UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

VISUAL GUIDE TO

CORN
DEVELOPMENT
Authors
Mimi Broeske, Nutrient and Pest Management
Program and Joe Lauer, Department of Agronomy,
University of Wisconsin-Madison

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank our reviewers:
Dr. Roger Elmore, University of Nebraska-Lincoln
Dr. Lori J. Abendroth, Iowa State University
Doug Rebout, Wisconsin Corn Growers Association
Additional thanks to Teal Potter, Zach Zalewski, Thierno
Diallo, Kent Kohn, Griffin Broeske, Janet Hedtcke and
the Wisconsin CCA Board!

The Wisconsin Corn Promotion

Board provided initial funding for
development of this publication.
The Wisconsin Corn Growers Association (WCGA) works to
create opportunities for Wisconsin corn growers' long-term
profitability. It is an independent association that provides
leadership development, grower education and lobbying
efforts. With just over 750 members, the WCGA has a strong
voice in Congress and the State Capitol, where it supports
sound policy development and pro-farmer legislation.
The Wisconsin Corn Promotion Board is funded by a ½-cent-per-
bushel assessment on all corn sold into commercial channels.
It funds market development programs (promotion and
education efforts, research initiatives and strategic initiatives to
build corn demand), trade missions, U.S. Grains Council efforts
and university research projects.
Contents__________________________________3
Introduction_______________________________4
Corn basics________________________________6
Terminology_______________________________9
Pre germination___________________________10
Germination______________________________12
Vegetative stages__________________________14
VE – Emergence 14
V1 – First leaf collar 16
V2 – Second leaf collar 18
V3 – Third leaf collar 20
V4 – Fourth leaf collar 22
V5 – Fifth leaf collar 24
Staging – Internode method 26
Staging – Sixth leaf method 27
V6 – Sixth leaf collar 28
V7 – Seventh leaf collar 30
V8 – Eighth leaf collar 32
V9 – Ninth leaf collar 34
V10 – Tenth leaf collar 36
V11 – Eleventh leaf collar 37
V12 – Twelfth leaf collar 38
V13 – Thirteenth leaf collar 40
V14 – Fourteenth leaf collar 41
V15 – Fifteenth leaf collar 42
V16 – Sixteenth leaf collar 44
V17 – Seventeenth leaf collar 45
V18 – Eighteenth leaf collar 46
Vn – (n)th leaf collar 48
V to R transition 49
VT – Tassel 50
Pollination notes__________________________52
R stages overview__________________________53
R1 – Silk 54
R2 – Blister 56
R3 – Milk 58
R4 – Dough 60
R5 – Dent 62
R6 – Maturity 64
Grain yield________________________________66
The right RM hybrid________________________67
Final notes________________________________68
Glossary__________________________________69

CONTENTS
 This guide to corn development hopes to make the
stages easy to understand by using clear, annotated
images that highlight the details of what is happening
in the plant and potentially make the connection to
sound management practices. Toss it in the glovebox
and use it when scouting fields!
The corn plants used were both greenhouse and field
grown in south central Wisconsin using a 100–110 day
relative maturity yellow dent hybrid with 20–21 leaves,
silking at ~65 days after emergence and reaching
maturity at ~60 days after silking.
Important note: Although there are different types
of corn (dent, flint, flour, popcorn, waxy, high-
oil, pod and sweet), this guide focuses on dent
hybrids. Much of the information can be applied
to other types of corn, however, if you are
considering growing other types, it is best to
seek out information that takes into account
their specific characteristics.

Are development
and growth the
same thing?
Development and growth
are often used interchangeably
when staging plants, but they
actually describe different processes.
Development is simply the progression of
the plant through distinct stages, basically
from a seed to the production of seed.
How this happens is through growth. Growth
describes an increase in size and mass, which can be
enhanced by favorable conditions or decreased by stressful
ones. Conditions that favor corn growth include adequate
moisture, nutrients, heat and sunlight.
When favorable growth conditions are lacking,
development can be delayed or inhibited. Each
development stage responds to stress in a predictable way
so understanding development stages can provide insight
into not only what's happening but what might happen.

4 INTRODUCTION
 What are the developmental stages?
The development stages used in this guide are
those from the Leaf Collar Method, which starts with
vegetative (V) stages and concludes with
reproductive (R) stages.
During the vegetative stages, the plant maximizes
the ability to absorb sunlight and therefore produce
energy (carbohydrates) through photosynthesis.
These carbohydrates are then utilized by the plant.
Vegetative stages are noted with an uppercase V,
starting with V1 and going sequentially with whole
numbers up to Vn (where n will vary with hybrid and
region). The vegetative stages end with VT
(where T stands for tassel).
Reproductive stages allocate carbohydrate energy
toward the development of seed, the ultimate goal
of the plant (and the farmer). Reproductive stages are
noted with an uppercase R and sequentially by
whole numbers 1–6.

How do you estimate the time needed

for the development stages?
The time it takes for a plant to move from one
developmental stage to another can be estimated by the
number of calendar days, but a more accurate method is to
use a measurement of accumulated heat.
This guide uses growing degree units (GDUs) with a base
temperature of 50° F. Sometimes these are called growing
degree days (GDDs) or heat units (HUs) depending on where
you live. You can usually find out what these are in your
area by doing an internet search or contacting your local
extension agent or agronomist.
For GDUs used in this guide, the following formula is used:

GDU = [(Tmin + Tmax)/2] − 50°

Tmin = the minimum daily temperature (° F), if temperature is <50°, use 50°
Tmax = the maximum daily temperature (° F), if temperature is >86°, use 86°

With this method, 0–36 GDUs per day is possible. Keep in

mind that GDUs are also used to predict insect pest
development, which may use different minimums/
maximums, temperature systems or base level.
5
 Corn botany
Corn is a monocot (short for
monocotyledon) — a flowering
plant with an embryo that bears
a single cotyledon (seed leaf )
and typically has elongated
leaves with parallel veins. It is
also monoecious — producing
separate male and female flowers
on the same plant.

