exception applications for the service
was performed by a transportation consultant retained by station, fast food restaurant, and drivein bank as shown in
Hazel/Peterson. The goal of the study was to quantify and Figure 7.71. The applications were filed with Fairfax County
confirm staff's opinion that a neighborhood center at Union in April 1987 to be processed concurrently.
Mill would lower the traffic demand in the downtown Cent - As discussed earlier, the site design for the project was a
reville area. The study demonstrated that there would be less result of several factors. The alignment of Union Mill Road
traffic in the downtown Centreville area with the location extended, requiring the reconstruction of its intersection
of the shopping center at Union Mill than there would be if with Braddock Road. Knowing that this proposed roadway
there was not a shopping center there. The study showed that and intersection would affect the design of the layout, Hazel/
the shopping center actually removed trips from key primary Peterson had a preliminary design of the roadways prepared
roads in the Centreville area. The development team contin - during the rezoning process. This preliminary design was
ued to argue that the traffic generated by the proposed retail ultimately submitted to the Fairfax County transportation
center did not result in the need for Braddock Road extended staff and by reference became part of the approved proffers.
and, therefore, should not be linked to the development. The extension of Union Mill Road from Braddock Road
The Planning Commission recommended approval of the to Lee Highway (Route 29) bisected the property creating
Plan Amendment to allow a retail center on the Union Mill two distinct land bays. The eastern side of Union Mill Road
property to the Board of Supervisors. However, consistent extended was proposed for 57 single-family detached homes
with the recommendation of the WFCCA, the opening of on lots averaging 12,000 square feet to be compatible with
the retail center was contingent upon the opening of both the existing and planned development adjacent to the north
Union Mill Road extended and Braddock Road extended. and south of this land bay.
In addition, specific language recommending screening and The property to the west of Union Mill Road extended
buffering in excess of Ordinance requirements in order to was proposed for 323 townhouses consistent with the
protect the adjacent neighborhoods was included in the Plan previously approved rezoning. The townhouses provided
Amendment. Consistent with the Planning Commission a transition in land use from the higher density multiple
recommendation, the Board of Supervisors approved the family units to the west to the single-family detached units
Plan Amendment to allow a neighborhood shopping center to the east of the site across Union Mill Road extended.
on the subject property on January 12, 1987, a full year after The proposed density for the residential portion of the
the nomination was submitted. layout was 4.12 dwelling units per acre. This included 12
The Rezoning Process Revisited. The approval of the bonus dwelling units resulting from the provision of open
Comprehensive Plan Amendment allowed the development space beyond ordinance requirements. The realignment
team to prepare and file the rezoning applications necessary of existing Braddock Road to the north and the creation
to develop the property in accordance with the new Com - of its intersection with Union Mill Road extended was an
prehensive Plan recommendation. An application to amend ideal location for the proposed shopping center to consist
the CDP and proffers, which were previously approved for of 118,000 square feet of retail space. This location at the
the entire property when it was originally zoned PDH4, intersection of a minor arterial collector road would pro-
was required to delete the land area necessary for the shop- vide good visibility for the shopping center and convenient
ping center and to revise the remaining portion of the resi- right turn access for vehicles on the trip from work to
dential layout accordingly. Although the PDH District does home. The service station, fast food restaurant, and drivein
allow commercial uses, the amount of land area which can bank were located near the entrances to the shopping center
be devoted to commercial uses is limited and the commer- to provide for visibility and convenient access. The realign-
cial uses must be designed to serve primarily the needs of ment of Braddock Road to the north created another land
the residents of the planned development. Since the land bay south of the shopping center which was designed to
area necessary for the proposed retail center exceeded this accommodate a child care center for 160 children to serve
limitation and was intended to serve the other neighboring the surrounding residential areas.
19& fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH

FIG uRE 7. 7 K First Conceptual Development Plan/Final Development Plan-Union Mills (residential areas).
 7.7 ■ DETAILED CASE STUDIES 797

FIG uRE 7. 7 L First Generalized Development Plan-Union Mills (residential areas).

190 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH
Negotiations with Staff. During the processing of the center to the construction of both Union Mill Road extended
rezoning application, the County staff presented many issues, and Braddock Road extended. It was the Hazel/Peterson
which had to be addressed. The major issues presented by the team's task to convince the adjacent citizen associations that
staff were related to the proposed density and design/layout the shopping center and, more importantly, Union Mill Road
of the residential component. The proposed density at 4.12 extended, would only be delayed if these projects had to wait
dwelling units per acre was generally consistent with the until Braddock Road extended was in place. Hazel/Peterson
original approved rezoning at 4.19 dwelling units per acre. knew their only hope to overcome this Comprehensive Plan
However, it was staff's judgment that the proposed applica- recommendation was to get these neighboring homeowner
tion was not comparable to the original plan and did not jus- associations to support their position. After several meetings,
tify the high end of the planned density range nor warrant the these neighboring homeowner associations voted to support
12 bonus units proposed through the provision of excess open the proposals with the understanding that Union Mill Road
space. The initial staff report stated that to "allow a 16.37 acre would be extended and in service prior to the opening of the
decrease in the size of the subject site [for the retail center], shopping center. These citizen groups believed that "they
a change in the unit mix from all townhouses to a combina- urgently need[ed] more roads in their area and [they] would
tion of 323 townhouses and 57 single-family detached dwell- rather have Union Mill [Road] extended than nothing at all"
ings and to add a child care center ... [would] ... significantly (Donna Barne, 1987b). The citizens expressed their desire
increase the intensity of the use and development of the appli- that the construction of Braddock Road extended was
cation property" (Fairfax County, 1982, p. 22). important to improving the transportation network in the
The staff report further stated that "the proposed devel- Centreville Area and that the County should commit to the
opment plan ... did not exemplify a design layout or features construction and funding of the additional two lanes con-
which merit recognition for good design and amenities" current with construction of the two lanes by Hazel/Peterson
(Fairfax County, 1982, p. 13). Staff argued that the pro- with the development of Centre Ridge.
posed single-family attached units were crowded too closely The proffers initially submitted by Hazel/Peterson for
together and that the cluster concept of the single-family the rezoning application included a commitment to extend
attached unit layout did not cluster around any open space Braddock Road to Route 28 prior to the opening of the retail
areas. Further, it was staff's position that the plan lacked center. Although Hazel/Peterson continued to argue this
significant areas of landscaped open space that were neces- requirement, they realized it would be very difficult to obtain
sary since the entire site was proposed to be cleared of the approval for a rezoning contrary to the Comprehensive Plan
existing vegetation. In addition, the staff argued that of the recommendation. However, once the development team
35 acres or 38% open space being provided, approximately received support from the neighboring citizen groups which
14 acres was EQC and the applicant would receive density deleted the linkage of the opening of the retail center to the
credit for this area. The remaining 21 acres of open space construction of Braddock Road extended, they realized their
being provided did not justify the 12 proposed bonus units. argument was strengthened and withdrew the proffer. This
In an effort to address the staff concerns on the design, the revision to the proffers occurred only days before the pub-
CDP/FDP was revised and resubmitted to the staff a total of lic hearing before the Planning Commission on the pending
seven times throughout the process. Ultimately, the 12 bonus rezoning application. As a result, conflicting testimony was
units were deleted in the single-family attached layout, which presented at the public hearing with the neighboring citizens
satisfied the staff's concern on the density. This resulted supporting the rezoning application and the umbrella organi-
in 311 single-family attached units and 57 single-family zation, WFCCA, continuing to strongly oppose the develop-
detached units for a total of 368 units at a density of 3.99 ment without the construction of Braddock Road extended.
dwelling units per acre. The landscaping was significantly The decision by the Planning Commission was deferred for a
increased along the major roadways and internal streets and week to allow the citizen groups time to resolve the conflict.
within the courts of the townhouse clusters. Further, the Prior to the scheduled decision by the Planning Commis-
applicant proffered landscape details for the townhouse end sion, a meeting was held with various representatives of the
units, which were proposed to face sides of other end units homeowner associations and WFCCA. The major point of
and at the entrances to the shopping center. A 25foot undis- contention continued to be the linkage between the construc-
turbed buffer on the rear yards of the single-family detached tion of Braddock Road extended and the construction of the
lots was provided around the periphery. To protect the adja- shopping center. As stated in a local newspaper, "Although
cent single-family detached units as well as the townhouse the extension was a hot topic, opponents said it was sec-
units behind the shopping center, landscaped buffers and ondary to what they claimed was a violation of the County
fencing was provided. master land use plan:' The newspaper article further stated
Negotiations with Citizens: Deadlock Issue. Once the from an interview with one critic, "It wasn't a question of us
rezoning applications were filed with Fairfax County, the being antitransportation ... what they were asking for vio-
development team immediately presented the details of their lated the actual planning process by allowing them to manip-
proposal to the neighboring citizen associations. As stated ulate the County's Comprehensive Plan in terms of zoning"
above, the Comprehensive Plan tied the opening of the retail (Carlos Moncada, 1987). In an interview with another local
 7.7 ■ DETAILED CASE STUDIES 799

newspaper, Jeffrey Saxe, Hazel/Peterson Companies, stated of Braddock Road extended, and (3) initiated condemnation
that the amendment to the Comprehensive Plan ". . . linked proceedings where appropriate.
Braddock Road extended to the construction of the shopping Within days of this meeting, the WFCCA submitted a
center ... was unfair to the Centreville Partnership. The link is letter to the Supervisor indicating unanimous support for
not in there because of the need for Braddock Road extended. the rezoning application as it was at the time it was with-
This [amendment amounts to] using the planning process for drawn. The letter dated February 20, 1988 to Supervisor
reasons other than sound planning" (Donna Barne, 1987c). McConnell from Dick Frank, President, WFCCA, stated that
The Planning Commission member successfully made a the support was based upon the reality that the building of
motion to defer the rezoning application for 2 months citing Braddock Road extended could potentially be put on a fast
deadlock between the citizens and the developer. Three days track as committed by Hazel/Peterson Companies. Further,
later, Hazel/Peterson withdrew the rezoning applications Hazel/Peterson's willingness to advance a percentage of its
since a resolution of the linkage requirement for Braddock share of monies for two of the four lanes of Braddock Road
Road extended could not be reached. After almost 2 years of extended and the County's inclusion of the additional funds
effort pursuing the commercial use, Hazel/Peterson intended in the upcoming bond referendum gave the citizens the com-
to pursue the development under the existing PDH4 zoning. fort level they needed on this issue.
Dewberry & Davis initiated the preparation of the FDP based The art of compromise was successful in this particular
on the approved CDP as well as a preliminary plan. instance as all parties involved attained all or the majority of
The Rezoning Revisited Compromise. The District Super- what they initially were seeking. Hazel/Peterson received full
visor and the neighboring homeowner associations as well support of the community, staff and decision makers for their
as some members of WFCCA were upset that the applica- rezoning application, which included the commercial element.
tions were withdrawn thereby eliminating the proposed The citizens were successful in gaining the approval of a much
extension of Union Mill Road, which was vital to improving needed community shopping center without jeopardizing or
their access to the major roadways. Although Hazel/Peterson delaying the construction of a vital portion of the overall trans-
was pursuing the existing zoning, these citizens continued portation network for the Centreville area. The local politi-
to work with the umbrella group of WFCCA in an attempt cians were praised by the community for their "efforts to bring
to reach a compromise. Several months later, a meeting the applicant and community together, to not just resolve dif-
was held with the District Supervisor, representatives from ferences but to produce solutions .. :' (Dick Frank, 1988).
WFCCA and Hazel/Peterson. At that meeting a consensus After 1 year of negotiations in the rezoning process,
was reached that Hazel/Peterson would resubmit the rezon- the property was rezoned by the Board of Supervisors to the
ing application with the following commitments: PDH4 and C6 Districts to permit the development of the
Union Mills project as we know it today. The development
1. The rezoning application would be considered as it of the property was proffered to be in conformance with the
was at the time it was withdrawn. There would be no approved CDP/FDP and GDP as shown in Figures 7.7M and
requests for revisions to the development plans or 7.7N, respectively.
proffers. The proffers included the following:
2. There would be no attempt to link the opening of • Dedication of the rightofway and construction of the
the shopping center with the completion of Brad- Union Mill Road extension.
dock Road extended.
• Dedication of the floodplain/EQC to Fairfax County.
3. The rezoning application would be processed on an
• Funding and installation of a traffic signal at Union
accelerated basis with completion within 4 months.
Mill Road extended and Braddock Road realigned.
4. Review of the residential preliminary plan, which • Conformance to the limits of clearing and grading as
includes Union Mill Road, extended concurrent with
depicted on the CDP/FDP and GDP.
the rezoning. This was to compensate Hazel/Peter-
son for the 6-month delay and additional expenses • Noise attenuation measures to mitigate noise from
incurred by Hazel/Peterson as a result of the revision Lee Highway, Route 29.
of the development schedule. • Construction of a trail system along the roadways,
5. Hazel/Peterson will accelerate design of Union Mill the floodplain and within the development.
Road extended and submit engineering plans. • Recreational amenity package to include a swimming
pool, bathhouse, and tot lot.
In addition, Hazel/Peterson agreed to accelerate the fund-
• Hours of operation and the maximum number of
ing of Braddock Road extended provided that the Board of
students enrolled in the child care center.
Supervisors: (1) expedited review and approval of certain
plans and plats pending for their Centre Ridge development, • Best Management Practices to be incorporated into
(2) approval of a bond issue financing the other two lanes the stormwater management plan for the project.
aoo fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH

FIG uRE 7. 7 M Approved Conceptual Development Plan/Final Development Plan (residential area).
 7.7 ■ DETAILED CASE STUDIES 801

FIG uRE 7. 7 N Approved Generalized Development Plan (retail center).

002 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH
• Notification to Fairfax County prior to construction implemented the County's transportation and land use plans,
to allow exploration of site for archaeological pur- and met the expectations of adjacent property owners and
poses to remove historic artifacts if found. community activists.
Epilogue: Political Retrospect. Now that Union Mills is a
• Submission of a traffic analysis prior to site plan
completed, vibrant community, it is of interest to gain a per-
approval of the entrances to the retail center to deter-
spective from both the politicians and developer who were
mine requirement for turn lanes.
so intimately involved in the planning and zoning process
• Compatible architecture for the retail center and free- for this project. Both these entities offered their insights and
standing uses. The architectural elevations/perspec- reactions to the politics ofland use as it applied to the Union
tives of these uses as well as their dumpster facilities Mills development. 6
were to be submitted to the Planning Commission Supervisor Michael R. Frey is currently the elected
for review prior to final site plan approval. District Supervisor of the area in which Union Mills is
• Restriction of various uses within the retail center. located. Throughout the planning and zoning process of
the project, Supervisor Frey was the Senior Administrative
Since the freestanding uses were the subject of special excep- Aide to Elaine McConnell who was, at that time, the District
tion applications, development conditions were imposed by Supervisor. As Administrative Aide to the Supervisor, Mr.
the Board of Supervisors rather than proffers. The devel- Frey was very much involved in all of the land use applica-
opment conditions contained limitations to the hours of tions within the District. In this role, Michael acted on behalf
operation, number of employees, signs, and landscaping for of the Supervisor and had a significant amount of influence
all the uses. on the planning and zoning process. An interview was con-
The entire planning/zoning process of Union Mills ducted with Supervisor Frey in an attempt to gain insight
approximated 7 years from the time the original rezoning into the motivation and political considerations surrounding
application was filed in 1981 to the approval of the final the Union Mills project.
rezoning application in 1988. As discussed throughout this chapter, the most controver-
Conclusion to the Feasibility and Site Analysis of Union sial aspects of the rezoning application related to transporta-
Mills. As stated in the introduction, this case study was not tion, specifically the extension of Union Mill Road and the
intended to be a "how to" text on resolving conflict associ- timing of the construction of New Braddock Road. Supervi-
ated with the planning/rezoning process. These processes are sor Frey's understanding of the base of this controversy is as
evolutionary by their very nature and of a complexity that follows:
does not lend itself to textbook formula resolution.
It [the Comprehensive Plan] didn't show Union [Road]
Although this case study centered around a project in Fair- Mills as being extended. While it made perfect sense to
fax County, Virginia, the process, participants, politics, and extend Union Mill Road, the fact that it wasn't on the [Com-
problems are similar in jurisdictions throughout the nation. prehensive] plan raised the suspicions of some of the anti-
Our world is getting smaller as the population increases and development activists involved, "By God, if Til Hazel wants
developable land decreases. Consequently, the land develop- it, it's no good. We don't care what it is:' IfTil Hazel wanted to
ment process has gained importance and requires sensitivity leave all of western Fairfax undeveloped, those folks would
to a myriad of interest groups and issues which mandate cre- have wanted asphalt!
ativity in design and engineering solutions and, most of all, One of the other pressures and one of the things that cre-
the ability to communicate effectively. ated the other base of support for the application was the
fact that Centreville High School was coming on-line. It [the
The landowners, developers and consultants must be
high school] had no way to get in or out. You had a horrible
keenly aware of the need for compatibility of differing land
intersection of Union Mill [Road] and Braddock [Road].
uses and design projects accordingly. The development team That was the package they [Hazel-Peterson] proposed.
must be open to negotiations and compromise to resolve "We'll build the shopping center, staff's identified it as being
competing and/or conflicting interests. Politicians and pol- needed. We'll put it on our property. We'll rezone, we open
icy makers must recognize and acknowledge that we live in up Centreville Green to the process again, everybody gets
an imperfect world and it is not possible to please all of the their new shot at it. We'll agree to some phasing and, if you
people all of the time. Citizens must continue to be vigilant do it quick, we'll build Union Mill Road before Centreville
in protecting their interests while understanding that there High School opens:'
are certain property rights inherent in ownership. Through the plan process, there was a belief on the part of
The coordination and compromise between these interest some of the citizens that was unshakable, that there would be
a lot of traffic coming from the west to the shopping center,
groups and the implementation of good planning and engi-
and somehow they had to have access from the west.. . So
neering principles can result in a quality development. As
they [the citizens] wanted New Braddock Road built before
was the case with Union Mills, following 7 years of plan- the shopping center opened.
ning, engineering, negotiations and compromise, a commu-
nity was developed which provided quality housing for new
residents with easy access to a community shopping center, 6Direct quotations from interviews held were adjusted for grammatical purposes only.
 7.7 ■ DETAILED CASE STUDIES 803

As highlighted previously in the chapter, the citizen groups and they probably always would in any kind of jurisdiction
are sophisticated, very active and influential in the planning like (Fairfax). I don't have the solution but I don't think the
and zoning process in Fairfax County. In discussing the role end result in all the adversarial discussions changed anything
of the Western Fairfax County Citizens Association in this particularly:'
project, the question was posed as to whether the Supervi- In response to a question as to whether the delays, caused
sor influences or guides the committee in their decisions by citizen influence, resulted in a loss of profit, Mr. Saxe stated:
or whether they function as an independent advisory body.
Well, I couldn't say if we lost money or not. But I think ... why
Supervisor Frey responded:
it paid for us to go through the zoning process is through-
I've met with them on a couple of projects. Obviously, you out the [1980's] S0's the value ofland seemed the longer you
always like to have citizen support. I do my best to explain owned it, the more it was worth. So it was sort of paying us
and to persuade, but I don't ever want to be perceived as con- to wait. Unfortunately, sometime in that process, the value of
trolling ... I think it works best that way. If they're [WFCCA] a townhouse lot started to go back down. Pending that extra
independent, if their credibility comes from the belief by the couple of years we actually ended up selling the townhouses,
Board or the staff and the other citizens in western Fairfax I don't mean that we lost money, but we didn't make as much
that they speak for the citizens in the communities here and as we would have two years earlier.
that's their only agenda. Their credibility stems from the According to Mr. Saxe, "One thing that I wish we could
belief on the part of the Board that they are speaking for
have done was to put the retail center on Lee Highway, but
the citizens and not themselves. Other Districts have vari-
that was contrary to the Comprehensive Plan. Since we had
ous committees where the Supervisor appoints the land use
committee or the Planning Commissioner appoints a land to put units up there, those units are difficult to sell:'
use committee. If I appointed members of the land use com- Mr. Saxe agrees that the timing of the construction of New
mittee, it is my land use committee. Braddock Road was the primary citizen issue and the issue,
which caused significant delays in the project. Eventually, a
In response to a question about what he would do if there bond issue was passed which allowed the construction of the
was an issue or rezoning which his views conflicted with the four-lane facility in time for the opening of the Centreville
recommendation of the WFCCA, Supervisor Frey stated that High School. The resolution of this issue was key to all par-
ties and Mr. Saxe made the following observation:
There have been situations where there have been con-
flicts, for instance between WFCCA and a smaller individ- This was one of the big successes, and key citizens are to be
ual group ... You have to look at the issues and look at the complemented for that. They put the pressure on and got the
impact. Are the real larger community issues the precedence bond money and got the entire road built. Both sides prob-
and that kind of thing? Or do we need to flip to [the] local ably went at it too hard. We both would have been better off
group? Or is this something that is really of a benefit for the if we could have cooperated a year earlier and not wasted all
local community? Sometimes you have to look at both sides that time.
and make a choice.

Although, admittedly, the planning and zoning process relat- 7. 7.2. Conceptual Design and Schematic Design
ing to Union Mills was quite lengthy, Supervisor Frey agreed It should be understood that this case study represents prob-
that the end result was a quality development. "I think it's a lem-solving approaches used on a specific project. These
beautiful project. There's no question that the road network solutions are a result of a wide variety of influences and
has been a tremendous benefit to the community:' variables and should not be viewed as the only appropriate
While the Supervisor's perspective of the project's suc- manner in which to address the specific engineering issues
cess is based somewhat on public benefit derived from the discussed herein. Each project/client/design professional
project and citizen support, the owner/developer's view is is different and, therefore, there are an infinite number of
more focused on land rights and overall financial success of engineering constraints/issues and corresponding solutions.
the project. Jeff Saxe, Senior Vice President of Planning for Further, this case study does not discuss design specifics as
the developer, Hazel-Peterson, was directly involved in all they are addressed in detail in the previous chapters of this
aspects of the Union Mills project and was willing to share Manual. Hopefully, this chapter shares lessons learned from
some of his thoughts and insights relating to the project and the Union Mills project. Each project represents a learning
process. process for all involved and that certainly was the case with
It is Mr. Saxe's thinking that "In retrospect, the whole the development of this community.
zoning and master plan process was very lengthy and adver- The Site Analysis and Feasibility section of the Union Mills
sarial and it shouldn't have been. It was unfortunate that we project illustrated the planning and zoning process from the
spent so much time on a project by redoing, I don't know the initial planning/feasibility stages to the approval of the CDP,
solution:' FDP, and GDP by the Fairfax County Planning Commission
Further, when asked whether he thought the citizens in and Board of Supervisors. This zoning approval established
Fairfax County have too much power over the process, he the overall framework and pattern for development of the
responded "Yeah, you know I wish they didn't but they do project. Further, this approval permitted the owner/developer
ao4 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH
of the project, Hazel/Peterson Companies, the rights to con- process, the detail of the updated information further refines
struct 368 residential units consisting of 311 townhouses and the framework in which to pursue a viable solution. Any
57 single-family residences, a swimming pool recreational viable solution must be made with the overall timing, phas-
facility, a day care center, and a 122,000 sf neighborhood ing, and cost of the project in mind. It is incumbent upon the
shopping center with associated uses. The breakdown of the design engineer not only to identify potential problems, but
residential component (shown in Figure 7.70) of this project also to provide the client with all solution options as quickly
is as follows: as possible after they are identified to aid the client in the
decision -making process. Although the client is the ultimate
Section 1 66 Townhomes decision maker, the team members provide the data required
Section 2 71 Townhomes the client to make a sound business decision.
Effective Communications-Project Handoff. It is essen-
Section 3 71 Townhomes tial that all team members are aware of the nuances of a given
Section 4 65 Townhomes project. In the case of the Union Mills project, a series of
"handoff" meetings were conducted by those participating
Section 5 38 Townhomes in the zoning action to brief the engineering element of the
Section 6 57 Single-Family Lots team on history and evolution of the project to date as well
as the status of the zoning effort. Often, during the rezon-
In conjunction with this rezoning, Fairfax County ing process, there are many issues, which cannot be resolved
required certain conditions including roadway improve- and, therefore, must be discussed by all members at the
ments, assurances that water quality would be protected, time to foster a clear understanding on the background and
stormwater management facilities, protection and preserva- proposed resolution. It is the planner's role to explain the
tion of the Environment Quality Corridor, specific recre- proffers, graphics, and plans generated during the rezon-
ational facilities, and limitation on the amount of retail space. ing process to the engineering professionals. The handoff
These commitments and restrictions were volunteered by the meeting is a tool to identify potential problems and establish
developer in the form of proffers (see Chapter 2.3). The FDP optional approaches to resolving such problems.
for the residential component of the project and the GDP for During the Union Mills handoff meetings, several issues
the commercial/retail component are the plans to provide of importance surfaced. For instance, the developer did
the graphic layout of streets, lots, uses, parking areas, public not intend to construct a service drive along Lee Highway
facilities, landscape, setbacks from adjoining properties, and even though the service drive was required by VDOT. It was
other requirements established during the zoning process. determined that a waiver request for processing through the
Together, these documents outline the general framework for Board of Supervisors should be prepared and submitted as
the engineering design of the project. quickly as possible. This was done and ultimately approved
Conceptual Design. Although a considerable amount of by the Board of Supervisors with no delay of the project.
preliminary engineering is conducted during the rezoning Also, as a result of the handoff meetings, the issue of
process, it is unrealistic to think that all engineering con- stormwater management and related Best Management
straints and issues can be foreseen and properly addressed Practices (BMPs) surfaced. Specifically, Fairfax County was
during that stage of the development process. During the in the process of establishing revised design criteria for BMP
rezoning of the Union Mills project, preliminary engineering facilities. There was a great deal of concern that the BMP
design was undertaken and many potential issues identified facilities shown on the FDP would be insufficient to satisfy
and resolved to a comfort level sufficient to proceed with the the new design criteria. Given this uncertainty, the decision
final engineering phase at the appropriate time. was made to proceed as quickly as possible with the prelimi-
Successful engineering design is dependent upon a num- nary design of the stormwater management/BMP facilities
ber of factors including; a firm understanding of the client's using the older criteria to assess the potential impact of the
goals and time constraints, effective communication among site layout and be prepared to upgrade the facilities as per
the client, planning consultants and the engineering project new criteria if necessary.
manager, comprehensive site data collection and evaluation. Another immediate benefit of the handoff meeting was
A detailed field investigation to further the knowledge of the the decision to proceed with detailed field run topography
physical characteristics of the site will help identify the devel- along the floodplain to supplement the aerial topography.
opment constraints and opportunities. During the rezoning process, the preliminary design of the
Client Input. Since the very beginning of the rezoning project was based on County-provided topography at 5-foot
process, the client had been establishing goals, formulating contour intervals which is sufficient for the preparation of
schedules and providing overall guidance to the develop- the zoning document. However, the planner and client were
ment team. At the preliminary engineering design phase, the very much aware of the relatively flat topography adjacent
client must give additional guidance when more refined data to the floodplain and were concerned that inaccuracies in
is available and new issues surface. Although many of these the topography could impact the number of proposed units
"new" issues were preliminarily identified during the rezoning as well as stormwater/BMP facilities. Consequently, the
 7.7 ■ DETAILED CASE STUDIES 805

FIGURE 7. 70 Composite Plan: Union Mills.

ao& fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH
decision was made to spend the money for the field run o Noise attenuation measures adjacent to the major
topography to avoid potential problems later. thoroughfares
The use of the handoff process to effectively communi-
o Recreational amenity package
cate the subtleties of the rezoning documents serves as an
early warning system for the engineering component of the o Timing and construction of the trail system
team. Ongoing dialogue between all members of the team within the project
throughout the development process is essential to the suc-
cess of a given project. This ongoing dialogue certainly added Following the compilation and analysis of the updated data, a
to the success of the Union Mills development. revised layout was produced to accommodate the additional
Data Collection/Evolution. Data collection, updating, constraints resulting from the newly acquired data. The new
and evolution is an integral element in preparation of the layout mandated the relocation of five lots to other areas of
final engineering drawings. The significant amount of time the project. In view of the fact that these changes to the FDP
required for the plan amendment and rezoning of the Union were a result of engineering consideration, a request for an
Mills site necessitated in updating the data collected for that administrative approval was submitted rather than applying
process. The engineering team reviewed all the information for a Final Development Plan Amendment (FDPA) through
that was part of the rezoning and had to determine as to what the formal public process. The PDP/proffer interpretation
was usable and what data required updating. process is discussed in more detail below.
In the case of the Union Mills project, the previously pre- Schematic Design. Generally, Fairfax County requires
pared boundary survey was revised to reflect new easements that the preliminary plan be submitted after approval of the
and encumbrances identified in a new title report. An aerial rezoning case by the Board of Supervisors and the prelim-
topographic survey was obtained and all the utility compa- inary plan must be approved prior to the submittal of site
nies were requested to provide the most current information plans, and/or subdivision plans. The preliminary plan pro-
on the location of utilities on and around the Union Mills site. vides basic information such as road and lot layouts, defines
Floodplain information along Little Rocky Run was obtained open space areas, identifies preliminary utility layouts for
from the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). sanitary sewer, water, and major storm sewer systems, locates
This technical information, coupled with the zoning doc- and sizes stormwater management/BMP ponds, limits of
uments, including the proffers, becomes the basis used for clearing and grading are identified as are siltation/erosion
the preparation of the preliminary plat and final site plan. control measures and density and open space computations.
Additional issues surfaced in compiling the new data. Exam- The purpose of the preliminary plan is threefold: (1) the
ples of such issues relating to Union Mills are as follows: plan represents the owner/developer's intent to subdivide, (2)
the plan demonstrates how the subdivision will comply with
• Analysis of the aerial topography revealed that "gaps" the zoning ordinance as well as the FDP and proffers, and (3)
were present where dense forestation existed. Field run allows the various agencies to review and identify zoning and
topographic survey was required to fill these "gaps:' engineering design issues that must be addressed/resolved
• Once the topographic survey was completed, the USGS prior to the submission and approval of construction plans. As
floodplain information was plotted on the topographic such, it establishes the framework for the County to recom-
map. The results showed that the USGS floodplain was mend changes to the project in order to be sure that the project
10 to 100 feet wider than the floodplain shown on the complies with design requirements prior to final design.
FDP. This finding would require a revision to the FDP. Given the lengthy and complicated zoning process being
experienced by the Union Mills project, the developer took
• The preliminary engineering studies of the storm- advantage of an approval process known in Fairfax County
water management/BMP facilities were reviewed as "concurrent processing:' Specifically, with approval by the
for compliance with the new design standards Board of Supervisors, the preliminary plan can be submitted
established by the county. As a result, the new, more and reviewed concurrent with a rezoning action which, in the
restrictive, design standards, coupled with more case of Union Mills, was the FDP. The risk to the developer
accurate floodplain information would require a new with this process is that changes resulting in the rezoning
preliminary engineering design. document mandate mirror changes in the preliminary plan.
• The proffers were the subject of a detailed analysis The obvious advantage of concurrent processing is imme-
to identify those that would have an impact on engi- diate approval of the preliminary plan upon approval of the
neering design and phasing implications, including: zoning document. These time-savings can, in some instances,
equate to significant dollar savings because it shortens the
o Dedication and construction of major roadways time a developer is required to carry interest on the property
before selling it to a builder, thus significantly discounting the
o Incorporation of stormwater management/BMP
engineering costs for revising the preliminary plan.
plans
Project Phasing. During January 1990, the rezoning pro-
o Traffic analysis to determine where turn lanes cess was completed as was the preparation and submis-
would be required sion of the preliminary plan. Upon the completion of the
 7.7 ■ DETAILED CASE STUDIES 807

preliminary engineering process, the client was in a position plans, maximum flexibility was afforded the sequencing of
to proceed with the final engineering design phase of the the townhouse plans. In addition, by submitting the road
development process. At this point, key issues now driving as an independent plan, road construction could be com-
the project included the selection of the project engineering pleted and the correspondingly early bond release would not
team, project phasing, and plan submission schedule. encumber the client's cash reserve for subsequent construc-
In an effort to maintain efficiency on this project, a project tion in the townhouse sections.
team was selected consisting of the project manager, design Sanitary Sewer Outfall. The sanitary sewer outfall align-
engineers, computer-aided drafting and design (CADD) ment is shown in Figure 7.70. It. is noted that in the Union
technicians and draftspersons. It is important to note that the Mills project the 2300-foot sewer line that serves the residen-
persons selected for the team had been associated with the tial area, as well as the retail center, was prepared and pro-
project during the rezoning and preliminary plan stages cessed as a separate plan. Again, with phasing as a primary
and also had prior experience with the client. The manner consideration, the decision to file this on a separate plan was
in which this team was selected and the experience of the made in consideration of the fact that the retail center area
individuals involved reduced the time normally attributed to would require a significant amount of fill material and the
becoming knowledgeable of a new project and/or client. timing of the construction of the retail center was uncertain.
Establishing a plan submission schedule to DEM as part Further, it did not make good sense to include the sanitary
of the client's expediting process required a coordinated sewer plans with the design of Braddock Road or Union Mill
effort between the client and DEM. Specifically, the client Drive since inevitable changes to the design of these roads
was able to obtain a commitment on the part of DEM for would delay construction of the sanitary sewer outfall. By
plan approval in early 1991 provided the plans were sub- designing this sanitary sewer line as a separate plan, con-
mitted by March or early April 1990. Essentially, this agree- struction of the townhouses serviced by the line, all of the
ment reduced the normal processing time for such plans by retail center and the single-family detached lots as well as a
between 50% and 65%. This short turnover required that the proposed child care center in Section 8 of the project would
engineering team design, draft, and submit the final engi- not be delayed. The flexibility here was that construction of
neered plans within a 6- to 8-week time frame. any or all of these sites could commence at the discretion of
The proposed sequence of construction is known as phas- the client.
ing. In many cases the land development engineer believes that Townhouse Sections. In consultation with the client, the
this is the sole responsibility of the client or developer. While engineer developed five sections of townhouses. The sec-
it is true that the developer should have the best knowledge tion boundaries were determined based upon utility/infra-
of his economic situation and his marketing plan, the engi- structure availability and open space/density requirements.
neer can have a significant impact in the success of the project In Fairfax County, each section must meet open space and
through input on phasing of construction. For example, it is density requirements on a cumulative basis. Therefore,
important to understand the cost involved in moving earth the engineer first computed open space and density for
between sections of a given project. When that earth is moved the overall site to ensure the project met the requirements
several times due to poor phasing, the resultant cost can be determined by the zoning process. Section boundaries were
exorbitant with no resultant benefit to the project or the cli- then adjusted to ensure that sections would, on a cumulative
ent. The benefits are obvious when the project phasing is done basis, meet the requirements. The townhouse sections were
such that fulfilling earthwork requirements in one area can be phased based upon marketing considerations, the amount of
accomplished by the sequential excavation of earth at an adja- infrastructure needed to support the section, proximity to
cent area. The engineer can provide invaluable information on existing utility tie-ins, and construction costs.
phasing by way of earthwork takeoffs. Although five sections of townhouses (instead of only one
In addition, as discussed further below, the engineer or two sections) would be more costly to the client from an
working with the client can have a positive impact in orga- engineering perspective, the advantage of smaller performance
nizing land parcels into plan sets to reduce bonding costs bonds coupled with being able to complete construction sooner
and/or to better spread these costs over the life of the project. enabled the client to market and sell the smaller sections inde-
It must be understood that, typically, the income stream does pendently thereby maintaining a positive cash flow.
not begin for the client until the first lot or house is sold. As discussed later, each builder who bought a townhouse
Consequently, phasing in terms of early bond release should section incorporated his own type of townhouse, which
be a factor in the establishment of the overall project sched- required revisions to the grading plan. Having smaller and
ule. Several examples of phasing in conjunction with specific separate townhouse sections later proved to be a time- and
plan development are presented below. cost-saving method for each builder. Following is a listing of
Ruddy Duck Road. As can be seen in Figure 7.70, Ruddy the townhouse sections summarizing the reasoning used to
Duck Road, is a primary access road to several townhouse phase the section into sequence (Table 7.7A).
sections of the development. Early in the engineering design Section 6, the single-family section composed of 57 lots
process, it was determined that this road should be submit- would be the last residential section to be constructed due to
ted as an independent plan rather than incorporating into the its heavy dependence on road, stormwater management, and
townhouse plans. By separating the road from the townhouse utility construction extensions.
808 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH
when needed. Consequently, separate plans were prepared
TAB LE 7. 7 A Phasing Considerations for the
for the following infrastructure components of the project:
Union Mills Townhouse Sections
SECTION NUMBER
• Union Mill Road/Lee Highway Improvements
NUMBER OF UNITS PHASING CONSIDERATIONS • Ruddy Duck Road

1 66 • Visibility to Lee Highway (Marketing) • Braddock Road Widening

• Proximity to open space along Little • Stormwater Management/BMP Ponds 1, 2, 3, and 4
Rocky Run (Marketing)
• Sanitary Sewer Outfall Plan
• Proximity to existing 12" sanitary sewer
• Required the minimum amount of road • Braddock Road/Union Mill Road Intersection
construction (Union Mill Road) Improvements
• Only 1 stormwater management pond Also, in the early phase of preliminary engineering, it was
required determined that a geotechnical analysis would be con-
2 71 • Sited along major open space (Little ducted to ascertain the quality of soil. Once the quality of
the soil is determined, decisions can be made in terms of
Rocky Run)
the earth take-off quantities of the site. That is, the quan-
• Proximity to existing 12" sanitary sewer
tity and location of the dirt that can be used as structural
• Flexibility to access section from either fill and the amount of spoil dirt. Due to the enormous cost
Section 1 or Ruddy Duck Road of importing or exporting dirt to a site, particularly on a
3 71 • Access from Ruddy Duck Road project the size of Union Mills, it is critical to determine
• Availability of existing sanitary sewer the specifics of an earth balance early in the process. Typi-
cally, having dirt within the site costs approximately $2.00
• Proximity to recreational facility
to $3.00 per cubic yard. Importing or exporting dirt to
(swimming pool)
or from the site may increase the cost to $8.00 to $12.00
• Sited along major open space (Little per cubic yard. The results of the soil study were more
Rocky Run) favorable than initially anticipated and dirt balance of the
4 65 • Access from Section 1 and Ruddy project was accomplished absent the need to import or
Duck Road export material.
Environmental Considerations
• Visibility from Union Mill Road (once
Infrastructure Elements/Off-Site Impacts. From the very
constructed)
earliest planning design stages of a given project, the issues
• Depending on the construction of of off-site impacts are a serious concern. Off-site impacts
Sections 1 and 2 for utility tie-ins & are those situations where improvements, grading, utility
access extensions, and other activities are required for a project
but are on property which the developer does not control.
5 38 • Required utility tie-ins from Sections 3
Such improvements can result in the need to acquire costly
and 4
rights-of-way or obtain construction easements from unwill-
• Proximity to retail center seen as least
ing participants. Good engineering practices dictate the
desirable for marketing need to avoid off-site improvements whenever possible or,
at the very least, attempt to get owner approval for the land
or easement prior to making a commitment to provide the
Preliminary Engineering. The following discussion high- improvement. The process of gaining approval to construct
lights many of the elements of the schematic design process, off-site improvements can be lengthy, expensive, and result
and identifies a myriad of engineering issues encountered dur- in significant delays in the project. Potential off-site impacts
ing design of the Union Mills project and begins to explain were of critical importance to the Union Mills project, par-
how they were resolved. This is not an attempt to analyze each ticularly with respect to the Lee Highway, Union Mill Road,
plan in terms of preparation and design, but rather a discus- and Braddock Road improvements, which are discussed
sion on the major considerations, which need to be appropri- below.
ately addressed during the final engineering design process. Lee Highway. The improvements required on Lee Highway
Early in the schematic design process, it was decided that were a major design and construction element of the Union
the major infrastructure components of the project would Mills project. The engineering staff worked with a traffic engi-
be the subject of separate plans. This approach not only neering consultant to analyze the turning movement volumes at
provided the developer with the maximum flexibility with the intersection of Lee Highway at Union Mill Road. The need
respect to satisfying the needs of yet-to-be identified build- for reliable estimated traffic data was considered essential since
ers, it permitted the bonding of these improvements only Union Mill Road was going to be a major collector roadway.
 7.7 ■ DETAILED CASE STUDIES 809

A primary issue was whether dual left-turn lanes were war- As mentioned earlier, there was also a high degree of sen-
ranted and/or would be required from Lee Highway onto Union sitivity with respect to the possible requirements for off-site
Mill Road. It became evident that lane shifts were going to be easements and rights-of-way. Given the potential need to con-
required immediately east of the project, at the intersection of struct dual left-turn lanes, there was a possibility that major
Lee Highway and Stringfellow Road (Figure 7.7P). Of critical off-site easements and/or rights-of-way would be necessary
concern, therefore, was whether there was sufficient linear dis- both north and east of the property. In addition, dual left-turn
tance to provide the storage lane length required without dual lanes would cause the improvements to extend over a larger
turn lanes. There was also concern with the grade differential area further to the east. There was also concern with an exist-
between the eastbound and westbound lanes of Lee Highway. ing Lee Highway culvert crossing of Little Rocky Run (shown
A review of the as-built plans for Lee Highway indicated on Figure 7.7P, at the extreme western edge of the drawing),
that there was a considerable amount of both underground and potential retrofitting of the culvert. It was determined
and overhead utilities within the Lee Highway right-of-way. that the culvert was inadequate and that the extensions which
There were overhead trunk electric lines, a major 24-inch would be needed could be extremely costly and had major
waterline, a major telephone duct bank, and other utilities. off-site implications including the need for floodplain ease-
The engineering design in this area required a careful data ments. It was the design team's opinion that the impacts of
gathering and an accurate plotting of the existing infrastruc- the Union Mills project did not warrant improvement to the
ture involving extensive coordination with all of the affected culvert. Consequently, the road design was structured so as
utility agencies. Given the location of the existing utilities, it not to impact the box culvert. Reconstruction of that facil-
was determined that the area needed to provide the improve- ity would have cost approximately $250,000. Thus, the early
ments was greatly reduced. In addition, the soils reports identification of the problem and the design solution resulted
indicated that a considerable amount of the backfill mate- in significant cost savings to the project.
rial over the existing waterline trench was soft and of poor An additional design element that resulted in major cost
quality. The contractor would have to remove and replace a savings was related to bifurcation between the eastbound
major portion of the soil as well as recompact it as part of the and westbound lanes. Specifically, the design of the left-turn
off-site improvement requirements. lane had to account for problems associated with the existing

FIG uRE 7. 7 P Plan view for the Lee Highway design.

