Chapter 1 – Structure & Function

Musculoskeletal System:
- Skeleton
o Muscles exert force by pulling against bones that rotate around joints
o Muscles can only pull, not push
o Through bony levers muscles can do both
o 206 bones in the body
o Axial skeleton – skull, vertebra column, ribs, sternum
o Appendicular skeleton – shoulder girdle, bones of arm, wrists, hands, pelvic girdle, legs,
ankles, feet
o Joints – junctions of bones
 Articulating bone ends are covered with hyaline cartilage an entire
joints are enclosed with synovial fluid
 Fibrous joints – sutures of skull (no movement)
 Cartilaginous joints – intervertebral disks (limited movement)
 Synovial Joints – elbow/knee (movement)
o Joint Movements
 Uniaxial – hinge joints (elbow) one axis
 Biaxial – two axis (ankle, wrist)
 Multiaxial – ball-and-socket (shoulder, hip), 3 axis
o Vertebral column
 Vertebral bones separated by flexible disks that allow movement
 7 cervical
 12 thoracis
 5 lumbar
 5 sacral
Skeletal Musculature:
- Muscles are attached to bones at each of their ends
- Each muscle is an organ that contains muscle tissue, connective tissue, nerves, and blood vessels
o Epimysium – fibrous connective tissue that covers muscles
o Tendons –
o Bone Periosteum – connective tissue that covers bones
o Muscle fibers – long, cylindrical cells that have many nuclei on the periphery of the cell
that have a striated appearance
o Fasciculi - muscle fibers grouped together under epimysium
o Perimysium – connective tissue surrounding fasciculi
o Endomysium - connective tissue that surrounds each muscle fiber
 Motor unit – 1.4
o One single motor neuron and all muscle fibers it controls
- Motor neuron – nerve cell
- Neuromuscular junction – where the motor neuron and muscle fibers meet
 Each muscle cell has only one neuromuscular junction
- Motor unit – motor neuron and muscle fibers innervate
o All muscle fibers of a motor unit contract together when they are stimulated by the
motor neuron
 Role of calcium as regulator of muscle contraction – figure 1.5
- Sarcoplasm – cytoplasm of a muscle fiber contains contractile components consisting of protein
filaments
- Myofibrils – dominate sarcoplasm contain apparatus that contract muscle cells (myosin and
actin)
- Sarcoplasmic reticulum – parallel to and surrounding each myofibril are a system of tubes
o Calcium ions stores in the sarcoplasmic vesicles
o Regulation of calcium controls muscular contraction
- T-tubules – perpendicular to sarcoplasmic reticulum and terminate in the vicinity of the Z-line
o Discharge action potential (electrical nerve impulse)
o K+ is released throughout muscle

 Sarcomere- 1.6 & 1.7

o Sarcomere (contractile)
o Concentric (Z-lines get closer)
o Eccentric (calcium has to leave)
o Lengthening sarcomere while cross-bridge produce force
o Muscle fiber forced to lengthen, but still some cross-bridges that are controlling the
negative movement
o ATP needed at neuromuscular junction, cross-bride formation, cross-bridge swivel to
middle, detach cross-bridge
o Isometric (resistance equal to force produced)
o Motor neuron smaller is slow twitch
o Motor neuron bigger in fast twitch
o When producing force in sarcomere, cross-bridges formed and swivel toward middle of
sarcomere
o When Ca detaches, it is pumped back into SR (can diffuse out but cant diffuse back,
needs ATP)
- Sarcomere – organization of actin and myosin filaments
- M-Bridge – adjacent myosin filaments anchor to each other at the M-bride in the center of the
sarcomere
- Z-line – in the middle of the I-band, thin and dark line in which actin filaments are aligned at
both ends of sarcomere and are anchored at the Z-line
- A-band – alignment of myosin filaments
- I-band – light area of two adjacent sarcomeres that contain only actin
- H-zone – area in the center of the sarcomere where only myosin is

o Contractile proteins -actin & myosin

 Ones inside sarcomere
 Contractile = producing force
 They are actin and myosin
 Myosin – thick globular head, hinge point, and fibrous tail
o Form cross-bridges that interact with actin
 Actin – thin
 During muscle contraction, H-zone decreases as actin slides over myosin
towards center of sarcomere
 I-band decreases as Z-lines pulled toward center of sarcomere
 o Regulating proteins – troponin & tropomyosin
 Regulate how many cross-bridge formation
 They are troponin and tropomyosin
 Troponin – protein that is along actin filament which K+ attaches
 Tropomyosin – run along actin

o Structural proteins – titin & elastin

 Hold the sarcomere in the proper alignment
 They are titin and elastin
 Thick and thin filaments anchor myosin and actin in proper position in
sarcomere

