Mansoura university

Faculty of science
chemistry department

Graduation project on
Water pollution and treatment

Prepared by:
Azza El-Sayed Rabea
B.Sc. Student, 4th level, Department of biochemistry, Faculty of
Science, Mansoura

supervisor:

Dr. Doaa Ahmed

(Department of chemistry)
(2023-2024)
Acknowledgement

Firstly, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my advisor

Dr. Doaa Ahmed for the continue support of my study and related
research, for her patience, motivation, and immense knowledge.
Her guidance helped me in all time of research, and i could not have
imagined having a better advisor and mentor for my study.
Finally, the study has indeed helped me to explore more
knowledgeable avenues related to my topic and I am sure it will help
me in my future.

Azza El-Sayed Rabea

B. Sc. Student
2023-2024
Table of Contents
1 water pollution………………………………………………………………….….2
1.1 Types and sources of water pollutants………………………………………………………….4
1.1.1 Organic pollution [Soap,Detergent,Oil,Pesticides]..…..…………………………… 5
1.1.2 Inorganic pollution [Acidity,Alkalinity.Solinity]………………………………………10
1.1.3 Suspended asolid and sediments…………………………………………………………..11
1.1.4 Thermal pollution………………………………………………………………………………….12
1.2 Water disinfection (cl2,O3)………………………………………………………………………….13
1.3 Water treatmentand waste treatment ……………………………………………………….14
1.3.1 Municipal water treatment …………………………………………………………………..15
1.3.2 Treatment of water industrial use …………………………………………………………16
1.3.3 Sewage treatment……………………………………………………………………………….. 17
2 Diseases Caused by water pollution…………………………………………………………………. 22
2.1 water borne diseases…………………………………………………………………………………..22
2.2 Dysentery…………………………………………………………………………………………………….23
2.3 Typhoid fever………………………………………………………………………………………………23
2.4 Cholera……………………………………………………………………………………………………….24
2.5 Hepatitis A……………………………………………………………………………………………………24
2.6 Water-Washed diseases……………………………………………………………………………….25
2.7 Trachoma…………………………………………………………………………………………………….25
2.8 Yaws…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….25
2.9 Scabies…………………………………………………………………………………………………………25
2.10 Shigellas ……………………………………………………………………………………………………26
2.11 Water based diseases………………………………………………………………………………..26
2.12 Schistosomiasis………………………………………………………………………………………… 26
2.13 Other water related conditions………………………………………………………….........27
3 References……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 28

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1 water pollution

Fig(1)

Raw sewage and industrial waste in the New River as it passes from Mexicali (Mexico) to Calexico,
California[1]

water pollution, the release of substances into subsurface groundwater or into lakes,
streams, rivers, estuaries, and oceans to the point where the substances interfere with
beneficial use of the water or with the natural functioning of ecosystems.

In addition to the release of substances, such as chemicals, trash, or microorganisms,

water pollution may also include the release of energy, in the form of radioactivity or
heat, into bodies of water[7].

Water pollution (or aquatic pollution) is the contamination of water bodies, usually
as a result of human activities, so that it negatively affects its uses. [1]: 6 Water bodies
include lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers, reservoirs and groundwater.

Water pollution results when contaminants mix with these water bodies. Contaminants
can come from one of four main sources: sewage discharges, industrial activities,
agricultural activities, and urban runoff including stormwater.[2]

Water pollution is either surface water pollution or groundwater pollution.

P a g e 2 | 32
This form of pollution can lead to many problems, such as the degradation of aquatic
ecosystems or spreading water-borne diseases when people use polluted water for
drinking or irrigation.[3]

Another problem is that water pollution reduces the ecosystem services (such as
providing drinking water) that the water resource would otherwise provide.

Sources of water pollution are either point sources or non-point sources. Point sources
have one identifiable cause, such as a storm drain, a wastewater treatment plant or an oil
spill. Non-point sources are more diffuse, such as agricultural runoff. [4] Pollution is the
result of the cumulative effect over time.