010 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,1:/iidtHLMH
cross slope of the pavement as well as maintaining traffic access to this parcel was provided via a service drive con-
flow during construction. The design team was concerned nection from Union Mill Road. In addition, poor drainage
that the state transportation department would not allow patterns, utility poles, and existing underground utilities
major disruption of traffic on this heavily traveled roadway. were all located within this area. The design also required
Further, off-site traffic diversion facilities would be expen- the acquisition of off-site grading easements. The developer
sive and could require the need for additional easement was unable to obtain the required easements; therefore, Fair-
acquisitions. Consequently, the design approach was to use fax County permitted the developer to delete the connection
asphaltic overlays to bring the grades of the two directions as a construction requirement. The County did, however,
up to the same elevation. This approach resulted in asphalt require the developer to post a cash escrow with the County
work being carried beyond the immediate frontage area of and dedicate sufficient right of way and easements to allow
the project. However, this was considerably more cost effec- future construction by others.
tive than removing the existing roadway and rebuilding it Braddock Road Widening. The widening of a portion of
while also maintaining heavy traffic flows. The details of the Braddock Road between the retail element and Little Rocky
design are shown in Figure 7.7P. As part of this effort, safety Run on the western edge of the site was required with this
at the intersection of Stringfellow Road and Lee Highway project. Figure 7.7Q depicts the final design plan for this
was improved due to the horizontal shift in alignment along widening. As shown on Figure 7.7Q, Little Rocky Run crosses
westbound Lee Highway. This improvement provided supe- under Braddock Road in four 10 x 8-foot box culverts with
rior traffic flow and a greater level of safety without any real the project's property line running down the center of the
impact in construction cost to the developer. culvert system. Careful design considerations were neces-
As mentioned earlier, the government's long-range plans sary to the Braddock Road widening project in proximity
for Lee Highway included a service drive adjacent to the to this culvert system to avoid reconstruction of the system,
Union Mills northern property line. Due to the potential estimated at $500,000. Further, the soils studies showed that
negative impact on the project, a waiver of this requirement debris under the roadway, in the area of the culverts, ren-
was requested and ultimately obtained. Although the county dered the fill unsuitable. The reviewing authority decided
approved the waiver request, the Virginia Department of that reconstruction of the culverts would not be required, a
Transportation (VDOT) conditioned the approval with a decision resulting in significant savings to the developer.
requirement of a third eastbound lane in lieu of the service Another engineering design effort associated with the
drive. The requirement for the third travel lane came quite Braddock Road widening was the existence of a gas line within
late in the process and required some adjustment to the engi- portions of the right-of-way, also shown in Figure 7.7Q. Note
neering plans. The lesson learned in this instance was that that in some locations this gas line was directly under the pro-
issues with such a potential for negative impact should be posed curb and gutter and was in an area where the soils study
identified and resolved as early in the process as possible. showed that the rock levels were very shallow. Extensive field
Union Mill Road: The preliminary design profile for Union tests were conducted to accurately locate the gas line both hor-
Mill Road had previously been established by the consultant izontally and vertically. The challenge was to design the storm
engineer's transportation division as part of its work on the sewer in such a way as to avoid conflicts with the gas line. Tol-
Braddock Road/Union Mill Road intersection improvements. erances of only a foot or less were common and storm sewer
That information was used as the base for the final design of structures of a special design were installed to avoid having
Union Mill Road between Lee Highway and Braddock Road. to relocate the gas line. Early problem identification and cre-
The design of the roadway was rather constrained due to its ative design saved considerable additional construction costs
proximity to an adjacent subdivision, the Lee Highway tie-in as well as delays if redesign of the gas line was necessary.
point as well as its connection to the Braddock Road intersec- While this roadway might appear as a minor facility, it
tion at the southern end of the project. had its share of design issues. Beyond the problems dis-
Visual and noise impacts on the adjacent subdivision cussed above, the design required extensive coordination
east of Union Mill Road were a consideration. Conse- with the adjacent retail center and with the Braddock Road/
quently, the road profile was lowered to the extent possible Union Mill Road intersection improvements being done by
to minimize this impact. Lowering the road profile also a separate department (Transportation Department). As was
reduced the amount of fill dirt and improved the design of the case with the Lee Highway improvements, to make the
the connections to the entrances to the adjacent townhouses transition work more effectively for this widening, the use of
proposed within the project. Since Union Mill Road was the pavement overlays rather than removing the existing pave-
major roadway servicing the project, substantial coordina- ment was the approach taken.
tion with the internal site construction elements was needed. Stormwater Management and Best Management Practices
This roadway interfaced with three sections of townhomes, (BMPs). Upon completion of the site layout and a review
the single-family section and the retail center. for compliance, the next step in the schematic engineer-
Another design constraint encountered in the design ing process is to verify the preliminary computations with
of Union Mills Road was a requirement to provide access respect to open space in addition to ensuring that the storm-
to an adjacent parcel at the Lee Highway intersection. The water management facilities are in compliance with the
 7.7 ■ DETAILED CASE STUDIES 811

FI GuRE 7.7Q Plan view for the Braddock Road widening.

approved FDP. Due to the need to revise and relocate some be obtained by open space, retention ponds in series, etc., in
of the stormwater management facilities, a proffer interpreta- order to achieve the required 50% phosphorous removal. In
tion was requested and resulted in a favorable finding by the addition, the drainage area allocated to each pond was fixed
Zoning Administrator that the revised stormwater manage- based upon the new site layout; therefore, the pond designer
ment (SWM) facilities were in substantial compliance with worked very closely with the site design engineers to ensure
the approved FDP. Preliminary stormwater management/ that sufficient drainage area was provided for each pond.
BMPs designs were completed at this time. The location of For example, the storm drainage outfalls from the retail cen-
this property within the approved Water-Supply Protection ter had to be directed into two ponds based upon the fixed
Overlay District (WSPOD) required that the project incor- drainage area criteria.
porate BMPs. Unlike stormwater detention, BMPs are tech- In the design of the ponds, the engineer was able to provide
niques to improve water quality, which, in Fairfax County, the required efficiency by taking credit for off-site areas, calcu-
requires phosphorous removal efficiency of 50% for the entire lating a series pond efficiency in conjunction with a pond imme-
project. "Credit'' toward such phosphorous removal is based diately adjacent to the project and requiring that undisturbed
upon a number of criteria including retention of undisturbed areas be retained within the project upstream of the ponds.
open space, volume controls, placing ponds in a series, cap- Pond 4-A, located in the single-family detached section
turing off-site drainage, and other pond-maximizing criteria. (Figure 7.7R) proved to be especially difficult to design. Its
Efficiencies are assigned to each type of phosphorous removal location, as shown on the FDP, was the best possible place
device with total efficiencies to be at least 50%. given the constraints: (1) The location was the point closest
Originally, there were three ponds proposed along Little to the outfall stream; (2) the location thereby minimized the
Rocky Run and one pond in the single-family section. BMP need for extensive off-site easements; and 3) the location pro-
design for this project was difficult because most of the vided for the best possible lot yield. Furthermore, this pond
site runoff drained directly into Little Rocky Run, thereby had to account for BMP requirements for part of the retail
bypassing the ponds. center. Consequently, the pond could not be sized to accom-
One of the difficulties in designing the BMP system is modate the stormwater management requirements and the
that, unlike stormwater management, it is difficult to com- BMP requirements. The addition of another pond down-
pensate for uncontrolled areas. Therefore, all of the ponds stream at the day care site coupled with specified undisturbed
were located as far downstream as possible to maximize the open space within the single-family detached enabled this area
drainage areas to the ponds. Additional efficiencies would of the project to meet the BMP and SWM criteria.
012 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,1:/iidtHLMH

FIG uRE 7. 7 R Stormwater Management Ponds 4A and 4B.

Another aspect of the design of the ponds was that grade the site, place the utilities and accomplish the needed
each pond had to be fully coordinated with the adjacent earth balance.
townhouses and single-family homes. In view of the fact
that some of the dwelling units were sited immediately 7. 7.3. Final Design
adjacent to the ponds, considerable coordination with the Overview. The design of a project involves the expertise
site designer was required to ensure that utility locations, and experience of a myriad of participants. The conceptual
grades, and the horizontal "fit" of the lots to the ponds layout and design is a complex undertaking involving a num-
was accomplished. Furthermore, because of the require- ber of steps guided by a wide variety of influences. The plan-
ment for undisturbed open space within the project, the ning and zoning process is equally complex with a number
site designer had to adjust grades and utility locations to of elements which cannot be quantified, such as political/
ensure the retention of the open space. Several additional citizen influence and the many wants and needs of countless
observations relating to the design of the stormwater man- other interest groups. As discussed earlier in this chapter, the
agement ponds are in order. Given the topography of the results of the many design and planning/zoning influences
property, all the ponds were ultimately placed on natural in a less-than-perfect development plan which is passed on
slopes rather than in low-lying swales as is more typical. to the final engineer to make it a reality. Although major
Further, the natural terrain and proximity of the floodplain strides have been made in engineering technology, the key to
required that the ponds be placed on fill material rather a successfully engineered project is the human element-the
than undisturbed soils. Given the fact that townhomes were Project Engineer.
also placed on fill material above the top of the dam eleva- In addition to the engineering of the infrastructure items
tions, creative engineering was required to successfully previously discussed, the project engineer is responsible
 7.7 ■ DETAILED CASE STUDIES 813

for the site design to include the layout of the townhouse units, (Figure 7.7S). Pond 1 was actually constructed partly on fill
travel aisles, and parking spaces. In the case of Union Mills, the and partly on the natural topography. Therefore, the pond
initial layouts were using AutoCAD for all five sections. could not be used for any temporary sediment and erosion
The project engineer prepared an overall grading plan, control as is typically the case. As a result, a separate pipe into
selected unit types, and developed an overall sanitary sewer the pond was called for with separate sediment traps around
and storm sewer plan for the project. This initial work was the periphery of the pond.
designed to ensure compatibility between the sections and Considerable engineering design focus was given to inte-
consistency in the design approach for the entire project. The rior street layout and parking. Specifically, note in Figure 7.70
overall design was then disseminated to the design engineers that almost the entire project provides the traditional turn-
for preparation of the final construction documents. The arounds so vehicles can leave the area in a continual motion
ability to quickly and cost effectively provide overall plans to without needing to stop and backup to exit the site. This is
the various engineers working on the section plans resulted a worthwhile marketing feature and was implemented, wher-
in significant saving in cost associated with coordinating ever possible, within the project. Also note that the allocation
with each engineer independently. In addition, the project and dispersion of parking spaces throughout this section is
engineer was able to provide the draftsperson with infor- balanced and provides close and easy access to all units for
mation needed to begin production of many of the various owners and guests.
sheets needed in the final submission package. The purpose Single-Family Detached House Sitings. It is evident in
of the following subsections is to provide the reader with looking at the existing topography in Figure 7.7T that there is
examples of typical final engineering obstacles and how they considerable topographic relief in the single-family detached
were overcome in the case of the Union Mills project. area. As the engineers were performing the house grading
Typical Townhouse Section. The purpose of this section is and layout, they were aware that the siting of the units was
to discuss typical features of the design and to identify spe- critical. Street design had to best fit this topographic area
cific problem solving techniques used on this project. The and, consequently, the design criteria to best site these units
overall composite plan is shown in Figure 7.70 and should in this critical area of major cuts and fills went far beyond
assist in identifying the various sections discussed. that which is considered normal. Buffer requirements along
Section 1: Several items on Section 1 are important to property lines made the sites extremely tight and difficulties
note. Of particular note is the new sanitary sewer through were encountered, particularly with lots that are along the
this section. Initially, the existing sanitary sewer through the filled section of Union Mill Road. The internal streets and
site was intended to be saved and to be kept intact; however, driveways were also on fill and the result included the pipe-
when the contractor reviewed this initial design, it was obvi- stem driveway design shown for lots 52 and 53 (Figure 7.7T).
ous that in some areas it was more cost effective to move the Additionally, the basements of these units were on 5 to 8 feet
sewer than to design a lot layout to keep it intact. of fill at some points. In this engineering design process and
The design for the widening of Lee Highway for an addi- as a result of the inability to steepen the grade up to the con-
tional lane included the saving of a substantial tree buffer. nection to Cavalier Woods Lane, two lots had to be deleted
Unfortunately, when the design was being finalized the from this area because the buildings had to be sited on an
engineers found that the trees remaining would be fairly unacceptable amount of fill. In fact, they would have been
sparse and small in size. Some had actually died over the on 15 feet or more of fill and would have been very close to
prior winter and the construction of the third lane required Union Mill Road. Siting the units in such a manner made
additional tree clearing. Due to the potential noise impact no sense from marketing perspective and could negatively
on planned residential units adjacent to the roadway, it impact potential buyers' impression of the entire area.
became a major concern. The solution was to construct a The early grading studies were reevaluated and lots were
landscaped berm and a 6-foot-high board fence. This ame- reconfigured to accommodate the two lots deleted from the
nity provided the need for visual and noise protection from area adjacent to Cavalier Woods subdivision. This process
Lee Highway (Figure 7.70). involved careful maneuvering to save as many trees as pos-
One of the zoning requirements was the construction of sible between the lots and Union Mill Road. The idea was to
an asphalt bike trail throughout the project. The portion create and maintain a noise and visual barrier between Union
of the trail along Union Mill Road was to be 8 feet wide Mill Road, the retail center, and the backs of these lots. As
and within the site the trail was to be 6 feet wide. Due to discussed previously, this tree save process was required by
the fact that the floodplain area is generally wet and the the zoning, was important aesthetically, and assisted in the
soils not conducive to building a trail, the trail was shifted meeting of BMP criteria because the two small ponds that
to a higher elevation. The relocation of the trail outside these lots drained into barely met those criteria. Evidence of
the marshy area and away from the storm sewer outfalls as the concern for the preservation of open space is seen in Fig-
shown in Figure 7.70 resulted in considerably easier con- ure 7.7T where one can note that two parcels (A and C) are
struction and eliminated the need to construct footbridges identified as landscaped open space and are to be dedicated
and additional culvert crossings of the trail. to the Home Owners Association.
Another noteworthy engineering consideration is the Another notable engineering problem resolving the dif-
unusual sediment and erosion design feature near Pond 1 ficulty with the design of a street that connected with a
014 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,1:/iidtHLMH

FI GuRE 7 . 7 S Stormwater Management Pond 1.

roadway in an adjacent subdivision. This street, Cavalier was only partially successful, that is, for a few hundred feet
Woods Lane is shown in Figure 7.7T. This adjacent subdivi- of street the impact was that one lot became unbuildable and
sion had been previously constructed with a temporary turn- two other lots that were remaining on one side of the street
around in Section 6 of Centerville Green. At that point in (lots 1 and 2) the market value became somewhat marginal
time, the engineer for the other development had not been lots in comparison with the others in the same area. With the
required to account for the significant drop in elevation from benefit of hindsight, an earlier identification and presenta-
the Cavalier Woods site into the Union Mills site in design- tion of this request may have been more successful.
ing the street. Numerous difficulties were encountered in Retail Center. Design of the retail center commenced after
trying to get Cavalier Woods Lane and Trey Lane to ade- the infrastructure and residential design development had
quately connect between Union Mill Road and the existing been started. Similar to the residential component of the
Cavalier Woods Lane. The roadway classification required a project, specific users for the small shops and the freestand-
specific road design criteria which, if held, forced the engi- ing pad sites had not been selected. However, the user for
neers of the Union Mills site to raise the adjacent units and the anchor store was known. Major design constraints had
also Union Mill Road to accommodate the connection. In previously been addressed with the infrastructure plans for
the process, options such as cul-de-sac and pipestem design the overall Union Mills project. Therefore, the bulk of the
were reviewed. A decision was made to develop a request design effort was to address the "normal" issues as described
for a waiver to these design criteria. The design criteria above. Moreover, the site was heavily dependent on the prior
addressed involved design speed and maximum street grade. approvals of various infrastructure plans such as Union Mill
Considerable effort went into preparing for the discussions Road/Braddock Road intersection, Union Mill Road, vari-
with the state transportation department and the county ous stormwater management ponds, and the sanitary sewer
staff, with numerous design options presented. The result outfall.
 7.7 ■ DETAILED CASE STUDIES 815

FIG uRE 7. 7 T Part of Centreville Green Section 6.

The retail center is anchored by a large ±55,000-square-foot the buildings and parking lots be as flat as possible to provide
food store with the remaining small shops and freestanding ease of access for the user. Additionally, the stores are held
buildings sited adjacent to or near the anchor. The design of a flat to eliminate the need for steps. The flatness of the build-
retail center incorporates many elements in addition to those ing slabs also provides flexibility in the size of the store that
required of a residential subdivision. Additionally, these ele- can occupy a given space. In order to provide a relatively flat
ments include handicap access facilities, fire protection, site site, deep cuts and fills were required. This necessity proved
lighting, loading facilities, trash disposal, major water services, to be an advantage for the residential portions of the project
to name a few. The design engineer often serves as a central where fill material was needed.
coordinator between the client, the architect, mechanical The previous soil borings had given the designer the
and electrical engineers, utility companies, and other consul- information needed to ensure that rock excavation would
tants. Unlike a residential section where a single builder often not be a construction problem. The storm sewer outfalls into
develops/builds all the units, a retail center contains many the residential site were stepped down at manholes in order
users. The needs and concerns of each of the users must be to reduce the high velocities that can be encountered when
balanced against and coordinated with the owner/developer. traversing a steep slope. Typically, when sewering steep ter-
The Union Mills retail center site plan was developed using a rain, the storm sewer and sanitary sewer are extraordinarily
building footprint for the anchor store, which had been built in deep. Keeping the pipe slopes very flat minimized the depth
a number of other areas. However, the strip store's footprints of trench to a limited extent.
were developed in consultation with the client and the architect. Typically, with a retail site, a large area is denuded at one
A number of design changes to accommodate the ultimate users time. Siltation and dust control can be a major problem if
for the freestanding pad sites occurred later in the process. the site is left exposed for a long period of time. In Union
Originally, the retail center was located on a hilly site Mills, the storm sewer outfalls were built first and siltation
interspersed with several natural swales. Subsequently, the controls installed to preclude silt from washing from the site.
natural topography provided a major design constraint on Additionally, aggregate subbase was installed at the earliest
the retail center. Typically, retail users typically dictate that opportunity to help control dust.
01& fatUhiii F·\,j,@,1:/iidtHLMH
7.7.4. Plan Submission and Permitting construct the commercial/retail component. The residential
The preparation, review, and approval of the final engineer- components of the project and the day care center would then
ing documents require the involvement of local and state be sold to individual builders as "finished lots:' In essence,
governments, the client, and the design consultant. To bet- those purchasing finished lots forego the delays associated
ter understand the review and approval process as it relates with site plan approval and need only building plan approval
to Union Mills requires an understanding of the participants to begin construction. From the outset, the client's goal was
and their role in the review process in Fairfax County as well to significantly expedite the design and review/approval
as the structure of the review process. process to begin construction as quickly as possible. The
In Fairfax County, the governing body, the Board of significant amount of time required for the zoning process,
Supervisors, ultimately is responsible for the review and the rising costs of development, dwindling sales activity, and
approval of all engineering plans and plats as well as inspec- heavy costs of infrastructure development imposed by Fairfax
tions and monitoring during project construction. How- County, added economic uncertainty to the project. Thus, in
ever, the Board has delegated these tasks primarily to the order to expedite the overall process and ensure cost-effective
Department of Environmental Management (DEM) and its design and construction, Hazel/Peterson Companies utilized
Director. The Director is authorized to review and approve the following proactive team approach to the project:
construction plans and plats on behalf of the Board. DEM,
• To ensure continuity throughout the lengthy design
in turn, relies on the input from other agencies within the
process, the developer decided to use the same con-
County government as well as other local and state agencies,
sultant to perform the planning, zoning, and engi-
such as the Fairfax Water Authority, the Virginia Depart-
neering tasks.
ment of Transportation, and the State Health Department in
the review of engineering plans. • Hazel/Peterson personnel would interface/coordi-
Within DEM, there are several divisions involved in nate with Fairfax County as needed. The developer
the design/construction review/approval process. Specifi- would establish overall schedules and priorities with
cally, the Division of Design Review is responsible for the senior management in DEM while specific issues
review and approval of construction plans and plats, as well were addressed jointly by junior staff within Hazel/
as other studies, reports, and miscellaneous items relating Peterson, Fairfax County, and Dewberry & Davis, the
to the land development process. Union Mills is located engineering firm.
within the Springfield District with that District reviewer
• Weekly meetings and daily interaction between the
serving as the central coordinator for each project. Other
developer and design professional would be main-
agency reviews are processed through this individual. Also
tained throughout the life of the project.
contained within DDR is the Arborist Branch, Technical
Support Branch, and Special Projects Branch, all of which • A general contractor was selected by Hazel/Peterson
will review a given project. The Special Projects Branch has early in the design process to review plans and help
responsibility for the review of technical information relat- develop strategies to reduce construction costs.
ing to hydrology, soils, siltation, and erosion control, as well
as other specialized studies relating to a given project. The design professional's role in the development process
Other agencies involved in the review process include the incorporates a variety of skills such as technical design skills,
Fire Marshal, Water Authority, Department of Public Works, knowledge of local ordinances, policies and procedures,
Virginia Department of Transportation, Fairfax County Park and communication. How the land development engineer
Authority, Health Department, and the Northern Virginia welds these skills together can greatly influence the success
Water and Soils Conservation Service. Depending on what or failure of a project. A positive engineer/client relation-
issues surface during the review process, other agencies, both ship is integral to the success of the project. The engineer-
state and local, may be asked to review the plans. The review ing project manager and design team selected for the Union
agency must ensure that all projects consistently comply with Mills project had an extensive history with the client. The
published standards and policies and that the project does previously established working relationship between client
not endanger the health, safety, and welfare of the general and engineer allowed for open discussion and joint deci-
public. The process by which construction plans and plats sion making. Knowledge of the site was an important factor
are routed through a typical jurisdictional review is shown in during the early stages of the Union Mills project. As will be
Figure 5.IE of Chapter 5.1. illustrated later, this knowledge of the site enabled the team
At the time Union Mills was being developed, the review to identify and resolve issues prior to the start of final design
and approval process in Fairfax County for construction
plans was approximately 15 to 18 months for each plan. The 7.7.5. Summary Observations
client, the Hazel/Peterson Companies, served as owner and The purpose in writing this case study was an attempt to
developer and it was their intention to build the infrastruc- demonstrate the tremendous amount of outside influences
ture components of the project; that is, major roads, sani- involved in the planning and engineering of a major land
tary sewer outfalls, stormwater management facilities, and development project. The influence of citizen activists, special
 7.7 ■ DETAILED CASE STUDIES 817

interest groups and raw politics is ever present. The days of protection policies prompted by State Government. In addi-
engineering a project without consideration of environmen- tion, a once rural community was being transformed to a
tal, social and aesthetic considerations are long gone. Today's more densely populated suburban environment with the cor-
process not only mandates coordination and approval of adja- responding traffic congestion and need for additional public
cent neighbors but consideration must also be given to future facilities such as schools, fire and police facilities and more
neighbors in terms of transportation improvements, stormwa- effective stormwater management. The citizen activists and
ter management, environmental protection and a myriad of other interest groups used the Union Mills project as a vehicle
other aspects of the development process. to voice their concerns regarding the impacts, real or per-
The Union Mills project was selected for this case study ceived, of the proposed Union Mills project.
because it had almost all the elements of the development The success of this project was due, to a great extent,
process from the planning and zoning through final site to the development team that had been established and
design and engineering. Further, the project was a mixed use its technical skills as well as skill in communications and
with townhouses; single-family detached units and a retail negotiations. It is unrealistic to believe that a project can be
center being developed. The mixture of uses provided the approved through a public process without negotiations and
opportunity to demonstrate obstacles overcome through the compromise on a wide variety of issues. In the case of Union
planning and zoning process as well as the diversity of engi- Mills compromises were made in the planning, zoning, and
neering techniques implemented to resolve issues within the engineering elements of the developments. However, the
various land bays. issues were thoughtfully anticipated and, consequently, the
The Union Mills project was also somewhat unique in that compromises were disruptive but not fatal to the project. As
at the time it was being developed, a renewed awareness of the demonstrated in this study, ongoing effective communica-
environment and traffic congestion which resulted in addi- tions with all participants in the process was essential to the
tional policies and ordinances having a significant impact on success of this project. A comparison of the site before devel-
the development process. Examples of such changes include opment and after development is shown in the aerial photos
the adoption and successful defense in court of the Occoquan of Figures 7.7U and 7.7V.
Basin Study and related downzoning by the Fairfax County When planning and designing a project, thought, and
Board of Supervisors and more stringent environmental consideration must be given to the possible impacts of the

FIG uRE 7. 7 U Union Mills site (circa 1974).

818 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,1:/iidtHLMH

FIG uRE 7. 7 V Union Mill site (circa 1993).

proposal on the existing community and environment. including 14 affordable dwelling units (ADUs), for a gross
Again, in the case of Union Mills, anticipation of the issues floor area of 440,000 sf. Total costs for the project approached
and communication with the appropriate interest groups $135,000,000.
took place early and continued throughout the development Located in a Comprehensive Plan designated Town Cen-
process. Although technology is ever advancing and chang- ter area, the site urban design concept was clearly a pedes-
ing, the human element remains paramount in the success of trian friendly approach to redevelopment. Although all
a given project. The human element was clearly responsible parties endeavored to create a "pedestrian experience;' it
for the successful planning, engineering, and development of quickly became evident with the completion of the traffic
the beautiful community of Union Mills. study, that extensive access improvements would be required
to accommodate projected traffic scenarios stemming from
PART B-MERRIFIELD TOWN CENTER PROJECT the ultimate town center and to maintain the public street
Merrifield Town Center (MTC) is constructed on an assem- network internal to and surrounding the site.
blage of parcels totaling 7.48 acres located west of Gallows Striking a balance between vehicular and pedestrian
Road (Rt. 650) and south of Lee Highway (Rt. 29) in Fairfax demands became the primary site design factor. From con-
County, Virginia. Just under one mile from the Dunn Loring ceptual design through final engineering and construc-
metro station, this suburban redevelopment project was the tion, Dewberry worked closely with the client, neighbors,
first phase of the Town Center. Originally zoned Industrial and local jurisdiction staff to plan and engineer a site that
(I-5) and Highway Corridor (HC), the site was rezoned to provided required public improvements with as little com-
Planned Residential Mixed-Use (PRM) to allow 105,500 sf promise to the urban design guidelines as possible. As the
of retail and office space and 270 residential condominiums, first phase of redevelopment in the Town Center, MTC was
 7.7 ■ DETAILED CASE STUDIES 819

a precedent setting project in this part of the county where

substantial change was envisioned in terms of public infra-
structure enhancements, economic opportunities, and com-
munity lifestyle options.

7. 7.6. Due Diligence and Site Analysis

Development Program: Market Needs and Community
Vision. The old adage "location, location, location'' is
entirely applicable to Merrifield. According to Michael Col-
lier, President ofUniwest (developer), "Merrifield is a unique
area in Fairfax County because it is the midpoint of the Tyson's
Corner-Fairview Park Office Complex/Inova Hospital bar-
bell:' With two substantial employment centers north and
south of the site, quick access to the Capital Beltway (495),
Route 66 (a major east-west corridor), and proximity to the
orange line metro stop at Dunn Loring, Merrifield is a nexus
for redevelopment in Fairfax County (Figure 7.7W).
The highly industrial nature of Merrifield was truly an
underutilization of this prime location; without a more pro-
nounced residential component and complimentary com-
mercial services to support it, this area would remain a transit
corridor between the two employment centers rather than
the vibrant community many locals, businesses, and county
officials wished to create. In the late 1990s, local business and
citizen's groups successfully spearheaded several changes to
the County Comprehensive Plan to facilitate the transition
from highly industrial to moderately dense mixed use.
Local to Merrifield, Uniwest had a vested interest in the
progress of the Comprehensive Plan amendments and played
an active role in the many public charettes and meetings.
While it was clear the site had potential, it was important to
ensure that the developer's vision meshed with the commu-
nity's vision and was accounted for in the plan amendment.
During this process multiple scenarios were reviewed by
the design team, namely, by the developer in terms of eco-
nomic feasibility. Scenarios ranged from different usage mixes
to different types of residential applications (rental apartment
versus condominium), to property size in so much as parcel
acquisition opportunities (for surrounding/adjacent parcels)
were in flux. Through iteration and refinement, the design
team identified the opportunities and constraints of various
development scenarios and worked progressively toward a
highest and best use examination. Dewberry's familiarity with
Fairfax County paired with the adaptability and creativity
inherent to this process resulted in quick, continuous feed-
back and ultimately enabled Uniwest to make programming, 1.iirnew
/ Park
"go, no-gd' decisions, and proffered commitments with confi- Office
dence and faith that the program could be delivered in subse- campus

quent steps of the development process. I

Due Diligence /
Comprehensive Planning and Zoning in Fairfax County. /
/
The first step of due diligence is to evaluate the County's /
Comprehensive Plan. This step is crucial in Fairfax County
since the Comprehensive Plan is the basis for land use
decisions. Although a Comprehensive Plan is only a guide FIGURE 7. 7W Vicinity Map-MTC.
and not a legal document per se, it is extremely rare for a
020 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH
development proposal to be approved that is not in strict Land Unit recommendations which specify planned use and
conformance with the Comprehensive Plan. intensity for each unit and subunit.
The emphasis and reliance on the Comprehensive Plan is Merrifield Suburban Center Area Wide Recommendations-
a result of two noteworthy community planning efforts in Urban Design. First and foremost, the property was iden-
Fairfax County: the 1970s Planning Land Use System (PLUS) tified as a component of the Town Center "Core Area:' The
and the 1990s Fairfax Planning Horizons process. Both efforts applicable land use recommendation for core areas stated:
were initiated by the Board of Supervisors to improve planning, The highest development intensities and the most "urban''
identify county goals and priorities in terms of the built envi- areas of the Merrifield Suburban Center will be located within
ronment, and facilitate responsible growth through informed the designated core areas: the "Town Center Area' and the
community decision making processes. County residents played "Transit Station Area:' Within these areas, mixed-use devel-
a major role in each of these visioning exercises via the creation opment is encouraged and may include office, residential,
of task forces, surveys, and countless public meetings. Ultimately, retail, hotel, major entertainment uses, as well as institutional,
the Horizons process replaced the 1975 PLUS Plan with cultural, recreational, and governmental uses. To encourage
a more urban environment, new buildings should be located
• An updated Policy Plan that describes jurisdiction- close to roadways while allowing for streetscape amenities such
wide policies relating to land use, transportation, as street trees, sidewalks, plazas, street furniture, and land-
environment, public facilities, and housing scaping. Locating buildings closer to the roadway means that
most off-street parking will be located in structures behind or
• Revised Area Plans that provide Planning District
beneath buildings. Parking structures should generally be inte-
and Community Planning Sector recommendations
grated with an associated building in a manner that maximizes
on a parcel specific level
usable open space and the provision of pedestrian linkages.7
• Comprehensive Plan and Transportation Plan maps To encourage utilization of the mixed-use designation,
additional land use requirements such as the inclusion of
The Horizons Process utilized the Concept for Future Devel- Affordable Dwelling Units (ADUs) as well as Parcel Con-
opment (1990), comprised of the Concept Map, the Land solidation and/or Coordinated Development Plans are also
Use Classification System, and the Land Use Classification noted. The provision of ADUs in a development program
System Guidelines, to modify the Area Plans. The Hori- will yield density bonuses necessary to achieve the high end
zons Process represents the last significant effort by Fairfax of the allowable intensities specified, while Consolidation/
County to revise the Comprehensive Plan; upon adoption Coordination would ensure proper integration of the project
of the Horizon Plan, the regularly scheduled Annual Plan into the changing community.
Review Process, a 4-year cycle, commenced. In addition to the Land Use recommendations, the Area
County growth areas were further defined in the Hori- Wide Recommendations outline the specific urban design
zon Plan through the identification of localized Mixed-Use components of redevelopment efforts in the Center, particu-
Centers and Industrial/Institutional Centers in the Concept larly in the core areas. The primary urban design goals for
for Future Development and carried out in the Area Plans. the Town Center are to create a "sense of place" and encour-
Despite several plan revisions during the early 1990s, the age alternative transportation modes through provision of
Greater Merrifield Business Association and several other
local citizen groups felt the Comprehensive Plan language for • Attractive, landscaped, pedestrian friendly streets
the Merrifield Suburban Center still reflected recommenda- • Buildings with a distinctive architectural character
tions from the 1970s and 1980s. This community coalition and street presence
pushed for a visioning workshop to address the future rede-
velopment of the area. As a result of this collaborative effort • High-quality design in terms of integrated and coor-
between the community and the county, the Plan language dinated building design and materials, open space
was enhanced in 2001 to provide for a more urban core, mixed amenities, and recreational space
use in nature, and connected via green space and pedestrian
To achieve these goals, the MTC plan would need to exem-
ways to the Transit Station area. This designation in the Com-
plify improved connectivity and quality of spaces. The
prehensive Plan served as the foundation for the Town Center
primary means of physically achieving the goal is through
development, laid the groundwork for subsequent rezoning
the streetscape design. The plan identifies four typical
and design efforts, and engaged this already active commu-
streetscape sections, two of which would be component parts
nity in the future redevelopment process (Figure 7.7X).
of the MTC plan-the "Boulevard" street, applied to both
The property is located in Area I in the Merrifield Subur-
Lee Highway (Rt. 29) and Gallows Road, and the "Cross"
ban Center, specifically Land Unit F, Sub-unit Fl as shown in
street was applicable to Strawberry Lane (Figure 7.72).
Figure 7.7Y. The Comprehensive Plan text for the Merrifield
Suburban Center is twofold: Area Wide Recommendations
which identify the overall vision and framework for devel- 'Fairfax County. Fairfax Count'j Comprehensive Plan, 1975 as amended through
opment in the Center (i.e., the urban design concept) and July 2003.
 FIG uRE 7. 7 X Concept map for future development.