Corn hybrids and genetics

Hybrids are developed by carefully controlled
cross-pollination between two "parent" lines
called inbreds. Inbreds take several years
of self-pollination to develop and are
selected for desirable characteristics.
Seed production for hybrids uses controlled
pollination of two inbred parents to produce
seed with agronomic performance that
is superior to that of its parents and
open-pollinated varieties.
Bio-engineered hybrids include both
transgenic (transferred from a different
biological organism) and cysgenic
(manipulated within the plant’s own
genetics) traits. These may include improved
control of insects and weeds, better disease
resistance, increased tolerance to drought
and improved production efficiencies.
Quick note about relative maturity
Relative maturity (RM) — e.g. 105-day
corn — is a familiar component of many
seed descriptions. This is somewhat
misleading since the days do not refer
to calendar days but rather to an index
defined relative to a standard hybrid, and
since there is no set standard in the seed
industry, comparing RMs is challenging and
warrants caution. Seek out information from
non-biased sources (e.g. university trials,
demonstration plots, etc.) and pay attention
to planting dates. See THE RIGHT RM HYBRID
on page 67 for more information.

6 CORN BASICS
Corn anatomy
Although each development stage will be clearly
annotated and the terms defined, being familiar
with the corn plant in this simplified illustration
will be helpful in using this guide.

tassel

leaf

blade ear
leaf
silks
sheath

stem
(stalk)
node
internode tiller
brace roots

nodal roots

7
 Nutrient uptake, fertilizer and corn
Like most plants, corn is made of organic carbon-based
materials that result from photosynthesis and subsequent
metabolic processes. It all starts with the seed.
The seed needs adequate heat, moisture and sunlight (once
the plant emerges from soil) along with 13 elemental nutrients
that are essential for optimum growth and development. Corn
plants need substantial amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium, relatively smaller amounts of secondary nutrients
(calcium, magnesium and sulfur) and only trace amounts
of micronutrients (zinc, manganese, copper, boron, iron,
molybdenum and chlorine). Availability of nutrients to the
plant is dependent on soil pH.
Adequate nutrients are needed throughout the season
for corn, but the amounts needed will vary based on the
development stage. Some nutrients can even be translocated
from the vegetative plant parts to the developing grain later
in the season if necessary. But keep in mind that nutrient
deficiencies at any time can result in developmental delays
and reduced growth.
During harvest, nutrients are removed from the field. What’s
leftover — the nutrients in the leaves, stalks and other residue
— can be recycled back into the soil.
This is why soil testing is important for corn production. It is
imperative to have an accurate measure of soil pH and nutrient
levels for potassium, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium and
sulfur. Micronutrients are rarely lacking but consider testing for
them if the field has a history of deficiency.
Nitrogen fertilizer recommendations should be based on
soil type, tillage, irrigation and yield goal, and also take
into account any credits from manure or previous legumes.
Considerations for timing, placement and type of nitrogen
should be based on multiple factors, such as minimizing
potential loss to the environment, working within the
production system and cost.
During the very early stages, only small amounts of nutrients
are needed but concentrations near the root zone need to be
sufficient since the root system is small. Many plant parts are
being initiated and having an adequate supply that the roots
can access is vital! Once the root systems have grown, precise
fertilizer placement is less critical.
Later stages require much larger amounts of nutrients as the
plant accumulates dry matter. Soil moisture plays a key role in
effective root nutrient uptake.

8
 Terms used in this guide
There are a lot of terms used in growing guides —
some originate from the world of botany, some
from the local cooperative. And many are used
interchangeably, even though they have
slightly different meanings!
For simplicity sake, the terms used in this guide will
remain as consistent as possible. This does not imply
that the term chosen is the only correct one, only
that it was selected for its ease of use and clarity.
The list below shows the term used in this guide in
bold followed by others with meanings that are the
same, similar or used in other guides. Definitions
of terms are spread throughout the guide and also
defined in the GLOSSARY starting on page 69.

Brace roots | anchor roots | aerial roots | prop roots

Coleoptile | spike
Cotyledon | scutellum | seed leaf
Ear | ear shoot
Endosperm | starch
Embryo | germ
Growing degree units (GDUs) | heat units (HUs) |
growing degree days (GDDs)
Growing point | apical meristem | stem apex
Kernel | seed | grain | ovule
Nodal root system | secondary roots |
crown roots | adventitious roots | stem roots
Pollen shed | pollen drop | anthesis
Radicle | primary root | seed root
Seed coat | pericarp
Seminal root system | primary root system |
seed roots
Tiller | shoot | sucker
Stem | main stem | stalk

TERMINOLOGY 9
 Protected in the kernel is an embryonic plant that
will remain dormant until germination is initiated.

FRONT VIEW

embryo endosperm
The embryo contains The endosperm is the
the embryonic plant and main energy source for the
oil-rich cotyledon along young seedling. It is mainly
with vitamins, minerals composed of starch but
and enzymes. BACK VIEW also some protein.

endosperm

The embryo is
not visible from
the back view.

tip The tip is the point of attachment to

the cob where water and nutrients
are acquired from the plant.

10 PRE GERMINATION
The endosperm is composed
of two types of starch:
a soft inner core (floury)
and a hard outer layer CROSS SECTION VIEW
(vitreous)
vitreous (adjective) Varying the amount of the endosperm's
1: like glass in soft and hard starches results in different
appearance physical/chemical properties of the
kernel; this is an important
component of many corn
breeding programs
floury and processing mills.
endosperm

hard
endosperm

endosperm
BACK FRONT

embryo

seed coat

The seed coat is the hard protective

outer cover of the kernel. It resists water
and protects the embryo from attack by The tip is the only area of
bacteria, fungi and other pests. the kernel not covered by
the seed coat

Quick note about the embryonic plant

Within the embryo is a miniature corn plant that already
has a primary shoot with embryonic leaves and a seminal
root system. Both are protected by rigid tubular sheaths:
the coleoptile encloses the above-ground parts, and
the coleorhiza encloses the below-ground parts. 11
 Germination is initiated when water is absorbed
(imbibition) through the seed coat.