- Sliding-Filament Theory
o Actin filaments at each end of the sarcomere slide inward of myosin filaments
o This pulls the Z-lines toward the center of the sarcomere
o Shortens muscle fiber
o H-zone and I-band shrink
o The cross-bridges pulling on the actin are responsible for the movement of the actin
filament
o Sequence of events:
 Binding of K+ to troponin
 Coupling of myosin crossbridge with actin
 Power stroke
 Dissociation of actin and myosin
 Resetting of myosin head

- Resting Phase
o Little K+ is present in myofibril
o Few myosin cross-bridges are bound to actin

- Excitation-Contraction Coupling Phase

o Before cross bridges can form, they must attach to actin
o When sarcoplasmic releases K+, the calcium binds to troponin
o Crossbridge now attaches more rapidly because of troponin and tropomyosin allowing
force to be produced as actin filaments are pulled toward center of sarcomere

- Contraction Phase
o Energy from pulling action comes from hydrolysis of ATP (power stroke)
 o Molecules of ATP must replaced ADP on myosin crossbridge head for the head to detach
from active actin site and return to normal position
o This allows contraction process to continue if K+ is available

- Recharge Phase
o Sequence of events only happen if K+ is available, ATP is available, and ATPase can
breakdown ATP

- Relaxation Phase
o occurs when stimulation of motor nerve stops
o K+ is pumped back into sarcoplasmic reticulum which prevents myosin actin link
  Force generation
o Force develops if there is resistance to the pulling interaction of actin and myosin
filaments
o During a twitch, Ca+ is removed before forces reach its max and muscle realx

o Myogram – 1.8
- Single muscle fiber contraction
- Muscle twitch

o Summation – 1.8
- Changing number of action potentials that arrive at the motor unit
- Arrive so quickly don’t have time for total relaxation
- More calcium released
- Inc cross bridge function
- Adding together more than one myogram (same muscle fiber)

Unfused Tetanus

- Small bit of relaxation

Fused Tetanus

- Number of action potentials are so high that there is no relaxation

 Characteristics of muscle types – Table 1.1/1.2
o Type I – slow oxidative fibers
 Efficient and fatigue resistance, high capacity for aerobic energy, limited rapid
force development, low myosis ATPase activity , low anaerobic power
o Type IIa – fast intermediate (FOG) -> fast, oxidative, glycolytic
 Greater capacity for aerobic metabolism, more capillaries
o Type IIx – strength training
 Greater resistance to fatigue
 Type II are inefficient, fatigable, low aerobic power, rapid force
development, high myosis ATPase activity , high anaerobic power
- Fast Twitch – develops force and also realizes rapidly, short twitch time
- Slow Twitch – develop force and relax lowly, slow twitch time
o Differences between fast and slow twitch is their ability of the fibers to demand and
supply energy for contraction to withstand fatigue

- Motor unit recruitment pattens

o Muscular force can either be:
 Variation in frequency at which motor units are activated
 variation in number of motor units activated

 Control of muscle function

- Proprioceptors
 o Muscle spindle – stretch reflex/GTO
- Muscle spindle – proprioceptors that consist of muscle fibers enclosed in a sheath of connective
tissue
o Fibers inside the muscle -> intrafusal fiber
o Responds to rate of stretch -> if rate is too far and too much it will stimulate stretch
reflex
 Causes muscle to contract and limits stretch and velocity
o Provide information about muscle length and rate of change in length
o When a muscle is lengthened its spindles are stretched
o As load inc, muscle is stretched to greater extent and engagement of muscle spindles
results in greater activation of muscle
o Links to plyos (ballistic(
 Eccentric loading -> rapid loading, lengthens sarcomere, stimulates stretch
reflex
 Concentric loading -> rapid contraction, uses energy from stretch reflex
 Isometric -> potential elastic energy from rapid stretch dissipates, left is
concentric contraction
o Static stretching
 Opposite of ballistic
 Slowly and gently
 So muscle spindles relax