-
=.,
022 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH

FIGURE 7. 7Y Merrifield Suburban Center/Merrifield Land Unit F-1.

 7.7 ■ DETAILED CASE STUDIES 823

FIG uRE 7. 7 Z MTG streetscape typical sections identified in comprehensive plan.

024 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH
The other two components of the Area Wide Rec- recreational, and stormwater management facilities, all of
ommendations are Transportation and Public Facilities! which, required closer attention and consideration dur-
Infrastructure. These portions of the recommendations are ing redevelopment to address existing deficiencies and/or
intended to be synergistic with the urban design recom- downstream problems.
mendations by improving, or ensuring the adequacy of the Each of the four components of the Area Wide Recom-
public infrastructure and facilities serving the development, mendations-Land Use, Urban Design, Transportation,
the overall experience for residents of and visitors to the and Public Facilities/Infrastructure-would need to be
Merrifield Suburban Center is enhanced and a variety of addressed and integrated into the Rezoning documents
transportation modes become equivalent options. As noted in order to receive a favorable opinion during the public
in the Feasibility section above, primary transportation review process.
improvements directly tied to redevelopment of the MTC Merrifield Suburban Center Land Unit Recommendations-
site involved the proposed intersection at Lee and Gallows, Program. Land Unit F is envisioned as the "Town Center"
the widening of both of these arterials to six-lane roads, and portion of the Suburban Center. Sub-Unit Fl presents the
the improvement of Strawberry Lane (realigned with Porter "base plan'' for the subject site as well as two options for rede-
Road). Other noteworthy transportation improvements- velopment that would provide greater density within the con-
proximal to the site that would ultimately bear weight text of the Town Center urban design concept (Figure 7. 7AA).
in terms of the rezoning effort and proffer development The base plan for Sub-Unit Fl was "community-serving
included required improvements to Eskridge Road, Trans- retail up to 0.35 FAR'' with a possible office component.
portation Demand Management (TDM) implementation Options 1 and 2 allowed an increase in density to 0.65 FAR
requirements, and policies pertaining to ROW acquisition, for office and retail uses or 1.2 FAR for mixed-use includ-
mitigation of transportation impacts, site access points, ing a residential component. To encourage pursuit of these
parking area access and location, and funding of transporta- redevelopment options, height and density bonuses are
tion improvements and services. provided for such things as provision of ADUs and under-
Because the site is located in a largely developed portion ground parking as outlined in the Comprehensive Plan and
of Fairfax County, the bulk of the public facilities and infra- Zoning Ordinance.
structure-fire and police stations, libraries, schools, and Site Analysis
utilities-was already in place and required little improve- Environmental. Given the existing zoning and uses
ment or small additions. Components identified as lack- on the site including warehouse storage, a dry cleaner/
ing within the Comprehensive Plan included open space, laundromat, truck rental facility, and temporary car storage

FIG uRE 7. 7 AA Town Center Urban Design Concept as Identified in Fairfax County, Comprehensive Plan.
 7.7 ■ DETAILED CASE STUDIES 825

FIG uRE 7. 7 BB Existing Condition Map and Site Inventory.

lot, there were several environmental concerns during the Located at the very upstream end of the Accotink Creek
initial site investigation (Figure 7.7BB). Numerous moni- watershed, there was no evidence of wetlands or federally
toring wells were located in the southeast portion of the regulated water bodies, and the site is not in a flood prone
site; these wells served as an indicator of prior contamina- zone. Cultural resources were not present on the site or in
tion and cleanup. Subsequent and more detailed investiga- close proximity.
tion during the course of the Phase I Environmental Site Preliminary Engineering. Because the site is located in a
Assessment (by others) revealed little cause for concern highly developed part of Fairfax County, engineering feasi-
and the site was "cleared" for redevelopment. Because the bility analysis focused on existing utility capacity, access and
site was already developed, noteworthy natural resources circulation issues, grading, drainage, and stormwater man-
did not exist. Several trees located on adjacent property agement, in particular, outfall adequacy.
were identified for cautionary reasons and recently planted The site was serviced by existing utilities including water,
material was designated as possible transplant material. sewer, storm drain, gas, and electric. Initial inquiries to
02& fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH
utility providers proved valuable, identifying the following the realigned Strawberry/Gallows/Porter intersection. The
host of design considerations. results of this study became available and were incorporated
Although located in Fairfax County, water service for this during the schematic design phase (see Figure 7.7DD for
area is provided by the City of Falls Church. Capacity was further details)
not an issue; however, as a result of this unique scenario an Not only did the proposed widening of Gallows affect the
additional jurisdiction became involved in the plan review site buildable area but it presented a challenge in terms of
and approval process. grading for pedestrian, specifically handicap, accessibility.
Fairfax County Division of Wastewater Planning and There was over 10 foot of grade change along Strawberry
Monitoring confirmed capacity in adjacent sewer mains. Lane; with the widening of Gallows, this grade change
They determined that initial load estimates would result in became exacerbated. Although it was fairly clear how to fit
at least two new connections. Given the topography of the the buildings into the topography to take advantage of mul-
site, these taps would actually be in separate sewer sheds, one tistory retail and structured parking; designing the sidewalks
of which was subject to reimbursement fees. and streetscape to meet handicap accessibility standards
Dry utilities including gas, electric, telephone, and fiber would take careful attention to detail and creative manipu-
optic were present in the area. Overhead utilities would need lation of building entry features to ensure accessible routes.
to be relocated and caution exercised to resolve proposed While the drastic grade change on the site presented a
road and utility improvements near the existing gas and fiber challenge in terms of grading for accessibility; it facilitated
optic lines in Gallows Road. storm drain and stormwater management (SWM) design.
In terms of access and circulation, the existing street Given the tight buildable area conditions, underground
system was less than desirable from both a pedestrian and SWM facilities were planned even during feasibility. A clear
vehicle perspective. Both Gallows Road and Lee Highway, the redevelopment project, quantity and quality control were
two framing arterials were included in the Virginia Depart- required according to Fairfax County guidelines. The pri-
ment of Transportation (VDOT) 6-year Road Improvement mary concern at this stage of the land development process
Plan (Figure 7.7CC depicts a transportation map). The mas- was stormwater outfall adequacy. Four separate pipe outfalls
sive proposed at-grade intersection and the ripple-effect were identified on the site; further investigation of the storm
improvements along each corridor would drastically affect drainage systems revealed that all four systems rejoined
the subject site. Additionally, the County Comprehensive downstream and ultimately discharged into an unnamed
Plan identified circulation improvements within the Town branch of Accotink Creek. Modeling the outfall systems
Center area to enhance connectivity between the transit sta- would require additional field survey and plan research in
tion area to the north and the town center as well as facilitate order to piece together the outfall path to the requisite dis-
the transformation from industrial to mixed use. An analysis tance downstream.
of the site development consequences of VDOT's and Fair- Conclusion to Due Diligence and Site Analysis of Merri-
fax County's complimentary road improvement scenarios field Town Center. The end result of the first steps of the
revealed the following key components: land development process was a "go'' decision on the part
of the client. All the pieces were in place-a prime location,
• Strawberry Lane would need to be realigned and site conditions that could be overcome and improved, and
improved through the site. promising, enabling Comprehensive Plan language that was
supported by the local community. Following the "go'' deci-
• Additional Right-of-Way dedication along Gallows
sion, the process truly took flight as rezoning efforts and
would be required to accommodate VDOT's inter-
more detailed engineering analysis commenced to refine the
section improvements and street widening.
development program and bring Uniwest's vision to life.
• Direct connections (entrances) to the site from Lee An important aspect of the comprehensive planning and
Highway and Gallows Road would not be possible zoning process is a basic awareness of how the local govern-
based on proximity to the existing and proposed ment operates in accordance with their jurisdiction size,
Lee/Gallows intersection. structure of government, legislative authority granted by
the State, and the amount of participation by the residents of
The realignment of Strawberry and ROW dedications for the community. In order to understand the land development
Strawberry and Gallows would result in a substantial change process as it relates to Merrifield Town Center, it is impor-
in configuration of the buildable site area: conservative esti- tant to become familiar with the basic structure of the Fairfax
mates based on early research of VDOT plans indicated a County government and the participants in the process.
net reduction of nearly 2 acres. These cursory observa- The governing body in Fairfax County is the Board of
tions laid the groundwork for conceptual design efforts and Supervisors. The citizens elect one Supervisor from each of
prompted more detailed analysis in the form of a traffic the nine Districts and an at-large Chairman every four years.
study. A detailed traffic study was performed (by others) to The Board of Supervisors plays a major role in the land
quantify ROW needs for both Strawberry and Gallows and development process: They formulate and adopt Ordinances
determine signalization and intersection improvements for and policies relating to the development process as well as
 7.7 ■ DETAILED CASE STUDIES 827

FIG uRE 7. 7 CC Fairfax County transportation plan.

828 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH

FIG uRE 7. 7 DD Proposed ROW dedication as determined during the engineering feasibility analysis.

review and approve rezoning, special exception applications As a result of the increased sophistication of the citizens
and amendments to the Comprehensive Plan. The Board of and their influence in the land development process in Fairfax
Supervisors delegates the bulk of the land use coordination County, organizations made up of representatives of various
and negotiations to the Planning Commission. The Planning homeowners associations have been formed within individual
Commission is a twelve-member body appointed by the Supervisor Districts to advise the Planning Commission and
Board of Supervisors. Each Supervisor appoints a member Board of Supervisors on land use matters. For example, the
to represent their district for a 4-year term and the Chair- Greater Merrifield Business Association (GMBA) is a non-
man of the Board appoints three at-large members. Gener- profit organization established in 1984. This group advised
ally, the Planning Commission holds public hearings twice the Planning Commission and Board of Supervisors during
a week. The Board of Supervisors makes the final decision the planning process of Merrifield Town Center. These types
on the majority of land use matters and, historically, Board of citizen organizations have become so influential in the land
members rely heavily on Planning Commission recommen- development process; many Supervisors and Planning Com-
dations. Although there have been rezoning cases in which mission members strongly suggest that applicants present
the Board of Supervisors has overruled a Planning Commis- their proposals to these groups prior to the Planning Com-
sion recommendation, it is atypical of the process. mission public hearing. It is difficult to receive a favorable
 7.7 ■ DETAILED CASE STUDIES 829

recommendation from the Planning Commission or Board development (Figure 7.7EE). Once the decision to pursue
of Supervisors without the support of local citizen groups. It mixed-use programming was made, initial floor area com-
is not uncommon for the design team to meet with these local putations were completed in order to begin determining
citizen/business groups several times prior to public hearings building massing arrangements. With two large land bays,
in order to adequately address their concerns. massing seemed self-evident; however, the substantial ROW
In addition to the political decision makers, there are usu- dedications combined with previously identified comprehen-
ally homeowners in proximity to the proposed development sive plan recommendations to enhance/provide open space
who have concerns or self-serving interest regarding the and recreational facilities with any residential components
proposal. Sometimes, these citizens are not part of a home- created additional context for design. Several alternatives
owners association and lack representation within one of the were examined to achieve the client's desired density while
larger community citizen organizations. The members of the "building in'' valuable open space. From pocket parks and
Planning Commission and Board of Supervisors rely heavily streetscaping to greenroofs, nearly every open space option
on input from the adjacent homeowners of a given project was investigated in terms of added amenity value, cost, and
and their concerns must also be addressed along with those construction feasibility. Ultimately, it was determined that a
of the larger citizen organizations. sizeable park, one that provides amenities beyond the small
oasis of a pocket park, would likely be required given that
7. 7. 7. Conceptual Design three Plazas/Urban Greens were identified in close proximity
Based on the preliminary investigations and Uniwest's eco- to the site on the Merrifield Suburban Center Open Space and
nomic assessments of the possible development scenarios, Pedestrian System Map. With open space and ROW require-
the decision was made to pursue the mixed-use option ments tentatively delineated, general building footprints were
(option 2) identified in the Comprehensive Plan. In 2003, developed for each land bay taking into account the unique
when the land development process was initiated, the hous- corner treatments that would be required in order to accom-
ing market was exploding in the Washington D.C. metro modate the alternating acute and obtuse angles formed at the
area; market demand paired with a desirable location and a primary entrances to the site along improved Strawberry. In
firm assurance from Dewberry that the program could be addition to the urban park and required streetscaping, sev-
delivered within the confines of the jurisdictional require- eral possible pocket parks were identified as options in the
ments allowed Uniwest to move forward in the development "leftover" corner areas. Desirable views for the residences
process with confidence. In order to achieve the desired were identified: improved Gallows and Lee Highway would
program, rezoning would be required; thus exposing the cli- be active, streetscaped boulevards although traffic heavy (i.e.,
ent and their program to the public review process. Prior to noisy), Strawberry Lane would be the eastern entry to the
initiating the formal rezoning process, conceptual and sche- town center, and west of the site would be future phases of the
matic level designs were completed in order to thoroughly town center likely similar in architecture and programming.
investigate design options and ensure the development pro- Based on these considerations as well as architectural con-
gram put forward in the public process would comply with cerns related to depth and structural systems, U-shaped tow-
relevant standards and sit favorably with the community and ers were devised on each building in order to take advantage
the political leaders. of the prime frontage on improved Gallows and Strawberry
Development Patterns and Principles. Given the program, as well as the town center expansion.
site size (not even 7.5 acres), and configuration (nearly rect- In addition to the buildings themselves, access consid-
angular but bisected at a severe angle by Strawberry Lane), erations-vehicular and pedestrian-continued to effect
both horizontal and stacked mixed-use development sce- design development. From the feasibility investigation, it
narios were investigated. With only conservative estimates of was determined that vehicle access from Gallows and Lee
the ROW requirements for improved Strawberry Lane and Highway would be restricted, in fact no new entrances would
Gallows Road, the buildable area of the site was somewhat be permitted, leaving Strawberry as the primary entry and
in flux; although, it was clear there would be two distinct access to the site. The grade change along Strawberry was
land bays, the primary corners of which posed an intriguing ideal in terms of providing direct access to various levels of
design dilemma given their geometry. Programming discus- structured parking; however, the location of multiple such
sions during the feasibility step revealed that nearby Reston entrances along Strawberry would have substantially dis-
Town Center was a desirable model to emulate in terms of rupted the required streetscape, pedestrian experience, and
overall aesthetics and "sense of place:' Using Reston as a desirable retail street presence. The street just west of the
guideline and in order to optimize the building program, site was private south of Hilltop Road and as such would
stacked mixed use emerged as the most practical arrange- require permission from the neighbor, easements and/or
ment of space. Like most stacked mixed-use scenarios, it was access rights in order to devise usable entries to the site. This
determined that both land bays would support ground level approach was deemed by the design team questionable at
retail with a residential tower above. best given the various states ofredevelopment of the neigh-
Overall massing of the buildings and orientation of bors and the need to access both the north and south land
the residential component were critical in terms of design bay. Once the obvious access solutions were exhausted the
030 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH

(a)

FIG uRE 7. 7 EE MTC Conceptual Designs-figures (a) and (b) are site concepts and figure (c) is an internal building concept prepared by the
Development Design Group to facilitate site/building coordination during final design.
 (b)

-
~ FIGURE 7.7EE (Continued)
(c)

FIGURE 7.7EE (Continued)

 7.7 ■ DETAILED CASE STUDIES 833

design team began to consider an alternate approach in the Project Phasing. Since MTC was the first site to redevelop
form of a private service drive. Although this arrangement in the core area, phased construction, particularly required
resulted in additional roadway infrastructure and less build- road improvements, would be necessary. Parcels north,
able area, it successfully kept moving and delivery vehicles south, and west of the site that were further from redevel-
out of the main town center entry street, provided for park opment and not consolidated into the subject plan stood
maintenance access, and allowed private access for both as roadblocks to completing ultimate road improvements.
buildings giving residents and commercial users a sense of In addition to the unknown redevelopment time frame
privacy and exclusivity. for neighboring properties, it came to light that VDOT's
improvement schedule for Gallows and Lee Highway did
7. 7.8. Schematic Design not coincide with the MTC development schedule resulting
To refine the general site layout developed during con- in a projected gap between the two projects of nearly 2 years.
ceptual design, the land development consulting team Preliminary engineering efforts focused on the identifica-
systematically quantified the public infrastructure tion of interim and ultimate road improvement scenarios
improvements-specifically the public road and open space to facilitate a smooth merger of the new development into
requirements. First, the results and recommendations from both the existing community and the future Town Center.
completed specialty studies-traffic, community impact, Careful attention to transitions at the perimeter was also
and geotechnical-were combined with the concept study a priority to ensure that grading and pedestrian facilities
to produce schematic level drawings suitable for use as would tie-out effectively in interim and ultimate scenarios
points of discussion and negotiation with local review staff, with minimal rebuilding. Building corners and streetscape
political leaders, and community members. Second, sche- elements, particularly landscaping, were reviewed in terms
matic design iterations were performed in response to these of both interim and ultimate condition sight distance con-
various stakeholder meetings in an effort to build design straints (Figure 7.7FF).
consensus among the client, design team, neighbors, and Alternate Street Designs. While it was clear road improve-
jurisdictional entities prior to and during the formal rezon- ments would be required as a proffered condition ofrezon-
ing effort. ing, the extent or "reasonable proportion'' of the required
Preliminary Engineering and Design. On-site infrastructure improvements assigned to Uniwest was determined through
improvements resolved in further detail during schematic an iterative process with VDOT, FCDOT, and DPZ. The
design included over 1000 structured parking spaces, the challenge throughout was reconciling the Comprehensive
public and private road network, pedestrian bridge location, Plan streetscape recommendations, the recommendations
paved loading docks, sidewalks, utility systems, grading and of the traffic study, and VDOT public street standards to
drainage, stormwater management systems (both quantity develop essentially two road improvement plans-interim
and quality control), lighting, landscaping, and recreational and ultimate.
open space. Each of these features was engineered to a point Existing deficiencies noted in the Comprehensive Plan
where constructability could be ensured pending final design. (namely the number and location of access points and the
In some cases, multiple design iterations were warranted in lack of adequate pedestrian and/or bicycle facilities) in addi-
order to ensure the proposed development program met the tion to the traffic projections for the site, resulted in elevated
merits of the Comprehensive Plan and jurisdiction guidelines. concerns regarding the safety and efficiency of both vehicle
Specific "sticking points" during the course of redevelopment and pedestrian movements through and around the site.
included proposed density, the required road improvements, Further, VDOT road improvement plans for Gallows and
and stormwater management. Lee Highway were still in preliminary stages and did not
Density. In order to pursue a mixed-use scenario on-site, fully account for access needs such as turn lanes for unde-
meet the profitable yield level, and provide the identified veloped properties. Table 7.7B summarizes the various road
infrastructure improvements, Uniwest needed to achieve configuration recommendations and the resultant schematic
maximum permissible density thresholds on the site. This designs produced.
could only be accomplished through provision of Afford- Gallows Road. Rarely does the biggest site asset also turn
able Dwelling Units (ADUs). Further, advanced density out to be the biggest detriment to development: such was the
credit for all Right-of-Way (ROW) dedications needed to be case with Gallows Road. The proposed improvements would
ensured in order to optimize the building program within clearly improve vehicle capacity, traffic flow, pedestrian
the reduced site area. Throughout the preliminary engi- facilities, and the aesthetics of the street; however, accom-
neering and rezoning effort, Uniwest and Dewberry plan- plishing these improved conditions required a substantial
ners in conjunction with County staff (DPZ) and the district dedication of land and resources by Uniwest. Due to the
Supervisor's office examined numerous ratios of ADUs to relatively urban nature of the site and significant overhead
market rate units. Discussions focused on the appropriate (aerial) utilities on the east side of Gallows, the widening was
mix of housing and retail for the site as well as the town proposed entirely on the western side (project side) of the
center as a whole since this was the first wave of redevelop- street in order to avoid costly utility relocation fees and take
ment in the area. advantage of those properties slated to redevelop as opposed
(a)

FIG uRE 7. 7 FF (a) Interim Gallows Road improvements and (b) Ultimate Gallows Road improvements.
(b)

FIGURE 7. 7FF (Continued)

a3& fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH
TA BLE 7. 7 B Public Roadway Design Scenarios
COMPREHENSIVE PLAN TRAFFIC STUDY
EXISTING RECOMMENDATION RECOMMENDATION INTERIM ULTIMATE

Gallows 4 through lanes; 6-lane road with 6-lane road; dual lefts 4 through lanes; dual Traffic Study
Road single left-turn planted median; from NB Gallows to lefts from NB Gallows Recommendation
lane from NB 26- to 30-ft Strawberry; single left to Strawberry; single
Gallows to streetscape adjacent from SB Gallows to left from SB Gallows to
Strawberry to buildings Porter; dedicated right Porter; dedicated right
from SB Gallows to from SB Gallows to
Strawberry Strawberry
Strawberry 3 lanes at any 2 through lanes with 4-lane road with Traffic Study Traffic Study
Lane given point-2 on-street parking dedicated right onto Recommendation Recommendation
turning lanes and on both sides and SB Gallows
a through at each 26-ft of streetscape
end of street adjacent to buildings

to distributing the additional ROW needs equally on both intersection and the small piece of existing ROW that
sides of existing Gallows. It was also determined that the allowed the connection to the existing private street to
existing lanes on Gallows were substandard in width; thus, the west but was rejected because it established a poor
even interim improvements would need to progress the street frame work for the land bays, exacerbating the already
design in terms of compliance with public street standards. asymmetric situation.
Lane and median widths would become a key point of nego-
A traffic circle instead of an intersection at the private
tiation with jurisdiction staff as ultimately it would affect the
access road was examined as an attractive means of
final ROW dedication and buildable area of the site.
directing traffic at a key focal point in the site. Further
Utilizing VDOT's proposed centerline for Gallows, Dew-
it would have provided an acceptable public street ter-
berry worked with the traffic consultant and VDOT district
minus and allowed for earlier transition from private to
reviewer to evaluate configuration alternatives by confirming
public street access. However, in order to achieve this
sight distance, ensuring constructability in interim and ulti-
benefit, the circle or temporary cul-de-sac would be sub-
mate conditions, examining requisite signal improvements,
ject to public street design standards which mandate a
and gauging the effects on the required streetscape facilities.
large radius and ROW dedication in order to accommo-
This process is very much a balancing act: providing adequate
date emergency vehicle and truck access to the planned
public facilities while optimizing buildable site area.
facilities. Public street sight distance requirements would
Strawberry Lane. A similar balancing act was required as it
limit anything in the center of the roundabout (landscap-
related to Strawberry Lane. VDOT and the traffic consultant
ing or artwork) to less than 2 feet in height. The reduced
wanted to ensure safe, efficient vehicle movement, while the
aesthetic options combined with the impact to the build-
local jurisdiction and client were concerned with providing
able area of the proposed park and land bays were too
the required streetscape and pedestrian improvements with-
substantial to overcome and the circle was abandoned
out dedicating more land than is necessary. Various design
(Figure 7.7GG).
configurations for Strawberry were investigated including
Private Service Drive. Although a private street, the service
On-street parking as identified in the comprehensive drive was a critical design element. The street was intended
plan was laid out but rendered moot by turning lane to be small to minimize infrastructure maintenance require-
requirements. ments yet had to meet several functional criteria: ( 1) garage
access, (2) loading access, (3) emergency vehicle access,
Provision of a brickpave median to provide a pedestrian
and (4) park maintenance. Each of these access criteria was
refuge in a street that had become increasingly wide with
further coordinated with the pedestrian, open space, and
traffic recommendations for turn lanes was eliminated as
streetscape facilities implemented to the extent possible in
it required an additional 4 feet of ROW dedication along
uniformity with the rest of the site. Garage entrances inter-
the entire street.
rupt pedestrian facilities and building facade; thus they had
A curved centerline alignment was thought to bet- to be coordinated with the grading and location of ramps,
ter orient the street through the site between its drainage structures, and usable commercial space. Load-
two "pinned" points: the existing Gallows/Porter ing facilities are a requirement of the zoning ordinance;
 7.7 ■ DETAILED CASE STUDIES 837

FIG uRE 7. 7 GG Alternate Strawberry Lane configuration-an early version of the rezoning document showing Strawberry Lane with on-street parking.

confirmation that moving and/or delivery trucks could suc- 15 to 30 feet from the structure and have a minimum width
cessfully access loading facilities was achieved using vehicle of 18 feet. Truck turning movements dictated the mini-
tracking software (Figure 7.7HH). In Fairfax County, build- mum width of the street, while emergency vehicle consid-
ings over 50 feet in height must have ladder truck access to erations prescribed the location of the street. Once each of
the front and rear; emergency vehicle access must be located these access considerations was confirmed and the general
838 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH

- .• J,.JJ,..,IV --~
~ -• ~ ~ ~~
1- - _ __?- L _r ._ . . . _ \ ---;
\ 1_

\ ~ \
FIG uRE 7 . 7 HH Truck turning analysis.

location and dimension of the street established, the remain- towers overlooked them. This seemed like a waste of usable
ing details could be final engineered pending an approved roof space to the client; instead of rooftop detention, Uni-
rezoning and development plan. west, prompted by a request from the District Supervisor,
Environmental Considerations asked Dewberry to investigate the possibility of a greenroof
Stormwater Management and Best Management Practices. and provide information as to how it might provide credit
Once a more realistic building footprint and roadway con- toward the water quality requirement instead.
figuration were established, hydrology analysis and SWM Water quality requirements for the site were based on
requirements were determined. For such a small site at redevelopment criteria since the proposed increase in imper-
the top of the watershed (little to no off-site water), Ratio- vious was less than 20% (Fairfax County redevelopment cri-
nal Method hydrology was used for modeling purposes. teria). Thus the phosphorus removal requirement for the site
Although the site was developed, the proposed develop- was determined to be approximately 14%. In Fairfax County
ment program (as detailed in schematic) resulted in an 18% at the time of this rezoning effort, there were no guidelines
increase in impervious area. Based on this analysis, it was for proper implementation or crediting of greenroofs as a
determined that both detention and BMP facilities would SWM treatment option. 8 Dewberry, through a white paper
be required. to Uniwest, explained the characteristics, pros, and cons
The urban nature of the site along with comprehensive of both extensive and intensive greenroofs and developed
plan recommendations to use underground SWM facilities a SWM model for the site utilizing an intensive greenroof.
in the town center area (in lieu of traditional open air facili- While the district Supervisor was a strong proponent of the
ties) led to the initial design of on-line, large-diameter pipe
detention systems-one in each land bay. Although rooftop 81n 2006, Fairfax County amended their Public Facilities Manual to include six low-
detention facilities were considered, they were not a feasible impact development (LID) techniques, one of which is a green or vegetated roof sys-
option from an aesthetics standpoint since the residential tem, as acceptable best management practices.
 7.7 ■ DETAILED CASE STUDIES 839

greenroof system, the likelihood of achieving SWM credit client; it is effectively the deliverable produced during sche-
during the site plan review process was highly questionable. matic design. Often, it involves several iterations and substan-
Uniwest determined that building a greenroof was economi- tial negotiations between the client, the jurisdiction, and the
cally feasible; however, the inability to procure guaranteed community as this is the document subject to public scrutiny
SWM credit led to a compromise. An intensive greenroof at Planning Commission and Board hearings. Of particular
would be provided on a portion of each building and would interest, are the Proffers or Development Conditions usually
be credited toward the recreational facility requirement for crafted during the course of the rezoning effort as a result of
the residential portion of the development. In this manner, provisions in the Zoning Ordinance that make it possible for
Uniwest was able to yield the benefits of an intensive green- the jurisdiction to ensure public health, safety, and adequacy
roof as well as meet the merits of a proffered requirement of services through proffers.
while the Supervisor was pleased to see design efforts that Although a seemingly straightforward rezoning, given
incorporated Low-Impact strategies. the Comprehensive Plan language and a relatively willing
With the greenroof benefits applied elsewhere, SWM community, the actual process took 13 months from initial
quality criteria still needed to be addressed. Dewberry submission to Fairfax County to final approval of the CDP/
designed an underground sand filter that would treat the FDP and rezoning. What happened? This project like many
bulk of the runoff. As schematic design discussions pro- others ran into the buzzsaw that is land development politics.
ceeded with jurisdiction staff, it became clear that a SWM Ultimately, translating the Comprehensive Plan vision and
treatment requirement exceeding minimum standards was Uniwest's dream scenario into the reality of public infrastruc-
desirable. Fairfax County is in the Chesapeake Bay water- ture, satisfactory to the numerous jurisdictions and citizen
shed and is, like many jurisdictions in this environmentally groups with a vested interest in the project, became an exercise
sensitive area, conscientious of SWM and E&S on all land in patience and perseverance as well as a design challenge.
development projects. As a precedent setting project in the Rezoning-Negotiations with Staff. As noted earlier, the
town center area, it became clear that MTC would set the public agencies' primary concern as it related to the MTC
standard for exceeding minimum requirements. Thus even development was related to access and connectivity improve-
early iterations of the SWM design sought to achieve upward ments. Streets, functioning as the backbone of the site, are
of 20% phosphorus removal through incorporation of inno- the primary conduits for people and vehicles. They serve as
vative BMPs such as Filterra units (inlet biological filtration the frame for both the recreational and functional (building)
systems). spaces and as such must be appealing, safe, and efficient. All
Landscaping!Streetscaping. The emphasis in the compre- other site components are contingent upon the street config-
hensive plan on the "sense of place'' to be created in the town uration-the streetscape, utility corridors, and building and
center led to increased scrutiny of the proposed streetscape, open space envelopes are all determined in relation to the
landscaping, and proposed pedestrian facilities during street configuration. Thus nearly every public entity involved
the schematic and rezoning phase. In order to emphasize in the land development review process had a vested inter-
the importance of streetscape, landscaping, and pedestrian est in the proposed street improvements. From the complete
facilities, the County required Uniwest to proffer these redesign of Strawberry Lane, to the substantial improvements
improvements. From bike racks and benches to material associated with the widening of Gallows Road, including an
specifications, maintenance obligations, and even fee-in-lieu entirely new configuration for the Strawberry/Gallows/Por-
or contribution requirements for off-site improvements, the ter intersection, iterations through the street design resulted
urban design goals expressed through the streetscape were in a ripple effect through the remainder of the site. Uniwest
always at the forefront of design considerations. As seen in President, Mike Collier noted, "As the public improvements
the schematic plan (Figure 7.711), an alternate streetscape began to take shape, we realized the site would be a tighter
section was incorporated to ensure adequate open space and squeeze than we initially anticipated; maintaining a profit-
pedestrian facilities regardless of the evolving road designs. able balance between the infrastructure improvements and
The Rezoning Process. In order to achieve the desired the allowable development program was at the heart of all
development program-stacked mixed use with retail, office, rezoning and proffer negotiations:' Issues such as alignment,
and residential components-the site had to be rezoned from configuration or typical section, and phasing of improve-
Industrial (I) and Highway Corridor (HC) to Planned Resi- ments for all three streets-Strawberry, Gallows, and to a
dential Mixed Use (PRM). Chapter 16 of the Fairfax County lesser extent, Lee Highway-were the focus of preliminary
Zoning Ordinance outlines the review and approval require- engineering efforts and proffer development.
ments for rezoning to a P district, specifically, the requirements To aid in understanding the various competing interests,
for Conceptual and Final Development Plans (CDP/FDP) to a brief description of the primary entities and their goals in
clarify the development program and support the rezoning terms of the MTC redevelopment are included forthwith:
application as well as provision of a Site Plan to carry out an
approved CDP/FDP. The CDP/FDP is typically prepared by Uniwest (Developer): Maximize buildable area within the
the land development consultant in close collaboration with confines of the existing site boundary and those created
the architect, traffic consultant, other subconsultants, and the by the proposed ROW dedications; facilitate access to the
a4o fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH
site and create an aesthetic, safe public space to foster a Rezoning-Negotiations with Citizens. As is typical of
vibrant community. the Rezoning process, the development team met with the
neighboring citizen groups individually to present their pro-
VDOT (state transportation agency): Improve the condi-
posal. The issues raised at those meetings were related to
tion of existing public roads and enhance the safety and
specific impacts to the citizen groups including such items
efficiency of the public road network through imple-
as uses within the proposed development, the transporta-
mentation of current standards; limit rebuild efforts
tion improvements, and stormwater management concerns.
associated with future road improvements; and optimize
There was not much opposition to the proposal; however,
private entity contributions through dedications, con-
one of the downstream Homeowner Associations, repre-
struction, and escrow opportunities.
sented by a very vocal, active resident, persistently expressed
Fairfax County Department of Transportation (local concern that insufficient stormwater management was being
transportation agency): Ensure that the recommended provided. This particular HOA was located along the open
roadway improvements in the Comprehensive Plan are channel section of the downstream outfall and was experi-
carried out. encing significant erosion problems.
As a downstream resident, this particular neighbor felt
Fairfax County Department of Zoning (local planning
that although this was considered a redevelopment project,
agency): Ensure that the recommended streetscape and
a proportionate improvement in the site runoff scenario
open space improvements in the Comprehensive Plan
should be provided to address the downstream erosion
are incorporated and applicable zoning and use restric-
problems; although, that was not the requirement in Fairfax
tions are adhered.
County. The respective requirements were such that post-
Through design, these competing interests are resolved. development peak discharge for the 2- and 10-year storms
The land development consultant often is the designer and did not exceed pre-development peak rates and a phospho-
mediator: the engineer and planner work in concert to rec- rus removal efficiency of 20%. The initial CDP/FDP and
ommend solutions, offer alternatives, and continuously evolve associated proffers met the requirements of Fairfax County
and modify the plans to accommodate the client and the juris- by providing Stormwater quantity and quality control as
diction staff. Specific items of compromise for MTC included required for a redevelopment project.
The concerned neighbor, although not a land develop-
Strawberry Lane: Timing of vacation/ dedication of ment professional, was savvy about Stormwater regulations,
ROW, Alignment, Configuration-number oflanes, lane control options, and the land development process. This
widths, and crosswalk material citizen effectively voiced concern, engaging both the Plan-
ning Commissioner and the District Supervisor in project
Gallows Road: Configuration-number oflanes, lane/
Stormwater discussions. The neighbor sought a solution that
median widths, ROW Dedication-coordinate w/VDOT
controlled both the volume and rate of runoff directed to the
plans, and Timing/Phasing of Improvements
ultimate outfall and requested that the Stormwater design
Many of these issues were a result of all streets remaining for the site address smaller frequency storms, those causing
public entities; although, this was the desired approach by all the most damage to the natural stream bed, not accounted
parties, it had drastic impacts on the flexibility of the street for in the county regulations. In an effort to compromise
design as ultimately, public maintenance and design guide- prior to public hearings and avoid a show of "nonsupport''
lines (not necessarily developed for urban streets) were the from a neighbor, Dewberry and Uniwest collaborated with
overriding factor. Within the CDP/FDP and the associated the citizen. After listening to her valid concerns, Dewberry
proffers, these concerns were addressed through reviewed and revised the Stormwater management program
to reasonably incorporate her recommendations. Given the
• Alternate streetscape plans that adequately accounted size of the facilities required to meet baseline county require-
for potential changes to Gallows Road achieved ments, Dewberry was able to determine that the additional
through further negotiation and design during final requirements advocated by the downstream neighbor could
engineering. be achieved through refinement of the control structures
in the detention facilities (at little additional cost) and the
• Interim and ultimate Gallows road improvement
incorporation of several innovative BMPs (minor cost in
plans were developed as well as proffered contribu-
the scheme of site improvements) in previously untreated
tions toward ultimate construction to ease phasing
subsheds. Ultimately, Dewberry advised Uniwest to agree
concerns.
to stormwater management proffers that exceeded county
• Correspondence indicating the collaborative process requirements: BMP or quality control was to meet a 30%
and a mutual understanding of roadway design crite- removal efficiency, 2- and 10-year detention was to reduce
ria was added (see page 17 ofFDP 2003-PR-009) in existing peak flows by 10%, detention for storms more fre-
order to verify the ROW dedications were adequate quent than the 1 year was to be provided, and sufficient
based on agreed upon lane configurations. detention volume for the mean annual storm was to be
 7.7 ■ DETAILED CASE STUDIES 841

provided in the facilities. By incorporating these increased • Implementation of Transportation Management

standards at minimal cost, Uniwest was able to ameliorate Strategies (TMS) including specific time frames for
the concerned citizen, improve its "good neighbor" status, which to monitor and achieve Single Occupancy
and set a precedent encouraging future development in the Vehicle (SOV) reduction goals with monetary contri-
area to exceed baseline environmental standards for the ben- bution assigned for noncompliance
efit of the entire Merrifield community.
• Provision of shuttle bus service to the Dunn Loring
Rezoning Revisited-The Art of Compromise. The art
metro station or contribution to such service pro-
of compromise was successful in this particular instance as
vided locally
all parties involved attained all or the majority of what they
initially were seeking. Uniwest received full support of the • Construction and maintenance of traffic calming
community, staff and decision makers for their rezoning devices in the form of stamped crosswalks
application, which included the bonus density for provision
• Construction of or escrow toward a bus shelter
of AD Us. The citizens were successful in gaining the approval
of the first phase of the much wanted Town Center without • Dedication of ROW for Gallows Road ultimate
compromising infrastructure improvements and, in fact, set improvements, construction of interim improve-
a precedent for redevelopment conditions that exceed local ments, and escrow for the difference in cost between
requirements. Local politicians were praised by the commu- interim and ultimate
nity for their efforts to unite the community and developer
• Vacation of existing Strawberry Lane ROW as well as
through reasonable and forward-looking proffer agreements
construction and dedication of realigned Strawberry
that embraced the urban nature of the Town Center.
Lane
After 1 year of negotiations in the rezoning process, the
property was rezoned by the Board of Supervisors (by a • Signalization modifications at realigned the realigned
unanimous vote from 6 out of 10 present for the vote) to the Strawberry/Gallows intersection including provision
PRM District to permit the development of the MTC project for easements and escrows toward ultimate signal
as we know it today. The development of the property was requirements
proffered to be in conformance with the approved CDP/FDP
• Contribution to Eskridge Road improvements
as shown in Figure 7.711.
Noteworthy proffers included the following: • Notification proffers providing for Supervisor and
Planning Commissioner review of construction
• Maximum Density including 270 residential units documents
and a site FAR of 1.35 with the increase over the base
of 1.2 dedicated to ADUs From these proffers, the project goals are evident: den-
• Restriction of various uses within the retail compo- sity, mixed usage, and affordability in the Town Center area;
nent of the project transportation improvements with a focus on feasible tran-
sit options; and adequate public facilities including localized
• Monetary contribution to the local schools: elemen- open space and recreational opportunities for the newly
tary, middle, and high school developed residential population.
• Recreation contribution through provision of on-site
facilities including rooftop amenities or contribution 7.7.9. Final Design
to the Fairfax County Park Authority (FCPA) Using the approved rezoning and CDP/FDP as a basis, and
in accordance with Zoning Ordinance requirements, a site
• Provision of bicycle racks and benches plan was prepared. While much of the design was formal-
• Architectural compliance proffers to ensure consis- ized during the schematic phase, the final design effort
tency with CDP /FD P in terms of material specifica- focused on the technical details and implementation of
tion, building height, and energy efficiency standards the proffered elements. The emphasis of this case study is
the land development process; since the intricacies of final
• Construction, installation, and maintenance of all
design are fairly technical and covered extensively in previ-
SWM facilities necessary to meet enhanced quantity
ous chapters, a summary of noteworthy site plan compo-
and quality criteria included in the proffer
nents is included to simply illustrate the type of refinement,
• Installation and maintenance of landscaping along detailing, and scope of changes that can occur during final
Gallows and Strawberry Lane engineering.
Street Design. Accurate vertical geometry was provided
• Noise attenuation interior to the building and in
for realigned Strawberry Lane (Figure 7.7JJ).
rooftop amenity areas
Signal modifications at Gallows Road and Strawberry
• Streetscape including adequate lighting and pedes- Lane/Porter Road were required in both the interim and
trian facilities ultimate conditions. By allocating space and ROW for
FIG uRE 7. 711 Approved Conceptual Development Plan/Final Development Plan.
FIG uRE 7. 7 J J Strawberry Lane plan/profile.
844 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH
the ultimate signal configuration, entry monumentation, 280 feet of retaining wall west of the north land bay
grading, and landscaping could be designed and installed between the site and the adjacent parking area was removed
with minimal disturbance anticipated during ultimate representing a significant construction cost savings.
buildout. Stormwater Management Design. The south land bay
The design of the private access drive was refined to detention facility was transformed into a detention vault
include mountable curb for park maintenance as well as rather than a large-diameter pipe system as warranted by
handicap accessible streetscaping. Further, public access space, volume, and economic considerations for the final size
easements were delineated to encompass emergency vehicle of the facility (Figure 7.7LL).
"turnaround" needs at the south land bay terminus and the SWM facilities were consolidated in the north land bay
intersection with Strawberry Lane. into a single sand filter that provided both detention and
Sight distance verification for interim and ultimate treatment for site runoff. This represents savings in terms of
improvements to Gallows as well as confirmation from the space as well as construction and maintenance costs.
private access drive to the signal on Gallows to ensure that it Filterras designated in the CDP/FDP (schematic plan)
is visible below the pedestrian bridge. were relocated to the south land bay adjacent to the park
Grading and Earthwork. Provision of a second left-turn where they were a more practical, aesthetic fit and more
lane from northbound Gallows Road to Strawberry Lane aptly positioned to treat runoff not directed to the northern
resulted in a taper (to receive dual lefts) that forced grading sand filter.
and landscape modifications to the sidewalk and receiving Utility Coordination. Provision of a right-turn lane
area outside the main entrance of the north building. A com- from Strawberry Lane to Gallows road created a conflict
bination of ramps, stairs, and planters resulted in an aestheti- between the storm sewer system and the proposed street-
cally pleasing, interactive area at the primary entrance to the side landscape areas. Compromise with VDOT allowed
development (Figure 7.7KK). placement of storm sewer in the public ROW thus main-
Once the vertical geometry for Strawberry Lane was set, taining the street-side landscaping along the entire length
additional modifications were made to provide a safe "land- of the turn lane.
ing" area at the Gallows/Strawberry intersection. Provision The storm sewer outfall for the northern SWM facil-
of the landing created a steeper tangent, 4.97%, along Straw- ity was originally directed through the adjacent property
berry. Handicap accessibility standards dictate a 5% maxi- requiring an off-site easement; when this easement could
mum longitudinal slope; thus it can be seen how tight and not be amicably procured from the adjacent property owner,
precise the final engineering plans were in order to meet the SWM facility was redesigned to orient the clearwell and
both vehicular and pedestrian criteria. outlet pipe through an existing storm sewer easement.