Along with oxygen, the kernel imbibes

30–35% of its weight in water

minimum ~50° F soil temperature

required for germination

The coleoptile The radicle

emerges and emerges and
elongates upward elongates
downward

Lateral seminal roots

arise from the mesocotyl

12 GERMINATION
 coleoptile
The coleoptile is the protective sheath
that surrounds the primary shoot.

embryonic leaves

The mesocotyl connects

The mesocotyl
the seed with the base of
continues to elongate
the coleoptile. It is the first
and pushes the coleoptile
internode of the plant.
upward to within ¾ inch
below the soil surface
mesocotyl

lateral
coleorhiza seminal
The coleorhiza is the rigid roots
sheath that surrounds the
embryonic root system.

seminal root system

The seminal root system
is responsible for the uptake
of water and some nutrients
during the early growth stages.
seminal (adjective)
radicle 1: of, relating to, or consisting
of seed

Cold or dry conditions can

delay emergence for several days!
Planting in cloddy/crusted or cold soils can result in the first
leaves unfurling below-ground and may reduce yield potential. 13
 Emergence occurs when the
VE coleoptile tip breaks through
the soil surface.
Exposure to sunlight
softens the coleoptile’s
sharp tip, allowing the
first true leaf to
break through
coleoptile tip

Sunlight disrupts the elongation of

the mesocotyl, which fixes the depth
of the stem's growing point at
~3/4 inch below the soil surface.

The growing point is fixed closer to the soil surface when seeds are planted at shallow
depths (less than 1 inch); this may result in floppy corn syndrome (V2–V4).

Let’s talk growing point and nodes

A plant’s growing point is a compressed stem consisting
of stacked nodes and internodes. Similar to how a
telescope works, the internodes elongate between the
nodes, lengthening the stem.
Nodes are regions where cells can differentiate into
different plant parts. In corn, a leaf develops from each
node. Root whorls also develop at five of the below-
ground nodes, one at the soil surface and potentially one
or more at above-ground nodes.
Also at each leaf axil (between the stem and leaf at the
node), a shoot can be initiated. Below-ground, shoots
can develop into tillers, and above-ground into ears.
Most shoots do not fully develop.

14 VE – EMERGENCE
125 GDUs ~7–10 days after planting Emergence GDUs may need to be adjusted:
If conservation tillage is implemented, add 30–60 GDUs
VE
If planting date is before April 25, add 10–25 GDUs
If planting date is after May 15, subtract 50–70 GDUs
If seeding depth is below 2 inches, add 15 GDUs for each inch below
If seed-bed condition has soil crusting or massive clods, add 30 GDUs
If seed-zone soil moisture is below optimum, add 30 GDUs

Quick note about root systems

1st true leaf
The seminal root system is the first
root system to be up and running.
It will make its most important
contribution to the plant during the
early stages (up to V3–V4).
Behind the scenes, a second root coleoptile
(ruptured)
system is being initiated. The nodal
root system will supply the majority of
water and nutrients to the plant by V6.

seminal root system

Plant density (potential ears per area) is determined.

Poor emergence or flooding greater than 48 hours
may reduce yield potential!
Frost or hail will not affect yield. 15
 V1 The first leaf collar is visible.

Let’s talk leaf collars

Development stages are defined
by the uppermost leaf whose
collar is visible.
The first sign of the leaf collar
is on the underside of the
leaf sheath; it looks like a
discolored line. Eventually,
it will separate from the
stem, and the collar will
be more pronounced.

The first true leaf

The leaf collar is first visible as has a rounded tip;
a discolored line on the back of the rest of the leaves
the leaf sheath will have pointed tips

1st
leaf
collar

16 V1 – FIRST LEAF COLLAR

Quick note about the first true leaf
Below-ground, the first true leaf arises V1
from the first stem node along with
the first whorl of nodal roots.
Why is it called the first true leaf?
It is the first leaf of the plant to use
photosynthesis to produce energy.

emerging
nodal roots

1st stem node

Soil
elongated line
nodal root

1st stem node

17
 V2 The second leaf collar is visible.

Let’s talk

growing point
The stem’s growing point is
located ~½ to ¾ inch below the
soil surface where it is normally
protected from above-soil
threats like hail, wind or frost.

It is still vulnerable
to below-ground
threats like excessive
moisture, insect
feeding or extreme
cold temperatures.
With protection
2nd leaf collar
and favorable
environmental
conditions, this
growing point will
result in a flowering 1st leaf collar
stem that will push
up through the stalk. Soil line

The growing point is

below the soil surface

18 V2 – SECOND LEAF COLLAR

 The 1st whorl of nodal roots (
is clearly visible.
)
V2
The 2nd whorl of nodal
roots begins elongating
late in V2

mesocotyl

Quick note about nodal roots

Nodal roots will continue to appear sequentially from each
progressively higher stem node until the stem's growing
point switches from vegetative to reproductive growth
(when the tassel is initiated).
Nodal roots that grow above-ground and reach the soil are
called brace roots; they can scavenge water and nutrients
from the top layer of soil and stabilize the plant.

Watch for floppy corn!

Poor seed furrow closure due to planting in wet soils or
shallow planting followed by excessively dry soil conditions
may result in plants with poor nodal root development. 19
 V3 The third leaf collar is visible;
ear shoots begin forming.

3rd leaf collar

Cold air and soil temperatures

can increase the time between
development stages.

The growing point is still

located below the soil
surface and protected from 2nd leaf collar
above-ground threats.

1st leaf collar

20 V3 – THIRD LEAF COLLAR

 V3

Important time!
Nutritional dependence will shift from the kernel
reserves and the seminal root system to the nodal
root system around this stage. The success
of this transition will greatly influence the
corn plant’s continuing development.
Adequate rate and properly placed
fertilizer is key for a successful
transition! Nodal roots do
not “reach” for fertilizer but
rather cross or intercept
the fertilizer band.
Kernel energy
reserves are
depleted

21
 V4 The fourth leaf collar is visible;
stalk tissue begins elongating.

Lower leaf sheaths

removed to show nodes

6th stem node

The first stem

internode is above
the 4th stem node;
it is ~¼ to ½ inch
in length 5th stem node

4th stem node

The first four stem 3rd stem node
nodes are compressed
with no visible
internodes

22 V4 – FOURTH LEAF COLLAR

 V4

If you must cultivate, do it carefully!

Nodal roots can be damaged. 23
 The fifth leaf collar is visible;
V5 tassel begins to form; leaf and
ear shoot initiation complete.