o Proprioceptive role spindles & GTO’s

 Free nerve ending in muscle
 GTO measures force
 Connected to bone so its able to monitor force
  Protective device
o Proprioceptors – specialized sensory receptors located within joints, muscles, and
tendons
 Sensitive to pressure and tension
 Information about the body at a subconscious level
o Golgi Tendon Organs – proprioceptors located in tendons near myotendinous junction
and attached end to end with extrafusal muscle fibers
 GTO activated when tendon attached to muscle is stretched
 Protects against excessive tension
 Effect of GTO maximal when load on muscle is heavy

Neuromuscular system

 Activation of muscles
o When a motor neuron fires an impulse or action potential all the fibers that it serves are
simultaneously active and develop force
o Muscle that must function with precision (eyes) only have motor units with one muscle
fiber
o Big muscles have many fibers serve by one neuron
o Arrival of action potential releases a neurotransmitter called acetylcholine which
diffuses across the neuromuscular junction and causes excitement
 o All or none principle – all muscle fibers in motor unit contract and develop force at the
same time
 Stronger action potential cannot cause a stronger contraction
o Twitch – action potential traveling down a motor neuron results in short period of
activation of muscle fibers this brief contraction is called a twitch

 Motor unit recruitment/synchronization & rate coding

o Recruitment, synchronization, rate coding
 Things that will improve without muscle hypertrophy

Cardiac Structure & Function

- Primary Function: transport nutrients and remove waste

- Involuntary, striated muscle (still has actin and myosin)

- The Heart
o Two interconnected but separate pumps
o Right side -> lungs
o Left side -> body

- The Valves
o Tricuspid and mitral valve (bicuspid) prevent flow of blood from ventricles back into
atria during ventricular contraction (systole)
o Aortic and pulmonary valve (semilunar) prevent backflow from aorta and pulmonary
arteries into ventricles during ventricular relaxation (diastole)
- Conduction System
o SA node – pace-maker where electrical impulses are initiated
o AV node – where impulse is delayed before passing it to ventricles
o AV bundle – conducts impulse to ventricles
o Purkinje fibers – conduct impulses to all parts of ventricles
 SA an and AV node is autorhythmic (generate own action potential)
- Cardiac output = HR x stroke volume (inversely proportional)
o Stroke volume = volume of blood that leaves the heart (left ventricle)
 If HR goes down, SV goes up
 Left ventricle inc in size during hypertrophy (contract more forcefully)

 ECG – 1.13
- Measurement of pathway of the action potential of the heart (pathway of nerves)
- Not a mechanical representation
- P-wave = passage of action potential from SA to AV node through atrium, depolarize the atria
and result in atrial contraction.
- QRS-wave = passage of action potential through ventricles (depolarization followed by
contraction), depolarizes the ventricles and results in ventricular contraction
- T-wave = caused by the electrical potential generated as the ventricles recover from the state of
depolarization; this process, called repolarization, occurs in ventricular muscle shortly after
depolarization

 Circulation – pulmonary & systemic

- Pulmonary = blood flow from heart to lungs and back (right ventricle to lungs to right atrium)
- Systemic = blood flow from heart back to heart (left ventricle through body back to right atrium)
o Active recovery:
 Blood redirected to muscles
 Blood will pool in extremities
 Will get lightheaded, faint, weak HR
 Keep moving to get blood from veins back to heart

o Capillary exchange
  The function of capillaries is to facilitate exchange of oxygen, fluid, nutrients,
electrolytes, hormones, and other substances between the blood and the
tissues of the body.

Ventilation & Respiration

- primary function of the respiratory system is the basic exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide
- The trachea is called the first-generation respiratory passage
- Right and left main bronchi are the second-generation passages
- Each division thereafter is an additional generation (bronchioles).

 Respiration – internal and external

o Exchange of gases
o Internal -> exchange of gases at capillaries
o Externa -> exchange of gases at lungs
 Improve both through training

 Ventilation
o Mechanical ability to inhale and exhale
 Ventilation not limiting performance