FIG uRE 7. 7 KK Gallows/Strawberry corners-main entrance grading modifications.

 7.7 ■ DETAILED CASE STUDIES 845

In order to meet fire hydrant coverage criteria, an addi-

tional hydrant was added west of the north land bay. The
intended connection was an existing water line in the Hilltop
ROW thus an off-site easement from the same neighbor was
an issue. The line was redesigned to tap an existing line in
Lee Highway; however this connection resulted in gas line
and utility pole guide wire conflicts. Coordination efforts
with both the gas and electric companies (already relocating
facilities in the area to accommodate the project) resulted in
an amicable resolution wherein the water and gas lines were
each shifted to create the necessary clearance and still make
the connection.
Space for electric transformers was provided in the park
area and the north loading dock. Screening was imple-
mented in the park and the north loading dock was recon-
figured to provide additional space and meet utility access
requirements.
Summary: Proffer Compliance. Likely the most impor-
tant component of final engineering, proffer (or condition)
compliance is the mechanism by which the technical review
staff at the county ensures that the site plan fully imple-
ments the approved planning (entitlement) document. The
site plan should indicate "how, when and where the prof-
fer was, or will be, satisfied, the status of proffer 'triggers:
and deviations from proffers and/or development plans" 9
often through narrative form. In the case of MTC, clari-
fying which proffered improvements were designed and
constructed as part of the site plan, versus deferred, versus
escrowed as a result of project phasing considerations was
of paramount importance. A clear understanding of the sta-
tus of proffered agreements between Dewberry, the site plan
reviewer, and the client allowed for smooth plan processing,
bond posting, construction, and occupancy permit procure-
ment (Figure 7.7MM).
As a final note, the expeditious completion of the design
process-Feasibility through Final Engineering-and the
successful, cost-effective design and construction of the
project can be attributed to the proactive, team approach uti-
lized by Uniwest. The general strategy for completion included
Use of the same consultant to perform the surveying,
planning, zoning, and engineering tasks thereby providing
continuity to the design process.
Overall schedules and priorities were established with
senior management at Dewberry while specific issues were
addressed jointly by staff within Uniwest, Fairfax County,
the architectural firm, and Dewberry, the land development
consultant.
Weekly meetings and daily interaction between the devel-
oper and design professional were maintained throughout
the life of the project.
Uniwest was both the developer and contractor; thus
they were able to review plans and help develop strategies to
reduce costs during all phases of the design process.
FIG uRE 7. 7 LL SWM details for underground detention vault.

9DPWES Letter to Industry #06-15. 7/24/06.

(a)

FIG uRE 7. 7 MM Intensive green roof Proffer compliance illustrative; (a) rezoning and Proffer development versus (b) final engineering and site plan approval.
(b)

FIGURE 7.7MM (Continued)

848 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH
7.7.10. Plan Submission and Permitting Given the lengthy rezoning process, the projected time
Plan Review, Approval, and Permitting in Fairfax County. frame for full site plan review and approval, and escalating
The review and approval of the final engineering docu- construction costs, Dewberry advised Uniwest to utilize a
ments requires the involvement of local and state gov- Rough Grading Plan (RGP) and permit in order to maintain
ernments, the client, and the design consultant. To better the desired sales and construction schedule (Figure 7.7NN).
understand the review and approval process as it relates to An approved RGP would grant Uniwest access to the site in
Merrifield Town Center, an understanding of the partici- order to establish perimeter erosion and sediment controls
pants, their role, and the structure of the process in Fairfax and begin clearing, grading, demolition, and construction
County is required. work up to and including the installation of sheeting and shor-
In Fairfax County, the governing body, the Board of Super- ing of footings and foundations for the buildings. The RGP
visors, ultimately is responsible for the review and approval filled a critical gap in the plan approval time frame allowing
of all engineering plans and plats as well as inspections and an early window for sales and base site work while actively
monitoring during project construction. However, the Board bridging the otherwise stagnant time between site and build-
has delegated these tasks primarily to the Department of ing design, permitting and construction activities.
Public Works and Environmental Services (DPWES) and its Site Plan Approval-Building Permit. While the RGP
Director. The Director is authorized to review and approve allowed Uniwest access to the site, the bulk of the construction-
construction plans and plats on behalf of the Board. DPWES, both the site infrastructure and buildings-could not com-
in turn, relies on the input from other agencies and depart- mence without an approved site plan and building permit.
ments within the County government-Transportation, The RGP provided valuable time for Dewberry to finalize
Housing Authority, Health, Fire Marshal, and Park Author- the site plan with ESRD including such things as waiver
ity to name a few-as well as other local and state agencies, approvals, outside agency coordination and approvals, plat
such as the Falls Church Water Authority, VDOT, and the preparation, and fine tuning of site-building system inter-
Department of Conservation and Recreation in the review of faces. Although Dewberry had coordinated extensively with
engineering plans. Depending on what issues surface during the architect throughout the design process, it is at this stage
the review process, other agencies, both state and local, may where all the details are truly flushed out as the site plan and
be asked to review the plans. The review agency must ensure building plans are "married" for permit purposes.
that all projects consistently comply with published stan- Upon site plan approval the entire project is moved to
dards and policies and that the project does not endanger the bonding-the final step in the Fairfax County approval
health, safety, and welfare of the public or the environment. process. The bond package contains the final infrastructure
Within DPWES, there are several divisions involved in and conservation bond requirements as well as a thorough
the design/construction review and approval process. Specif- proffer analysis identifying any and all contributions, escrow
ically, the Environmental and Site Review Division (ESRD) amounts, and dedications to be posted by the owner. The
is responsible for the review and approval of construction land development consultant is typically responsible for pro-
plans and plats, as well as other studies, reports, and mis- ducing the bond estimate and often works with county staff
cellaneous items relating to the land development process. to ensure its accuracy and adjust bond prices accordingly
ESRD is comprised of Urban Forestry, Site Plan Review, and based on market conditions. Once the owner/developer
Plan Control. MTC is located within the Providence District; has met or addressed all bond obligations, including both
that District reviewer serves as the central coordinator for monetary and preconstruction proffered items, permits are
each project. Other agency reviews are processed through released and construction can fully commence.
this individual. The land development consultant is a valuable resource
Rough Grading Plan. At the time MTC was being devel- during the bonding process as they are often able to keep
oped, the time frame for review and approval of construction the bond estimate reasonable as well as work with the cli-
plans in Fairfax County, even when utilizing the expedited ent (owner) and county staff to clear or remove proffered
review process, was approximately 10 to 15 months. The cli- conditions, particularly design oriented conditions, quickly
ent, Uniwest, served as owner, developer, and general con- and efficiently given their in-depth knowledge of the plans
tractor and it was their intent to significantly expedite the and project intents. In the case of MTC, the engineer was
design review and approval process to begin construction able to negotiate the bond status of several proffered con-
as quickly as possible. Uniwest's ability to commence sales/ ditions with the county site plan reviewer, either remov-
leasing was contingent upon site plan approval, preliminary ing them entirely because they were achieved in the plan
condo plat approval, and a site permit. Showing progress, or successfully deferring them from preconstruction to
in the form of demolition and earthwork, was necessary postconstruction conditions. This facilitated a smooth
in order to entice and convince an eager, "hot" real estate transition from design to construction allowing Uniwest to
market to buy into the condominium portion and give retail quickly fulfill its obligations, pull site and building permits,
and office tenants a firm idea of delivery schedule and space and arrange finances to cover construction and proffered
arrangements. commitments.
FI GU RE 7. 7 N N Rough Grading Plan.
050 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH
7.7.11. Construction may require new waivers, zoning interpretations, permis-
Often construction represents the last step in the land devel- sions, or easements. The land development consultant, as
opment process (the real estate development process often trusted advisor and technical expert, needs to examine each
considers marketing, sales and leasing, and operations and request and make the appropriate recommendation in terms
maintenance as steps too). Consistent, timely communica- of accommodating the RFI through either a field adjustment
tion between the client, engineer, contractor, and even the or formal plan revision.
planner is critical in order to ensure that the plans are built During the course of construction at MTC, several for-
as specified. Conflicts will inevitably arise; some can be mal plan revisions were completed. Many were in response
resolved through "Requests for Interpretation'' (RFis) or shop to specific tenant fit-out requests; others were common to
drawing submission, review, and approval iterations, others the development process in Fairfax County and some were in
necessitate plan revisions and can become contentious and response to issues that arose during construction. Table 7.7C
even costly if not resolved effectively amongst members of briefly describes the formal revisions completed as part of the
the design and construction team. MTC project and the triggering action.
MTC was rather unique in that Uniwest, as noted above, Successful revisions balance client schedule demands
served as the developer and general contractor. Thus famil- with local procedure and help maintain the developer's (and
iarity with the project and a long-standing relationship (over contractor's) "good neighbor" image by resolving construc-
2 years of constant interaction) with the design team fostered tion discrepancies or issues in a safe, efficient, legally binding
an amicable, productive construction relationship. manner.
Requests tor Interpretation (RFls), Field Adjustments, and
Plan Revisions. RFis for MTC ranged in nature from simple 7. 7.12. Summary Observations
plan clarification questions to design modifications such A redevelopment project in a changing suburban environ-
as removing retaining walls, adding outdoor seating areas, ment where density, sense of place, and adequate public
relocating doors or steps, and finalizing details related to facilities have emerged as community priorities, Merrifield
post-development proffered conditions. RFis related to plan Town Center is typical of the changing land development
clarification were resolved through provision of additional industry. It exemplifies the market driven shift from Post
details, small exhibits, and/or quick on-site conferences WWII to Post 9/11 through both its programming and
to provide further direction. Many of the RFis involving design considerations. Further, the Merrifield Town Cen-
a design modification arose in response to tenant outfit ter project had all the elements of the development process
requests: as retail space was leased, the internal and external from planning and zoning through final engineering and
configuration of the buildings and infrastructure had to be construction, effectively demonstrating the tremendous
modified to accommodate specific uses. amount of outside influences involved in the planning and
For instance, the MTC site plan was designed based on engineering of a major land development project. A com-
the premise of a large two-story grocery type tenant in the parison of the site before development and after develop-
north building with smaller retail establishments in the south ment is shown in the aerial photos included in the MTC
building (PB and PC levels of both buildings) and office on color insert sheet along with other design renderings and
both PA levels. Ultimately, the north building became home post-development photos.
to a gym and two restaurants and the south building simi- The overwhelming success of Merrifield is evident in its
larly has two restaurants and office space. While these uses record sell-out rate. In 2005, Uniwest received recognition
were allowed within the new zoning (PRM) and specifically for Quickest Sell-Out in the Washington metro area when
accounted for in the proffers relating to building usage, some the units sold out within 3 months of groundbreaking before
of the infrastructure components of the site required modi- anything reminiscent of a building even took shape. This
fication, namely: is an indicator not only of an exceedingly accurate market
Additional grease traps to accommodate increased food assessment by Uniwest but confirmation that the commu-
preparation and disposal facilities were required and added nity embraced the project goals and overall vision for the
to the on-site sanitary sewer system. site and the upcoming Town Center. The Merrifield Town
The streetscape, initially designed for a window shopping Center project represented the promise of what was to come
experience, had to be modified to accommodate dining and in this part of the county. Early condo buyers were hardly
lounging in the "active pedestrian'' areas. taking a leap of faith if, as many believed, MTC would even-
Doors and stairs had to be added and shifted in order to tually evolve into its own version of similar mixed use proj-
meet individual tenant access and code requirements. ects in nearby Arlington County such as Shirlington Village,
Parking requirements and provisions had to be reexam- the communities of Ballston and Clarendon not to mention,
ined under these alternate usage scenarios. nationally recognized Reston Town Center just west of the
The challenge with regard to RFis involving design modi- site in Fairfax County. Some might say, what is the clamor
fications is understanding the extent to which field revisions about? It's about ease of access-to transit, to primary trans-
can be accommodated within the context of the approved portation corridors, to basic community services-and more
site plan and zoning documents. Substantial modifications than access, it's about a return to community and the sense of
must be accomplished through formal plan revisions and belonging to a vibrant, healthy community that draws people
 7.7 ■ DETAILED CASE STUDIES 851

TABLE 7. 7 C MTC Revision Summary

REVISION SUMMARY OF PLAN CHANGES

A 1. Changed the size of the storm sewer from 15 to 18 in between structures 3 and 2 and structures 2 and
SWM 1A.
2. Removed the roof drain draining to structure #8.
3. Added 1½-in waterline to service the fountain.
4. Revised the drainage divide for area C9.
5. Revised the storm sewer and associated computations due to the removal of RD4.
6. Revised storm sewer between structure #2 and the sand filter.
B 1. Added storm interceptor detail.
2. Revised the use group, type of construction, and building height.
3. Added RD4 roof drain with storm interceptor.
4. Revised drainage divides on building.
5. Revised storm crossing on sanitary profile.
6. Revised the storm sewer and associated computations due to the addition of RD4.
7. Revised the access type to the SWM vault.
8. Added detail for alternate frame and cover for SWM vault.
C 1. Revised the urban park and grading.
2. Added exterior seating areas and additional grease traps to accommodate additional restaurant space.
Revised urban park plantings.
D 1. Added outdoor seating area per the approved interpretation graphic.
2. Added grease trap to the north and south sides of south building; details included.
3. Revised water main D in Route 29 due to conflict with existing gas line.
4. Revised landscaping in urban park area based on FCPA comments; new park details.
5. Revised retaining walls along Gallows Road and the park.
6. New sheet showing approved CDP/FOP interpretation to allow outdoor seating.
E 1. Revised parking tabulation to match updated building use square footage.
2. Added ADU chart per request of Fairfax Housing Authority (FHA).
3. Added a door (exit) to the Gallows Road side of the north building per tenant fit-out.
4. Revised building tabulations to reflect corrected ADU mix and final use square footages.
5. Additional 12-in RCP pipe from existing inlet 7A to proposed storm structure 7.
6. Revised the limits of clearing and grading to accommodate new 12-in pipe.
7. Additional silt fence for perimeter control around proposed 12-in pipe.
8. Revised proposed drainage divides to account for Structure 7A.
9. Revised size of grease trap connection (8-in to 4-in) to match MEP plans.
10. Revised storm computations for new 12-in pipe, Ex. 7A-7.
11. Revised storm profile to include proposed 12-in RCP from Ex. 7A.
12. Revised parking layouts/counts to match update tabulation.
13. Included letter of permission for off-site work.
(Continued)
052 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH
TABLE 7. 7 C MTC Revision Summary (Continued)
REVISION SUMMARY OF PLAN CHANGES

F 1. Revised parking tabulation (parking counts corrected to match building plans; retail square footage corrected to
reflect allowable per proffer secondary-use square footage of 105,500 ft2-note typo in rev Eof 105,550).
2. Remove compactor from north loading dock.
3. Add 2 surface parking spaces to north loading dock.
4. Revised stair and wall configurations at the 4 major corner entrances to the retail.
5. Revised curb and gutter grades on eastern side of access road just north of the intersection with
Strawberry Lane.
6. Add storm sewer easement from structure #7 to #2 to account for conveyance of off-site water from Becker
property (a separate easement plat has been submitted).
7. Revised stair and wall configurations at the 4 major corner entrances to the retail.
8. Removed retaining wall in southwest corner of site.
9. Revised retaining wall grades in southeast corner of site.
10. Revised parking layout to match building plans.
11. Included interpretation approval letter.

in whether its work, home, or just a visit. Merrifield laid the to say that these exclusions or modifications to the road
ground work for the town center by establishing a series of network were not founded in sound engineering princi-
compatible uses, decorative site features, and improved open ples (things like sight distance, design speed, queuing and
space creating a welcoming and engaging environment that capacity issues all based on public safety criteria); however,
established Merrifield Town Center as a desirable place to be. the application of these criteria is in direct conflict with the
While the spirit and general aesthetics of Merrifield design and program intent. The resolution of this conflict
Town Center may have mimicked some of these town center was at the heart of the Merrifield project from day one and
predecessors, the context of the project and the requisite was the driving factor in the site design effort.
design response was entirely unique. As the precedent set- Within the land development community, the value
ting project in this area, Merrifield established program- of the Merrifield Town Center project was its ability to
ming and design criteria that would filter through the next expose these competing issues and bring all parties-
several years as the redevelopment effort rippled through Fairfax County, VDOT, the community, and consulting
the designated town center area. Unlike the Arlington sites professionals-"back to the drawing board:' Subsequent
that were firmly established in a fairly urban environment to approval and construction of MTC, the Providence Dis-
and the Reston site which was master planned and installed trict initiated a focus group to examine the implementa-
(at least the core) as a cohesive whole, Merrifield was truly tion of the Comprehensive Plan urban design goals for
set in an aging suburban context and subject to the rules, Merrifield: which components were successful, which
ordinances, and standards developed with typical WWII failed, where implementation is achievable, and what fac-
suburban communities in mind, particularly as it related tors are prohibitive to realizing the desired outcome. This
to public road standards. The design dichotomy of Merri- effort, spearheaded locally, should improve the subsequent
field is evident throughout the plan: the urban, pedestrian phases of redevelopment in the town center area and in
scale goals of the comprehensive plan versus the reality of Fairfax County.
suburban traffic and vehicle-trip-driven design standards. The success of this project was due, to a great extent,
Although the streetscape requirements of the Compre- to the development team that had been established and its
hensive Plan were implemented in terms of the pedestrian technical, communication, and negotiation skills. It is unre-
facilities, truly a step in the right direction and of value to alistic to believe that a project can be approved through a
the development, the streets themselves are based entirely public process without negotiation and compromise on a
on traffic scenarios and public street standards. From large wide variety of issues. In the case of Merrifield Town Cen-
curb returns and wide travel lanes to standard (rather than ter, compromises were made in the planning, zoning, and
aesthetic) public street lighting, no on-street parking, and engineering elements of the development. However, the
removal of planted medians, the street sections hardly issues were thoughtfully anticipated and, consequently, the
resemble the intent of the Comprehensive Plan. That is not compromises were disruptive but not fatal to the project.
 7.7 ■ DETAILED CASE STUDIES 853

FIG uRE 7. 7 0 0 Photo of Merrifield Town Center/Mosaic District.

As demonstrated in this study, ongoing effective communi- REFERENCES

cations with all participants in the process was essential to Carlos Moncada, "Company Withdraws 'Centreville Green;' Times-
the success of this project. Courier Newspaper, October 22, 1987, p. AS.
When planning and designing a project, thought, and Dick Frank, President, Western Fairfax County Citizens Associa-
consideration must be given to the possible impacts of the tion Land Use Committee. "Letter to Mrs. Elaine McConnell,
proposal on the existing community and environment. Supervisor:' February 20, 1988.
Again, in the case of Merrifield Town Center, anticipation of Donna Barne, "Hazel Won't Build Center Only Houses Union Mill
the issues and communication with the appropriate interest Plan Dead;' Centre View Newspaper, October 22, 1987c, p. 3.
groups took place early and continued throughout the devel- Donna Barne, "Neighbors Give Boost to Centreville Green;'
opment process, continuing even after the project was built Centre View Newspaper, October 8, 1987b, p. 3.
in order to ensure continued improvement to the process Donna Barne, "Watchdogs Eye Area Land Use;' Centre View
and the built environment in subsequent projects. Although Newspaper, October 8, 1987a, p. 3.
technology is ever advancing and changing, the human ele- Fairfax County, The Comprehensive Plan for Fairfax County,
ment remains paramount in the success of a given project. Virginia. 1991 Edition, As Amended Through March 9, 1992,
The human element was clearly responsible for the success- p. 103.
ful planning, engineering, and development of the beautiful, Fairfax County, A Guide to the Development Process in Fairfax
successful start to the Merrifield Town Center. County, Virginia. Volume 1 Land Use and Planning. Prepared by
The Merrifield Town Center region continued to expand Office of Research and Statistics, Department of Environmen-
after the completion of this project. Rebranded as Mosaic tal Management, Office of Comprehensive Planning. Revised
District, the region has been transformed with additional January 1983, p. 32.
office, retail, hotels, parks, townhomes, restaurants, a Fairfax County, "Staff Report, Application No. PCA 81-S-090:'
brewery, and apartments. Continued growth has required July 22, 1982.
additional infrastructure improvements and continuous Fischenich, C. 2000. Glossary of Stream Restoration Terms. ERDC
coordination with the community and public officials. A TN-EMRRP SR-01. February. Washington, DC: U.S. Army
photo of the project is shown in Figure 7.700. Corps of Engineers.
 CHAPTER 7.8

SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS
FOR PUBLIC SECTOR
DEVELOPMENT

The public sector is an extremely active developer, respon- States may also have a state-level GSA (or sometimes
sible for both infrastructure and building projects. In the Office of Procurement or other variation) or else will del-
public realm, development projects are often classified as egate authority to a specialized agency dedicated to han-
government "procurements" and may also be referred to as dling state building and construction. For example, the Ohio
"acquisitions:' 1 It is important to note that there are many Facilities Construction Commission (OFCC) is empowered
similarities between federal and state systems for develop- by the Ohio Revised Code:
ment projects. Public sector development projects at both
levels are subject to funding limitations, changes in political ... to contract for and have general supervision over the con-
struction of any projects, improvements, or public buildings
will, and formalized bidding processes. However, it is impor-
constructed for a state agency, to include the design, specifi-
tant to realize that they are not identical. Federal regulations
cations, inspection, etc. of such construction projects. When
and processes will be the same anywhere in the country, but a state agency wants to construct a new building or struc-
at the state and local levels, though they may be conceptually ture, or needs to make an alteration to an existing building
similar, the specifics of law, policy, and process will vary. or structure, it may contact the OFCC for initial guidance
Procurement (or acquisition) activities of the federal gov- and recommendations (State of Ohio Procurement Hand-
ernment specifically include construction, engineering, and book for Supplies and Services: https:/ /procure.ohio.gov/
architectural services for real estate development. The fed- pdf/PUR_ProcManual. pdf).
eral government delegates authority for development to dif-
ferent federal agencies, empowering them to solicit, award, Note that the OFCC's purview is limited to buildings. As is
and oversee design and construction services. In the Execu- the case in most states, road and other transportation infra-
tive Branch, the largest sector of government, these needs are structure projects are the responsibility of the state Depart-
most often served by a specialized agency called the Gen- ment of Transportation, in this case Ohio Department of
eral Services Administration (GSA). The GSA has two major Transportation (Ohio Department of Transportation: http://
divisions: one for the procurement of supplies and the other www.dot.state .oh. us/Pages/Home.aspx).
related to buildings and development projects. Certain Exec- 7.8.1. Regulatory Environment
utive Branch agencies, such as the Department of Defense,
The processes of public sector developers at both the state
have special authority to oversee their own development
and federal levels are heavily regulated. Though technically
projects without GSA participation.
governed by different sources of law, there are many simi-
larities between state and federal regulations because state
1FAR 2.101: Definitions. legislation is often derived from federal codes. Further,

854
 7.8 ■ SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR PUBLIC SECTOR DEVELOPMENT 855

when a state receives federal funding for a project, such as most cases by the federal government at the time the state
for National Highway System (NHS) road construction, the was first formed. In turn, states have passed control of some
state must also satisfy the applicable federal regulations. land to local governments and municipalities.
The three main governing sources of federal regulations The relevance of the government's land portfolio is tied to its
are contained in decision making as a developer. While private sector developers
must identify and compete for sites in a market environment,
1. The U.S. Code (USC) public sector developers do not always need to do so. Whenever
2. The Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) possible, public sector developers will use existing public land
or existing government-owned buildings for a new project.
3. The Federal Acquisition Regulations (FAR) This reduces project costs by eliminating the need to purchase
Each of these sources provides detailed definitions and land or easements. However, there may also be negative side
instructions specifying how the federal government must effects if the predetermined project site is not ideally located.
undertake a procurement action. Wading fully into the lab- Often, even when the public sector does not own the land
yrinth of federal procurement laws is beyond the purview needed for a project, a subject site is still predetermined by
of this book; however, a brief mapping exercise of some of necessity. This tends to apply more often to infrastructure
the relevant clauses is useful for conveying the level of com- projects than to building projects. For example, if the govern-
plexity involved in federal regulations. This is important ment needs to widen a road it may be necessary to acquire
to understand for general contractors, civil engineers, and land adjacent to the roadway, which may be private land. Sim-
other firms aspiring to work with public sector developers. ilarly, if the government is building a new connection route,
Some of the most important titles of the USC with respect there may be limited flexibility in determining the path of the
to federal public sector development projects are Title 23 new road. Federal, state, and local governments do have the
(Highways), Title 40 (Public Buildings, Property, and Works), right to expropriate private real estate for public use through
and Title 41 (Public Contracts). Figure 7.8A shows an abbre- condemnation, if necessary. Acquiring private property, even
viated map highlighting specific sections of these titles; note when it is not being marketed for sale, is not always a sig-
that this is an abbreviated illustration and not an exhaustive nificant deterent for the government from a legal perspective.
representation of the regulatory environment. However, it can certainly be problematic from both a political
Again, the purpose of providing this illustration is to and financial viewpoint. Public sector takings can hardly be
inspire appreciation for the regulatory challenges of public described as welcome and citizen outcry can turn an already
sector development. Collectively, federal regulations dictate complicated infrastructure project into a political battle
how public sector developers, particularly for federal projects between the agency responsible for the development and the
or projects using federal funding must: define terms; deter- elected officials supporting their constituents. Even when met
mine need, including design requirements; pursue funding with little opposition, use of eminent domain for condemna-
and establish timing requirements; solicit and evaluate bids; tion can create financial pressures for public sector develop-
negotiate and award contracts; specify contract clauses per- ments. The government is required to pay a fair price for any
taining to sources of labor, subcontractors, and materials; compulsory takings. If the land needed for a project happens
manage contract performance; and guide many other aspects to be valuable, the cost of condemnation may be substantial.
of the development process. Similarly, public sector projects Unlike a private sector developer, the public sector developer
at the state level must comply with state regulations, which may not be able to simply find another site and must wade
are often equally complex and prescriptive. In instances through the challenges of the current site.
where a state project benefits from federal funding, such as a
7.8.3. Funding Considerations and Public-Private
NHS road project, the state must comply with both relevant
Partnerships
state and federal regulations. This serves to add another layer
of complexity to any project and often binds states to federal Public sector developers do not use traditional loans to
procedures. finance their projects and, thus, do not have to seek debt
financing from lenders as their private sector counterparts
must. However, financing public sector projects comes with
7.8.2. Predetermined Sites a unique set of problems. At the federal level, project funding
Federal, state, and local governments are large landown- generally comes from appropriations of tax revenue. Funding
ers. The federal government owns almost 650 million acres for public sector development projects at the state and local
of land, which is equal to approximately 30% of the total levels typically comes from one of three sources, depending
land area of the United States (U.S. Geological Survey, on the type of project: ( 1) revenue from the issuance of bonds,
The National Map: https:/ /nationalmap.gov/small_scale/ (2) appropriations from the state's tax revenue, or (3) grants of
printable/fedlands.html#list). Though much of this is dedi- federal funds, such as from the Highway Trust Fund. Regard-
cated for conservation, such as the 84 million acres of park- less of the specific form, obtaining public sector funding for
land supervised by the National Park Service, a significant development projects involves a lengthy approval process
portion is not. States also own land, originally granted in as part of "Acquisition Planning:' This process requires the
a5& fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH
United States Code
Title 23: Highways
Chapter 1 - Federal-aid Highways
§ 106 - Project approval and oversight
§ 107 - Acquisition of rights-of-way - Interstate System
§ 108 - Advance acquisition of real property
§ 109 - Standards
§ 112 - Letting of contracts
§ 114 - Construction
§ 118 - Availability of funds
Chapter 3 - Other Provisions
§ 313 - Buy America

Title 40: Public Buildings, Property, and Works

Subtitle I, Chapter 11 - Selection of Architects and Engineers
§ 1101-1104 (Brooks Act): Selection of Architects and Engineers
Subtitle II, Chapter 31, Subchapter IV - Wage Rate Requirements
§ 3141-3148 (Davis-Bacon Act)

Title 41 : Public Contracts

Subtitle I - Federal Procurement Policy
Chapter 33 - Planning and Solicitation (§§ 3301 - 3312)
Chapter 37 - Awarding of Contracts(§§ 3701 - 3708)

Title 49: Transportation

Code of Federal Regulations

Title 2: Grants and Agreements
Chapter II - Office of Management and Budget Guidance
Part 200 - Uniform Administrative Requirements, Cost Principles,
and Audit Requirements for Federal Awards (§§ 200 - 200.521)

Title 23: Highways

Chapter I - Federal Highway Administration, Department of Transportation
Subchapter B - Payment Procedures
Part 172 - Procurement, Management, and Administration of
Engineering and Design Related Services (§§ 172.1 - 172.11)
Subchapter G- Engineering and Traffic Operations
Part 620 - Engineering (§§ 620.101 - 620.203)
Part 625 - Design Standards for Highways (§§ 625.1 - 625.4)
Part 626 - Pavement Policy (§§ 626.1 - 626.3)
Part 627 -Value Engineering(§§ 627.1 - 627.9)
Part 630 - Preconstruction Procedures (§§ 630.102 - 630.1110)
Part 633 - Required Contract Provisions (§§ 633.101 - 633.211)
Part 635 - Construction and Maintenance (§§ 635.101 - 635.507)
Part 636 - Design-Build Contracting (§§ 636.101 - 636.514)
Part 637 - Construction Inspection and Approval (§§ 637.201 - 637.209)
Subchapter H - Right-of-Way and Environment(§§ 710 - 777)

FIG uRE 7. BA Source of Federal Regulation, Abbreviated.