5th leaf collar

4th leaf collar

3rd leaf collar

2nd leaf collar

1st leaf collar

Soil line

The microscopically
small tassel is located
at the growing point's
tip just below the soil
surface and is protected
by the leaf sheaths

24 V5 – FIFTH LEAF COLLAR

 staging plants
V5
Quick note about

Rapid growth can cause the lower 3–4 leaves to

detach from the stalk and decompose. How do
you stage a plant if the leaves and respective
leaf collars are missing?
There are two methods that you can use: the
internode method and the sixth leaf method
(described on the following pages).
Remember when staging a field of corn, each
specific stage is reached when 50% or more of the
plants in the field are at or beyond that stage.

25
 The internode method
If the lower leaves and respective Carefully split
leaf collars are missing from the the stalk down
plant, try using this staging method. through the
nodal roots
1
1. Dig a representative*
plant and split the
stalk with a knife
down through
the nodal roots.

2. Identify the
5th stem node.
This is the 5th
Tip! The internode between
stem node
the 4th and 5th stem nodes will
be noticeable at ~1/4 inch
in length. The internodes
below the 4th are compressed.

3
3. Count upward from
the 5th stem node 6th leaf collar
to determine the
highest visible
leaf collar.
For example, if the 5th and 6th leaf 5th leaf collar
collars are visible but not the 7th,
then the plant is at V6.

* 50% or more of the plants in

the field are at or beyond it
in size/development

26 STAGING – INTERNODE METHOD

The sixth leaf method
If the lower leaves and respective
leaf collars are missing from the
plant, try using this staging method.

1 Node near the

1. Remove the soil soil surface
near the base of a
representative* plant
and identify the
stem node near
the soil surface.

2. This node is typically

the 6th stem node.
Expose the leaf
This is attached to the
the leaf 6th stem node.
attached Tip! You may need to remove
to the 6th leaves or partial leaves from
stem node lower stem nodes.

3
3. Count upward from
the 6th stem node to
determine the
highest visible
leaf collar. 7th leaf collar
For example, if the 6 and 7 leaf
th th

collars are visible but not the 8th,

then the plant is at V7.
6th leaf collar

* 50% or more of the plants in

the field are at or beyond it
in size/development

STAGING – SIXTH LEAF METHOD 27

 V6
The sixth leaf collar is visible;
rapid internode elongation and
determination of the number of
rows around the cob begin; all
potential plants parts are present.

As the internode above the 5th stem node elongates,

the growing point is pushed above the soil surface;
a healthy growing point is creamy to light yellow
(brown to reddish brown indicates ill health)

Soil line

6th stem node

The nodal root system is established

and is now the major functional root
system for the plant

5th stem node

emerging
nodal root

4th stem node

28 V6 – SIXTH LEAF COLLAR

475 GDUs ~24–30 days after emergence
V6

The growing point is above

the soil surface
and is now susceptible to
both environmental and
mechanical injury.
100% yield loss if frost
causes plant death
Severe yield loss if flooding
greater than 48 hours
Apply nitrogen (up to V8)
before rapid uptake
period begins!
Precise fertilizer placement
is less critical now. 29
 The seventh leaf collar is visible; shoots
V7 and tassel are visible; number of rows
around the cob is being established.

Let’s talk rows around the cob

By the V7 stage, the number of
kernel rows around the cob is
being established.
Hybrid genetics, stress and
timing of some herbicide cob
applications can influence
the number of rows, which
ultimately affects yield.

Mid-maturity hybrids average 14, 16 or 18

rows of kernels or less; it is always an even
number of rows due to cell division.

30 V7 – SEVENTH LEAF COLLAR

 The tassel is visible
but very small
V7
Leaf sheaths removed
to show nodes, shoots
and tassel

9th stem node

Quick note about

internodes
Lower stem internodes 8th stem node
will elongate before the
internodes above them.
For example, the
internode above the 6th
stem node will begin
to elongate before the
internode above the 7th.

7th stem node

Shoots emerge
just above the leaf
that grew from the
same node

6th stem node

5th stem node

31
 V8 The eighth leaf collar is visible.

Canopy closure
usually occurs
between V8
and V10.

32 V8 – EIGHTH LEAF COLLAR

 V8

Quick note about tillers

Tillers develop from below-ground nodes;
their presence varies with hybrid, plant
density, fertility and other environmental
conditions. Widespread presence of tillers
indicates a low population for a field
during the growing season they occur;
most tillers do not fully develop.
33
 The ninth leaf collar is visible;
V9 the tassel begins to rapidly develop;
the stalk continues to elongate.
V9

Leaf sheaths
Shoots that emerge
removed to show
from the above-ground
nodes and shoots
nodes may develop into ears

7th stem node

shoot
A total of 6–8 ear
shoots forms on
the stalk; each new
ear shoot develops
faster than the one
above it, but growth
of the lower ear shoots
Shoots that emerge
eventually slows.
from below-ground
nodes may develop Only the top 1–2 shoots
into tillers will fully develop into
harvestable ear(s).

6th stem node

shoot

34 V9 – NINTH LEAF COLLAR

V9

35
 V10 The tenth leaf collar is visible.

tassel

Leaves
removed to
show detail

36 V10 – TENTH LEAF COLLAR

 The eleventh leaf collar is visible. V11

spikelet

Leaves
removed to
show detail

tassel flowers

V11 – ELEVENTH LEAF COLLAR 37

 The twelfth leaf collar is visible;
V12 potential number of kernels per row
and ear size are being determined;
new V stage about every 2 days.

Let's talk

kernel number &

ear size
The potential number of
kernels per row is strongly
affected by two main factors:
availability of moisture and
nutrients, and the length
of time available for ovule
development.
Since early maturing
hybrids progress through
~3/4 inch

the development stages in a

shorter amount of time, the
ears will be smaller than those
of later maturing hybrids.
Keep in mind that the potential
number of kernels per row
is being determined. What
occurs during pollination and
afterwards will ultimately
determine the final number of
kernels and thus, yield.

At this stage, this ear shoot is still

smaller than those below it

10th stem node

Leaf sheaths and husk removed
to show shoot and ear shank

38 V12 – TWELFTH LEAF COLLAR

815 GDUs ~42–46 days after emergence Quick note about

brace roots
V12
Brace roots begin to
stabilize the plant.
Brace roots can
develop from the
above-ground stem
nodes and scavenge
moisture and
nutrients from the
top layer of soil.
Brace root
formation will
vary based on
genetics and
environmental
conditions.