Pollution may take the form of toxic substances (e.g., oil, metals,
plastics, pesticides, persistent organic pollutants, industrial waste products), stressful
conditions (e.g., changes of pH, hypoxia or anoxia, increased temperatures,
excessive turbidity, changes of salinity), or the introduction of pathogenic organisms.
Contaminants may include organic and inorganic substances.

A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as a coolant by power

plants and industrial manufacturers.

Control of water pollution requires appropriate infrastructure and management plans as

well as legislation.

Technology solutions can include improving sanitation, sewage treatment, industrial

wastewater treatment, agricultural wastewater treatment, erosion control, sediment
control and control of urban runoff (including stormwater management).

Definition
A practical definition of water pollution is: "Water pollution is the addition of
substances or energy forms that directly or indirectly alter the nature of the water body
in such a manner that negatively affects its legitimate uses".[1]: 6 Water is typically
referred to as polluted when it is impaired by anthropogenic contaminants. Due to these
contaminants, it either no longer supports a certain human use, such as drinking water,
or undergoes a marked shift in its ability to support its biotic communities, such as fish.

P a g e 3 | 32
Types and sources of water pollutants
Water bodies can be polluted by a wide variety of substances, including pathogenic
microorganisms, putrescible organic waste, fertilizers and plant nutrients, toxic
chemicals, sediments, heat, petroleum (oil), and radioactive substances.

Several types of water pollutants are considered below.

Water pollutants come from either point sources or dispersed sources.

Fig(2) water pollution point source [18]

A point source is a pipe or channel, such as those used for discharge from an industrial
facility or a city sewerage system.

A dispersed (or nonpoint) source is a very broad unconfined area from which a variety
of pollutants enter the water body, such as the runoff from an agricultural area.

Point sources of water pollution are easier to control than dispersed sources, because the
contaminated water has been collected and conveyed to one single point where it can be
treated.

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1.1.1 ORGANIC POLLUTANTS
Organic pollutants can be further divided into following categories

• Oxygen Demanding wastes

• Synthetic Organic Compounds (Soaps and detergents)

• Oil

Oxygen Demanding wastes

• The wastewaters such as domestic sewage, wastewater from food processing
industries, canning industries, paper, tanneries, distilleries, etc. have considerable
concentration of biodegradable organic compounds either in suspended, colloidal or
dissolved form[9].

• These wastes undergo degradation and decomposition by bacterial activity.

• The dissolved oxygen available in the water body will be consumed for aerobic
oxidation of organic matter present in the wastewater.

• Hence, depletion of the DO will be a serious problem adversely affecting aquatic life,
if the DO falls below 4.0 mg/L. This decrease of DO is an index of pollution.

Synthetic Organic Compounds

• Synthetic organic compounds enter the ecosystem through various manmade activities
such as production of these organic compounds, spillage during transportation, and their
uses in different applications[11].

• Such as synthetic pesticides, synthetic detergents, surfactants, food additives,

pharmaceuticals, ides, paints, synthetic fibers, plastics, solvents and volatile organic
compounds (VOCs).

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• Most of these compounds are toxic and biorefractory organics i.e., they are resistant
to microbial degradation.

Example 1:
• Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) (oily liquid or solid) are used in the industries since
which are complex mixtures of chlorobiphenyls used in electrical equipments like
capacitors[20].

• Being a fat soluble they move readily through the environment and within the tissues
or cells.

• these compounds are exceedingly persistent and their stability to chemical reagents is
also high.

Example 2: alkyl benzene sulfonate (ABS) surfactant:

Very slowly biodegradable because of its branched-chain structure, which is particularly
difficult for microorganisms to metabolize.

Structure(1) ABS Surfactant

2- Soaps and Detergents Soaps

1. Composition
•Soaps are salts of higher fatty acids, such as sodium stearate, C17H35COO-Na+

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•Soap’s cleaning action results largely from its emulsifying power and its ability to
lower the surface tension of water[19].

2. Disadvantages
•The primary disadvantage comes from its reaction with divalent cations to form
insoluble salts of fatty acids:

(Sodium Stearate) (Calcium)

•These insoluble solids, usually salts of magnesium or calcium, are not at all effective
as cleaning agents.