 7.8 ■ SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR PUBLIC SECTOR DEVELOPMENT 857

Title 29: Labor

Subtitle A - Office of the Secretary of Labor
Part 1 - Procedures for Predeterminiation of Wage Rates (§§ 1.1 - 1.9)
Part 3 - Contractors and Subcontractors on Public Building or Public Work Financed in
Whole of in Part by Loans or Grants from the United States (§§ 3.1 - 3.11)
Part 5 - Labor Standards Provisions Provisions Applicable to Contracts Covering
Federally Financed and Assisted Construction
Subpart A - Davis-Bacon and Related Acts Provisions and Procedures (§§ 5.1 - 5.17)
Subpart B - Interpretation of the Fringe Benefits Provisions of the Davis-Bacon Act
(§§ 5.20 - 5.32)
Subtitle B - Regulations Relating to Labor

Title 40: Protection of the Environment

Chapter V - Council on Environmental Quality (NEPA) (§§ 1500 - 1599)
Part 1501 - NEPA and Agency Planning (§§ 1501.1 - 1501.8)
Part 1505 - NEPA and Agency Decisionmaking (§§ 1505.1 - 1505.3)
Part 1506 - Other Requirements of NEPA (§§ 1506.1 - 1506.12)

Title 48: Federal Acquisition Regulations

Chapter 1 - Federal Acquisition Regulation (FAR)
Chapter 12 - DOT Transportation Acquisition Regulation (TAR)
Title 49: Transportation
FIGURE 7.8A (Continued)

public sector developer to submit project budget estimates the government must pay rent, that obligation is spread over
well in advance of undertaking the project itself-often several years whereas if the agency were to develop its own
years. In many cases, agencies are asked for multiyear plans office building, the entirety of the funds would be needed in
anticipating future projects and the associated funding needs. advance. In the context of infrastructure projects, privatiza-
While it is understandable that the public sector must engage tion could mean allowing a private sector developer to build
in long-term budgetary planning exercises, accurate esti- and operate a utility, which includes the collection of fees as
mates for the cost of materials and labor for future develop- a revenue stream. In this case, the public sector discharges its
ment are difficult to predict so many years in advance. The obligation to provide services to citizens by outsourcing to
obligation to engage exclusively with projects on an all-cash the private sector.
basis without a third party lender also means the government Public-private partnerships, also called PPP or P3s, are
(at any level) can only fund a limited number of projects in a projects in which a public sector government agency works in
given year. Further, in this context, approval for development partnership with a private sector developer in order to com-
projects and must compete for funds with other spending pri- plete a public-sector project. There are several different kinds
orities. For these and other reasons, federal, state, and local of public-private partnerships. They can be fairly simple or
public sector developers can all find themselves facing budget extremely complex. Figure 7.8B describes several types of P3
shortfalls when the time comes to actually begin a develop- structures. P3s are a procurement option, not a source of rev-
ment project. Inaccurate predictions are not the only sources enue or funding for the public sector. Note that in a P3, the
of financial pressure for public sector development projects. private sector does not necessarily pay for the project, but does
Privatization and public-private partnerships are both finance it. P3s reallocate risk and responsibilities between the
methods used with increasing frequency by the public sector public sector and private sector, often leading to cost and time
to offset shortfalls of its development funding needs. Privati- efficiencies, as well as technical innovations not previously
zation, as the name suggests, refers to the complete outsourc- accessible to the public sector. P3s differ from privatization as
ing of a development to the private sector. In instances of the public sector retains ownership of the asset. Additionally,
privatization, both the ownership and management of the once a P3 contract is completed the asset is typically returned
resulting asset are held by the private sector. For example, to public sector control, as is detailed in Figure 7.8B.
rather than develop its own office building, a public agency In all P3 arrangements, both the private sector developer
may decide to become the rent-paying tenant of a private and the public sector agency make important contributions
sector developer, who will develop, own, and operate/main- to the project. Typical public sector contributions include
tain a built-to-suit office project for the agency. Even though government owned land, concessions, permissions, or tax
858 fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH
Traditional Procurement: Design-Bid-Build (DBB) contracts are considered the conventional procurement process where
design and construction often are awarded to separate firms.
Design-Build (DB): Design and construction activities are bundled together; therefore the risk of coordinating the activities
is transferred to a single concessionaire and can be considered a type of P3.
Design-Build-Finance-Operate-Maintain (DBFOM): Project responsibility and risk for design, financing, construction,
operations and maintenance are placed on the private sector for the life of the P3 contract. DBFOMs are commonly found in
projects with clear revenue streams, using projected revenue to attract equity and to leverage debt financing.
Design-Build-Finance-Maintain (DBFM): DBFMs are very similar to DBFOMs, with the exception that operations are held
within the public sector. This contract is commonly used for social infrastructure projects such as hospitals, higher education
infrastructure, and other buildings.
Design-Build-Operate-Maintain (DBOM): DBOMs bundle design and construction together with operations and main-
tenance of the completed asset. DBOMs are common in transit projects where the life-cycle costs are high due to mainte-
nance demands of the asset. These projects can also take the form of a Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT), where the private
sector provides no financing, but constructs the asset, and upon construction completion transfers the asset to the public
sector. This is often followed by a separate Operate-Maintain (O&M) contract.
Long-term Lease Concession: Commonly used for toll roads, this type of P3 is used to defease publicly held debt on the
facility through fees paid by the private concessionaire. The private concessionaire is expected to provide maintenance, and
possibly capital repairs to meet safety expectations and condition issues.
Operate-Maintain (O&M) contracts also are common for existing assets, to provide private sector expertise to maintain an
asset. Payments are made on through a fixed fee or incentive based model.
Build-Own-Operate (BOO): BOOs are the one exception to public ownership in the P3 model. BOO contracts are done at
the encouragement of the government, through financial incentives, but the private partner retains ownership and operations
of the facility.
FIG uRE 7. 8 B Sample P3 Structures.

incentives. Revenue collected by the private sector devel- approvals, supporting related policy changes, and champion-
oper comes most commonly from user fees, less so through ing the project despite citizen opposition or party dissent.
availability payments, and rarely from shadow toll payments. Such support is not necessarily tied to what any individual
Availability payments are paid regularly through prearranged government agency considers to be a priority. The willingness
or performance based payments. Shadow tolls, known in the of elected officials to support projects depends in part on the
United States as "pass-through-tolls;' are used more exten- nature of the project itself but can also be heavily dependent
sively internationally. Shadow toll payments are made to on a politician's individual beliefs or priorities, lobbying influ-
the private partner based on a per user basis. Common P3 ences, current citizen responses, reelection considerations,
contracts are variably structured with the potential for the and other competing priorities. Perhaps understandably,
private sector developer providing financing (from equity political will can seem both enigmatic and fleeting.
investors and lenders), planning and construction services, Arguably, the two main reasons for changes in politi-
and management or operation of the asset. Thus, a P3 can cal will are elections and reprioritizations due to external
increase the capacity and speed of access to financing and events. As previously established, public sector develop-
access to technical expertise, resulting in a project with an ment planning is a lengthy process that can span several
accelerated delivery time, reducing public cost and risk. Note years, particularly for large, expensive, and complex projects.
that not all states have enacted P3 enabling legislation. Such a protracted timeline inevitably spans at least one, if
not more, election cycles. In these cycles, election-oriented
7.8.4. Political Will and Changes in Elected Office-holders behavior may cause a previous supporter to withdraw his/
The government's role in serving its citizens is directed by her support in order to focus on more visible or "relevant"
elected officials at the federal, state, and local levels. Political issues intended to boost reelection chances. Championing
will refers to the degree to which these officials, individu- government spending to build capacity at wastewater treat-
ally and collectively, support a project as a matter of priority ment plants, though perhaps critically necessary to commu-
and are willing to commit resources to it. This often means nity stability and growth, is unlikely to win a candidate the
allocating funds, but may also involve advocating for needed election if their opponent focuses on high profile issues like
 7.8 ■ SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR PUBLIC SECTOR DEVELOPMENT 859

safety in schools, job creation, or tax relief. If a project sup- Although all levels of government are able to award a
porter loses an election bid, it can equally condemn a project. "sole source" contract to a specific firm in which no solicita-
For example, prior to an election, there may have been wide- tion or bidding takes place, this requires justification and is
spread support for the development of a new bridge, money only allowed under certain circumstances, such as to fill an
allocated, and the responsible agency may have begun solic- urgent public need. The majority of public sector contracts
iting bids for construction. However, the election results in must go through the solicitation process. The government's
the change of office for at least one key political supporter; two primary solicitation methods are the use of sealed bids
the new public figure thinks the project is unnecessary and and a competitive bid process. In either instance, noncon-
represents a poor use of funds, so she/he directs the agency forming bids are not considered. Sealed bids are most appro-
to not award the construction contract. In such a scenario, priate for procurements in which the requirements are clear
all the previous momentum and political will have been lost. and there is little need for discussion between the parties.
Elections are not the only thing that dampens political will. Sealed bid contracts must be awarded to the lowest price
Unforeseen events can also disrupt prior support by creating bidder that is competent to perform the work. Competi-
the urgent need for the government to reprioritize its use of tive bids are used for more complex public sector projects
funds and other resources. If a severe storm damages roads and are usually awarded based on the government's deter-
and utilities, these obviously need to be repaired as a matter mination of either the "lowest price technically acceptable"
of priority and any planned new projects will not be pursued or "best value:' Best value source selection allows the public
until after the storm damage has been addressed. Of course, sector to recognize the need to account for past performance
not all causes of reprioritization are as clear. Opaque or seem - when contracting for highly complex projects, particularly
ingly unfounded policy reprioritizations can be a source of construction projects. Note that per the Federal Acquisition
frustration for public agencies trying to advance their proj- Regulations (FAR), some federal contracts, such as those
ects in order to provide services to citizens. This is especially pertaining to construction and design (architect-engineering),
true if some, or perhaps significant, funds have already been are permitted to use a two-phase design-build selection
expended for project preparation or design. Such funds are not procedures and other specialized provisions. 3 The FAR also
recoverable and contribute to perception about political waste. allows architect-engineering vendors to be evaluated on the
submission of technical qualifications as part of the govern-
7.8.5. Requests for Proposals and the Bidding Process ment's process of developing a list of final bidders (General
All levels of government are concerned with ensuring that Services Administration: https:/ /www.gsa.gov/real-estate/
interested and qualified candidates have a fair and equal real-estate-services/for-businesses-seeking-opportunities/
opportunity to bid on government contracts. This is referred bidding-on -federal-construction-projects).
to as "full and open competition:' Mandated procurement The public sector's bidding process can be lengthy and
practices, specifically those involving soliciting offers and complicated, requiring potential contractors to develop com-
awarding public sector contracts, are the vehicle by which petency with bidding systems, government submission for-
the government achieves full and open competition. Both mats, and other procedures. Further, the government can
state and federal statutes include requirements that certain modify its solicitations any time prior to bid submission, is
opportunities are made available for small-, veteran-, and under no obligation to award a contract or issue a start work
minority-owned businesses. order even after award, and has the unilateral right to termi-
As part of the procurement planning process, the govern - nate contracts for convenience at any point during the perfor-
ment agency intending to award a contract will assign acer- mance period. All these factors create risk of loss for private
tified specialist who will be responsible for the solicitation, sector firms and make government contracts unappealing
award, and administration of the contract. At the federal level, to those firms unwilling to commit the necessary resources
these specialists are called contracting officers (CO), but they required to work on public sector development projects.
may carry other titles at the state level such as procurement
officer, bid officer, or even project manager. Only contracting 7.8.6. Types of Projects
officers (or their state equivalents) are able to enter into legally The public sector supports its citizens by providing and
binding procurement contracts on behalf of the government. 2 administering a wide range of services. This requires an
In the interest of fair competition, COs are required to publicly extensive physical platform of both infrastructure and
advertise government contracting opportunities. This obliga- building projects. Public sector developments may serve
tion is met by posting the appropriate announcement, usually direct citizen use, such as roads; facilities necessary for
a request for proposals (RFP), on state or federal procurement the provision of services, such as water works and distri-
websites. Federal opportunities will always be posted online: bution systems; or buildings to accommodate the govern-
most states operate their own procurement websites. In order ment work force, such as agency offices. Regardless of kind,
to bid on public sector contracts, firms must be registered in each different type of use represents an area of public sector
the appropriate system(s). development.

2FAR 1.601 (a); FAR 1.602. FAR 36.

3
aso fatUhiii F·\,j,@,i:/iidf1,PLMH
Infrastructure. Federal, state, and local municipal authori- To offer an example of scope, the federal government
ties are responsible for the development and operation of reported owning 498.7 million square feet of office space
infrastructure projects, without which society would strug- in 2016 (FY 2016 Federal Real Property Profile (FRPP)
gle to function. These can include the following: Open Data Set: https:/ /www.gsa.gov/policy-regulations/
policy/real-property-policy/ data-collection-and-reports/
• Water works and distribution system frpp-summary-report-library). This single-user portfolio
• Sewage treatment works is greater than the entire office space inventory of the city
of Chicago, which totaled 243.7 million square feet for the
• Dumps and solid waste (trash) facilities; recycling same year, including both the downtown and suburban
facilities markets combined (JLL Office Outlook, 4Q 2016, United
• Power generating plants States: http://www.us.jll.com/united-states/ en-us/Research/
US-Office-Outlook-Q4-2016-JLL.pdf). The federal owned
• Roads of all types office portfolio is largely equivalent to the office space inven-
tory of New York City, which was 449 million square feet
• Bridges
across the central business districts and 550 million square
• Dams feet overall in the same year (JLL Office Outlook, 4Q 2016;
New York City's Office Market: https://www.osc.state.ny.us/
• Runways and airfields
osdc/rptl0-2017.pdf). The government's reported total
• Harbors and ports owned portfolio across all types of buildings, excluding land
and infrastructure, was 2.37 billion square feet for 2016 (FY
• Parking structures for cars, busses, and specialty 2016 Federal Real Property Profile (FRPP) Open Data Set:
vehicles https://www.gsa.gov/policy-regulations/policy/real-property-
Although many of these assets are more numerous at the policy/data-collection-and-reports/ frpp-summary- report-
state and local levels, the federal government does have its own library). Note these figures represent only owned building
portfolio of such infrastructure, often in a military context. space and do not include the federal government's lease
Buildings. All levels of government require building facili- portfolio. Nor do they include any state or local portfolios,
ties to support public sector employees, services, and initia- whether owned or leased.
tives. These can include As with infrastructure, the creation, rehabilitation, and/
or replacement of these structures each represents a potential
• Agency office buildings public sector development project.

• Barracks and other housing

7.8. 7. Conclusion
• Medical facilities and hospitals Public sector development projects are subject to most of
• Laboratories and test facilities the same challenges as private sector projects, but they
also face unique circumstances. Project inception for the
• Schools and training facilities public sector is often tied to an evaluation of public needs,
• Museums appropriations, and compliance with an extensive regula-
tory environment with respect to pre-bid and contract-
• Data centers ing requirements. Both private and public sector projects
• Airports and hangers face the same site concerns with respect to location and
access. They also share technical due diligence concerns,
• Prisons including the impact of environmental, topographical, and
• Warehouses and storage facilities geotechnical issues on project design, cost, and timeline.
However, the public sector is often subject to additional
• Industrial facilities reviews, particularly if a state or local entity uses federal
funding. Public sector developers are not necessarily con-
Additionally, state and local authorities also need buildings
cerned with market demand for their products in the same
for things such as
way as private sector developers are; however, public sec-
• Police stations tor developers are affected by market pricing if they need
to pay compensation to condemn sites or acquire right-of-
• Fire stations way easements. The public sector has increasingly turned
• K-12 schools to the private sector, through the use of public-private
partnerships, to complete public sector projects more cost
• Community centers effectively and efficiently. Combining the strengths of both
 7.8 ■ SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR PUBLIC SECTOR DEVELOPMENT 861

public and private developers to create projects enhances JLL Office Outlook, 4Q 2016, United States, available at http://www
the built environment in ways that would not have been .us.jll.com/united-states/ en -us/Research/US-Office-Outlook-
possible otherwise. Q4-2016-JLL. pdf; "New York City's Office Market" report Pre-
pared by the Office of the State Deputy Comptroller for the
City of New York, available at https://www.osc.state.ny.us/osdc/
REFERENCES
rptl0-2017.pdf.
FY 2016 Federal Real Property Profile (FRPP) Open Data Set, available
for download at https://www.gsa.gov/policy-regulations/policy/ Ohio Department of Transportation website http:/ /www.dot.state
real-property-policy/ data-collection-and-reports/frpp-summary- .oh.us/Pages/Home.aspx.
report-library. State of Ohio Procurement Handbook for Supplies and Services,
General Services Administration website available at https:/ /www Chapter 11: Construction, Repairs, Maintenance; Ohio Depart-
.gsa.gov/real-estate/real-estate-services/for-businesses-seeking- ment of Administrative Services, General Services Division,
opportunities/bidding-on -federal-construction-projects Office of State Procurement, available online at https:/ /procure
(accessed October 14, 2017). .ohio.gov/pdf/PUR_ProcManual.pdf.
JLL Office Outlook, 4Q 2016, United States, available at http://www U.S. Geological Survey, The National Map website, available at
.us.jll.com/united-states/en-us/Research/US-Office-Outlook- https://nationalmap.gov/small_scale/printable/fedlands.html#list
Q4-2016-JLL. pdf. (accessed September 30, 2017).
CONTRIBUTORS AND REVIEWERS OF PRIOR EDITIONS

D. Michael Arand, PE Cash E. Davidson, PE, RCDD Orlando Miquel, Jr., PE

Wastewater Treatment Dry Utility Design and Engineering Street Design

Brian K. Batten, CFM, PhD Coastal Marshall N. Davidson, PE Kirk W. Norton, PS, LS, PLS
Oceanography Erosion and Sediment Control Topographic Surveys
Erosion and Sediment Control-
Coastal Sidney 0. Dewberry, PE, LS Robert "Skip" Notte, PE
Overview of the Land Development Wastewater Collection; Water
David S. Bausmith, PE Process Distribution
Brownfield Redevelopment and
Environmental Considerations Thomas A. English, PLS, PP Stephanie B. Perez, PG
Topographic Surveys Environmental Site Feasibility and
Joseph W. Betit, PLS Assessments; Environmental Permits
Control Surveys for Land Edward A. Farquhar
Development Soils Dan M. Pleasant, PE
Construction and Contract
Lisa N. Betz, PE James C. Filson II, PE Documents
Editor of 3rd Edition; Exactions, Storm Drainage Design
Infrastructure Enhancements, and Terrance C. Ryan, PE, PhD Civil
Fees; Case Study: Merrifield Town Thomas Fredricks, PE Engineering
Center Street Design Plan Submission, Review, and
Approval Process
N. Andrew Bishop Christina Gray, PhD Urban Planning
Development Patterns and Principles and Policy Development Leo Segal, PE
Environmental Policy and Street Design; Construction Cost
Megan M. Bramble, Esq. Regulations Estimating
Rezoning Process
Gilbert R. Jones, PE, CFM Silvia D'Jaen Silverman, AICP
Karen K. Brill, PS Floodplain Studies Comprehensive Planning and Zoning
Boundary Surveys for Land
Development Devin M. Keeler, PE David L. Taylor, Jr., RLA
Construction Stakeout Surveys Subdivision Ordinances, Site Plan
Andrea Burk Regulations, and Building Codes
Historic Architectural and Jay S. Kruse, PE
Archaeological Resources Engineering Feasibility Tom Velleca, PE
Street Design
P. Christopher Champagne, PE Kimberly V. Larkin
Editor of the 2nd Edition; Stormwater Environmental and Natural Susan Weibel, PE
Management Design Resources Grading and Earthwork

Christopher M. Cirrotti, PE, PP, CME Paul Makowski, PE George A. Wigfield, PLS
Preliminary Engineering and Stream Restoration Building Permits; Certificates of
Hydrologic Analysis Occupancy and Postconstruction
David F. Maune, PhD, PSM, GS, PS, Services
Charlie C. Crowder, Jr. CP, CFM
Water Supply and Treatment Aerial Mapping and Surveying Donald A. Wilson, LLS, PLS, RPF
Real Property Law

862
INDEX

A Affirmative easements, 26-27 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), 177,

Abbreviated study approach, 310, 320 Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation 178,191,204,217,218,219,365,449
Abbreviations, for data collectors, 400-402 Service (ASCS), 93 Americans with Disabilities Act Accessibility
Aboveground utilities, 726 Air, permits, 643-644 Guidelines (ADAAG), 196
Access, site: Airborne LiDAR sensors, 410 American Water Works Association (AWWA),
considerations for, 200-201 Aircraft, fixed wing, 412 279,286,287,551,656
grading, 224 Airfields, soils characteristics, 724-726 Angled parking spaces, 204
management, 185-187 Air pollution, 643-644 Angle of approach, of intersecting road, 183-184
Accuracy: Air release valves, 284, 285 Annotations, map, base map, 147
digital orthophotos, 410 Air testing, sanitary sewer design, 540, 541 Antiquities Act of 1906, ll5
requirements, base maps, 150-151 Alternative BMPs, stormwater management, Approval process, plan:
wetlands, preliminary investigation, 88 705-708 addressing review comments, 393-394
Acquisitions, 854 sheet flow to buffers, 706-707 administrative requirements, 391-392
Actinolite, 623 street sweeping, 707 considerations, 390-394
Active earth pressure, 727 vegetated roofs, 707-708 durability of approvals, 394
ADA (Americans with Disabilities Act), 177, (See also Structural BMPs; Traditional BMPs) engineer and review agency relationship, 390
178,191,204,217,218,219,365,449 Alternative subdivision, 337, 338 fees, 392
ADA Standards for Accessible Design, 73-74 Altitude valves, 284 incomplete submissions, 393
Adequate public facilities (APF) ordinance, Amendments, comprehensive plan, 39 interactions with citizens, 392
76-77 American Association of State Highway and internal reviews, 387-388
Adhesives, for dust controls, 623 Transportation Officials (AASHTO), 101 jurisdictional organization, 390-391
Adjacent/adjoining properties, feasibility study compound curves, 422 jurisdictional review, 388-390
and, 132, 137 energy losses through structures, 506, 507 meetings with review staff, 393
Administration section, form-based code, 62-63 Green Book, 178,189,218 overview,380-381,387
Administrative requirements, plan approval high-speed, high-volume highways, 196 plan revisions and record drawings, 394
processing, 391-392 Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and quality control, 388
Adverse possession, 132 Streets, 422, 427 Appurtenances, 280
Aerial mapping/photography: roadways, functional classifications of, 171, Architectural design, 352
data, gathering, 399, 403-406 172, 173 Architectural plan, 381
feasibility study, 135 total head loss, 512 Architectural standards, form-based code, 63
review of, 93 vertical location of driver's eye, 189 Areas, drainage, 214-215
site diagram, 161 American Concrete Institute (ACI), 656 Asbestos, feasibility study and, 133
(See also Photogrammetry) American Concrete Pipe Association, 378 As-built drawings, 71, 387
Aerial triangulation: American Institute of Architects (AIA), 657 As-built surveys:
objectives, 404 American Land Title Association (ALTA) parking, 657
photogrammetry, 404-405 standard, 151 roads, 657
Aesthetic impacts, development design American National Standards Institute (ANSI), sewer, 657
guidelines, 352, 353 279,656 storm drain, 657
Aesthetics, grading and, 223, 224 American Society for Photogrammetry and stormwater management facilities, 657
Aesthetics, of discharge areas, 622-623 Remote Sensing (ASPRS), 148,410,411 water, 657
dust control, 622, 623 American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), 235 Association of State Highway and
overview, 622 American Society of Testing and Materials Transportation Officials (AASHTO), 656
sediment on pavements, 622 (ASTM), 656 ASTM D-422, 744

863
864
ASTM D-423, 744 Best management practices (BMPs) ( Cont.): Building( s):
ASTM D-424, 744 innovative methods and cost-effective exterior walls of, 210, 211, 212
ASTM D-698, 744 solutions, 529 perimeter, 219
ASTM D-1140, 744 NPS pollution, control, 225 preliminary soils investigation, 109
ASTM D-1452, 744 pollution and, 480 public sector development, 860
ASTM D-1556, 744 runoff reduction systems, 251 Building slabs, 224
ASTM D-1557, 744 selection criteria, 249 Building spurs, 272,274
ASTM D-1587, 744 settlement practices, 251 Building team, 9
ASTM D-1883, 744 soil permeability restrictions for, 250 Bulb-outs, 432, 433
ASTM D-2166, 744 stormwater fundamentals, 248-253 Bulkheads,606,607,608
ASTM D-2167, 744 stormwater management program, 527-528 Bulk plane, 53, 54
ASTM D-2434, 744 structural/nonstructural, 248 Bulk regulations:
ASTM D-2435, 744 watershed area restrictions for, 250 nonresidential product, 346
ASTM D-2487, 716-717, 744 (See also Alternative BMPs; Structural BMPs; residential design, 344
ASTM D-2573, 744 Traditional BMPs) Bungalow court, 323, 324
ASTM D-2850, 744 Bicyclists, 197, 198-199 Buried conduits, 486-492
ASTM D-3080, 744 Bidding documents, 650 Buried tanks, 564
ASTM D-3282, 744 Bidding process, 859 Business team, 7, 8
ASTM D-6151, 744 Bidding/procurement requirements, 656-657 Butterfly valve, 281, 282
ASTM testing methods, soils, 744 construction documents, 652-655 By-right development, 42
At-grade intersections, 180, 181 Bike path costs, schematic design, 374 Euclidean zoning, 49-50
Attached residential units, 439-441 Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), 533
Atterberg limits, soil, 711, 713 Bioengineering, 754 C
Attorney fees, schematic design, 377 Bioretention system, stormwater management, Cables, dry utility material, 297, 299, 300
AutoCAD.dwg format, 404 690 Campus plan view, 340, 341
Average daily demand, 551 Bird baths, defined, 449 Capacity, inlet, 499-502
Average daily traffic (ADT) design, 318 Block grading, 442 Capital improvements plan (CIP), 37
Blow-off valves, 284 Capital projects, 37
B Body, legal description, 24, 26 Caption, legal description, 24
Backfill, in sewer pipe embedment, 487, Bond release, 658 Carlisle road diet, 205-206
489-490 Bond(s): Case study( ies):
Back siphonage, 295 cost, schematic design, 3 77 Bellmawr Park Mutual Housing Historic
Back-to-back townhouse, 324-325, 326,327 described, 647 District, 121-122
Bacteria, NPS pollutant, 24 7 estimates, 647-648 Little Muncy Creek Pratt Truss, 123-124
Baffles, detention time with, 618, 619, 620 Boring depths: Merrifield Town Center (MTC), 818-853
Ball joint, 287 depth of exploration, 110-111 New FedEx Ground distribution hub facility,
Ball valves, 280 guidelines, 111 108
Bank protection practices, stream restoration: Boring layout, guidelines, 110 Peter J. Biondi Route 206 Bypass, 120
bioengineering, 754 Boundary discrepancies, 156 Poinciana parkway, 97-99
redirective techniques, 754 Boundary survey, 151-152, 153, 154-155 Union Mills project, 779-818
resistive methods, 754 Bounds, legal description, 24 (See also specific entries)
Barrels, 261-263 Boysen's method, 617,618 Catchment basins, 214-215
Barrier curbs, 177 Branch packing method, 599 CA_WEST COAST LIDAR_2016, 415
Base course, pavement design, 417,418 Breaklines, 148, 159,449 Central SoMa Area Plan, 95
Base flood elevation (BFE), 82 Breaks, median, 176 Centrifugal pumps, 558
Baseline topography, 413-416 Breakwaters, 607,609 Chain of title:
Base maps, 144-170, 761 Bridges, contour patterns for, 209, 210 in feasibility studies, 130
accuracy requirements, 150-151 Brookfield park wet pond reconstruction/ legal description, 26
ALTA/NSPS standard, 151 improvement, 483-484 Channelconveyance,601,602
data formats, 146-149 Brownfield development, 22 Channelization, intersection design, 191,
datums, 149-150 Brune's curve, 617 193-194
example, 162 Brush layering method, 599 Channels, stormwater flow in, 502-512
feasibility study, 127, 129, 135, 136, 139 Bubble plan, defined, 159 energylosses,502,505-506,507
overview, 144-145 Buffers, sheet flow to, 706-707 HGL, 506, 508-512
purpose and content, 145 Buildable area, 160 Channel time, 229
sample base map content, 146 Building codes, 67, 73-74 Check dams, 603, 607
survey process, 154-159 Building Construction Data, 378 Check valves, 281
typical surveys, 151-154 Building coverage, defined, 311 Chicago World's Fair of 1893, 29
Basement units, 438-439 Building department, jurisdictional review, 390 Chicanes, 431,432
Basins, sediment, 612, 614, 616-620 Building form standards, form-based code, 59, Circular curves, horizontal alignment of streets,
Beaver Islands Topobathy LiDAR, 416 62 419-421
Bedding, for sewer pipe, 487, 488 Building information modeling (BIM): Circular Map Accuracy Standard (CMAS), 151
Bedrock, 103 for construction, 450-451 Circulation, considerations, 200-201
Bellmawr Park Mutual Housing Historic defined, 449 Citizens, interactions with, 392
District (case study), 121-122 Building lateral, 272 Civil War, 115
Berms: Building Officials and Code Administrators Clays, 102-103, 717
contour lines, 212 (BOCA) fire codes, 291 dispersive, 107
diversion, 600-601 Building permits, 644-647 expansive, 104-105
pedestrian access, 224 overview, 638 normally consolidated, 107
Best management practices (BMPs), 462, 687 required submittals, 644-646 overconsolidated, 107
common restrictions on, 251 review criteria and procedure, 646-64 7 underconsolidated, 107
comparative pollutant removal, 252 Building plan, 381 (See also Soil(s); specific types)
erosion control, 594-610 Building Research Establishment (BRE) Clean Air Act (CAA), 82, 643
filtering mechanisms, 251 Limited-Environmental Assessment Clean Water Act (CWA), 80, 81, 86, 92, 642, 643
functions, 528 Method (BREEAM), 96 drainage patterns, 216
general attributes, 253 Building restriction line (BRL), 52 erosion and sediment control plan, 594
 INDEX 865

Clean Water Act (CWA) (Cont.): Comprehensive plan(s)/planning, 19, 29-40 Constructed surfaces, contour line patterns for:
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination adoption, 31 berms and ponds, 212
System (NPDES) program, 81,642 amendment, for rezoning, 65 conveyance channels, 211,213
objective of, 81 amendments, 39 culverts/bridges, 209,210
pollution and, 480 amendments, Union Mills project (case study), exterior walls of buildings, 210,211, 212
scope of, 225 790-795 retaining walls, 209, 210, 211
stormwater quality control, 245, 246 contents, 31-37 streets, 211,212,213
Waters of the United States (WOTUS), 81 defined, 29 Construction, 14
Clearing, construction sequencing, 624 design team and, 128 BIM and DTMs for, 450-451
Clearing cost, schematic design, 373-374 elements summary, 32-37 Merrifield Town Center (MTC), case study,
Client, 8 feasibility study, 131 850
role of, 8 goals and objectives, 32, 33 stream restoration/rehabilitation, 757-759
Closeout, 14, 71 historical context, 29-30 Construction details, supplemental plans and,
Clostridium spp., 247 implementation, 34 383,384
Cluster methods, 315 inventory and trends, 32, 33 Construction documents, 14
Cluster subdivision, 338-339 land use plan, 34, 35 bidding documents, 650
Coarse-grained soils, 716,717,718 new plan, 39 bidding/procurement requirements,
Coastal erosion, evaluation of, 591, 592 overview, 29, 30 652-655
Coastal erosion, factors influencing, plan implementation, 37-39 components, 650,651
589-591 policies and maps, 33-34 composition of, 650
categories, 589-590 purpose, 30-31 construction drawings, 651-652
currents, 591 sector plans, 37, 38 contract documents, preparation, 656-657
human-induced factors, 591, 592 supplemental additions, 39 contracting requirements, 655
overview, 589-590 transportation plan, 34, 36 defined,650
tides, 591 updates, 39 descriptive specifications, 652
waves, 590-591 using, 40 overview, 650-651
Coastal erosion control measures utility plan, 34, 37 performance specifications, 652
breakwaters, 607, 609 vision statement, 31-32 project cycle, 651
groins, 607, 609 and zoning ordinance, link between, 37-39, project manual, 650
nonstructural measures, 608, 610 41 proprietary specifications, 652
overview, 605, 606 Comprehensive State Ground Water Protection reference standard specifications, 652
revetments, 607, 609 Programs (CSGWPPs), 643 specifications, 652
seawalls and bulkheads, 606, 607, 608 Compressibility, soil, 100, 101, 715-716 technical specification, 652
"soft" structures, 608 Computer-aided design and drafting (CAD): Construction drawings, 380, 651-652
Coastal wetlands, 87 formats, 404 Construction operations, sequence, 595
Code of Federal Regulations (CPR), 855 information, 146, 147 Construction recommendations/ considerations,
Codes, for data collectors, 400-402 software, 382, 449 soils, 726-727
Cohesionless soils, 711 Computer models, for NRCS method, Construction sequencing:
Cohesive soils, 711 241,242 clearing and grubbing, 624
Coir fiber rolls, 599 Concentrated flow, 463 finished grades, 625
Collector street system, 172 Concept plan(s), 13,308, 309-310 mass grading, 624
Combination air release, 286 Conceptual design(s), 13, 355-363 overview, 623, 624
Comment response letter, defined, 389 composite map, 359, 360, 361 perimeter controls, establishment, 624
Commercial office, 332, 333-334 concept plans, 356 rough grading, 624-625
freestanding, 333, 334 cost estimate, 359, 362-363 tree preservation and protection, 624
garden office, 333, 334 development program, 357 utility installation, 625
townhouse office, 334 example, 359, 360, 361 Construction team, 7, 9
Commercial retail, 329, 330-332 internal circulation, site layout and, Contamination investigation, 94
community retail centers, 330, 331 357-358 Contingency allowance, schematic design,
freestanding, 331, 332, 333 Merrifield Town Center (MTC), case study, 377-378
power center, 331, 332 829-833 Continuous development, 22
regional mall, 331, 332 overview, 307, 308, 355 Contour intervals, 207, 406
strip centers, 330 parking, 358 Contour lines:
Commercial water, demand, 557 phase, 355 berms and ponds, 212
Commissioning, 14 process, 356-359 characteristics, 208, 209
Common law, 28 product types and development principles, constructed surfaces, patterns for, 209,
Communication, project, 10 321-354 (see also Product types) 210-212
Communication costs, schematic design, selection, yield, and impact studies, 308-320 conveyance channels, 211,213
376 site diagram review and confirmation, 357 culverts/bridges, 209,210
Community Development Codes, 73 site layout, 355-356 exterior walls of buildings, 210,211, 212
Community retail centers, 330, 331 team coordination, 358-359 hills and depressions, 208, 210
Community vision, 31 Union Mills project, case study, 780-785, natural surfaces, patterns for, 208,210
Compaction, requirements, 726 803-812 overhangs, 208
Compaction, soil, 733-738 yield study, 357 retaining walls, 209, 210, 211
controlled fill, 735 (See also Schematic design) streets, 211,212,213
equipment and method, 738, 739-740 Concrete pads, 459 topographic maps, 207
example, 737-738 Condemnation, 27 valleys and ridges, 208
field, monitoring methods, 737-738 Conditional LOMR (CLOMR), 746 Contour maps, 207-208
measurement methods, 735 Conduits: Contours, data format, 148
requirements, 736-737 buried, 486-492 Contour wattling method, 599
rubber balloon test, 737 direct buried, 297, 300 Contract documents, preparation:
sand cone test, 73 7 flexible, 487, 491 bidding/procurement and contracting
Compound curves, 421-422 PVC,297 requirements, 656-657
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Connections, water distribution layout, 292, 295 drawings, 656
Compensation, and Liability Act Conservation subdivision, 339 specifications, 656
(CERCLA), 80, 82, 92 Constructability review, schematic design, 367 Contracting requirements, documents, 655
866

Controlling factors, grading for nonresidential Curb, flow in, 494-496 Descriptive data, base map, 147
sites: Curb extensions, design, 433 Descriptive specifications, construction
around building(s), 449 Curb opening inlets, 498, 499-501 documents, 652
drainage, 448 Curb ramps: Design-bid-build delivery method, 14
parking lots, 448, 449 intersection design, 191, 194, 195 Design-build delivery method, 14
utility services, 449 on various street grades, 219, 220 Design-build-finance delivery method, 14
Conventional subdivision, 336-337 Curb return radius, intersection design, 189-191, Design elements, 11
Conversion factors, 668-670 192 Design hourly volume (DHV), 318
Conveyance, 23 Curbs, 177 Designs (see specific designs)
Conveyance channels, contour line pattern, Current property zoning, feasibility study, 131 Design sheets, 383
211,213 Currents, factor influencing coastal erosion, 591 Design software, grading and, 449-451
Coordinating field, 157, 159 Curve numbers (CN), runoff, 239-241, 242, DTM, 449-451
Corrugated metal pipe (CMP), 259 243,244,466-467 overview, 449
Cost estimates, conceptual design: Curves, vertical, 424-425 Design Standards Manual, 68
feasibility estimates, 362 Curvilinear patterns, transportation system, Design storm, 228-234
overview, 359 200-201 hydrographs,231-234
private project, 362 Cushioning, 742,743 overview, 228-229
public project, 359, 362 Cut and fill operations, ETO, 455-456 time of concentration, 229-231
purpose, 359 Design team, 7, 8-9
rough estimates, 362-363 D Detached residential units, 439-441
Cost estimates, schematic design: Dam embankment, profile, 480, 481 Detachment, soil erosion and sedimentation,
clearing, grubbing, and demolition costs, Dams, preliminary soil investigation, 109 587
373-374 Darcy's law, 713 Detailed design:
contingency allowance, 377-378 Darcy-Weisbach equation, 505,569,570,573 final design, 14
erosion and sedimentation control costs, 376 Data acquisition, floodplain study, 93-94 land development, 13-14
financial fees, 3 77 Data collectors, codes and abbreviations for, Detention pond design, example, 475,
grading and earthwork costs, 374 400-402 478-480
land costs, 3 73 Data formats, base map, 146-149 Detention time, with baffles, 618,619, 620
landscaping costs, 376 contours, 148 Developer(s), 8
lighting, traffic signals, and signage costs, 374 DEMs, 148 Development costs, 74-79
off-site costs (special costs), 376-377 descriptive data and map annotations, 147 exactions, infrastructure enhancements, and
others, 378 digital orthophotos, 148-149 fees, 74-78
permits and bonds cost, 377 overview, 146-147 guaranteed performance, 74
preliminary, 370, 373 planimetric maps and topographic maps, Development design guidelines:
professional fees, 377 147-148 aesthetic impacts, 352, 353
recreational facilities costs, 376 raster data and vector data, 147 architectural design, 352
roadway, sidewalk, trail, and bike path costs, Data gathering, 399-413 community identity, 353
374 electronic mapping using conventional and environmental impacts, 350, 351-352, 353
sanitary sewer costs, 375 GPS methods, 400-403 external views, 353
soils (rocks) and geotechnical fees, 374 field methods, 399-400 financial impacts, 353
storm drain costs, 375 LiDAR (remote sensing), 410-413 market exposure, 353
stormwater management systems costs, overview, 399 marketing impacts, 353
374-375 photogrammetric survey, 403-410 operational impacts, 353
unit cost data, sources of, 378 Datum(s): overview, 350
utility (power, gas, and communication) geodetic, 144, 149 Development ordinances, 73
costs, 376 geoid models and orthometric heights, 150 Development permits:
water supply costs, 375 GPS, 150 demolition, 639
Cost(s): horizontal control system coordinate, 149 grading, 639
development, 74-79 NGS ellipsoid models, 150 miscellaneous permits, 639
direct, 75 overview, 149 overview, 638
indirect, 75 vertical control, 149-150 sign permits, 639
Cottage house, 323, 324 Debris Control Structures, 480 site permit, 638-639
Coulomb equation, 731-732 Dedication, 28 temporary permits, 639
Covenant, 23 common law, 28 transportation permits, 639
Cover sheet, 382-383 development cost and, 75 Development program, 11, 20-21
Crest vertical curves, sight distance on, 425-427 of easement, 27 comprehensive planning and zoning in
Crib walls, 730, 731 statutory law, 28 Fairfax County, 819-820
Critical flow, 513 Deed(s), 23-26 conceptual design, 357
Critical topographic points, 220 conditions, in feasibility studies, 130 Merrifield Town Center (MTC), case study,
Cross connections, water distribution, 295 easements, 26-27 819
Cross-section method, ETO, 455-456, 458 habendum clause, 24 zoning ordinances, 65-66
Cul-de-sacs: legal descriptions, 24-26 Development scope:
fire hydrants, 292 recording of, 155 master planned project, 342
maximum length of, 132 Definitions section, form-based code, -63 standalone project, 342
streets, 292 Deliverables, schematic design, 370 Development Standards Manual, 68-70
transportation systems, 201, 202 Demolition cost, schematic design, 373-374 Development team, 3
Culverts: Demolition permits, 639 benefits to, 73
contour patterns for, 209,210 Demolition plan content, 397-398 building team, 9
design, procedure for, 514, 520 DEMs (digital elevation models), 147, 403-404, business team, 7, 8
design example, 520-525 410 client/ developer, 8
design form, 522 Density, soil, 710 construction team, 7, 9
hydraulics, 472, 473-475, 476-477, 512-525 Denuded area, limiting, 595 defined,7
inlet control, 513-514, 515-519 Department of Transportation (DOT), 389 design team, 7, 8-9
major, 524-525 Depressions, contour lines, 208,210 legal team, 7, 8
outlet control, 514, 520 Depth of exploration, geotechnical members, 7
storm system materials, 261-263 considerations, 110-111 site team, 9
 INDEX 867