Plant is utilizing 0.25 inch of water per day.

Moisture and nutrient deficiencies will reduce
potential number of kernels and ear size!
100% yield loss if frost causes plant death
56–72% yield loss if completely defoliated by hail
3% yield loss if drought or heat
(leaf rolling by mid-morning)
No yield loss if flooding less than 48 hours
Plant is utilizing large amounts of nitrogen,
phosphorous and potassium. 39
 V13
V10 The thirteenth leaf collar is visible.

Male flowers
are on the tassel.

tassel

40 V13 – THIRTEENTH LEAF COLLAR

The fourteenth leaf collar is visible. V11
V14

Female flowers
are on the ear.

ear shoot in husk

V14 – FOURTEENTH LEAF COLLAR 41

 The fifteenth leaf collar is visible;
V15 uppermost ear now more developed
than those below it.

Silks are beginning

to emerge on the
upper ear

~ 3 inches

Each silk is attached to a single ovule

The ovule is part of the female
flower along with the silk.
When fertilized with pollen,
the embryo is formed.

ear shoot from 10th stem node

Leaf sheaths and husk removed to show ear

42 V15 – FIFTEENTH LEAF COLLAR

 V15

Approximately 10–12 days until R1 stage!

2 weeks before and 2 weeks after R1
is a critical time for adequate moisture;
Water stress and hail damage will reduce yield! 43
 V16 The sixteenth leaf collar is visible.

male flower

spikelet floret

palea

anthers

lemma

Flower opened to glume

show detail

44 V16 – SIXTEENTH LEAF COLLAR

The seventeenth leaf collar is visible. V17

8th stem node

brace roots

7th stem node

6th stem node

V17 – SEVENTEENTH LEAF COLLAR 45

 The eighteenth leaf collar is visible;
V18 ear development is rapid; upper ear is
developing faster than lower ears.

Silks emerge from the

butt of the ear first,
then the middle
and the tip

3 rd

2 nd

1st to emerge

Let’s talk STRESS

Stress can delay ear and
kernel development
causing a lag between
the beginning of pollen
shed (VT) and the
beginning of silking (R1).
Leaf sheaths If silking occurs after
and husk
pollen shed (either
removed to
show ear
partially or completely),
kernels will not be
fertilized, resulting
in yield loss.

ear shoot from 10th stem node

46 V18 – EIGHTEENTH LEAF COLLAR

1160 GDUs ~ 56 days after emergence
V18

Plant is utilizing 0.30 inch of water per day.

Moisture deficiency now may cause lag
between pollen shed and beginning silk,
resulting in yield loss!
100% yield loss if frost causes plant death
100% yield loss if completely
defoliated by hail
12–31% yield loss if lodging occurs
4% yield loss if drought or heat
(leaf rolling by mid-morning)
No yield loss if flooding less than 48 hours 47
 Vn The (n)th leaf collar is visible.

Let's talk final number of leaves

The final number of leaves a corn plant will produce varies
greatly by the growing region, relative maturity of the
hybrid (see page 6) and environmental conditions.
For example, some early maturing varieties develop only
15–17 leaves at full maturity, while tropical varieties can
have 30+ leaves.
In Wisconsin, corn grown in the southern part of state
(110–115 day RM hybrid) will develop 21–23 leaves, while
corn grown in the northern part (~80 day RM hybrid) will
only develop 15–17 leaves.
Corn plants that have a shorter time to maturity will move
through vegetative stages quicker, resulting in fewer leaves
and shorter plants.

48 Vn – (n)TH LEAF COLLAR

Quick note about stage overlap
The last vegetative stage (VT) is reached when the tassel
is fully extended. Sometimes the first reproductive stage
can come before VT; the silks are visible outside the
husk (R1) before the tassel is visible. Occurrence and
timing of this transition can vary depending on the
hybrid and environmental conditions.

Tassels not visible

Silks visible

V to R TRANSITION 49
 The last branch of the tassel is
VT completely extended; silks have not
emerged from the ear sheaths.

Each male flower (spikelet)

is composed of 2 florets
with 3 anthers each; the
anthers produce pollen
anthers

Let’s talk pollen shed

Pollen shed begins near VT
and is essential for grain
development!
During this 1–2 week period,
each silk must emerge from
the ear husk, and a pollen
grain must land on the
ovule and fertilize it for
a kernel to develop!

50 VT – TASSEL
 VT

Plant is utilizing 0.28 inch of water per day.

Moisture deficiency may cause lag between pollen
shed and beginning silk, resulting in yield loss!
100% yield loss if completely defoliated by hail 51
 Pollen sheds from the male
flowers for 5–8 days and is
dependent on temperature,
moisture and time of day
(peaks during mid- to late
morning or early evenings).

Pollen grain is viable for 12–18 hours (less in higher

temperatures) after it drops from the tassel; most
pollen falls within 20–50 feet of the plant.

Let’s talk fertilization

When a pollen grain lands on a silk, a pollen tube is
initiated. The pollen tube grows within the silk to the ovule
where fertilization occurs and the kernel embryo is formed.
A second fertilization also takes place that results in the
formation of the endosperm.
Immediately following fertilization, an abscission layer
forms at the base of the silk, restricting entry of genetic
material from other pollen grains.

To check for pollination

1. Carefully remove the husks
from an ear 2–3 days after
pollen shed ceases.
Silks still 2. Gently shake the ear.
attached to the 3. If the silks easily drop off,
tip indicate that those ovules have been
pollination has successfully fertilized.
not yet occurred 4. If the silks are retained,
those ovules have not
been fertilized, and
kernels will not develop.

52 POLLINATION NOTES
There are 6 reproductive stages. With the
exception of R1, stages are characterized by
kernel development.

R1 1400 GDUs ~60–65 days after emergence Silk

R2 1600 GDUs ~10–14 days after silk Blister

R3 1800 GDUs ~18–22 days after silk Milk

R4 2000 GDUs ~24–28 days after silk Dough

R5 2100 GDUs ~35–42 days after silk Dent

R6 2350 GDUs ~55–60 days after silk Maturity

For staging a prolific plant, use the

prolific (adjective)
top ear unless otherwise indicated.
1 : more than one
For R2–R4, stage using kernels from harvestable ear on the
the middle of the ear. main stalk, tendency
increases with lower
For R5–R6, stage using kernels that plant densities
represent 50% or more of the ear.