•In addition, the insoluble salts form deposits on clothing and in washing machines.

Detergents

Synthetic detergents have good cleaning properties :

1. do not form insoluble salts with “hardness ions”.

2. do not precipitate out of acidic waters as insoluble acids.

A commercial solid detergent contains:

•10–30% surfactant.

•Polyphosphates which complex with calcium and act as builders.

•Ion exchangers.

•Alkali (sodium carbonate).

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•Anticorrosive sodium silicates.

•Amide: foam stabilizers.

•Bleaches.

•Enzymes.

•Optical brighteners.

•Fragrances and dyes.

Surfactant

• The key ingredient is the surfactant.

• Surfactants concentrate at interfaces of water with: gases (air), solids (dirt), and
immiscible liquids (oil).
• They do so because of their amphiphilic structure, meaning that one part of the
molecule is a polar or ionic group (head) with a strong affinity for water, and the
other part is a hydrocarbon group (tail) with an aversion to water[17].

• Example:

alkyl benzene sulfonate (ABS) surfactant

Disadvantage: Very slowly biodegradable because of its branched-chain structure,

which is particularly difficult for microorganisms to metabolize.

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ABS was replaced by a biodegradable surfactant known as linear
alkyl sulfonate LAS.

Structure(2)Linear Alkyl Sulfonate

•LAS is more biodegradable than ABS because:

the alkyl portion of LAS is not branched and does not contain the tertiary carbon that
is so difficult to biodegradability so the levels of surfactant found in water have
decreased markedly.

1.1.1 Petroleum (oil) pollution

An oil spill is the release of a liquid petroleum hydrocarbon into the environment,
especially the marine ecosystem, due to human activity, and is a form of pollution. The
term is usually given to marine oil spills, where oil is released into the ocean or coastal
waters, but spills may also occur on land.

Oil spills may be due to releases of crude oil from tankers, offshore platforms, drilling
rigs and wells, as well as spills of refined petroleum products (such as gasoline, diesel)
and their by-products, heavier fuels used by large ships such as bunker fuel, or the spill
of any oily refuse or waste oil.[citation needed]

Petroleum (oil) pollution occurs when oil from roads and parking lots is carried in
surface runoff into water bodies.

Accidental oil spills are also a source of oil pollution—as in the devastating spills from
the tanker Exxon Valdez (which released more than 260,000 barrels in Alaska’s Prince
William Sound in 1989) and from the Deepwater Horizon oil rig (which released more
than 4 million barrels of oil into the Gulf of Mexico in 2010).

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Oil slicks eventually move toward shore, harming aquatic life and damaging recreation
areas.

Oil pollution occurs when oil in its various forms is introduced to environments and
contaminates them[16].

Causes of oil pollution

• Tankers that leak because they have not been maintained.
• Spills occur because employees do not follow the proper procedures when loading oil
onto tankers.
• Crude oil leaks from drilling rigs and wells.
• maintenance and cleaning of oil carrying vessels introduce oil into the ocean.
• Some countries pour their liquid waste into the ocean

1.1.2 ACIDITY
The most common sources of pollutant acid in water:

1.The presence of sulfuric acid produced by the oxidation of pyrite (FeS2 ).

2. Industrial wastes contribute strong acid to water.

3. Sulfuric acid produced by the air oxidation of pollutant sulfur dioxide enters natural
waters as acidic rainfall.

ALKALINITY

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1. Excess alkalinity generally are not introduced directly into water from anthropogenic
sources.

2. In many geographic areas, the soil and mineral strata are alkaline and impart a high
alkalinity to water.

3. Excess alkalinity in water is manifested by a characteristic fringe of white salts at the

edges of a body of water or on the banks of a stream.

SALINITY
Examples of human activities which increase water salinity:
1. In the production of shale oil ‫ا‬:high percentage of leachable Na2SO4.