Development types: Drawdown time, sediment basins, 617,619 Easements, 26-27

brownfield or grayfield development, 22 Drawings, 656 affirmative, 26-27
continuous development, 22 construction, 651-652 boundary survey, 152, 153
greenfield sites, 22 stream restoration/rehabilitation, 756-757 condemnation, 27
redevelopment sites, 22 Driver, characteristics, 197 creation, 27
Development types, product, 336-342 Drive-throughs, 449 dedication, 27
alternative subdivision, 337, 338 Driveways, design, 442, 443 defined,26
campus, 340, 341 Drones, for field survey, 399 drainage, 266
cluster subdivision, 338-339 Drop manholes, 270, 271 estoppel, 27
conservation subdivision, 339 Dry utility systems, 297-304 express reservation, 27
conventional subdivision, 336-337 layout, 300, 303, 304 in feasibility studies, 130
office and industrial park, 339, 340 materials, 297-300 grant, 27
overview, 336 overview, 297 identification, 27
TND,341 Dry well pumping station, 543 implication, 27
TODs, 341-342 Dry wells, stormwater management, 694 necessity, 27
Digital elevation models (DEMs), 147, 148, Dry/wet swales: negative, 26, 2 7
403-404, 410 application guidelines, 691 prescription, 27
Digital Elevation Model Technologies and described, 691 prescriptive, 132
Applications: Ihe DEM Users Manual, 410 design criteria, 692 statutory layout, 27
Digital FIRM (DFIRM) database, 84 Ductbank, dry utility material, 297, 299, 300, 304 types, 26-27
Digital imagery, for quality control, 410 Ductile-iron pipe (DIP), 286-287 water supply company, 289
Digital orthophoto quarter quads (DOQQs), Ductile Iron Pipe Research Association Eco-District, 95
147 (DIRPA), 566 Edge of pavement (EP), 429
Digital orthophotos: Due diligence, 12, 19-124 Ejectors, pneumatic, 542
accuracy of, 410 building codes, 67, 73-74 Elected office-holders, changes in, 858-859
data format, 147, 148-149 comprehensive planning, 29-40 (see also Electronic and robotic total stations, for field
photogrammetry for, 403-404, 406-407 Comprehensive plan(s)/planning) survey, 399
technical procedures, 406-407 development costs, 74-79 Electronic data collectors, for field survey, 399
Digital surface models (DSMs), 148,410 development ordinances, 73 Electronic distance-measuring (EDM) device,
Digital terrain models (DTMs) development program, 12, 20-21 156
comparing,456-457,458,460 eminent domain, 28 Electronic mapping, using conventional and
for construction, 450-451 environmental considerations, 79-99 GPS methods, 400-403
DEMs and, 148 geotechnical considerations, 100-114 Elements summary, comprehensive plan, 32-37
digital orthophotos, 407 historical considerations, 115-119 goals and objectives, 33
earthwork calculations, 459 overview, 19, 20 implementation, 34
example, 449, 450 property, defining, 23-27 inventory and trends, 33
feasibility and liability, 451 review process, 71-73 land use plan, 34
overview, 449 site selection process, 12, 22-23 policies and maps, 33-34
proposed surfaces, creating, 449, 450 subdivision ordinance, 67-71 sector plans, 37
quality of, 410 Unified Development Codes, 71-73 transportation plan, 34
Dimensional standards: Union Mills project, case study, 779-803 utility plan, 34-37
bulk plane, 53, 54 zoning, 41-66 (see also Zoning) Elevations:
Euclidean zoning, 51-53 Duplex, 324, 325 spot, topographic maps, 212,213,214
examples, 51-53 Durability, of approvals, 394 topographic survey on, 154
floor area ratio, 53 Dust control, 622, 623 water surface, 472, 473-475
ordinance example, 53 Dynamic compaction, 741 Emergency power, pumping station, 562,
Dimensionless unit hydrograph, NRCS, 468, Dynamic stability, stream restoration and, 753 563-564, 565
470 Emergency services, feasibility study, 134
Direct buried conduits, 297, 300 E Eminent domain, 28
Direct cost, 75 Earth dikes, erosion control BMP, 600-601 dedication, 28
Directional drilling machine, 289 Earth pressure: Encroachments, defined, 156
Discharge areas, aesthetics and safety of, active, 727 End treatments, 263-264
622-623 categories, 727 Energy grade line (EGL), 505, 506, 509, 510, 512
dust control, 622, 623 defined, 727 Energy gradient, defined, 505
overview, 622 passive, 727 Energy losses, in pipe systems, 502,
sediment on pavements, 622 Rankine theory, 727-728 505-506,507
Discrepancies, boundary, 156 against walls, 72 7-728 Enforcement and Compliance History Online
Discrete particle settling theory, 612, 614, 616, Earthwork, 726 (ECHO),94
617 costs, schematic design, 374 Engineer and review agency, relationship, 390
Dispersive clays, 107 impacts, 224 Engineering, jurisdictional review, 389
Dissolved oxygen (DO), NPS pollutant, 246,247 Merrifield Town Center (MTC), case study, Engineering feasibility study, 127-135, 310, 311,
Distribution lines, 279-280 844 761-778
Distribution storage, water, 553, 554 preliminary grading and, 220-224 base map, 761
Ditches, roadway, component, 178 Earthwork takeoff (ETO), 451-457 information, sources of, 135
Diversion berms, erosion control BMP, 600-601 adjustments to, 457, 459-461 legal condition, 761
Documentation information, 384-385 cross-section method, 455-456, 458 overview, 127-128, 761
Doghouse manholes, 270, 271 defined, 451 physical condition, 761
Dolomite, 103 DTMs, comparing, 456-457, 458 preliminary, example, 762-778
Drainage, grading and, 222, 442, 448 grid method, 452-455 purpose, 128
Drainage control, during construction, 726 overview, 451,452 regulatory concerns, 761
Drainage patterns, grading, 214-216 plan content, 461 required information, 130-135
areas, 214-215 shrinkage, 460-461 scope and process, 128-130
environmental impact, 216 subbase and concrete pads, 459 site inspection/analysis for, 135-139
erosion and sediment control, 216 topsoil, 459 Engineering Field Handbook, 599
overview, 214 undercut, 459-460 Engineering News Record, 378
Drain valves, 284 utilities, 459 Engineering Standards Manual, 68
868

Engineers Joint Contract Documents Environmental studies: Existing conditions, plan sheet, 395, 397-398
Committee (EJCDC), 657 sample base map content, 146 demolition plan content, 397-398
Enterprise Community Partners, Green schematic design, 365, 367, 370 overview, 395, 397
Communities, 95 Envision, Institute for Sustainable Infrastructure Existing fill soils, 726
Entitlement review, 71-72 (ISI), 96 Expansive clays, 104-105
Entrance loss coefficients, 521 EPA Geographic Information System, 92 Express reservation, 27
Entrances, 449 Equipment, topographic surveying field, 400 Extended detention (dry) pond with micropool,
Environmental considerations, 79-99 Equivalent pipe lengths, 571, 573, 575, 576 700
contamination investigation, 94 Erodability, soil, 101
due diligence, 92-94 Erosion and sediment (E&S) control, 586-633 F
environmental policy, 79-80 aesthetics and safety of discharge areas, Facilities Standards Manual, 68
environmental regulations, 80-84 622-623 Factor of safety, 731-732
green building rating programs, 95-96 benefits, 594 Fairfax County, 483, 484, 534, 676-684, 779
Merrifield Town Center (MTC), case study, BMPs, 594-622 comprehensive planning and zoning in (case
824-825,838-839 consequences of excessive erosion, 593-594 study), 780-785, 819-820
natural hazard risk assessment, 95 construction sequencing, 623, 624-625 Fairfax County, Virginia, 115
natural resources overview and preservation drainage patterns, 216 Fairfax County Zoning Ordinance, 43-46
efforts, 84-91 estimating, 592-593 Farmland, preservation of, 130
overview, 79 evaluation of coastal erosion, 591, 592 Farmland Preservation program, 130
Poinciana Parkway (case study), 97-99 factors influencing, 588-591 Feasibility estimates, conceptual design, 362
sustainability practices, 95 feasibility study, 136, 137 Feasibility study(ies), 13
Union Mills project, case study, 808-812 hydraulic capacity and storage, reduction in, DTM,451
wildlife habitat review, 94 593-594 engineering, 127-135 (see also Engineering
Environmental content, site diagram, 160-161 overview, 586-587 feasibility study)
open space and vegetation, 161 plan content, 625-633 overview, 126-128
wetlands, 160-161 process, 587-588 Federal Acquisition Regulations (FAR), 855, 859
Environmental due diligence, 92-94 RUSLE, 593 Federal Emergency Management Agency
floodplain study, 93-94 from snowmelt, 589 (FEMA), 82, 746-747
wetland assessment, 92-93 USLE, 592-593 flood map products, 83-84
(See also Due diligence) water quality degradation, 593 floodplain studies, 133
Environmental impact(s): WEPP,593 flood study process, 746
development design guidelines, 350, 351-352, Erosion control blankets, 596 utilities maps from, 135
353 Erosion control BMPs, 594-610 (See also Floodplain study(ies))
drainage pattern, 216 categories, 594 Federal Geodetic Control Subcommittee
green development, 351-352, 353 coastal erosion control measures, 605, 606, (FGCS), 150
site disturbance, 350, 351 607,608-610 Federal Highway Administration (FHWA),
stormwater management, 351 overview, 594 184-185, 196,258,472,480,494,498,
study, 319-320 permanent measures, 594 514,652
Environmental Impact Statement (EIS), 118 site management measures, 594-595 Fees:
Environmental Management Permit (EMP), 485 soil stabilization measures, 595-599 development costs, 74-78
Environmental permits, 639-644 structural control measures, 599, 600-605 plan approval processing, 392
air, 643-644 temporary measures, 594 Fee simple estate, 23
categories, 642-644 Erosion costs, schematic design, 376 Field delineation, wetlands, 88
final permit, 641 Estoppel, 27 Field exploration programs, 109
issuance of, 639-640 Euclidean zoning: Field investigation, 135-139
modifications, 641 allowable uses, 49-51 (See also Site inspection)
noise, 644 by-right development, 49-50 Field survey:
overview, 638, 639 challenges, 42-43 baseline topography, 413-416
permit appeals, 641 dimensional standards, 51-53 data gathering, 399-413
permit application, 640 districts, 43-48 planning, 399
pre-application, 640 Fairfax County Zoning Ordinance (example), scope, 398-399
process, 640-644 43-46 Fill requirements, at the site, 726
public review, 641 map,48-49 Filter fabric fence, 610,611,612, 613, 614
receipt and review, 641 nonconformity, 54-56 Filtering mechanisms, BMPs, 251
regulatory enforcement, 641-642 prohibited uses, 51 Filters, sediment, 610-612
renewals, 641 rezoning process, 56 inlet protection, 612, 615
revisions, 641 special exception, 50-51 silt fence, 610, 611,612,613,614
state permitting contacts, 644 special permit, 51 straw bale dikes, 610,612
terminations, 641 variances and variation, 53-56 Filtration, 742, 743
waste, 644 Event mean concentration (EMC), 480-481, 482 Final design, 14
water, 642-643 Exactions, development costs, 74-78 E&S control, 586-633 (see also Erosion and
Environmental policy, 79-80 dedications, 75 sediment (E&S) control)
Environmental preservation, 76 impact fees, 76-78 existing conditions and field survey, 395-416
Environmental Quality Corridor (EQC) system, land reservation, 7 5 grading, 437-461
780 linkage, 78 Merrifield Town Center (MTC), case study,
Environmental regulations, 80-84 payments in lieu, 78 841-847
Clean Water Act (CWA), 80, 81 preservation, 75-76 overview,379,380-381
Comprehensive Environmental Response, review and processing fees, 78 site plan and approval process, 380-394
Compensation, and Liability Act Excavation(s): stormwater management, 462-485 (see also
(CERCLA), 80, 82 soil characteristics and, 460-461 Stormwater management)
considerations, 84 undercut, 459 topographic maps, 395, 396
National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), Exceedance probability, hydrologic analysis, 228 transportation design, 417-436
80-81 Excessive erosion, consequences of, 593-594 Union Mills project, case study, 812-815
National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP), hydraulic capacity and storage, reduction in, utility design, 486-585 (see also Utility design)
80,82-84 593-594 Final plan, 386
Environmental standards, form-based code, 63 water quality degradation, 593 Final site plan, 14
 INDEX 869

Financial fees, schematic design, 3 77 Forward search, 26 Grading, during final design, 437-461
Financial impacts, development design Foundation recommendations, soils, 717 adjustments to earthwork quantities, 457,
guidelines, 353 Foundations, in sewer pipe embedment, 487 459-461
Fine-grained soils, 716, 717,719,720 Four-leg intersections, 182-183 design software, 449-451
Finished grades, 625 Freestanding: ETO, 451-457, 458
Fire and safety protection, jurisdictional review, commercial office, 333, 334 ETO plan content, 461
390 commercial retail, 331, 332, 333 for nonresidential sites, 447-449
Fire duration, requirements, 553, 554 Friction head, 560 overview, 437-438
Fire flow(s): Friction loss, defined, 537 plan content, 451, 452
estimating, 552-553 Front yard setbacks, 344 for residential purposes, 438-447
requirements, 552 Frost susceptible soils, 105-106 shrinkage, 460-461
for single-family and small two-family Froude number, 513 subbase and concrete pads, 459
dwellings, 552 Fully analytical aerial triangulation (FAAT), 404 topsoil, 459
tests, 553 Funding, public sector development, 855-858 undercut, 459-460
Fire hydrants, 286, 290-292, 293 utilities, 459
Fish and wildlife habitat, wetlands, 87 G Grading fundamentals, 207-224
Fittings, 287, 288 Gabions, 599 access, 224
Fixed bar screens, in pumping stations, 544 Garage parking, 201 aesthetics, 223, 224
Fixed solids, defined, 533 Garden apartments, 326, 329, 333, 334 cut and fill areas, 222-223
Fixed wing aircraft and helicopters, 412 Gas costs, schematic design, 376 drainage, 222
Fixture unit method, 576-578, 579 Gate valves, 281,282 drainage patterns, 214-216
Flanged joint, 287 General information sheets, 383, 384 impacts, 224
Flanking inlets, 498 General Land Office (GLO) System, 155 overview, 207
Flexible conduits, 487,491 General plan, 30 preliminary grading and earthwork, 220-224
Flex-tech, 335 (See also Comprehensive plan(s)/planning) slope and, 216-220
Floating form-based codes, 63 General Services Administration (GSA), 854 topographic maps, 207-214
Flood Disaster Protection Act of 1973, 82 General Urban, 57-58 Grading permits, 639
Flood insurance rate maps {FIRMs), 83-84, 85 Generator sets, 562, 563 Grant, 27
Flood insurance study (FIS) report, 84 Geodetic datum, 144, 149 Grantee, 23
Floodplains, in feasibility study, 133, 136 Geographic information systems (GIS): Grantor, 23
Floodplain study(ies), 93-94, 745-750 applications, 147 Grantor index, 26
data acquisition, 93-94 Internet access to, 135 Graphical peak discharge, NRCS, 467-468,
deliverables, preparation of, 749 photogrammetry in, 404 469,470
Flood Insurance Rate Map (FIRM), 745 Geoid models, 150 Grasses, erosion control BMP, 595-596
hydraulic analysis, 747, 749 Geometric Geodetic Accuracy Standards and Grate inlets, 498, 501-502
hydrologic analysis, 747 Specifications, 150 Gravels, 102, 717
NFIP, 745-746 (see also National Flood Geospatial data, defined, 149 Gravity retaining walls, 729
Insurance Program (NFIP)) Geosynthetics, 742-744 Gravity sewers, 275, 277
overview, 745 cushioning, 742,743 Grayfield development, 22
plan profile sheet, 750 filtration, 742, 743 Green Acres program, 130
preliminary investigation, 93 isolation, 742, 744 Green building:
preparation for, 746-750 reinforcement, 742,743 certification, 311, 385
rainfall-runoff modeling, 747 separation, 742, 743 design, sustainable site evaluation and, 370
regression equations, 747 transmission, 742, 743 development design guideline, 351-352, 353
special considerations, 749 Geotechnical considerations, 100-114 feasibility study, 131
Floodway, 82-83 depth of exploration, 110-111 sanitary sewer costs, 375
Floor area ratio (FAR), 53 geotechnical proposal, 112 sustainable design and, 319-320
Floor area ratio: objectives, 100 Green Building Initiative (GBI), Green Globes,
defined, 311 overview, 100 95
nonresidential product, 346 planning, 112 "Green building" movement, 95
Floor slab-on-grade, 726 preliminary investigation, 109-110 Green building rating programs, 95-96
Flow rates, stream restoration and, 753 soils, 100-108 Greenfields, conservation subdivision, 339
Flows: soils report, 112-113 Greenfield sites, 22
in curb and gutter, 494-496 subsurface investigation, 111-112 Green Globes, Green Building Initiative (GBI), 95
overland, 222, 229 Geotechnical engineering, 101 Grid method, for ETO, 452-455
peak, sewer system, 534, 535-536 Geotechnical fees, schematic design, 374 Grid patterns, transportation systems, 199-200
pipe,567,568-571,572,573 Geotechnical plan and report, 381 Grinder pump (GP) system, 275
sewage, variation in, 534-536 Geotechnical planning, 112 Grit, defined, 533
Flying height: Geotechnical proposal, 112 Groins, 607, 609
contour interval, 406 Geotextiles, 608 Gross longshore transport, defined, 591
map scale, 406 Global navigation satellite system (GNSS), 150 Ground improvement methods, 738, 740-744
Form-based code, zoning, 42 Global positioning system (GPS) methods: dynamic compaction, 741
administration and definitions, 62-63 aerial survey firms, 405 geosynthetics, 742-744
architectural standards, 63 airborne, 411 lime and cement stabilization, 742
building form standards, 59, 62 datums, 149, 150 vibro compaction/replacement, 741
environmental standards, 63 electronic mapping using, 400-403 wick/band drains, 741-742
floating, 63 Globe valve, 281, 283 Ground pounding, 741
implementation, 63 Go/no-go decision, 129 Ground slope, 216-217, 218
landscaping standards, 63 Goose Creek Interceptor pipeline, 278 Groundwater, 726
mandatory, 63 Gradation, soil, 710-711 permits, 643
optional, 63 Grade, curb-opening inlets on, 499-500 recharge of, 133
other standards, 63 Grading: Grubbing:
public space standards, 58-59 costs, schematic design, 374 construction sequencing, 624
regulating plan, 58, 59-61 Merrifield Town Center (MTC), case study, cost, schematic design, 373-374
signage standards, 63 844 Guide-mounted basket, 544,545
transect system, 57-58 schematic design, 365, 367 Gullies, soil erosion and sedimentation, 588
870
Gutter, 177 Horizontal control system coordinate datums, I
flow in, 494-496 149 Impact fees, 76-78
inlets, 498 Horizontal design plan content, 424 Impact studies, preliminary design phase:
Gwinnett County Department of Water Horizontal speed control measures, 431, overview, 310, 316-320
Resources (GCDWR), 268 432-433 traffic, 316-319
Hotbox, 303 Impervious surfaces, pavement design, 418-419
H House and foundation types, 438-441 Impulse-momentum equation, 564,565
Habendum clause, 24 attached/detached, 439-441 Incentive zoning (see Negotiated zoning)
Handicap ramps, 265 categories, 438 Incomplete submissions, 393
Hanging hooks, 544 characteristics, 438 Independence parkway street rehabilitation,
Hardy-Cross method, 578, 579, 580-581, 582 no basement/basement, 438-439 436
Haunching,487,491 overview, 438 Indirect cost, 75
Hazen-Williams equation, 549,570,571,572, single level/split level unit, 438 Industrial design, considerations, 350, 351
573,576,579 House templates, examples, 445 Industrial parks, 339, 340
HDS-5 software, 472 Housing Act of 1961, 115 Industrial use, water, 557
Head loss, defined, 53 7 Howard Hughes Medical Institute Landscape, Inertial measurement unit {IMU) technology,
Headwalls: 4 405,411
end treatment, example, 263 Human-induced factors, coastal erosion, 591, Infiltration trench and basin:
with pipe, 509-510 592 application guidelines, 687-688
Headwater depth, 522, 524 Hung sewer, defined, 442 described, 687
Health department, jurisdictional review, 390 Hunter curve, 576 design criteria, 688
Heavy manufacturing, 334 Hurricane Katrina, oblique aerial imagery, 408, Inflow hydrograph, 479
Helical rotor pump, 559 409 Information:
Helicopters, fixed wing, 412 Hurricane Sandy, on Mantoloking, 589 documentation, 384-385
High Accuracy Reference Networks (HARN), 150 Hybrid construction delivery methods, 14-15 required, engineering feasibility study,
High-density polyethylene pipe {HDPE), 259, Hydrants, fire, 286, 290-292, 293 130-135
260,287 Hydraulic analysis, floodplain studies, 747, 749 sheets, general, 383, 384
Highline transmission main, 585 Hydraulic capacity and storage, reduction in, Infrastructure, public sector development, 860
High-rise multifamily, 327, 329, 330 593-594 Infrastructure enhancements, development
Highway definition, defined, 420 Hydraulic Design of Energy Dissipators for costs, 74-78
Hills, contour lines, 208, 210 Culverts and Channels, 480 Inlet protection, sediment filter, 612, 615
Historical considerations, 115-119 Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts, 472,514 Inlet(s):
Bellmawr Park Mutual Housing Historic Hydraulic grade line {HGL): capacity, 499-502
District (case study), 121-122 computations, 494 control, 472, 513-514, 515-519
due diligence, 117 increases in pipe velocity, 568 curb-opening,499-501
historic preservation movement and in pipe systems, 505, 506, 508-512 flow capacity, 498
regulations, 115-116 Hydraulic radius, defined, 463 grate, 498, 501-502
impacts to historic properties, 117-119 Hydraulics: location of, 264-265, 266
known historic properties, 116 culvert, 472, 473-475, 476-477, 512-525 in parking areas, 448
Little Muncy Creek Pratt Truss (case study), design principles, 472, 473-475, 476-477, 478 pavement drainage, 498-502
123-124 sewers, 536-540 Inlet shaping, defined, 512
local preservation efforts, 116-117 Hydraulic slope, defined, 505 Inspections, soil, 726
overview, 115 Hydraulic surge, 284, 286 Institute for Sustainable Infrastructure
Peter J. Biondi Route 206 Bypass (case study), Hydric soils, defined, 87 (ISI)-Envision, 96
120 Hydrograph(s): Institute of Transportation Engineers (ITE),
potential historic properties, 116, 117 classification, 231 196
Historic content, site diagram, 160-161 design storm, 228 Instrumentation, in topographic surveying
Historic properties: elements, 231 field, 400
avoidance, minimization, and mitigation, IDF curves, 236 Insurance Services Office (ISO), 552
118-119 inflow, 479 Integrated management practices (!MPs):
defining impacts, 118 NRCS dimensionless unit, 468, 470 alternative BMPs, 705-708
feasibility study, 135 outflow, 479 bioretention system, 690
impact assessment, 118 overview, 231-232 dry wells, 694
impacts to, 117-118 timing aspects of, 231 dry/wet swales, 691-692
incorporation, 119 unit, 231-234 infiltration trench and basin, 687-689
known, 116 Hydrologic analysis: porous pavements, 693
local preservation efforts, 116-117 exceedance probability and recurrence rain barrels/ cisterns, 695
potential, 116, 117 interval, 228 stormwater management, 686-708
preservation, 119 floodplain studies, 747 structural BMPs, 696-699
reconstruction, 119 NRCS, 225, 227 traditional BMPs, 700-705
rehabilitation, 119 in preliminary engineering study, 227-228 Intensity-duration-frequency (IDF) curves:
restoration, 119 rainfall-runoff modeling, 228, 747 applicable intensity values, 465
treatment of, 119 rational method, 225, 227, 234-236 overview, 236, 238
Historic studies, sample base map content, 146 regression equations, 747 rational method limitations, 238, 239
Home, grading around, 442, 444, 445, 446 storm model units, 227 Interactions, with citizens, 392-
Home owners associations {HOAs), 31 Hydrologic data, 228 Intercounty connector Route 29 over Briggs
Hook-mounted basket, 544, 545 Hydrologic runoff computations, 462-469 Chaney Road, 5
Horizontal alignment, 419-424 NRCS method example, 466-469 Intermediate storage facilities, 2 79
circular curves, 419-421 overview, 462-463 Intermittent streams, 135, 136
compound curves, 421-422 rational method example, 464-466 Internal circulation, site layout and, 357-358
design plan content, 424 time of concentration calculation, 463-464 Internal reviews, 387-388
overview, 419 Hydrologic soil group {HSG) classification, 239 Internal street networks, 199
reverse curves, 422 Hydrology, of wetlands, 87-88 International Code Council (ICC), 656
sight distance on horizontal curves, 423 Hydrophytic vegetation, 87 International Standards Organization (ISO),
SSDs, 422-423 Hyetographs, 236 388
superelevation, 422 HY-8 software, 472 Internet, as site information source, 135
 INDEX 871

Intersection(s): LANDSAT satellite, 147 Los Angeles Region Imagery Acquisition

inlet placement in, 265 Landscape: Consortium (LAR-IAC), 408
minimum spacing between, 133 nonresidential product, 346-347 Loss coefficient method, 571
profiles at, 428-429 plan, 381 Lot dimensions, 343
Intersection(s), design, 185-194 residential design, 345 Lot grading, 441-445
channelization, 191, 193-194 Landscaping costs, schematic design, 376 around home, 442, 444, 445, 446
curb ramps, 191, 194, 195 Landscaping standards, form-based code, 63 drainage, 442
curb return radius, 189-191, 192 Land use plan, 34, 35, 41 driveways, 442, 443
sight distance, 187-189 Lanes, travel, 174, 175-176 overview, 441-442
spacing, 186-187 Laser scanners, for field survey, 399 rear yard, 445
Intersection(s), types, 180, 181-185 .LAS file format, 410 utility services, 442, 443, 444
angle of approach, 183-184 Lateral earth pressure, 727-731 Lotshape,343-344
four-leg intersections, 182-183 Lateral shifts, 432 Lot size averaging, 343, 346
multileg intersections, 183 Layout, dry utility, 300, 303, 304 Lot size reductions, 338
overview, 180, 181 Layout, sanitary sewers, 274, 275-279 Low impact development (LID) techniques,
roundabouts and traffic circles, 184-185 gravity sewers, 275, 277 375,746
"T" intersections, 181-182 overview, 274, 275 stormwater management, 686-708
Inventory and trends, comprehensive plan, 32, pressure sewers, 275-276 (See also Integrated management practices
33 septic sewer systems, 276 (!MPs))
Isolation valves, 289-290 Layout, storm system, 264-268
inlets, location of, 264-265, 266 M
overview, 264 Macerators, 544
J pipe design, 266-267 Maintenance, stream restoration/rehabilitation,
Jet (ejector) pumps, 559-560, 561
underdrain design, 267 760
Joints, pipe materials, 287, 288
yard inlets, location of, 265, 266 Maintenance of traffic (MOT) plans, 397
Junctions, storm, 257-258, 259
Layout, water distribution, 288-293 Mandatory form-based codes, 63
Jurisdictional challenges, zoning ordinances, 66
connections, 292, 295 Manholes:
Jurisdictional classifications, roadways, 172, 173
fire hydrants, 290-292, 293 dry utility material, 297, 298, 299
Jurisdictional review:
overview, 288, 289 efficiency of flow through, 512
administrative requirements, 391-392
pipe curvature, 292, 294 energy losses through, 506
fees, 392
valve locations, 289-290 pumps in, 542
incomplete submissions, 393
Lead review agency, role, 389 sanitary sewer material, 269-272
interactions with citizens, 392-
Legal condition, feasibility study, 130 storm junctions, 257, 258
meetings with review staff, 393
Legal counsel, rezoning and, 128 structure, 494, 498
organization, 390-391
Legal descriptions: Manning's equation, 463, 472, 494, 502, 505,
plan approval process, 388-390
body, 24,26 510,514,537,538,539,540
caption, 24 Manning's roughness coefficient, 463
K chain of title, 26 in stormwater facility hydrologic analysis, 472
Karst topography, 103 metes and bounds, 24 Manually cleaned bar screen, 544, 545
Known historic properties, 116, 117 parts, 24, 26 Manual of Practice, 68
qualifying clause, 26 Manual of Standard Specifications, 68
L title report, 26 Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices
Land: title search, 26 (MUTCD), 196,397,434
acquisition, 128 Legal information, sample base map content, Mapping:
characteristics, 127 146 site inspection, 139
Land bays, defined, 367 Legal team, 7, 8 wetlands, 93
Land costs, schematic design, 373 Letter of Map Amendment (LOMA), 746 Map(s):
Land development: Letter of Map Revision (LOMR), 745-746 aerial, 135
design process (see Land development design Letter of Map Revision Based on Fill annotations, 147
process) (LOMR-F), 746 base (see Base maps)
design team, zoning ordinances, 128 Level spreader, 603, 605, 608 contour, 207-208
overview, 3-5 Liability, DTM, 451 horizontal and vertical accuracy of, 150-151
risk in, 127 LiDAR (light detection and ranging) data, 147, planimetric, 147-148
Land development design process, 3, 6-15 154, 410-413 scale, 406
detailed design stage, 13-14 Lidargrammetry, 148,412, 413 tax, 132, 135
development team, 7-9 Lift station, defined, 540 topographic (see Topographic maps)
overview, 6, 11 Light detection and ranging (LiDAR) data, 147, Market analysis, 22-23
post -design stage, 14 154, 410-413 Market considerations, 346-347
pre-design stage, 11-13 Light industry, 335 Marketing impacts, development design
preliminary design stage, 13 Lighting costs, schematic design, 374 guidelines, 353
private sector, 7 Lime stabilization, 742 Mass grading, 445, 447, 624
project communication, 10 Limestone, 103-104 Mass points, 148
project delivery methods, 14-15 Limiting nutrient, defined, 593 MasterFormat, 656
public involvement, 9-10 Liquidlimit(LL), 102 Master plan, 30
public sector, 6-7 Little Muncy Creek Pratt Truss (case study), (See also Comprehensive plan(s)/planning)
public vs. private project types, 6-7 123-124 Master planned projects, 342
site engineer, responsibilities of, 10-11 Live Cribwall, 599 Masterspec®, 656
stages of, 11-14 Live work units, 336 Materials, dry utility, 297-300
(See also specific entries) Loading docks, 449 additional equipment, 297,299,300,301,
Landlocked parcels, 132 Local parks, jurisdictional review, 390 302
Land ownership: Local standards manuals, defined, 587 cables and ductbank, 297, 299, 300
legal rights of, 128 Local street systems, 172, 173 manholes, 297, 298, 299
records, feasibility study, 130 Location, pumping stations, 541-542 Materials, sanitary sewer, 269-274
Land planner, 308 Loess, 106 building spurs, 272, 274
Land records, research of, 155-156 Longitudinal grade, defined, 216 manholes, 269-272
Land reservation, development cost, 75 Longshore current, defined, 591 pipe materials, 272,274
872
Materials, storm system, 257-264 Multifamily structures: Natural Resource Conservation Service system
barrels, 261-263 garden style, 326, 329 101 '
culverts, 261-263 mid-rise and high-rise, 327, 329, 330 Natural resources:
end treatments, 263-264 Multileg intersections, 183 local preservation efforts, 91
junctions, 257-258, 259 Multiple stage riser design, 472,473,474 natural waters and wetlands, 86-88
open channel systems, 261 Multiplex, 326, 328, 329 open space and vegetation, 89-90
overview, 257 Multistage pumps, 558, 559 overview, 84, 86
pipe materials, 259, 260-261 Municipal separate storm sewer system {MS4s) Natural Resources Conservation Service
Materials, water supply, 280-286 stormwater, 246 {NRCS) methods, 109, 599
fire hydrant, 286 Muskeg, 107 computer models for, 241,242
meters, 286 dimensionless unit hydrograph, 468, 470
overview, 280 erodibility of soils, 626
valves, 280-286
N
example, 463, 466-469
Narrative, to erosion and sediment control plan,
Mattings, soil stabilization, 596 graphical peak discharge, 467-468, 469,
629,630-633
Maximum daily consumption, defined, 553 470
National Ambient Air Quality Standards
Mean hydraulic detention time, defined, for hydrologic analysis, 225, 227
(NAAQS), 643
617 IDF curves, 238
National Association of Homebuilders
Mechanical joint, 287 NRCS soil survey report, 109
{NAHB)-Model Green Home Building
Mechanically stabilized earth (MSE), 729 overview, 239
Guidelines, 9 5
Medians, 176, 177 plan content, 468-469
National Bureau of Standards {NBS), 514
Meetings, with review staff, 393 post-development, analysis, 467
National CAD Standards (NCS), 382
Merrifield Town Center {MTC), case study, pre-development, analysis, 467
National Electrical Code {NEC), 297
818-853 rainfall models, 241, 245
National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA),
area wide recommendations, 820, 824 rational vs., 466
80-81,92,640
concept map for future development, 821 runoff curve numbers, 239-241, 242,243,
levels of environmental review in, 81
conceptual design, 829-833 244
requirements, 80
construction, 850 runoff volume, 466-467
National Fire Protection Association {NFPA),
development patterns and principles, utilities maps from, 135
553,656
829-833 Natural surfaces, contour line patterns for 208
National Flood Insurance Act, 82 210 ' '
development program, 819
National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) 80
due diligence, 819-829 82-84 ' ' Natural waters, 86-88
environmental considerations, 824-825, (See also Wetlands)
community and property owner-initiated
838-839 Necessity, easement of, 27
amendments and revisions, 745-746
field adjustments, 850 Negative easement, 26, 27
digital FIRM {DFIRM) database, 84
final design, 841-84 7 Negotiated zoning, 42, 56-57
FEMA flood map products, 83-84
grading and earthwork, 844 planned unit development {PUD), 56-57
FIS report, 84
land unit recommendations, 824 proffer (pro offering), 56
flood insurance rate maps {FIRMs), 83-84
plan revisions, 850, 851-852 Neotraditional design, 341
flood map revisions, 745
plan submission and permitting, 848-849 NEPAssist, 92
history, 82
preliminary engineering, 825-826, 833-838 Net longshore transport, defined, 591
Letter of Map Amendment (LOMA), 746
proffer compliance, 845 Net positive suction head (NPSH), 546
Letter of Map Revision (LOMR), 745-746
requests for interpretation (RFis), 850 Nets, soil stabilization, 596
Letter of Map Revision Based on Fill
rezoning process, 839-841 New comprehensive plan, 39
(LOMR-F), 746
schematic design, 833-838 (See also Comprehensive plan(s)/planning)
municipal governments and lenders role in
site analysis, 819-829 New FedEx Ground distribution hub facility
floodplain management under, 82-83 108 ,
stormwater management design, 844
purpose of, 82
street design, 841-844 Newton- Raphson method, 579
studies and restudies, 746
summary observations, 850, 852-853 New urbanism, 341
updates to, 745-746
transportation and public facilities/ New York State Department of Transportation
National Flood Insurance Reform Act of 1994 82
infrastructure, 824 (NYSDOT), 531
National Geodetic Survey {NGS), 149, 150 '
utility coordination, 844-845 No basement type buildings, 438-439
National Highway System road project, 5
Metals, NPS pollutant, 248 Noise, 542
National Historic Preservation Act of 1966
Metamorphic rock, 103 characteristics, 644
{NHPA), 115
Metastable soils, 106-107 permits-related to, 644
National Institute of Building Sciences, Whole
Meters, 286 Nonconformity(ies):
Building Design Guide, 95
Metes, legal description, 24 types, 54
National Mediator Accreditation System
Micropool, extended detention (dry) pond zoning, 54-56
{NMAS), 150
with, 700 Nonfrost susceptible soils, 106
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association
MicroStation.dgn format, 404 Non-point source (NPS) pollution:
{NOAA), 415, 416, 589
Middle ordinate {MO), 420 damaging effects pollutants, 225
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination
Mid-rise multifamily, 327, 329, 330 in feasibility study, 133
System {NPDES), 80, 81, 587,594,642
Minor arterial street system, 172 stormwater quality control, 246, 247-248
National Priorities List {NPL), 82
"Minor" subdivisions, 71 Nonpoint sources (NPS), 81
National Sanitation Foundation, 286
Mixed-use plan view, 335 Non-profit entities, 4
National Society of Professional Engineer
Modified Puls method, 469 Nonresidential product, 346-350
(NSPE) Code ofEthics, 10
Modular wall systems, 730-731 common standards, 346
National Society of Professional Surveyors
advantages, 730-731 design process, 346-347
(NSPS) standard, 151
disadvantages, 731 FAR method, 346
Nat(onal Trust for Historic Preservation, 115
Montgomery County, Maryland, 40, 72 industrial design considerations, 350,351
Nat10nal Wetland Inventory (NWI), 93, 133
Moody diagram, 505, 570, 571 landscape and open space, 346-347
Nationwide Urban Runoff Program {NURP),
Mountable curbs, 177 lot size and bulk regulations, 346
246
Mount Vernon Ladies Association, 115 market considerations, 346
Natural areas, 57
MSE wall systems, 729-730 office design considerations, 349-350
Natural bedrock, 103
advantages, 730 overview, 346
Natural hazards:
disadvantages, 730 parking, loading, and service spaces, 346
feasibility study, 135
Mulches, erosion control BMP, 595-596 retail design consideration, 347-349
risk assessment, 95
 INDEX 873