R1 R2 R3

R4 R5 R6

What does the term “nick” mean?

It is simply the period when pollen shed (VT) coincides with silk receptivity (R1).
Poor nick can result from hot and dry weather; silks can be delayed and dehydrated,
which hastens pollen shed and causes the plant to miss the window for pollination.

R STAGES OVERVIEW 53
 Silks are visible outside the husks;
R1 final kernel number and potential
kernel size is being determined.

Silks will grow for 3–5 days or until pollination occurs.

Silks will turn brown once outside husk.
Stresses that reduce pollination
can result in an ear with
a barren tip called
a nubbin.

Each kernel has a

noticeable point
where the silk
was attached;
the kernel is
surrounded by
paleas, lemmas
and glumes

Let’s talk fertilized kernels

Cell division occurs within the kernel
for ~7–10 days after fertilization.
After cell division is complete, the
cells fill — the outer part of the
kernel is white, and the inner part
is clear with very little fluid. The
embryo is not yet visible.

The kernel endosperm fills with photosynthate,

most of which is produced by the leaf on
the same node as the ear shank;
this ear leaf provides 60%
of the total grain yield!

54 R1 – SILK
 R1
The plant has
1250 GDUs ~69–75 days after emergence reached its
maximum height.

Plant is utilizing 0.30 inch of water per day.

Hot and dry weather can result in
poor pollination and seed set!
100% yield loss if completely defoliated by hail
100% yield loss if frost causes plant death
7% yield loss per day if drought or heat
(leaf rolling by mid-morning)
No yield loss if flooding less than 48 hours
Rapid uptake of nitrogen and phosphorus continues;
potassium uptake is essentially complete. 55
 Kernels are ~85% moisture and have
R2 a blister-like appearance; endosperm
and inner fluid are clear.

Kernels may abort during this stage due

to stress with highest risk during the
first 10–14 days after pollination;
kernels fertilized last (near the tip)
often abort first.

As the kernels expand,

the surrounding glumes
become less visible

Let's talk kernel fill

Starch fills the watery endosperm,
beginning a period of rapid dry
matter accumulation that will
continue steadily until close to R6.
Although relocation of nutrients
from the vegetative to reproductive
parts has started, the plant
continues uptake of nitrogen
and phosphorus from the soil.

embryo

Upon careful dissection, a tiny embryo can

be seen; the radicle, coleoptile and the first
embryonic leaf have already formed
a miniature corn plant!

56 R2 – BLISTER
1600 GDUs ~10–14 days after silking (R1) Fertilized
kernel silks
are now dry
R2
and brown;
unfertilized
silks may
still be
visible.

Plant is utilizing 0.26 inch of water per day. 57

 Kernels begin to display final coloring;
R3 inner fluid is milky white;
moisture is ~80%.

The space between the

kernel rows is filled

Stress during this stage can reduce final kernel

weight and size; kernels may still abort;
as kernels mature, potential yield
reduction from stress decreases.

Let’s talk kernel color

Final coloring of field corn can range
from yellow to white for most dent
hybrids, white to yellow to reddish-
orange for flint hybrids.

58 R3 – MILK
1800 GDUs ~18 –22 days after silking (R1)
R3

Plant is utilizing 0.24 inch of water per day.

Quick note about cell walls

Cell division is complete
within the endosperm;
endosperm
the focus is now on
expansion and filling
of the cell walls
with starch.

embryo
With the seed coat
removed, the embryo
can be easily seen

59
 Kernels display final coloring;
R4 inner fluid thickens to a dough-like
consistency; moisture is ~70%.

Seed coat
removed
The embryo has
increased in size and
will continue to develop
rapidly during this stage.
Kernels are about half of
their mature weight.

embryo
The last embryonic
leaf (5th) and the
lateral seminal
Stress at this stage can reduce
roots have formed.
starch accumulation, resulting in
lower kernel weight.

As the lemmas and

paleas dry, the cob
begins to attain its
final coloring —
white, pink, light red
or dark red

60 R4 – DOUGH
2000 GDUs ~24 –28 days after silking (R1)
R4

Lower leaves often

die back when
nutrients are being
relocated within
the plant during the
reproductive stages.

Plant is utilizing 0.20 inch of water per day. 61

 Most kernels have dented; kernel milk
R5 begins to disappear; milk line moves
toward the kernel tip; moisture is ~55%.

Quick note about dent

When the soft starch core begins
to lose moisture, it shrinks and
causes a dent to form on the top
of the kernel; hybrid genetics
and growing conditions
determine dent size.

Kernel milk and

the milk line will
be visible on the
side opposite of the
Let’s talk kernel milk embryo ~one week
This process takes 3–4 weeks depending on temperature, moisture and hybrid genetics

Kernel milk is the after R5 begins.

white starchy fluid that
disappears as the kernel Early R5
matures. Starting at the ¼ milk line
top and moving towards
¾ kernel milk
the tip, the endosperm
loses moisture and rapidly 45% of total
accumulates dry matter. dry matter
This process starts now
and concludes early in R6. Mid- R5
To determine its progress, ½ milk line
press the kernel with a ½ kernel milk
pencil tip; it will be soft
where the kernel milk 90% of total
remains and hard where dry matter
it has disappeared.
Don't confuse it! Another Late R5
commonly used term is
milk line, which describes the ¾ milk line
separation between the soft and ¼ kernel milk
hardened starch. Both terms
describe similar phenomenon 97% of total
but in slightly different ways. dry matter

62 R5 – DENT
2100 GDUs ~35–42 days after silking (R1)
R5

Plant is utilizing 0.20 inch

of water per day.
Stress at this stage can
still reduce starch
accumulation and result
in lower kernel weight.
Hard early frost can:
Cause premature black
The husk
layer formation
starts to
lose color. Halt dry matter
accumulation

Corn has two peaks for high quality forage value during its development: the first
is during pollination and the second (higher value) is during R5; the value declines
greatly between the peaks.
To ensure proper fermentation and preservation of silage taken during R5, harvest
should occur when whole plant moisture is optimal for the intended storage
structure. The kernel milk location can be a useful indicator of when to begin
sampling fields to measure plant dry matter, which can then used to time harvest
to ensure fermentation and preservation of the forage.
Once the kernel milk begins to move, sample fields to measure the percent dry
matter of whole plants and combine this with average whole plant drydown rates
for the geographic region. Many factors can affect drydown rate, including hybrid,
planting date, general health of the crop, landscape position, soil type and weather
conditions. In general, corn silage that is slightly too wet is better for storage than
corn silage that is too dry; so harvesting a little early is better than waiting too long.