2. Irrigation and intensive agricultural production have caused saline seeps .

1.1.3 SEDIMENTS
Sources
• The natural processes of soil erosion.
• Mining activities.

Bottom sediments are important sources of:

1. Organic and inorganic matter in streams, seas and oceans.

2. Trace metals (Cr, Cu, Mo, Ni, Co and Mn).

The vehicle of sediment transport:

1. Wind 2. Water.

1.1.4 Thermal pollution

•Thermal pollution is defined as the addition of excess of undesirable heat to water
making it harmful to man, animal or aquatic life.

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•Thermal pollution may cause significant departures from normal activities of aquatic
communities[17].

Sources of Thermal Pollution

•Nuclear power plants.

•Coal fired plants.

•Industrial effluents.

•Domestic sewage.

•Hydro-electric power.

Effects of Thermal pollution

1. Reduction in dissolved oxygen

2. Increase toxicity

3. Interference in biological activity

4. Interference in reproduction

5. Direct mortality

6. Affect on Food storage for fish

ALGAL NUTRIENTS AND EUTROPHICATION

•The term eutrophication describes a condition of lakes or reservoirs involving excess
algal growth[14].

Eutrophication control:
•Eliminating phosphates from detergents.

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•Removing phosphate at the sewage treatment plant.

•Preventing phosphate-laden sewage effluents from entering bodies of water

1.2 WATER DISINFECTION Chlorine (Cl2)

Is the most commonly used disinfectant for killing bacteria in water. When chlorine is
added to water, it rapidly hydrolyzes according to the following reaction:

Hypochlorous acid, HOCl, is a weak acid that dissociates according to the reaction, The
two chemical species formed by chlorine in water, HOCl and OCl- , are known as free
available chlorine which is very effective in killing bacteria[5].

In the presence of ammonia, monochloramine, dichloramine, and

trichloramine are formed as following:

The chloramines are called combined available chlorine which, although a weaker
disinfectant than free available chlorine. Too much ammonia in water is considered
undesirable because it exerts excess demand for chlorine.

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Ozone
Ozone is sometimes used as a disinfectant in place of chlorine, particularly in Europe.
Advantages of ozonation over chlorination:

•Possible production of toxic organochlorine compounds by water chlorination

processes.

•Ozone is more destructive to viruses than is chlorine.

Disadvantage
The solubility of ozone in water is relatively low, which limits its disinfective power.

(water treatment and waste treatment)

1.3 WATER TREATMENT

Wastewater is used water that needs to be treated before being discharged into another
body of water in order to prevent additional contamination of water sources. There are
many different sources of wastewater. Wastewater is everything that you flush down
the toilet or pour down the drain[19]. Runoff and rainwater from the streets, combined
with other contaminants, finally make their way to a wastewater treatment facility.
Industrial and agricultural sources of waste water are other potential sources. Certain
wastewaters are more challenging to treat than others; industrial wastewater, for
instance, might be challenging to treat, whereas domestic Whilst home waste is
relatively simple to handle, the number of pharmaceuticals and personal care items
contained in domestic wastewater is making it more challenging to do so.

The treatment of water can be divided into three major categories:

•Purification for domestic use.

•Treatment for industrial applications.

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•Treatment of wastewater to make it acceptable for release or reuse.

1.3.1 STEPS FOR MUNICIPAL WATER TREATMENT

The raw water taken from wells first goes to an aerator.

1. Contact of the water with air removes:

a. volatile solutes such as H2S, CO2, CH4,.

b. volatile odorous substances such as: (CH3SH) and bacterial metabolites.

c. Oxygen also aids iron removal by oxidizing soluble Fe(II) to insoluble Fe(III).

d. CaO or Ca(OH)2 after aeration raises the pH and can precipitates Ca2+ and Mg2+ .

e. These precipitates settle from the water in a primary basin.

2. Much of the solid material remains in suspension and requires the

addition of coagulants such as:
a. Iron(III) and aluminum sulfates.

b. Activated silica.

c. Synthetic polyelectrolytes.

The settling occurs in a secondary basin after the addition of carbon dioxide to lower
the pH.

Sludge from both the primary and secondary basins is pumped to a sludge lagoon. The
water is finally chlorinated, filtered, and pumped to the city water mains [16].