Nonresidential sites, grading for, 447-449 Parking: Photogrammetry (Cont.):

buildings, location, 448 ADA,217 softcopy, 410
characteristics, 44 7 -448 classifications, 201,203 stereo, 410
controlling factors, 448-449 layout options, 204 Photometric plan, 381
overview, 447 requirements, 203 Photo scale:
Nonstructural measures, coastal erosion site design, 201, 203-204 contour interval, 406
control, 608, 610 Parking, as-built survey, 657 map scale, 406
Normal depth, defined, 505 Parking lots, 326 in planning aerial photography, 405-406
Normally consolidated clays, 107 conceptual design, 358 Physical attributes and constraints, feasibility
North American Datum of 1983 (NAD83) grading for nonresidential sites, 448, 449 study, 130, 131-135
values, 144-145, 149 nonresidential product, 346 Physical information, sample base map content,
Notice of deficiency (NOD), 641 residential design, 344-345 146
Notice of intent (NOi), 641,642 retail, 348-349 Physical properties, of selected materials,
Notice of termination (NOT), 641 Parks, jurisdictional review, 390 673-675
Novachip®, 436 Passenger vehicle parking spaces, 204 Pipe curvature, water distribution layout, 292, 294
Nutrients, NPS pollutant and, 247-248 Passive earth pressures, 727 Pipe design, storm system layout, 266-267
NYC Department of Environmental Protection Patterns, contour line: Pipe flow, 567, 568-571, 572, 573
(NYCDEP), 527, 530 constructed surfaces, 209, 210-212 Pipe lengths, equivalent, 571, 573, 575, 576
NYC Economic Development Corporation, 527 natural surfaces, 208, 210 Pipe materials:
Pavement designs, 417-419 fittings, 287, 288
Pavement drainage, 494-502 joints, 287,288
0 flow in curb and gutter, 494-496 overview, 286-287
Oakwood beach flood resiliency study, 254
inlets, 498-502 in sewer construction, 272,274
Oblique aerial imagery, 407, 408, 409
spread calculation example, 497 storm system, 259, 260-261
Odors, 541
stormwater flow in pipes and channels, water distribution, 286-288
Office design, considerations, 349-350
502-512 (see also Stormwater flow) Pipe(s):
Office of Coastal Management, 416
Pavement recommendations, soils, 717 DIP, 286-287
Office parks, 339, 340
Pavements: HDPE, 259, 260, 287
Office procedures, 157, 159
building slabs and, 224 plastic, 286
Off-site costs, schematic design, 376-377
sediment on, 622 polyethylene, 287
Ohio Revised Code, 854
Payments in lieu, 78 PVC, 259
Oil/grit separator, water quality inlet with, 697
Peak demand, water, 557, 558 RCP, 259, 260, 261, 506
On-street parking, 175
Peak discharge, NRCS graphical, 467-468, 469, steel, 287
Open channel systems, 261
470 Pipes, stormwater flow in, 502-512
Open space, 89-90
Peak flows, sewer system, 534, 535-536 energylosses,502,505-506,507
preservation, 89
Peak intensity, 229 HGL, 506, 508-512
values and benefits, 89-90
Peak runoff discharges, determination, 493 Plan conformance jurisdictions, 39
Open Space Preservation program, 130
Peat, 107 Plan content, E&S control, 625-633
Open spaces:
Pedestrians, 197, 198 categories, 625-626
drainage patterns, analysis, 266
Perception, identification, emotion, and volition narrative, 629, 630-633
grading within, 219
(PIEV), 197 objective, 626
nonresidential product, 346-347
Performance specifications, construction overview, 625-626
residential design, 345
documents, 652 plan sheets, developing, 626-629
site diagram, 161
Performance zoning, 57 Plan contents:
in subdivisions, 338
Perimeter controls, establishment, 624 ETO,461
Operational impacts, development design
Perimeter dikes, defined, 600 grading, 451,452
guidelines, 353
Perimeter sand filter, 697 NRCS methods, 468-469
Operations and maintenance (O&M),
Permeability, soil, 711-714 rational method, 466
658-663
Permit acquisition, 71 sewer, 549-550
Optional form-based codes, 63
Permit(s), 14, 637, 638-647 storm drainage design, 525-526
"Order of magnitude'' estimates, 363
building, 638, 644-647 time of concentration, 464
Ordinance regulations, feasibility study, 131
development, 638-639 vertical design, 429, 430
Organic filter, 697
environmental, 638, 639-644 water main, 581, 582-583
Organic soils, 107
issuance of, 638 Planimetric mapping, 147-148
Orthometric heights, 150
schematic design, 377 focal-length/narrow-angle lenses for, 406
Orthophotos:
special, Euclidean zoning, 51 metric properties, 403-404
building in Los Angeles, 408, 409
Union Mills project, case study, 816 Planimetrics, defined, 147
digital (see Digital orthophotos)
(See also specific types) Planned unit developments (PUDs), 56-57, 66
Outfall assessment, in feasibility study, 133
Perpendicular spaces, 204 Planner, 3
Outfall points, 266
Pesticides, residual, 133 Planning:
Outflow hydrograph, 479
Peter J. Biondi Route 206 Bypass (case study), geotechnical, 112
Outlet control, 514, 520
120 jurisdictional review, 389
Outlet protection, erosion control BMP, 603,
Phase diagram, soil, 709 road drawings, 435-436
604,605,606
Photogrammetry: for topographic surveys, 399
Out-parcel, 331, 332, 333
aerial photographs, 156 Planning and Land Use System (PLUS)
Overconsolidated clays, 107
aerial triangulation, 404-405 Program,780,820
Overhangs, contour lines, 208
applications, 403 Plan revisions and record drawings, 394
Overland flow, 222, 229
compiling maps using, 148 Plan sheets, 139-143
Overlay districts, zoning, 49
considerations, 408, 410 erosion and sediment control, 626-629
Oxygen demand, NPS pollutant, 246, 247
contour interval, 406 layout, 140, 142
data gathering, 403-406 overview, 139
p digital orthophotos, 403, 406-407 for pavement design, 419
Packaged booster pumping stations, 562, 563 for field survey, 399 profile view, 140, 142
Parabolic curves, 424 map scale, 406 section view, 142-143
Parallel parking spaces, 175,204 oblique aerial imagery, 407, 408, 409 symbols, 139-140, 141
Parcel, 23 photo scale, 405-406 views, 140, 142-143
874
Plan submission, 308-309 Preliminary engineering: Profiles:
final design, 385-386 feasibility study, example, 762-778 at intersections, 428-429
preparing, 385-386 hydrologic analysis, 227-228 of road drawings, 435-436
Plasticity index (PI), 104 Merrifield Town Center (MTC), case study, Project communication, 10
Plastic limit (PL), 102 825-826 Project control, 156
Plastic pipe, 286 Union Mills project, case study, 808 Project cycle, 651
Plat preparation, 71 (See also Engineering feasibility study) Project delivery methods:
Plat(s), 23 Preliminary investigation: design-bid-build, 14
example, 25 buildings, 109 design-build, 14
in feasibility studies, 130 dams, 109 design-build-finance, 14
Plug valves, 281 floodplain study, 93 value-based award, 14
Plunge pools, 603 geotechnical considerations, 109-110 Project manual, 650
Pneumatic ejectors, 542 roads, 110 Project phasing, need for, 626
Pocket sand filter, 697 wetlands, accuracy of, 88 Projects, types of, 859-860
Poinciana parkway (case study), 97-99 Preliminary plan, 13 Property access, 132
Point cloud, defined, 154 for entitlement review, 308, 309-310 Property boundaries, feasibility study, 136
Point of beginning (POB), 24 Prescriptive easements, 132 Property( ies):
Point of compound curvature (PCC), 421-422 Preservation: conveyance,23
Point of curvature (PC), 420 development cost and, 75-76 covenant, 23
Point of reverse curvature (PRC), 422 environmental, 76 deeds, 23-26
Point of tangency (PT), 420 historic properties, 116-117, 119 defining, 23-27
Point of vertical curvature (PVC), 297, 425 local efforts, 91 fee simple estate, 23
Point of vertical intersection (PVI), 425 open space and vegetation, 89-90 parcel, 23
Point of vertical tangency (PVT), 425 tree, 89-90, 624 plats, 23
Policies and maps, comprehensive plan, 33-34 Pressure head, 560 real property, 23
A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Pressure reducing valves (PRV), 281,284 subdivision, 23
Streets, 171, 196,422,427 Pressure requirements, water distribution title, 23
Political retrospect, Union Mills project (case design, 551-552 Proposal, geotechnical, 112
study), 802-803 Pressure sewers, 275-276 Proposed grade lines (PGLs), 428,429,435,
Political will, 4, 858-859 Pre-stressed concrete cylinder pipe (PCCP), 287 450
Pollutantloads,480,481-482 Principal arterial systems, 172 Proposed surfaces, creating, 449, 450
Pollutants, NPS, 225,246, 247-248 Private facilities, in feasibility study, 134 Proposed zoning, feasibility study, 131
Pollution, prevention, 133 Private project cost estimate, conceptual design, Proprietary BMPs, 686
Polyethylene pipe (PE), 287 362 Proprietary specifications, construction
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe, 259 Private sector, 4, 7 documents, 652
Ponds, contour lines, 212 Private sector developers, 7 Protection, tree, 624
Porous pavements, stormwater management, Private sector development projects, 4 Public agency involvement, 9-10
693 vs. public sector, 6-7 Public and private roads, 173
Positive displacement pumps, 558 Privatization, 857 Public facilities:
Postconstruction services, 14 Probable maximum flood (PMF), 239 as-built documents for, 135
as-built surveys, 657-658 Probable maximum precipitation (PMP), 239 in feasibility study, 134
bond release, 658 Problem soils, 104-107 Public hearing, rezoning, 64-65
operations and maintenance, 658-663 dispersive clays, 107 Public Land Survey (PLS) System, 155
street acceptance, 658 expansive clays, 104-105 Public presentations, rezoning, 64-
Post-design stage, land development, 14 frost susceptible soils, 105-106 Public-private partnerships (PPP/P3s), 5,
closeout, 14 metastable soils, 106-107 855-858
construction, 14 normally consolidated clays, 107 Public project cost estimate, conceptual design,
construction documents, 14 organic soils, 107 359,362
engineering, 648 overconsolidated clays, 107 Public review, environmental permits, 641
green building documentation services, underconsolidated clays, 107 Public sector, 4-5, 6-7
648-649 (See also Soil(s)) Public sector developers, 6-7
permits, 14 Procurement (or acquisition) activities, Public sector development projects, 4-5
services, 649-650 854 bidding process, 859
surveying, 648 Product types, development principles and, buildings, 860
Potential historic properties, 116, 117 321-354 elected office-holders, changes in, 858-859
Power center, 331, 332 commercial office, 332, 333-334 examples, 6
Power costs, schematic design, 376 commercial retail, 329, 330-332 funding considerations, 855-858
Pre-application, environmental permits, comprehensive plan, 322 infrastructure, 860
640 design guidelines, 342-350, 351-353 overview, 854
Pre-design: development types, 336-342 political will, 858-859
development program, 12, 20-21 flex industrial, 335 predetermined sites, 855
due diligence, 12, 19-124 (see also Due heavy manufacturing, 334 vs. private projects, 6-7
diligence) industrial, 334-336 projects, types of, 859-860
eminent domain, 28 light industry, 335 public-private partnerships, 855-858
feasibility study, 13 live work units, 336 regulatory environment, 854-855
land development, 11-13 mixed use, 335 requests for proposals, 859
property, defining, 23-27 nonresidential product, 346-350 Public space standards, form-based code, 58-59
site analysis, 12-13 overview, 321-323 Public works, jurisdictional review, 389
site diagram, 13 residential, 323-329, 342-346 (see also Pumping facilities, 558-564
site selection, 12, 22-23 Residential product) emergency power, 562, 563-564, 565
Predetermined sites, public sector development, scope,342 overview, 558
855 The Sevens, 354 packaged booster stations, 562, 563
Preliminary design: Professional consultant fees, schematic design, pump drives, 560
conceptual design, 13 377 pump selection, 558-560
land development, 13 Proffers,56, 75,227 system head curve, 560, 562
schematic design, 13 Profile grade line (PGL), 179 water supply system, 279
 INDEX 875

Pumping stations, 540, 541-549 Reference standard specifications, construction Reverse curves, 422
components, 544-546 documents, 652 Revetments, 607, 609
design types, 542-543 Referral agencies, role, 389 Review agency and engineer, relationship, 390
location, 541-542 Regional mall, 331,332 Review comments, addressing, 393-394
overview, 540, 541 Regression equations, 747 Review process, 71-73
pump selection, 546-549 Regulating plan, form-based code documents, closeout, 71
screenings, 544, 545 58,59-61 entitlement review, 71-72
wet well, sizing of, 544, 546 Regulation(s), 12 permit acquisition, 71
Pump(s): environmental, 80-84 plat preparation, 71
drives, 560 environmental permits, 641-642 site plan review, 71, 72-73
performance curve, 547-548 feasibility study, 135 Reviews:
selection, 546-549 form-based code, 57-63 internal, 387-388
Pump selection, 558-560 historic preservation movement and, jurisdictional, 388-390
centrifugal pumps, 558 115-116 Review staff, meetings with, 393
helical rotor, 559 public sector development, 854-855 Revised universal soil loss equation (RUSLE),
jet (ejector), 559-560, 561 source, 856-857 593
multistage, 558, 559 subdivision, 130 Revisions:
positive displacement, 558 (See also Zoning ordinance(s); specific entries) environmental permits, 641
reciprocating, 558 Regulatory information: final site plans, 394
rotary gear, 559 feasibility study, 130-131 Rezoning:
submersible, 558 sample base map content, 146 application submittal, review of, 64
turbine, 558, 559 Regulatory permitting, in schematic design, 365 comprehensive plan amendment, 65
Purchase contract option period, 127 Rehabilitation, historic properties, 119 legal counsel and, 128
Push-on joint, 287 Reinforced concrete pipe (RCP), 259, 260, 261, 506 Merrifield Town Center (MTC), case study,
Remote sensing (LiDAR), 410-413 839-841
Renewals, environmental permits, 641 overview, 63-64
Q Report, site inspection, 139 process, 64, 392
Qualifying clause, legal description, 26
Requests for interpretation (RFis), 850 public hearing, 64-65
Quality assurance, final design, 385
Requests for proposals (RFPs ), 859 public presentations, 64
Quality calculations, stormwater, 480, 481-485
Research, of boundary survey, 154-155 Union Mills project, case study, 786-790,
Quality control, final design, 385, 388
Residential design: 795-802
Quality control, stormwater, 245, 246-253
bulk regulations, 344 (See also Zoning)
BMPs, 248-253
common standards, 343 Ridges, contour lines, 208
NPS pollutants, 246, 247-248
considerations, 345-346 Rights-of-way (ROW):
overview, 245, 246, 247
density, 343 to public roads, 132, 133, 173
Quantity, of sewage, 533-534
landscape and open space, 345 in title investigation, 130
lot dimensions, 343 widths, 178, 179
R lotshape,343-344 Rill flow, soil erosion and sedimentation, 588
Radius, curb return, 189-191, 192 lot size, 343 Riprap, 599
Radon, 133 parking and access, 344-345 Riser:
Rags, 544 process, 342-345 calculation example, 472, 473-475, 476-477,
Railroad definition, 420 setbacks, 344 478
Rain barrels/ cisterns, stormwater management, Residential product, 323-329 design, multiple stage, 472,473,474
695 design process, 342-345 flow for water surface elevation, 473
Rainfall models, NRCS methods, 241,245 multifamily structures, 326, 327, 329, 330 structure, 4 72
Rainfall-runoff modeling, 747 single-family attached, 324-326 Road alignment, defined, 171
hydrologic analysis, 228 single-family detached, 323-324 Road frontage, in feasibility study, 132-133
Raised intersections, vertical measure, 431 types, 342-346 Road narrowing measures, 432, 433
Rankine theory, 727-728 Residential purposes, grading for, 438-447 Road network, orientation to surrounding, 348
Raster data, base map, 147 house and foundation types, 438-441 Road(s):
Rational method: lot grading, 441-445 as-built survey, 657
example, 464-466 mass grading, 445, 447 preliminary soil investigation, 110
for hydrologic analysis, 225, 227, 234-236 overview, 438 slope and grade, 218
limitation, 465-466 siting house, 441 soils characteristics, 724-726
limitations, 238, 239 Residential water demand, 555, 557 Road sections, example, 179-180, 181
NRCS vs., 466 Residual hydrant, 553 Roadway cross section, defined, 171
overview, 464-465 Resistive methods, stream restoration, 754 Roadway(s):
plan content, 466 Resource conservation, in subdivisions, 337 collector systems, 172
post-development, analysis, 465 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act components, 174-180
pre-development, analysis, 465 (RCRA), 82 costs, schematic design, 374
Real property, 23 Restoration, historic properties, 119 cross-sectional elements, 174
Real-time kinematic (RTK) GPS networks, 399, Retail design consideration: curb and gutter, 177
400,403 orientation to surrounding road network, 348 example road sections, 179-180, 181
Rear yard, 445 overview, 347-348 functional classifications of, 171-173
Receipt and review, environmental permits, 641 parking, 348-349 geometry, 171
Reciprocating pump, 558 sizing, 348 hierarchy of movement, 172
Reconstruction, historic properties, 119 vehicular circulation, 348 jurisdictional classifications, 172, 173
Record drawings, 387, 394 Retail establishments, 331, 332, 333 local street systems, 172, 173
Record plat, 386-387 Retaining walls, 727-731 medians, 176, 177
Recreation, jurisdictional review, 390 contour line patterns, 209,210,211 minor arterial street systems, 172
Recreational facilities costs, schematic design, design considerations for, 728-729 PGL, 179
376 Earth pressures against, 727-728 principal arterial systems, 172
Recurrence interval, hydrologic analysis, 228 modular wall systems, 730-731 public and private roads, 173
Recycling, feasibility study, 134 MSE wall systems, 729-730 right-of-way widths, 178, 179
Redevelopment sites, 22 recommendations for soils, 717,726 shoulders, side slopes, and ditches, 178
Redirective techniques, stream restoration, 754 types of, 729-731 sidewalks and utility strips, 177-178
876
Roadway(s) (Cont.): Schools, feasibility study, 134 Shrinkage, 224, 460-461
travel lanes, 174, 175-176 Scope, field survey, 398-399 Side slopes, roadway, component, 178
turn lanes, 177 Scope of work, for site engineer, 11 Sidewalk(s):
typical section, 175 Screenings, pumping station, 544, 545 costs, schematic design, 374
Robotic total stations, for field survey, 399 Screwed joint, 287 feasibility study, 134
Rock(s): SCS 24-hour rainfall distribution (at half- hour pedestrian safety, 197
metamorphic, 103 increments), 672 roadway, component, 177-178
sedimentary, 103 Seasonal frost, 726 slope and grade, 218,219, 220
Rotary gear pump, 559 Seawalls, 606, 607, 608 Sieve analysis, 712
Rough estimates, conceptual design, 362-363 Sector plans, 37, 38 Sight distance:
Rough grading, construction sequencing, Sediment, NPS pollutant, 246 on crest vertical curves, 425-427
624-625 Sedimentary rocks, 103 on horizontal curves, 423
Roughness coefficient: Sedimentation control costs, schematic design, intersection, 187-189
for sheet flow, 463 376 at site entrance, 132-133, 137
values of, 503-504 Sediment basins: Signage costs, schematic design, 374
Roundabouts, 184-185 Boysen's method, 617, 618 Signage plans, 381
Route 110 drainage & roadway improvements, design procedure for, 619, 620 Signage standards, form-based code, 63
531-532 detention time with baffles, 618, 619, 620 Sign permits, 639
Rubber balloon test, soil compaction, 73 7 discrete particle settling theory, 612, 614, Silt bags, 622
Rubber boots, 269 616,617 Silt fence, 610,611,612,613, 614
Runoff coefficient, stormwater fundamentals, drawdown time, 617,619 Silts, 102-103, 717
235-236,239 overview, 612 (See also Clays)
Runoff curve numbers, 239-241, 242, 243, 244 trap efficiency, 616-617 Single-family attached dwellings, 324-326
Runoff reduction systems, BMPs, 251 Sediment budgets, 591, 592 duplex, 324, 325
Runoff volumes, NRCS hydrologic method, Sediment control, erosion and (see Erosion and multiplex, 326, 328, 329
466-467 sediment (E&S) control) townhouse,324-326,327
Rural areas, 57 Sediment control BMPs, 610-622 Single-family detached dwellings, 323-324
filters, 610-612 cottage house/bungalow court, 323, 324
s overview, 610 zero lot line house, 323, 324
Safe Drinking Water Act, 643 storage measures, 612, 614, 616-622 Single level/split level unit, housing style, 438
Safety, of discharge areas, 622-623 Sediment on pavements, 622 Single-use zoning (see Euclidean zoning)
dust control, 622, 623 Sediment yield, defined, 592 Sinkholes, 103-104
overview, 622 Selection, yield, impact studies and, 308-320 SI System, prefixes for use with, 671
sediment on pavements, 622 additional studies, 310-320 Site access, management, 185-187
Sag locations, curb-opening inlets in, 500-501 concept plans, 308, 309-310 Site analysis, 12-13, 23
Sag vertical curves, sight distance on, 427-428 overview, 308-310 phase, 127
Salmonella spp., 247 plan submission, 308-309 Union Mills project, case study, 785-803
Sand bags, 608 preliminary plan, 308, 309-310 Site assessment, stream restoration and, 752
Sand cone test, soil compaction, 737 product types and development principles, Site data, 160
Sand filter(s), 697-699 321-354 Site descriptions, sample base map content, 146
application guidelines, 698 Semi-public sector, 4-5 Site design:
design criteria, 699 Semi-public sector development projects, 4-5 schematic design, 365, 367, 368
organic filter, 697 Septic tank effluent pressure (STEP) system, supplemental, 381
perimeter, 697 275,276 Site design, transportation systems, 199-204
pocket, 697 Settling practices, BMPs, 251 circulation and access, 200-201
subsurface, 697 The Sevens, 354 cul-de-sacs and turnarounds, 201,202
surface, 697 Sewage, 533-550 curvilinear patterns, 200-201
Sands, 102,717 flow, variation in, 534-536 grid patterns, 199-200
Sanitary sewer costs, schematic design, 375 hydraulics of sewers, 536-540 internal street networks, 199
Sanitary sewer design, procedure for, 533-540 overview, 533 overview, 199
air testing, 540, 541 plan content, 549-550 parking, 201, 203-204
example, 540 procedure for sanitary sewer design, 533-540 Site diagram, 13, 159-170
hydraulics, 536-540 pumping stations, 540, 541-549 (see also area classifications, 163
quantity, 533-534 Pumping stations) buildable area, 160
Schematic design, 13, 364-378 quantity of, 533-534 composite map, 170
deliverables, 370 strength, 533 drainage patterns, 168
environmental, 365, 367, 370 Sewers, sanitary, 269-278 environmental/historic content, 160-161
grading, 365, 367 as-built survey, 657 example, 161-170
green building design and sustainable site in feasibility study, 134 overview, 159-160
evaluation, 370 Goose Creek Interceptor pipeline, 278 resource protection areas, 165
Merrifield Town Center (MTC), case study, hydraulics, 536-540 review and confirmation, 357
833-838 layout, 274, 275-279 soils map, 166
overview, 307,308, 364-365, 366,369 materials, 269-274 steep slopes, 167
preliminary cost estimate, 370, 373-378 overview, 269 utilities, 169
preliminary engineering checklist, 3 70, Shallow concentrated flow, 463 zoning, 164
371-373 Shallow wetland, 704-705 Site disturbance, 350, 351
preliminary plan, 364, 366 Shear strength, soil, 714-715 Site engineer, 3
process, 365-370 Sheet flow: design elements, 11
regulatory permitting, 365 to buffers, 706-707 responsibilities of, 10-11
site design, 365, 367, 368 defined,222,463 scope of work, 11
transportation, 365, 367 roughness coefficient for, 463 Site grading, 221
Union Mills project, case study, 803-812 soil erosion and sedimentation, 587 Site inspection, engineering feasibility study,
unit cost data, sources of, 378 Sheeting and shoring, 726 135-139
value engineering, 378 Shigella spp., 247 mapping and report, 139
waiver preparation, 370 Shot placement, data collection, 400, 402, 403 overview, 135-136
(See also Conceptual design(s)) Shoulders, roadway, component, 178 process, 136-139
 INDEX 877

Site layout, internal circulation and, 357-358 Soil(s) ( Cont.): Spot elevations, topographic maps, 212,213,214
Site management measures, erosion control construction recommendations/considerations, Spread calculation, example, 497
BMP, 594-595 726-727 Springfield Gardens, 527-530
limiting denuded area, 595 defined,709 Square grids, 147
sequence of construction, 595 density, 710 Squirrel-cage inductor type, 560
site planning, 594-595 erodability, 101 Stacked townhomes, 324, 325
Site permit, 638-639 erosion and sediment control (see Erosion Staff, meetings with review, 393
Site planning, components, 380-394 and sediment (E&S) control) Standalone project, 342
construction details and supplemental plans, in feasibility study, 133, 136 Standard City Planning Enabling Act, 68
383,384 fine-grained, 716, 717, 719, 720 Standard slope and grade, 217, 218-219
cover sheet, 382-383 foundation recommendations, 717 State Historic Preservation Officer (SHPO), 115
design sheets, 383 fundamental properties and parameters, State implementation plan (SIP), 643
documentation information, 384-385 709-711 State licensing boards, 387
general information sheets, 383, 384 geotechnical considerations, 100-108 State Permitting Contacts, 644
overview, 380-382 gradation, 710-711 State Plane Coordinate System (SPCS), 149
plan submission, 385-387 gravels and sands, 102, 717 Static head, 560
Site plan/planning, 67 ground improvement methods, 738-744 Statutory law, 28
erosion control BMP, 594-595 hydric, 87 Statutory layout, 27
for multifamily developments, 344 lateral earth pressure and retaining walls, Steel pipe, 287
review, 71, 72-73 727-731 Steeper waves, 591
Site selection, 11 limestone, 103-104 Steep slopes, 219, 220, 221
development types, 22 liquid limit (LL), 102 Step pool stormwater conveyance (SPSC), 483
due diligence and site analysis, 23 overview, 709 Stereo photographs/images, aerial, 403
market analysis, 22-23 particle size distribution, 101 Stick of townhomes, 324
process, 12, 22-23 particle-size distribution curves, 713 Stoke's law, 614
study, 129, 310-311, 312-313, 314 pavement recommendations, 717 Stopping sight distances (SSDs):
Site team, 9 permeability, 711-714 crest vertical curves, 425-427
Siting house, 441 phase diagram, 709 horizontal alignment, 422-423
SI units, properties of water in, 671 plasticity, 101 Storage measures, sediment:
Slope and grade, 216-220 plastic limit (PL), 102 basins, 612, 614, 616-620
building perimeter, 219 principal soil deposits, 722-723 traps, 620-622
ground,216-217,218 problem soils, 104-107 Storage tank, water, 554, 555
open space, 219 properties and parameters, 100-101 Storage volume, requirements, 245, 246
overview, 216 retaining wall recommendations, 717, 726 Storm collection structures, 258, 259, 260
roads, 218 shear strength, 714-715 Storm drainage, 256-268
sidewalks and trails, 218, 219, 220 shrinkage, 460-461 as-built survey, 657
standard, 217, 218-219 shrink and swell, 224 categories, 257
steep, 219,220 sieve analysis, 712 collection structures, 258, 259, 260
Slopefailures, 732-733, 734 silts and days, 102-103, 717 Gwinnett county stormwater system
Slope(s): slope stability, 731-733 assessment program, 268
defined, 731 strength characteristics of, 100, 101 overview, 256-257
drains, 601, 602, 603 textural classification, 101 system layout, 264-268
soil erosion on, 589 types by origin, 717 system materials, 257-264
Slope stability, 731-733 types of, 102-104 Storm drainage, design, 493-532
Coulomb equation, 731-732 undercut, 224, 459-460 components, 493
factor of safety, 731-732 Unified Soil Classification (USC) system, culvert hydraulics, 512-525
Small urban areas, defined, 172 716-717, 721 feasibility study, 133
Snowmelt, soil erosion from, 589 unit volume relationships, 711 flow in pipes and channels, 502-512
Softcopy photogrammetry, 410 volume relationships, 710 overview, 493
"Soft'' structures, coastal erosion control weight relationships, 710 pavement drainage, 494-502
measure, 608 wetlands, 87 plan content, 525-526
Software: (See also Problem soils) procedure for, 493-494
in grading plans, 461 Soils (rocks) fees, schematic design, 374 Route 110 drainage & roadway
vehicle turning movements, 189 Soils report, 112-113 improvements, 531-532
Soil binders, erosion control BMP, 596 Soil stabilization measures, erosion control Springfield Gardens, 527-530
Soil bioengineering techniques, erosion control BMP, 595-599 Storm drain costs, schematic design, 375
BMP, 596, 597-599, 600 binders, 596 Storm model units, 227
Soil-cement, 742 bioengineering, 596, 597-599, 600 Stormwater flow, in pipes and channels,
Soil conservation, jurisdictional review, 390 grass and mulch, 595-596 502-512
Soil erosion, factors influencing, 588-589 nets and mattings, 596 energylosses,502,505-506,507
on slopes, 589 Southern delivery system, finished water HGL, 506, 508-512
soil characteristics, 588-589 pipelines, 584 overview,502,503-504
vegetation, 589 Spacing, intersection, 186-187 Stormwater fundamentals, 225-254
Soil loss, defined, 592 Special districts, feasibility study, 131 BMPs, 248-253
Soil(s), 709-744 Special exception review, Euclidean zoning, design storm, 228-234
ASTM testing methods (selected), 744 50-51 exceedance probability and recurrence
atterberg limits, 711, 713 Special Flood Hazard Area (SFHA), 82, 84 interval, 228
bedrock, 103 Specifications: hydrographs,231-234
characteristics, roads and airfields, 724-726 construction documents, 652 hydrologic analysis, 227-228
classification, 101, 716-717 contract documents, 656 IDF curves, 236-239
coarse-grained, 716,717,718 final site plan, 381 location of SWM facilities, 244, 245, 246
cohesionless, 711 Speed control measures, 431-433 management systems, 242-245
cohesive, 711 horizontal, 431, 432-433 NPS pollutants, 246, 247-248
compaction,733-738 vertical, 431,432 NRCS methodology, 239-242
compressibility, 100, 101, 715-716 Spillways, 472, 473-475, 478, 480 Oakwood beach flood resiliency study with
conditions, 223-224 Splinecurve,defined,429 nature based infrastructure, 254
878
Stormwater fundamentals (Cont.): Structural BMPs, stormwater management: Synthetic alternatives, 595
overview, 225-227 bioretention system, 690 System analysis, water distribution, 567,
quality control, 245, 246-253 dry wells, 694 568-581
rainfall and runoff, 228 dry/wet swales, 691-692 equivalent pipe lengths, 571, 573, 575, 576
rational method, 234-236 infiltration trench and basin, 687-689 fixture unit method, 576-578, 579
runoff coefficient, 235-236 porous pavements, 693 Hardy-Cross method, 578, 579, 580-581, 582
volume of storage, 245, 246 rain barrels/cisterns, 695 minor losses, 571, 574
Stormwater management facility (SWMF), sand filter, 697-699 overview, 567
485 water quality inlet with oil/grit separator, 697 pipe flow, 567, 568-571, 572, 573
as-built survey, 657 (See also Alternative BMPs; Traditional BMPs) System head curve, 560, 562
Stormwater management (SWM) systems, Structural control measures, erosion control
462-485,686-708 BMP, 599, 600-605 T
alternative BMPs, 705-708 channelconveyance,601,602 Tax increment financing (TIF) districts, 95
bioretention system, 690 check dams, 603, 607 Tax maps/records, 132, 135
Brookfield park wet pond reconstruction/ diversion berms/earth dikes, 600-601 Tax parcel, 23
improvement, 483-484 level spreader, 603, 605, 608 Team coordination, conceptual design, 358-359
categories, 686 outlet protection, 603, 604, 605, 606 Technical procedures, for digital orthophotos,
costs, schematic design, 374-375 overview, 599, 600 406-407
design of, 469-480 slope drains, 601,602, 603 Technical Release 20 (TR-20), 239
detention pond design example, 475, Subbase and concrete pads, 459 Technical Release 55 (TR-55), 227, 229, 239, 245
478-480 Subbase layer, pavement design, 417 Technical specifications, construction
development design guideline, 351 Subdivider, 23 documents, 652
dry wells, 694 Subdivision, 23 Temperatures, relationship between, 671
dry/wet swales, 691-692 Subdivision ordinance, 67-71 Temporary permits, 639
in feasibility study, 133 Development Standards Manual, 68-70 Temporary traffic control (TTC) plans, 397
hydrologic runoff computations, 462-469 history, 68 Terminations, environmental permit, 641
infiltration trench and basin, 687-689 related development ordinances, 70 Terrestrial photogrammetry, 403
integrated management practices, 686-708 subdivision plan, 68 Texts, feasibility study, 131
low-impact development technology, using, 70-71 Theoretical grade line (TGL), 179
686-708 vs. zoning ordinances, 67-68 Threaded joint, 287
Merrifield Town Center (MTC), case study, Subdivision plan, 68 Three-leg intersection, 181-182
844 Subdivisions: Thrust block(s), 286
overview, 462 alternative, 337,338 design concept of, 566
pollutant loads, 480, 481-482 cluster, 338-339 Thrust restraint, 286, 564, 565-567, 568, 570
porous pavements, 693 conservation, 339 Tides, factor influencing coastal erosion, 591
principles of hydraulic design, 472, 473-475, conventional, 336-337 Time of concentration:
476-477,478 Subgrade layer, pavement design, 417,418 calculation, 463-464
proprietary BMPs, 686 Submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV), wetlands, design storm, 229-231
quality calculations, 480, 481-485 87 plan content, 464
rain barrels/ cisterns, 695 Submersible pump, 558 "T" intersections, 181-182
schematic design, 365 Subsurface investigation, 111-112 Title, 23
spillways,472,473-475,478,480 Subsurface materials, 102-104 Title investigation, feasibility study, 130
structural BMPs, 696-699 (See also Soil(s)) Title report, legal description, 26
SWMF,485 Subsurface sand filter, 697 Title search, legal description, 26
traditional BMPs, 700-705 Sub-urban areas, 57 Topographic analysis, 133
weirs, 472, 473-475 Suction-lift pumping station, 542 Topographic maps:
Stormwater Pollution Prevention Plan Sump areas, 265 contour lines, 148, 207-212
(SWPPP),81,216,587,642 Superelevation, 422 data format, 147-148
Stormwater systems, jurisdictional review, 389 Super silt fence, 610 feasibility study, 129, 135
Straw bale dikes, 610,612 Supplemental plans, 383, 384 grading, 207-214
Stream restoration/rehabilitation, 751-760 Supplemental site design, 381 photo scale and flying height for, 406
bank protection practices, 754-756 Surface course, pavement design, 417-418 spot elevations, 212,213,214
construction, 757-759 Surface parking, 201 using electronic data collection, 402
design approach, 752-757 Surface sand filter, 697 Topographic surveys, 152, 153-154
drawings, 756-757 Surface water, permits, 642 Topography, baseline, 413-416
dynamic stability and, 753 Surge, hydraulic, 284, 286 Topsoil, 726
flow rates, 753 Surveyor, 3 in grading operation, 224, 459
maintenance, 760 Survey plat (plats), 381 Total maximum daily loads (TMDL), 81
methods, 752 Surveys, typical: Townhouse,324-326,327,334
overview, 751 boundary discrepancies, 156 Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA), 82
project goals, 751-752 boundary survey, 151-152, 153 Traditional BMPs, stormwater management,
site assessment, 752 boundary survey, research of, 154-155 700-705
Stream systems, defined, 751 coordinating field and office procedures, extended detention (dry) pond with
Street acceptance, 658 157,159 micropool, 700
Street design, Merrifield Town Center (MTC), features and improvements, locating, 157, 158 shallow wetland, 704-705
case study, 841-844 general procedures, 154 wet pond, 701-703
Streetlights, 134 land records, research of, 155-156 (See also Alternative BMPs; Structural BMPs)
Street networks, internal, 199 process, 154-159 Traditional neighborhood design/development
Street parking, 201 project control, 156 (TNDs), 321, 341
Streets: topographic survey, 152, 153-154 Traffic calming measures:
contour lines, 211,212,213 traverse survey, 156-157 defined,429
public and private, 173 Sustainability practices, 95 overview, 429, 430
Streetscape, defined, 438 Swales, 266 speed control, 431-433
Street sweeping, 707 Swamps, 86 volume control, 430-431
Strength, soil, 100, 101 (See also Wetlands) Traffic circles, 184-185
Strip centers, 330 Symbols, plan sheet, 139-140, 141 Traffic control devices (TCDs), 434
 INDEX 879