SILAGE HARVEST NOTES 63

 Kernels reach maximum dry matter
R6 weight and are physiologically mature;
moisture is ~30–35%; black layer forms.

Cells at the kernel tip

collapse to form the
black layer

Kernel milk has

completely
disappeared;
milk line has
reached the cob.

Quick note about black layer

Formation of the black abscission
layer signals that starch and
moisture are no longer moving in
or out of the kernel. Moisture loss
is now solely from evaporation
through the seed coat. Tip removed to show the
single black layer of cells

ogressing to the butt

g a t th e e a r t ip and p r
b e g in n i n
on kernels
ye r forms
kl a
b la c
The

64
R6 – MATURITY
 Husks and
2350 GDUs ~55–60 days after silking (R1) many leaves
are no longer
green.
R6

Plant is utilizing 0.18 inch of water per day.

If the plant dies before it reaches physiological
maturity, yield may be reduced!
Lodging can result in yield loss.
Stress and frost have no impact on yield.

Let’s talk drydown

Physiologically mature grain is not ready for storage yet!
For long-term storage, shelled grain needs to be down to
13–15% moisture. This period between physiological and
harvest maturity is called drydown.
Grain drydown is dependent on hybrid and air variables.
Air variables include temperature, relative humidity and air
movement, while hybrid variables include ear orientation,
tightness and length of husks, and kernel hardness.
Mechanically drying grain can be costly so if possible,
let nature do the drying. Sunny days dry corn faster than
cloudy days, even if the heat units are the same!
~30 GDUs for grain @ 25–30%
To drop 1% moisture:
~45 GDUs for grain @ 20–25%

For highest forage quality, harvest silage prior to R6! 65

 Let’s talk grain yield
There are three main components
that determine grain yield in corn:
1) Ears per area
2) Kernels per ear
3) Kernel weight
The potential of each yield
component is determined at
different developmental stages
and is influenced by environmental
factors like weather and pests.

Keep in mind that these stages determine the potential number, the actual number will be
influenced by other environmental factors.

NUMBER x SIZE = GRAIN YIELD

ears kernels weight weight volume volume
area
x
ear
x = area
x
weight
= area
kernel

VE V6 R6
bu
The final weight acre
V6 V11 per kernel is
determined by R6. Grain yield is commonly
measured in bushels/acre.
Potential ears VT A bushel is a dry measure of
per area are volume equal to 64 US pints.
One bushel of shelled corn
determined
R3 weighs ~56 pounds.
at planting
and VE.
The actual The potential number of rows around the cob are
number of being determined between V6–V11. The potential
ears per plant number of kernels per row are determined by VT
are determined and will be influenced by the events prior to and after
by V6. pollination with the final number by R3.

66 GRAIN YIELD
Planting the right relative maturity (RM) hybrid is imperative
for a successful harvest! Seek out information that provides
geographic zone maps, GDUs (or other thermal units) and 2600 GDUs
planting dates. This example shows the approximate dates
that a 105-day RM hybrid planted May 1 in south central
Wisconsin will reach key developmental stages. 2400 GDUs

R6 2350 GDUs
~ Sep 11
2200 GDUs

80 and earlier | 1700-2000

85-90 | 2000-2200 2000 GDUs

90-95 | 2200-2300
95-100 | 2300-2400
100-105 | 2400-2500 1800 GDUs

105-110 | 2500-2700
110-115 | 2700-2900
1600 GDUs
Zone map of Wisconsin showing relative
maturity days | GDUs for full-season corn
hybrids planted before May 15
1400 GDUs

R1 1250 GDUs 1200 GDUs

~ Jul 17

V18 1160 GDUs

~ Jul 13 1000 GDUs

V12 815 GDUs

~ Jun 26 800 GDUs

600 GDUs

V6 470 GDUs
~ Jun 7 400 GDUs

VE 200 GDUs

125 GDUs 13
~ May 12 per day

May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct

~ GDUs per day 10 14 20 20 22 23 19 13 13 12

THE RIGHT RM HYBRID 67

 One last note tassel ears
It is not uncommon to see a few
tassel ears in a field. Usually found on
tillers or edge-of-field plants, these
structures do not interfere with yield
or indicate any health problems.
Tassel ears are the result of a
Tassel ears physiological abnormality —
may look odd male flowers retain their
but do not female structures and
indicate develop kernels;
any health these female structures
problems are usually aborted
on the tassel
during normal
development.

Tips for profitable and

sustainable corn production
Analyze your costs,
economic goals and potential risks
Match relative maturity hybrids to
your region with realistic yield goals
Reduce tillage when possible
Understand your soil fertility levels,
subsoil moisture and crop fertility needs
Utilize seed treatments
Optimize seeding rates,
planting date and row spacing
Maximize economic optimum
management practices rather than those
that only maximize yield
Minimize or eliminate pest pressure
(insects, weeds, diseases)
Harvest and store carefully
Get a handle on information management!