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 ( Municipal water Treatment )
1.3.2 TREATMENT OF WATER FOR INDUSTRIAL USE
Common treatment processes:
External treatment, usually uses processes such as:
•Aeration.

•Filtration.

•Clarification to remove material which cause problems from water, such substances:

•Suspended or dissolved solids.

•Hardness.

•Dissolved gases.

Internal treatment is include the following:

•Addition of chelating agents to react with dissolved Ca2+ and prevent formation of
calcium deposits.

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•Addition of precipitants, such as phosphate used for calcium removal.

•Addition of inhibitors to prevent corrosion.

•Adjustment of pH.

•Disinfection for food processing uses or to prevent bacterial growth in cooling water.

1.3.3 SEWAGE TREATMENT

The treatment can be divided into three main categories of:

•Primary treatment.

•Secondary treatment.

•Tertiary treatment.

Primary Treatment
Consists of the removal of insoluble matter such as (grit and grease) from water.

The first step in primary treatment normally is screening:

•Screening removes or reduces the size of trash and large solids that get into the sewage
system.

•These solids are collected on screens and scraped off for subsequent disposal.

•Grit in wastewater consists of materials that do not biodegrade well and generally have
a high settling velocity.

Why Grit removal is practiced?

1. To prevent its accumulation in other parts of the treatment system.

1. To reduce clogging of pipes and other parts.

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2. To protect moving parts from abrasion and wear.

The second step in primary treatment normally is sedimentation:

sedimentation removes both settleable and floatable solids.

1. The material that floats in the primary settling basin is known as grease.

2. The grease consists of (oils, waxes, free fatty acids, and insoluble soaps containing
Ca and Mg).

3. Normally, some of the grease settles with the sludge and some floats to the surface,
where it can be removed by a skimming device.

4. Flocculent particles can aggregate, a process that may be aided by the addition of
chemicals.

Secondary Treatment (Biological Processes)

• The most obvious harmful effect of biodegradable organic matter in wastewater is
BOD.
• Secondary treatment is designed to remove BOD.
• Secondary treatment by biological processes consists of: the action of
microorganisms provided with added oxygen degrading organic material in solution
or in suspension until the BOD of the waste has been reduced to acceptable levels.

Chemical oxygen demand (COD)

• The standard method for indirect measurement of the amount of pollution (that
cannot be oxidized biologically) in a sample of water .
• The chemical oxygen demand test procedure is based on the chemical decomposition
of organic and inorganic contaminants , dissolved or suspended in water.

P a g e 18 | 32
• The result of a chemical oxygen demand test indicates the amount of the water –
dissolved oxygen (expressed as parts per million or milligrams per liter of water)
consumed by the contaminants , during two hours of decomposition from a solution
of boiling potassium dichromate .
• The higher the chemical oxygen demand ,the higher the amount of pollution in the
test sample.

Biological oxygen dwemand (BOD)

• The standard method for direct measurement of the amount of the contaminants
that can be oxidized biologically in a sample of water .
• Biochemical oxygen demand only measures the amount of the oxygen consumed
by microbial oxidation and is most relevant to waters rich in organic matter.
• The amount of oxygen required by aerobic microorganisms to decompose the
organic matter in a sample of water , such as that polluted by sewage .

The tertiary level of treatment :

Advanced (or tertiary) treatment gets rid of dissolved materials like colour, metals,
organic compounds, and nutrients like phosphorus and nitrogen. For tertiary treatment,
a variety of physical, chemical, and biological treatment techniques are employed. The
term "Biological Nutrient Removal" refers to one of the biological treatment methods
(BNR). The process of treating Saskatoon wastewater is depicted in this diagram.

Wastewater first passes through primary and secondary treatment at this treatment
facility. The BNR procedure takes place in the bioreactors for the tertiary treatment. To
break down the pollutants in the water[11], the BNR process uses bacteria growing in a
variety of environments across a number of tanks. The three tanks each have a distinct
environment with varying levels of oxygen. Other bacterial activities cannot break down
ammonia into nitrate and nitrogen gas when the water moves through the three tanks to

P a g e 19 | 32
remove phosphorus. Whereas conventional methods remove significantly less than 90%
of the phosphates, the BNR technique can remove over 90% of them. Before the water
enters the secondary clarifier, a settling tank, where the bacteria-filled sludge settles, it
spends around nine hours in the bioreactors to the bottom of the tank[17].