Traffic impact study, 316-319 Union Mills project, case study, 779-818 U.S. Geological Survey 7.5 Minute Topographic
elements, 316 Bull Run Planning District/Centreville Series Maps, 92-93
environmental, 319-320 community planning sector, 784 USGS TerraServer USA webpage, 93
example, 316,317 changing market/reevaluation ofland use, 790 Utilities:
types, 316,318 client input, 804 earthwork and, 459
volumes, 316, 318 comprehensive plan amendments, 790-795 in feasibility study, 133, 134, 135
Traffic signals, costs, schematic design, 374 comprehensive planning and zoning in jurisdictional review, 389-390
Traffic studies and plans, 381 Fairfax County, 780-785 sample base map content, 146
Trail(s): conceptual design and schematic design, 803-812 schematic design, 365
costs, schematic design, 374 data collection/evolution, 806 site diagram, 169
feasibility study, 134 due diligence, 779-803 Utility design, 486-585
slope and grade, 218,219,220 environmental considerations, 808-812 buried conduits, 486-492
Transect system, 57-58 final design, 812-815 overview, 486-493
Transferable development rights (TDR), 130,315 "handoff" meetings, 804-806 sewage, 533-550
Transit-oriented developments (TODs), 321, infrastructure elements/off-site impacts, storm drainage design, 493-532 (see also
341-342 808-810 Storm drainage, design)
Transmission lines, 279 negotiations with citizens, 798-799 water, 551-583 (see also Water)
Transportation design, 417-436 negotiations with staff, 790-795, 798 Utility fundamentals, 255-304
considerations, 434 Planning areas and districts, 783 dry utility systems, 297-304 (see also Dry
horizontal alignment, 419-424 plan submission and permitting, 816 utility systems)
overview, 417 political retrospect, 802-803 overview, 255
pavement design, 417-419 preliminary engineering, 808 sanitary sewer, 269-278 (see also Sewers)
schematic design, 365, 367 project phasing, 806-807 storm drainage, 256-268 (see also Storm
TCDs,434 retail center, 814-815 drainage)
traffic calming measures, 429, 430-433 rezoning process, 786-790, 795-802 water distribution, 279-296 (see also Water
typical street plan and profile, 435-436 Ruddy Duck Road, 807 distribution)
vertical design, 424-429 sanitary sewer outfall, 807 Utility installation, construction sequencing,
Transportation permits, 639 single-family detached house sitings, 813-814 625
Transportation plan, 34, 36 site analysis, 785-803 Utility plan, 34, 37
Transportation systems, 171-206 stormwater management and best Utility reports, 381
bicyclists, 197, 198-199 management practices (BMPs), 810-812 Utility services:
Carlisle road diet, 205-206 summary observations, 816-818 grading for nonresidential sites, 449
design criteria, 194, 196-199 townhouse sections, 807-808, 813 lot grading, 442, 443, 444
development and, 342 zoning map, 780, 782 Utility strips, roadway, 177-178
driver characteristics, 197 United Soil Classification (USC) system, 487
functional classifications of roadways, 171-173 United State Department of Agriculture V
intersection types, 180, 181-185 (USDA), 239 Vacuum relief valves, 286
overview, 171 United States Green Building Council Valleys, contour lines, 208
pedestrians, 197, 198 (USGBC)-Leadership in Energy and Value-based award delivery method, 14
roadway components, 174-180 Environmental Design (LEED) Rating Value engineering, schematic design, 378
site access and intersection design, 185-194 Systems, 95, 96 Values and benefits, open space and vegetation,
site design, 199-204 Unit hydrographs: 89-90
soil erosion and sedimentation, 587 design storm, 232-234 Valve(s):
vehicle characteristics, 196-197 NRCS dimensionless, 468, 470 locations, 289-290
Trap efficiency, sediment basins, 616-617 Unit volume relationships, soil, 711 placement, 290
Traps, sediment, 620-622 Universal soil loss equation (USLE), 592-593 Valves, water supply material, 280-286
Trash removal, 134 Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) air release, 284, 285
Travel lanes, 174, 175-176 coordinates, 148 altitude, 284
Traverse survey, 156-157 Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), for field ball valve, 280
Treatment facility, to distribution network, 279 survey, 399 blow-off, 284
Tree preservation and protection, 624 Updates, comprehensive plan, 39 butterfly valve, 281,282
Trends, comprehensive plan, 32, 33 Uplands, 87 characteristics, 281, 283
Triangulated irregular network (TIN): (See also Wetlands) check valves, 281
defined,449 Urban center, 57 drain, 284
surface model, 148 Urban core, 57 gate valve, 281, 282
topographic survey map, 159 Urban sediment yield equation (USLE), 617 globe valve, 281, 283
Trip generation models, 318 U.S. Army Corps ofEngineers (USACE), 86, 88 hydraulic surge, 284, 286
Turbine pumps, 558, 559 utilities maps from, 135 plug valve, 281
Turnarounds, transportation systems, 201, 202 U.S. Code (USC), 855 PRV, 281,284
Turn lanes, 177, 186, 200 U.S. customary units, properties of water in, 670 Variable frequency drives (VFDs), costs, 560
Typical surveys, 151-154 U.S. Department of Agriculture, 592 Variances and variation, Euclidean zoning,
(See also Surveys, typical) U.S. Department of Commerce, 29, 68 53-56
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 641 Vector data, base map, 147
u back flow, 295 Vegetated roofs, 707-708
Ultrathin bonded hot-mix wearing course feasibility study and, 135 Vegetation, 89-90
(UTBHMWC), 436 funding and guidance, 246 feasibility study, 133, 136
Underconsolidated clays, 107 material and construction standards from, 279 hydrophytic, 87
Undercut, 224, 459-460 NEPA,81 preservation, 89
Underdrain design, storm system layout, 267 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), 86, 93 reducing soil erosion, 589
Underground utilities, 726 utilities maps from, 135 site diagram, 161
Unified Development Codes, 71-73 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Wetlands wetlands, 87
Unified Facilities Guide Specification (UFGS), Mapper, 86 Vegetative ground covers, 595
656 U.S. Geological Survey (USGS): Vehicle, characteristics, 196-197
Unified Soil Classification (USC) system, 101, DEM for, 148 Vehicular circulation, retail design, 348
716-717, 721 floodplain information from, 133 Velocity head, 568
Uniform flow, concept, 505 topographic maps from, 135, 154 Vent stack, 290
880
Vertical control datums, 149-150 Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP), 593 Wildlife habitat:
Vertical curves: Water lines: feasibility study, 136-13 7
crest, sight distance on, 425-427 existing, connecting to, 293, 295, 296 review, 94
sag, sight distance on, 427-428 installation, 289 Wingwalls, 263
Vertical design, 424-429 Waterproof frame and covers, 272 WinTR-20, 242
crest vertical curves, sight distance on, Water quality degradation, 593 World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84), 149
425-427 Water quality inlet with oil/grit separator, 697 WOTUS, 88, 92
curves, 424-425 Water-related permits:
overview, 424 groundwater, 643 y
plan content, 429, 430 surface water, 642
Yard inlets, location of, 265, 266
profiles at intersections, 428-429 wetlands, 643
Yield study(ies)
sag vertical curves, sight distance on, 427-428 Water reuse, 251
conceptual design, 357
Vertical Map Accuracy Standard (VMAS), 151 Waters, natural, 86-88
feasibility study, 129
Vertical traffic calming measures, 431,432 Watershed, 214-215
overview, 310,311,313, 314-316
Vertical turbine pumps, 558 Waters of the United States (WOTUS), 81
Vibro compaction/replacement, 741 Water source, 279
Virginia DOT (VDOT), 186 Water supply costs, schematic design, 375 z
Virginia Erosion and Sediment Control Water supply fixture unit (WSFU), 576 Zero lot line house, 323, 324
Handbook, 623 Water surface elevations (WSE), 472, 473-475 ZIP (zone improvement plan) code, 9
Vision statement, 31-32 Water use and demand: Zoning, 19,31,41-66,310,311
Volume control measures, 430-431 commercial demand, 557 advantages, 42
Volume relationships, soil, 710 consumptive/nonconsumptive use, 554 by-right development, 42
industrial use, 557 defined,358
w other uses, 557 Euclidean, 42-56
Washington, George, 115 overview, 554, 555, 556 Fairfax County Zoning Ordinance (example),
Waste, permits related to, 644 peak demand, 557, 558 43-46
Water, 551-583 residential demand, 555, 557 feasibility study, 128, 129, 131, 135
as-built survey, 657 Waves, factor influencing coastal erosion, form-based code, 42, 57-63
Highline transmission main, phase 1, 585 590-591 land use plan and, 41
main plan content, 581, 582-583 Web Soil Surveys, 93 negotiated, 42, 56-57
overview, 551 Weight relationships, soil, 710 as "nuisance-prohibiting" device, 41
permits-related to, 642-643 Weirs, 472, 473-475, 501-502, 524 objectives, 41-42
procedure for water distribution design, Western Fairfax County Citizens Association open space provisions, 345
551-554 (WFCCA), 785 overview, 41
properties, in SI units, 671 Wetland assessment, 92-93 performance, 42, 57
properties, in U.S. customary units, 670 aerial photographs review, 93 regulations, 29-30
pumping facilities, 558-564 (see also mapping, 93 requirements, for site parking, 204
Pumping facilities) U.S. Geological Survey 7.5 Minute sample base map content, 146
quality, in wetlands, 86-87 Topographic Series Maps, 92-93 site diagram, 164
quantity, in wetlands, 87 Web Soil Surveys, 93 techniques, 63
Southern delivery system, finished water Wetlands, 86-88 types of, 42
pipelines, 584 coastal, 87 Union Mills project, case study, 780-785
system analysis, 567, 568-581 defined, 86 (See also Rezoning)
thrust restraint, 564, 565-567, 568, 570 delineation criteria and methodology, 87-88 Zoning districts, Euclidean zoning, 43-48
use and demand, 554, 555-558 in feasibility study, 133, 136 Zoning Enabling Act, 1924, 29, 30, 41
Water distribution, 279-296 field delineation, 88 Zoning map(s):
connecting to existing water line, 293, 295, 296 fish and wildlife habitat, 87 creation, 49
cross connections, 295 functions, 86-87 Euclidean zoning, 48-49
in feasibility study, 134 hydrology, 87-88 feasibility study, 131
layout, 288-293 permits, 643 overlay districts, 49
overview, 279-280 preliminary investigation, accuracy of, 88 using, 65-66
pipe materials, 286-288 site diagram, 160-161 Zoning ordinance(s), 19, 31, 313, 322, 323, 343,
supply materials, 280-286 soils, 87 344,345
thrust restraint, 286 swamps, 86 and comprehensive plan, link between,
Water distribution design, procedure for, vegetation, 87 37-39,41
551-554 water quality, 86-87 defined,41
distribution storage, 553, 554 water quantity, 87 development program, 65-66
estimating fire flow, 552-553 Wetpond,701-703 Fairfax County Zoning Ordinance, 43-46
fire duration requirements, 553, 554 Wet-tap method, 293,295 form-based code, 57-63
fire flow requirements, 552 Wet well: jurisdictional challenges, 66
fire flow tests, 553 pumping station, 543 vs. subdivision ordinance, 67-68
overview, 551 sizing of, 544, 546 using, 65-66
pressure requirements, 551-552 Wick/band drains, 741-742 (See also specific entries)
storage tank example, 554, 555 Widths, ROW, 178, 179 Zoning overlay, feasibility study, 131
CASE STUDIES

WALTER REED NATIONAL MILITARY MEDICAL CENTER

Location: Bethesda, MD
Client: HKS Architects Inc.
Completion Date: 2012

Overview: Dewberry supported the new campus with an active military hospital two buildings, the America and Arrow-
facilities at the Walter Reed National serving emergency, critical, long term head Buildings, a 560,000-sf outpatient
Military Center (WRNMMC) in and oncology patients and their families. building and a 165,000-sf addition to
Bethesda, Maryland, as part of the Base Building 9. In addition, Dewberry pro-
Realignment and Closure (BRAC) pro- The Project: Dewberry was responsible vided site civil and landscape design
gram on the Clark/Balfour Beatty Team. for site civil and landscape design for for a 939-car patient parking structure,
Dewberry provided survey services;
site/construction plan preparation;
landscape design; utility plans; storm-
water and sediment control plans; and
construction administration. Dewberry
also coordinated with State Highway
Administration and Department of the
Environment. HKS Architects, Inc. pro-
vided architectural design.
tfi client expected to have the projects
completed within the specified time
frame-t e new buildings and patient
parking garage to be substantially com-
plete by September 2011 as specified
by BRAC Legislation. All construction
needed to be within udget and with
as little disruption to ongoing health-
care functions as possible. The team
was operating on a sprawling, liistoric
 CASE STUDIES

a 1100-car multiuse parking structure,

and new north and south entry gates
along with a visitor/ID center. There
was also 450,000 sf of renovation to a
number of different buildings. Both
new parking garages (patient parking
garage and multiuse parking garage)
were required to address both the exist-
ing parking issues and the increase
of staff and patients due to the new
buildings. The new security gates and
visitor/ID building were required to
accommodate the increased staff and
patient access and increasing security
requirements.
Sustainability Efforts: The first phase
of the project, involving construction The Dewberry stormwater design inte- mandated September 2011 deadline for
of the America and Arrowhead Build- grated the newest requirements provid- substantial completion. This challenge
ings, achieved LEED Gold above the ing reduced runoff and improvement of was addressed with numerous methods.
government mandated LEED Silver. All water quality. The site stormwater sys- In order to meet the deadline, the proj-
phases included providing stormwater tem performs 25% better in preventing ect was broken up into a series of pack-
control based on the current standards. flooding downstream than code due to ages that allowed different parts of the
Landscaping was chosen to meet the local water pollution issues. Enclosing work to have plans being prepared and
base requirements but to also provide the parking garages and providing sig- reviewed simultaneously. Documents
a sustaining easy to manage program of nificant landscaping developed by Dew- were issued for construction often before
maintenance. berry help camouflage cars and reduce design was completed and/or approved
the amount of hot pavement reducing by the owner. This allowed critical path
The achievement of LEED Gold for the the affects the natural habitat and sys- tasks such as obtaining National Capital
project included the design of heating, tems. The majority of the site was con- Planning Commission approval and civil
ventilation, and cooling systems incor- sidered redevelopment with existing permits from the Maryland Department
porate cutting edge technology such as surface parking areas transformed to of the Environment (MDE) and Mary-
efficient lighting systems, an enthalpy buildings and structured parking there land State Highway Administration to be
heat recovery wheel that transfers by increasing the usage of the site while obtained with the early packages while
energy between exhaust and incoming not significantly increasing the amount final design was still being done.
outside air, and high-efficiency water- of impervious area.
cooled centrifugal chillers, saving 21 % From a civil point of view this was a
on energy needs to heat and cool the Challenges: The biggest challenge of challenge because the site work often
building. this project was meeting the BRAC overlapped the packages. Dewberry
was able to ensure the site work
was designed and constructed
correctly by utilizing a single
project manager to provide over-
sight and quality control. Upon
receiving the notice to proceed
(NTP), a meeting was held with all
the design and construction team
members to facilitate decision
making and the flow of communi-
cation. Biweekly telernnferences
were also he d. Discussion dur-
ing these oalls included upcoming
deadlines, consultant discussion
and package responses. A "hot"
list was kept to track issues to be
aadressed quickly or that would
cause impact across different dis-
ciplines. This insured the project
CASE STUDIES

would move along while ensuring helped the construction team to always Dewberry was able to meet the client's
these items would be addressed. know they had the most up-to-date budget. Due to the fact that this was a
plans. Dewberry produced 33 of the BRAC project meeting the schedule was
Package 1 was the America Building
192 bulletins to cover change orders imperative. The team was able to meet
Foundation plan, site rough grading
and additions to the plans. All changes the client's schedule for both the start of
plan, and laydown/staging areas. Dew-
were included in the final S7 packages. construction and the numerous interim
berry was able to prepare and get Pack-
packages required. The new construc-
age 1 approved by MDE 12 weeks after One innovative design solution was
tion of the America and Arrowhead
NTP, rather than the typical 6 to 12 the design Dewberry proposed for the
Buildings and patient parking garage
months. This allowed construction to lightwell. The lightwell is visible on all and related infrastructure was sub-
start sooner than expected. floors of the America Building. The
stantially completed to meet the BRAC
original bridging documents proposed
Subsequent packages included the required September 2011 deadline. The
a plant garden. However this area also work continued with the renovations,
America Building and Patient Parking
Garage with the site civil infrastruc- contained an air intake duct. There were
an additional parking garage and the
concerns about the possibility of mold
ture plans and the Arrowhead Building new security gates and visitor/ID center.
within the garden area. Dewberry pro-
and site infrastructure. Later packages
posed and implemented a Zen garden- This project was part of the overall effort
included the Multiuse Parking Garage,
inspired design using hand-selected to bring together the existing Walter Reed
the new entry gates and visitor/ID cen-
large stones, and colored rocks to imi- Army Medical Center and the Naval
ter and numerous renovation pack-
tate pathways and created a tree mosaic Medical Center. Combined they are now
ages. Each package pertaining to site
for a visual focal point from inside the a single entity committed to a mission of
work also had a stormwater manage-
facility. The lightwell functions as an providing world class healthcare to our
ment and sediment control package
aesthetic focus, offering positive well- nation's fighting forces, retirees, and their
prepared. Each package consisted of
ness support, while meeting the original family members. The Clark/Balfour
two to three submittal packages (SS,
purpose of providing interior light and Beatty Team met the deadline challenge
S6, and S7).
fresh air intake. while providing award winning, sustain-
Dewberry also aided in gaining National able projects. In addition, the additional
Conclusion: WRNMMC's primary
Capital Planning Commission approv- work on the renovations, gates, and sec-
mission is to ensure the readiness of
als for the WRNMMC projects which ond parking garage were accomplished
and provide care for the uniformed
are located in a historic viewshed. with minimal disruption to the campus.
services and their families. The bring-
Dewberry was able to provide the design
As required by the client, the Dr. ing together of the Walter Reed Army
support outlined in the original contract
Checks system of addressing com- Medical Center and the National
but in addition was able to step up to the
ents was utilized providing a perma- Naval Medical Center on the Bethesda
plate with additional services and unique
nent record of questions and responses campus, officially launched a huge
design solutions such as the lightwell
while at the same time setting dead- and vital change in the nation's mili-
while maintaining our commitment to
lines for su mitting comments and tary medical history. As the construc- quality, budget, and deadlines.
responses to li lR move the project tion and renovation was completed all
along. Plan changes, change orders, quality of care, patient and staff sat- The project was named 2011 Project of
and many RFI responses were tracked isfaction, and patient safety metrics the Year for New Construction by the
utilizing a bulletin system to track were maintained at or above national U.S. Green Building Council National
and publish changes to the plan. This bench marks. Capital Region Chapter.
 CASE STUDIES

GREENBELT STATION
Location: City of Greenbelt, Prince Georges County, Maryland
Client: Multiple
Completion Date: Anticipated 2020

Client #1: Greenbelt Station is located the site, which can be described as hav- State Highway standards. The roadway
in the City of Greenbelt, Maryland, just ing the consistency of peanut butter. In included 2400 LF of roadway widen-
south of the Greenbelt transit station ser- order to consolidate this soil so that the ing and associated improvements, two
vicing the Washington Metro and MARC site can accommodate townhomes and major intersections, traffic control sys-
trains. The site was previously used for a condominiums, wick drains were placed tems, retaining walls, landscaping, and
mining operation, a concrete plant, and throughout the areas of wash pond sedi- utility relocations.
an asphalt plant. Indian Creek feathered ment and a soil surcharge layer was placed
The main entrance to the development
across the site through these operations. on top. Dewberry monitored the ground
from Greenbelt Road contains an overpass
In 2006, Dewberry prepared the site settlement as the soils were stabilized.
that bridges over a local street, Branchville
plans to redevelop the site into a mixed-
As Indian Creek runs through the site, Road; Dewberry prepared all architectural
use transit oriented development. Initial
much of the site was in the regulated and structural plans for the Branchville
effort was required to remediate the site,
floodplain thus limiting the buildable Bridge, and worked closely with the client
perform necessary floodplain analysis
area. As part of the redevelopment and and other consultants to create the right
work, and other preliminary engineering.
the cleanup of the industrial operation, visual impact for the project.
As a result of the old mining operation the floodplain was reconfigured to align
Client #2: A new developer client with
and the existing creek, much of the site more closely with the main channel and
plans to clean up and sell the property
served as a gravel washpond at one point historic stream valley of Indian Creek
acquired the Greenbelt Station site in
or another. Wash pond sediment in areas which opened up land available for
2010 after work had stalled. The bridge
as thick as forty feet existed over much of development. This included removal
at the entrance and some of the streets
of a 5-acre area of
and other associated infrastructure
concrete spoils adja-
had been constructed, but access to the

"t
(jreen6e{t Station
r- Ti cent to Indian Creek
to use the area for
floodplain compen-
sation and wetland
creation.
property was blocked off by barriers
and was quickly beco mg overgrown.
Instead of trying to unload e partially
constructed property immediately, this
new client gav:e Dewberry an oppmtu-
Dewberry prepared nity to keep he project alive by asking
plans for the wid- us to enh'.ance the marketability and
ening of Greenbelt resultant sale price, within a reasonable
Road (MD 193) timeframe. Dewberry created a port-
based on Maryland folio with all project documentation,
CASE STUDIES

remaining tasks and approximate costs,

etc., to elicit a positive initial reaction
from potential buyers.
Building on the initial project status
assessment, Dewberry could confi-
dently recommend cost effective steps
that would enhance site value prior
to sale. Permits and approvals were
tracked and kept active so that the new
buyer could get from purchase to sale
of the first house as quickly as possible.
The environmental issues that arose
out of a dormant construction site
were quickly addressed to keep this cli-
ent in good standing with the city and
the state.
The property was sold to a new devel-
oper in 2013.
Client #3: The project was purchased
by a third developer in 2013 and devel- Dewberrry continued working for the Greenbelt Station features three City
opment is currently being completed new developer as well as new home build- of Greenbelt public parks, a trail sys-
by this client. Because of Dewberry's ers they brought on board. New town- tem connecting Branchville Road to
proven history and success with the site, homes and two-over-two condominiums Cherrywood Lane via a boardwalk
are being built by two and bridge system over Indian Creek
homebuilders, totaling and associated wetlands, HOA pocket
375 townhomes and parks, and roadway improvements
130 condominiums. A both off-site and adjacent to Greenbelt
parcel on the site was Station.
sold to an apartment
complex developer Over 12 years later and after many dif-
who in conjunction ferent clients including developers and
with an apartment homebuilders, Dewberry has maintained
builder developed and dedication to the project. With this per-
constructed three new severance and passion, and by consis-
buildings and an asso- tently performing the best work possible,
ciated parking garage the project has seen success. Initial efforts
for a total of 302 rental have come to fruition and the project will
apartments. be completed in the coming years.
 CASE STUDIES

UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA-MULTIPLE PROJECTS

Location: Charlottesville, VA
Client: University of Virginia

Rotunda Renovation: Dewberry has Stormwater runoff for the Rotunda preferred brick for historic areas and
completed many projects over the Renovation project was fully managed add subsurface plastic spacers to create
years at the University of Virginia on-site through an innovative and his- the infiltration gap without losing the
(UVA) in Charlotesville, Virignia. torically sensitive use of permeable pav- historic look of the area. The gaps were
Dewberry provided complete site/ ers. Previously, the university did not filled with a washed gravel that matched
civil design services for their Rotunda allow permeable pavers in the historic the gravel paths of the historic gardens
Renovation Services included new Academical Village due to their modern throughout the Academical Village.
storm drainage, water service, sanitary appearance and the nubs on the side of Below the brick was a sizable reservoir
sewer services and stormwater design the brick that create the infiltration gap made from a clean stone that utilizes the
to decrease/slow the runoff originat- between adjacent bricks. However, the gaps between stones for water storage
ing from the site. team was able to utilize the University's needed for stormwater events. The use
CASE STUDIES

required between different design disci-

plines, the University of Virginia, CSX
and Buckingham Branch Railroad, and
local and state review authorities.
Mccormick Tunnel: The University of
Virginia was planning for three separate
multiyear building renovations-McCor-
mick Road Dorms (a group of 10 differ-
ent buildings), the Chemistry Building
(208,000 GSF), and Gilmer Hall (220,000
GSF). All three of these facilities are in
close proximity to each other and were
scheduled to convert from the cam-
pus steam system to the medium tem-
perature hot water (MTHW) system.
of this approach allowed for the north control design, and stormwater quan- A new 1300-foot walk-through utility
plaza to be tripled in size and create a tity and quality calculations. Dewberry tunnel (8 x 8 inches) with MTHW sup-
large gather space for receptions, stu- worked with the Virginia Department of ply and return piping would need to be
dent activities, and commencement. Conservation and Recreation (DCR) to
understand how the proposed improve-
The Lawn Renovation: Dewberry was
ments changed the flow of stormwater
contracted by the University of Virginia
runoff from the site. Since the existing
to provide site/civil design services for
soil was amended in place, there was no
the renovation of The Lawn in the heart
increase in the percolation rate, which
of the University's historic Academical
triggered the need for both water quan-
Village, which also serves as the front
tity and quality controls. Dewberry was
yard to the Rotunda. Over time, the
also required to complete an extensive
grass on The Lawn had become worn
downstream analysis of stormwater
and had the potential to become muddy
conveyances to confirm there would be
during commencement and other high-
no flooding impact.
visibility events that are held on The
Lawn annually. Emily Courie Clinical Cancer Center:
Dewberry completed design and con-
Project area measured approximately
struction administration services as
4.5 acres and was completed in two
a subconsultant for site/civil and site
phases. The design called for a complete
mechanical/central plant utility engi-
renovation of all turf within The Lawn.
neering for the Emily Courie Clinical
Subsurface drainage was installed every
Cancer Center project on the grounds of
10 feet across the center segment of The
the University of Virginia in Charlottes-
Lawn, draining to a header pipe travel-
ville, Virginia. The new facility, approx-
ing the length of The Lawn which was
imately 100,000 GSF, was constructed
connected to the storm sewer. The out -
in the location of the existing West
let of the header pipe was required to be
Parking Garage and Dominion Virginia
directionally drilled under an existing
Power substation, on the opposite side
steam tunnel, reaching a depth of 13
of Lee Street from the University Hos-
feet, in order to connect to the nearest
pital. The project included demolition
storm structure. The presence of the
of the garage and substation, relocation
un erdrains allow for The Lawn to be
of multiple existing utilities including
utilized for commencement and other
central plant chilled water service and
high-visibility events shortly after a rain
return lines feeding the University Hos-
event. Additional surface drainage was
pital, and extensions of services to the
required at the south end of the project
new building which include water, sani-
to improve drain ge on/near existing
tary sewer, chilled water, and steam and
building entrance plazas.
pumped condensate. The project also
The existing soil was amenaed to better included improvements to Lee Street
support healthy turf growth. The proj- and a new drop-off area for the pro-
ect also included erosion and se iment posed facility. Close coordination was
 CASE STUDIES

constructed to provide service to these LEED Certified status by the US Green stormwater management facility
12 buildings. As the three distinct reno- Building Council. (SWMF) which had a permanent pool
vation schedules came into focus, the of water to be used for irrigation pur-
university realized the new tunnel con- O'Hill Lawn Improvements: The Uni- poses. This underground SWMF cou-
struction would have to occur during the versity of Virginia wanted to create pled with a new underground cistern
summer of 2015 to facilitate the sched- an active recreation space for the new provided a storage capacity of 25,000
ules of the building renovation proj- residence halls in the Alderman Hous- gallons of water. In addition, Dewberry
ects. As a result, Dewberry was tasked ing Precinct. The project site was adja- designed an underground pump sta-
with completing full design documents cent to the Observatory Dining Facility tion and underground meter vault to
within 60 days to support the contractor and six (6) newly constructed residence minimize the visual impact to the oth-
procurement and bidding schedule. The halls. The University's goal was to pro- erwise open site. The meter vault also
majority of the construction was com- vide a relatively flat area in excess of houses control valves and level sensors
pleted successfully in 82 days between 1 acre equipped with irrigation, under- to determine if the irrigation system
graduation and student move in. drains, and a new soil media to support should be supplied via stormwater or
a Bermuda type turf which would stand potable water.
Alderman Road Student Housing
up well to heavy foot traffic, occasional
Replacement Projects: Dewberry has The underdrains installed drain back to
vehicular traffic (move in/out), and the
completed seven different projects for the cisterns so that if any section oflawn
hot summer weather.
the University of Virginia to support the is overwatered, the water is returned
Alderman Road Housing Replacement. The university desired that the irriga- back to the cistern for future use. In
These projects have included a utility tion system be fed from both stormwa- addition, the adjacent residence hall
master plan, two utility improvement/ ter and potable water. Dewberry was buildings were constructed such that
extensions projects, and five new resi- retained to provide engineering and any condensate from the air condition
dence hall buildings and a multi-pur- construction phase services for the proj- system is captured by the storm sewer
pose Commons building. Three of the ect. Dewberry, under a previous con- and thus directed to the cistern. Under
completed buildings have been awarded tract, had designed the underground this setup, the cistern is replenished
CASE STUDIES

a bioretention basin to meet the

new, more stringent, state storm-
water regulations.
O'Neil Hall Building Renovation:
The project included the histori-
cal renovation and conversion
of an existing 25,000-square feet
Faculty Apartment Building into
office space for seven university
vice presidents. Dewberry pro-
vide site/civil engineering ser-
vices for design of storm sewer,
sanitary sewer, domestic and fire
protection waterlines, chilled
waterlines, grading, and park-
ing lot design. On-site storm-
water management consisted of
two parts-an underground pipe
with control weir for quantity
control and a cascading rain gar-
den for water quality. Due to the
during the peak of the summer when the site/civil, structural, and electri- topography, water quality was
water and air conditioning are needed cal design of a pedestrian bridge. The achieved with four rain gardens that
the most. bridge is approximately 200 feet long "stepped" down the hillside. Between
and spans a wooded ravine to con- each rain garden was a small retain -
UVA Alderman Path and Bridge: Dew- nects the Gooch-Dillard Residences ing wall with a bluestone weir that
berry partnered with Nelson Byrd with the Alderman Housing Precinct. allowed water to cascade from one
Woltz Landscape Architects to complete The project also included the design of level to the next.
 CASE STUDIES

ROMEOVILLE ATHLETIC & EVENT CENTER

Location: Romeoville, Illinois
Client: Village of Romeoville, Illinois
Completion Date: 2014

Case Study: This project is the first The surrounding streets, sidewalks, is contributing to making Romeoville
phase of the redevelopment of a 4-acre curbs, lighting, signage, and landscaping a better place to live. It provides more
former commercial strip center. The Vil- have contributed to making this area a than a community gathering place for
lage of Romeoville, in Illinois, sought an community asset. The area was prone to recreation, athletics, and events. The
athletic and event center to serve as an flooding during heavy rains which has architecture reinforces a sense of pride
anchor for its downtown redevelopment been corrected with the installation of and place that is unique to the com-
plan for Uptown Square. The former a properly sized stormwater detention munities along the Illinois Canal. It
buildings were demolished and replaced area. The surrounding area adjacent to a encourages and supports healthy living
with the Village's second recreation cen- former dry-cleaners was remediated. while working to strengthen the local
ter and future retail. Space components economy.
include an indoor soccer field, multipur- The Uptown Square improvements
have improved the retail retention and This project serves as a model of what
pose rooms, two gyms, office, conces-
recruitment. The facility has spurred communities across America can do
sions and mezzanine viewing area.
new commercial development planned to redevelop aging retail centers and
The project transformed a formerly on the site and on adjacent properties. abandoned big box stores, also known
blighted retail center with contami- Sales tax revenues have increased dur- as grayfields. It's estimated that by 2022,
nated soil and flooding issues into a ing the months of tournaments held 2. 9 million acres of grayfields will be open
community-wide asset through careful at the facility resulting from increased for redevelopment. Simultaneously, there
and sensitive planning and execution. spending at hotels, food and beverage, is an ever increasing need to improve our
The new development protected lim- gasoline, and retail. community's health and wellness and
ited surrounding greenfields by using a strengthen the local economy. Dewberry
grayfield with existing infrastructure as The new facility has improved the successfully adhered to the Village's bud-
its site. This approach is in line with the property value for both the Village and get and schedule along with not incur-
USGBC's goal of protecting open space. surrounding area along with the com- ring any additional nonowner directed
Dewberry's careful selection of build- munity's quality oflife. This new anchor construction change orders.
ing products and systems reduced the
negative effects associated with con-
struction. Our green design approach:
(1) maximized the building's water
efficiency; (2) optimized the building's
energy efficiency; (3) minimized the
environmental impacts of material use;
and (4) strove to achieve high indoor
air quality for the comfort and well-
being of the occupants.
CASE STUDIES

RIVER DISTRICT TOWER

Location: 109 Bridge Street Danville, VA
Client: River District Development, LLC. Dr. Mark Hermann, Executive Director
Completion Date: 2017

Case Study: The River District Tower Dewberry provided architectural and the historic fabric of the building was
project renovated an existing his- engineering services for the renovation maintained. Additions were added in
toric building for a medical facility of the Dan River Research Building into strategic locations to minimize the
encompassing seven different practice medical offices, restaurants, and leas- renovation's visual impact on the City
areas. River District Tower, formerly able space. The existing Spectrum Med- of Danville's historic district. The tall
Mill No 1 of Dan River Mills, was the ical Clinic occupies the top two floors glass towers were designed to identify
foundation of textile development in of the four-story renovated space, and strategic entry points into the facility.
Danville, Virginia, and furthermore was designed to create efficiencies in The interior of the space highlights the
the textile industry. Nestled on the services for the seven practice areas that existing factory setting, while providing
Dan River, the once iconic building the clinic will serve. Danville Regional contemporary state-of-the-art health-
housing the pinnacle of new research Medical Center will occupy the second care space for the multitude of clinics.
for the textile industry, slowly dimin - floor offers space for three residencies. A museum reflecting the history of Dan
ished as the industry moved overseas. A multitiered restaurant facing the river River Mills and other tenant spaces will
The hustle and bustle of downtown will occupy the 1828 picker house por- be at the entry.
0anville slowly lost its luster as these tion of the complex offering casual and
The historic nature of the project posed
industries shut down. For several fine dining atmospheres.
many challenges for the site work as
generatio s the 10O,OOO-square foot Because the project sought state and well. A historic canal wall that was built
building, along with many others, sat federal historic tax credits, and involved in the 18OOs had to be maintained to
dormant. River District Tower, LLC, coordination with the Virginia Depart- help protect the building from the rising
saw the potential in this monumen- ment of Historic Resources, careful river. Careful site planning was required
tal building. They strived to bring the attention was paid to the existing ele- to get access to the rear of the building,
healthcare market back to act as a cat- ments of the facility. Main components for deliveries and trash pickup by large
alyst for downtown redevelopment. of the building remained intact, and trucks. A narrow drive aisle successfully
 CASE STUDIES

--
'-
\
-----.---1,-------..
....

maneuvers around the wall, outside of meet water quality requirements on the With the proximity to the Dan River,
a floodplain, and within the property highly developed site, stormwater man- extra erosion and sediment control
line. In addition to historic structures, agement was handled with compact measure were required to protect the
the site was also traversed by an under- Filterra® Bioretention units. river from silt. Careful coordination
ground canal and a major power trans- was necessary due to all of the existing
mission line. Neither of these structures In addition, the majority of the site is site constraints. Dewberry overcame
could be moved which required the below the 100-year floodplain, so fill each challenge to produced plans for
site to be constructed around them. To was not allowed for site improvements. the River District Tower.
CASE STUDIES

STEELHOUSE APARTMENTS
Location: Orlando, Florida
Client: PP Uptown, LLC
Completion Date: 2012

Case Study: With a resilient economy The project consists of 235 one-bed- Orange Avenue-both high traf-
based on much more than tourism, room and 92 two-bedroom units, built fic roadways that lead to the inter-
the SteelHouse Apartment project has around central courtyards and a five- state and into downtown Orlando. In
responded to the rapid development in story parking structure. Dewberry I addition, the building was carefully
Florida and focuses on revitalizing the Bowyer-Singleton provided the Mas- designed for the urban site. The build-
City of Orlandds "Uptown" community. ter Plan Preparation and Processing as ing surrounds two courtyards for ele-
The 327 unit, 4-story SteelHouse Apart- well as the Site/Civil design including vated aesthetics, as well as allowing
ment project is located in the heart of Final Engineering Plans, Site Permit- for stormwater management.
Orlando's downtown workplace. Stra- ting, Florida Department of Transpor-
Dewberry provided engineering design
tegically located at Orange Avenue and tation (FDOT) Permitting, Survey and
services and solved many complex
Colonial Drive (SR 50), this urban mul- Construction Survey, and Construc-
problems including utility relocations
tifamily in-fill project is located ¼ mile tion Administration Services for the
and extensions, subsurface stormwater
from the new SunRail commuter trains project.
treatment, environmental monitoring
Ce tral Station and within a ½ mile walk
well relocations, and the coordination
to over 3 million square feet of office and In correlation with the revitaliza-
with multiple agencies.
retail in owntown Orlando. This initia- tion of the Uptown area, the client
tive includes the expansion of the Lynx wanted to redefine the existing space • Utility relocations and extensions:
"LYNMO" bus ser, ·ce and the extension and transform it into a functional, Being an in-fill project, existing
of City's Urban Trai , through downtown purposeful and desired place to live. utilities had to be considered within
and north to Winter Pa k. The site pro- Specific project goals and objectives the project site. Utilities had to be
vides easy pedestrian and ic:ycle access for the client were to provide two removed, relocated, and extended to
to work, shopping, and civic functions. access points off of State Road 50 and provide service to the project.
 CASE STUDIES

• Subsurface stormwater treatment: The SteelHouse Apartments

structure is surrounding two courtyards. A subsurface storm-
water treatment system was designed to provide water quality
and attenuation for the site underneath these open areas.
• Environmental monitoring well relocations: Working with the
environmental team, coordination was required to relocate
environmental monitoring wells during the design to allow
for continued monitoring of the mediated Orlando Sentinel
contamination plume.
• Coordination with multiple agencies: As part of the Uptown
area, coordination was required with the Downtown Devel-
opment Board's Standards and follow specific guidelines
regarding our design. In addition, Dewberry had to work
closely with the FDOT to accommodate the future widen-
ing of SR 50 and our access points and sidewalks along SR
50 and Orange Avenue. Separate FDOT permits for utilities
and drainage were also required. Coordination for permit-
ting was also required through the St. Johns River Water
Management District and the City of Orlando's permitting
department.
Dewberry maintained constant contact with the client con-
cerning these work efforts and adhered to the budget and
schedule elements that were within our control. The project
successfully took an ineffective piece of land and transformed
it into a purposeful and valuable development which created a
superior quality of life for the surrounding community-ulti-
mately contributing to the revitalization of Uptown Orlando.
Dewberry Services:
• Alternative Delivery
• Architecture
• Asset Management
• Building Structures
• Climate Change
• Construction
• Emergency Management
• Environmental
• Geospatial
• Interior Design
• Land Planning & Development
• Mechanical, Electrical, & Plumbing
• Planning/Programming
• Resilience
• Risk Management & Vulnerability
• Site/Civil Engineering
• Surveying
• Sustainability
• Telecommunications
• Transportation
• Water

I Dewberry·
Contact Information: About Dewberry: Dewberry, headquartered in Fairfax, Virginia, is a fully integrated engineering and architecture
8401 Arlington Boulevard firm operating in more than 50 locations throughout the United States. It consistently ranks among the top 45
Fairfax, Virginia 22031 design firms by Engineering News-Record, top 20 engineering/architecture firms by Building Design + Construc-
703.849.0100 tion, and the top 5 engineering firms by the Washington Business Journal. Working in multiple federal, state and
www.dewberry.com local, and commercial markets, Dewberry's services include site/civil engineering and surveying; transportation,
transit, and ports and intermodal design; water, wastewater, and water resources engineering; architectural and
interior design; environmental, coastal engineering and resilience services; emergency management and miti-
gation; full-service geospatial mapping and analysis; and alternative project delivery inclusive of design-build,
public-private partnerships, and turnkey construction. The firm enjoys a reputation for quality, deep subject-
matter expertise, community engagement, and putting the client first.