68 FINAL NOTES
Abiotic: Non-living chemical and physical aspects of the environment that affect
living organisms and the functioning of ecosystems
Aerial roots: Adventitious roots that grow above-ground
Anchor roots: See brace roots
Anthers: Part of the male flower; tiny double-barrelled structures that contain
pollen grains
Adventitious roots: Roots that arise from an organ other than the plant’s root
(e.g. brace roots form from stem nodes)
Apical meristem: The growth region of tissue found within the root tips and the tips
of the new shoots and leaves
Axillary bud: An embryonic shoot at the junction of the stem and petiole; each bud
has the potential to form vegetative shoots (stems and branches) or reproductive
shoots (flowers); also called lateral bud
Black layer: A single layer of cells at the tip (base) of the kernel that die, collapse,
and turn black once the kernel has matured
Blade: The broad portion of a leaf; also called the leaf blade
Brace roots: Roots that form from above-ground stem nodes that provide physical
support for the stem; also called anchor roots, aerial roots or prop roots
Coleoptile: The protective sheath that covers the primary shoot
Coleorhiza: The protective sheath that covers the radicle
Collar: The outer side of the leaf where the leaf blade and the sheath join
Cotyledon: Part of the embryo that is an oil-rich storehouse of food important for
the germination process; the 1st leaf to emerge from the seed
Ear: Although not botanically correct, ears often refers to kernels and cob of the corn
plant; for silage, the ear also includes the silks, shanks and husk leaves; see spike
Embryo: One of the three key parts of the corn kernel (the other two being the
endosperm and seed coat); contains a miniature plant (the primary shoot with 4–5
preformed leaves, coleoptile, radicle, lateral seminal roots and coleorhiza)
Embryonic plant: The miniature plant contained in the embryo; see embryo
Endosperm: One of the three key parts of the corn kernel (the other two being the
embryo and seed coat); occupies the bulk of the kernel; main energy reserve for the
young seedling; primary component is starch
GDUs: Growing degree units; see definition
GDDs: Growing degree days; see definition
Growing degree days: A measure of heat accumulation used to predict plant
development rates; also called GDDs, growing degree units (GDUs) or heat units (HUs)
Growing degree units: A measure of heat accumulation used to predict plant
development rates; also called GDUs, growing degree days (GDDs) or heat units (HUs)
Glumes: A pair of bract-like structures at the base of the flower

GLOSSARY 69
 Grasses: Monocotyledons (mostly herbaceous) with jointed stems, slender
sheathing leaves and flowers borne in spikelets
Growing point: An area of active cell division and elongation at the tip of the young
stalk or root
Heat units: A measure of heat accumulation used to predict plant development
rates; also called HUs, growing degree days (GDDs) or growing degree units (GDUs)
HUs: Heat units; see definition
Hybrid: Seed corn production involving the crossing of two inbred lines
Inbred line: A self-pollinated strain of corn; all progeny are genetically identical to
each other and to the inbred parent
Internode: The area between two nodes on the plant stem
Lateral bud: see axillary bud
Leaf: A typically green and blade-like flattened structure that is attached to a stem
directly; main organs of photosynthesis and transpiration
Leaf axil: The angled area between the upper side of a leaf and the stem where the
buds or shoots can develop
Leaf blade: see blade
Leaf collar: Area on the outer side of the leaf where the blade and sheath join
Leaf sheath: The basal part of leaf that encircles the stem; connects the vascular
system of the leaf blade to the rest of the plant
Lemma: The lowermost of two chaff-like bracts enclosing the grass floret
Main stalk: see main stem
Main stem: Main structural axes of a vascular plant; normally divided into nodes
and internodes
Meristem: Growth tissue; area of active cell division and elongation
Mesocotyl: A tubular, white, stem-like tissue that connects the seed and the base of
the coleoptile
Monocotyledon: A flowering plant with an embryo that bears a single cotyledon
(seed leaf)
Monoecious plant: Separate male and female flowers on the same plant
Nodal root system: Main root system of the corn plant; originates from lower stem
nodes, usually from five nodes below the soil surface
Node: A place on the stem where leaves, roots, ears and tassels emerge from; nodes
are often raised and noticeable by feel
Ovule: Part of the female flower; potential kernel on the cob
Palea: The uppermost of the two chaff-like bracts enclosing the grass floret
Pericarp: The layer that develops around the seed of a plant after it is fertilized and
protects the enclosed endosperm and embryo from attack by fungi and bacteria; also
called the seed coat

70 GLOSSARY
Plumule: The part of the seed embryo that develops into the shoot bearing the first
true leaves of a plant
Pollen: Fine to coarse powder made of pollen grains; microgametophytes that
produce male gametes (sperm cells)
Pollen tube: A hollow tube that develops from the pollen grain when it is deposited
on the stigma (female); acts as a conduit to transport the male gamete cells (sperm)
to the ovules at the base of the pistil
Prolific: More than one harvestable ear on the main stalk, tendency increases with
lower plant densities
Radicle: The embryonic root of the plant
Relative maturity: A method for comparing corn hybrids in regards to length of
season necessary to reach maturity
Scutellum: see cotyledon
Seed leaf: see cotyledon
Seminal root system: Composed of the radicle and up to three pairs of seminal roots;
contained within the seed; of greatest importance during early seedling growth
Shank: Small, stalk-like structure on a leaf node from which the ear develops from
Sheath: see leaf sheath
Shoots: A stem along with its leaves, stems and flowers; functionally responsible for
food production (photosynthesis) and reproduction
Silk: Part of the female flower that traps pollen; the stigma; elongates towards the
tip of the ear shoot
Spike: An unbranched inflorescence bearing flowers that are directly attached without
stalks; in corn, spike is the ear; a central stem on which tightly packed rows of flowers
develop into fruits containing seeds; see ear
Stalk: One of two main structural axes of a vascular plant, the other being the root;
divided into nodes and internodes; also called the stem
Stem: The main structural plant axis that bears buds and shoots with leaves;
normally divided into nodes and internodes
Stem apex: see apical meristem
Stem node: Areas on the stem from which leaves and shoots and roots can develop
Stigma: Part of the female flower that traps pollen
Tiller: Branches that develop from axillary buds at the lower 5–7 stem nodes;
morphologically identical to the main stalk; capable of forming their own root
system, nodes, internodes, leaves, ears and tassels
Tassel: The male flowering part that contains the anthers and pollen; also called the
flowering stalk or flowering stem
Whorl: An arrangement of at least three leaves that radiate from a single point and
surround or wrap around the stem

GLOSSARY 71
 During maturity, cell
walls breakdown within
the ear shank and in
some hybrids, result in
upside-down ears. This
can be beneficial —
the husks act like
umbrellas, shedding
precipitation and
protecting the grain.

Husk opened to
show kernels

This publication is available from the Nutrient and

Pest Management Program: web (ipcm.wisc.edu);
NPM
01-2020-5M phone (608) 265-2660; email ([email protected])
University of Wisconsin-Madison, College of Agricultural and Life Sciences.
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