Table S1: List of the most common toxic metals.

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Table S2: Comparison between the advantages and disadvantages of the main
techniques for heavy metal removal from wastewater.

P a g e 21 | 32
2 Diseases Caused by Water Pollution

We need to drink water. We also need clean water with which to wash viruses, bacteria
and chemicals from our food and from our skin. And yet, around over 1 billion people
do not have access to improved drinking water sources and around 2.4 billion
people lack adequate sanitation. Four-fifths of all illnesses in developing countries are
from waterborne diseases [1].

The World Health Organization estimates waterborne diseases cause two million deaths
annually, mostly of young children [2].

And these diseases, manifesting in diarrhea and infections are only the more obvious
illnesses caused by water pollution. Cancers from chemicals, like mercury falling in
acid rain, or neurological problems from pesticides in agricultural runoff or lead
leaching through the soil into the groundwater from a smelter, chemicals that poison
marine life and make their way up the food chain are less easy to pinpoint as caused by
polluted water.

Water can become polluted by deliberate direct dumping of garbage or animal carcasses,
accidents like oil spills, or indirectly from storm drainage, runoff from polluted soils,
pollution leaching through the soil and into the groundwater [1] or even by rain bringing
down the particulate matter in the atmosphere from industrial processes and the burning
of fossil fuels.

3 Waterborne diseases

Waterborne diseases are caused by drinking water or eating food washed in water
containing protozoa that can cause infections like toxoplasmosis or giardiasis,

P a g e 22 | 32
containing viruses like polio or Hepatitis A, water with bacteria like E.coli, cholera or
typhoid fever or water with parasites like hookworm and ringworm.

Waterborne diseases are generally from human or animal waste in the water. The most
common waterborne diseases in North America are from one of two microscopic
parasites found in human feces that then contaminate
water: Cryptosporidium and Giardia. They each can cause severe abdominal cramps,
nausea, headaches, gas and fever, chills and vomiting [3].

Legionnaires disease, swimmer’s ear, SARS (Sever acute respiratory syndrome), polio,
botulism – these are all diseases we are familiar with and they are all waterborne
diseases. [4]

The most common waterborne diseases in developing countries lacking adequate

supplies of clean water for drinking, washing food and personal hygiene include
dysentery, typhoid fever, cholera and Hepatitis A [4].

4 Dysentery

Dysentery causes inflammation of the intestines, severe abdominal pains and diarrhea,
often with blood.

The intestinal lining can be compromised, impairing nutrient absorption, causing

bleeding, allowing bacterial infections and even the exit of pathogens into the
bloodstream. Entire armies have been taken down by dysentery [5].

4.1 Typhoid fever

Typhoid fever is a life-threatening illness one can contract by eating food handled by a
person shedding the Salmonella Typhi bacteria or by eating food washed with water
contaminated by sewage with the Salmonella Typhi bacteria. Once ingested, the
bacteria multiply in the bloodstream.

P a g e 23 | 32
Symptoms include a very high fever, stomach pains, headache, extreme fatigue, joint
pain and loss of appetite [6].

Sometimes, too, a rash will spread across the abdomen known as rose spots [7].

4.2 Cholera

Cholera is an acute, diarrheal illness caused by infection of the intestine with the
bacterium Vibrio. Cholera is rare in the United States but globally, cholera cases have
increase steadily since 2005.

Epidemics are generally related to fecal contamination of water supplies or street vended
foods.

Severe cases may cause profuse watery diarrhea, vomiting, and leg cramps. The rapid
loss of body fluids can lead to dehydration and shock and without treatment, death can
occur within hours [8].

4.3 Hepatitis A

Hepatitis A is a liver disease caused by the hepatitis A virus. The virus enters the water
via the feces of an infected person. This can happen through broken pipes or by sewage
overflows.

Accordingly, the virus can spread through water used to wash food. Too, a person living
in the same household where personal hygiene is poor can contract Hepatitis A by
putting something in her mouth that has been contaminated with the feces of the ill
person.

Hepatitis A typically causes by fever, vomiting, stomach pain, jaundice or yellowing of

the skin and eyes, dark urine, and fatigue [9].

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4.4 Water-washed diseases

When there is not an adequate supply of clean water for washing, eye and skin infections
can easily occur and be very difficult to clear.

4.5 Trachoma

Trachoma is responsible for the visual impairment or blindness of nearly two million
people in the poorest, most rural areas of Africa, Central and South America, Asia,
Australia and the Middle East. Women and children are the most vulnerable
populations[19].

It is an infectious disease, spreading through personal contact and by flies that have been
in contact with the discharge form the eyes or nose of the infected person [10].

4.6 Yaws

Yaws is a poverty-related bacterial skin infection that can severely disfigure children as
well as affect their bones and cartilage.

It is prevalent in tropical communities with poor sanitation where it spreads through

skin-to-skin contact and enters the body through a cut or scrape [14].

4.7 Scabies

Scabies is an itchy skin condition caused by a tiny burrowing mite.

It is contagious and spreads quickly through close physical contact [12]. It can be difficult
if not impossible to get rid of scabies without washing bed linens and towels in hot,
clean soapy water.

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4.8 Shigellas

Shigellas is another infectious disease that can spread from an infected person to
contaminate water or food.

Shigellas and the E.coli bacteria are the most common cause of traveler’s diarrhea,
often from eating salad or sandwiches that have involved hand contact by someone who
has picked up the bacteria from feces or feces-contaminated water and not washed their
hands properly [18].

4.9 Water-based diseases

Water-based diseases are spread by organisms that develop in water.

4.10 Schistosomiasis

The most common is schistosomiasis, or blood flukes, a parasite that hatches from eggs
in the feces or urine of infected persons who defecate or urinate in freshwater in the
tropics.

About two hundred million people are infected with this parasite.

When the eggs hatch, the blood fluke parasite grows and multiplies inside snails. When
they leave the snails, the parasites can penetrate the skin of persons who are wading,
swimming, bathing, or washing in contaminated water.

The wormy parasite lives within the blood vessels of the human host, where the female
produces eggs.

The eggs then generally travel to the intestine, liver or bladder.

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It is the body’s reaction to the eggs, not the worms themselves that cost a host of
problems, including anemia, malnutrition, learning problems and over time, damage to
the intestines, liver, bladder and even to the lungs.

Eggs have also been found in the spinal cord or brain where they can cause
inflammation, seizures or even paralysis [14].

4.11 Other water-related conditions

Polluted water can be a factor for water-related vector-borne diseases, that is, diseases
carried by mosquitoes or other insects who find favorable breeding grounds in polluted
waters and multiply more rapidly. These insects then act as hosts for parasites and cause
many serious diseases[20].

The primary vector-borne diseases are all serious and include:

• Malaria

• Filariasis (parasitic worms)

• Japanese encephalitis

• Yellow fever

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REFFERENCES

1.A.V.Shekar,Municipal Solid Waste Mangement,J.Indian

Assoc.for Environment Mangement,27,100-108(1999).

2.A.E.S.Green,Medical Waste Incineration and Pollution

Prevention,van Nostrand,Ne York(1992).

3.R.K.Shomaskekar and M.R.Iyengar (Eds),Solid Waste

Mangement and Current State Strategies for Future,Allied

Publishers,Mumbai(2002).

4. SE.Manahan,Environmental, Chemistry,LewisPublisher,

USA,6th Edn.(1994).

5. W.Hagemann,W.BishofsbergerandE.Engelmem(Eds),

Upgrading Waste.Water.Treatment.Plants,Pergamon

.Press,Ehnsford,N.Y. (1990).

6.A.K.De,Environmental Studies, New Age

International,N.Delhi,2nd Edn.(2005)

7. Barakat, M. New trends in removing heavy metals from

Industrial wastewater.
Arabian Journal of Chemistry 2011, 4 (4), 361-377.

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