What is a System Structure for an Operating System?

Because operating systems have complex structures, we want a structure that is easy to
understand so that we can adapt an operating system to meet our specific needs. Similar
to how we break down larger problems into smaller, more manageable subproblems,
building an operating system in pieces is simpler. The operating system is a component
of every segment. The strategy for integrating different operating system components
within the kernel can be thought of as an operating system structure. As will be discussed
below, various types of structures are used to implement operating systems.

There are Following types of Structure Types

1. Monolithic
2. Layered
3. Microkernels
4. Client-server model
5. Virtual machine

 MONOLITHIC STRUCTURE
The monolithic operating system controls all aspects of the operating system's operation, including
file management, memory management, device management, and operational operations.

The core of an operating system for computers is called the kernel (OS). All other System
components are provided with fundamental services by the kernel. The operating system and the
hardware use it as their main interface. When an operating system is built into a single piece of
hardware, such as a keyboard or mouse, the kernel can directly access all of its resources.

The monolithic operating system is often referred to as the monolithic kernel. Multiple
programming techniques such as batch processing and time-sharing increase a processor's
usability. Working on top of the operating system and under complete command of all hardware,
the monolithic kernel performs the role of a virtual computer. This is an old operating system that
was used in banks to carry out simple tasks like batch processing and time-sharing, which allows
numerous users at different terminals to access the Operating System.

The following diagram represents the monolithic structure:

Advantages of Monolithic Structure:

o Because layering is unnecessary and the kernel alone is responsible for managing all operations, it
is easy to design and execute.
o Due to the fact that functions like memory management, file management, process scheduling, etc.,
are implemented in the same address area, the monolithic kernel runs rather quickly when compared
to other systems. Utilizing the same address speeds up and reduces the time required for address
allocation for new processes.

Disadvantages of Monolithic Structure:

o The monolithic kernel's services are interconnected in address space and have an impact on one
another, so if any of them malfunctions, the entire system does as well.
o It is not adaptable. Therefore, launching a new service is difficult.
  Layered structure

An OS can be broken into pieces and retain much more control over the system. In this
structure, the OS is broken into a number of layers (levels). The bottom layer (layer 0) is
the hardware, and the topmost layer (layer N) is the user interface. These layers are so
designed that each layer uses the functions of the lower-level layers. This simplifies the
debugging process, if lower-level layers are debugged and an error occurs during
debugging, then the error must be on that layer only, as the lower-level layers have
already been debugged.
The main disadvantage of this structure is that at each layer, the data needs to be
modified and passed on which adds overhead to the system. Moreover, careful planning
of the layers is necessary, as a layer can use only lower level layers. UNIX is an
example of this structure.

Advantages of Layered structure

 Layering makes it easier to enhance the operating system, as the implementation of
a layer can be changed easily without affecting the other layers.
 It is very easy to perform debugging and system verification.
Disadvantages of Layered structure
 In this structure, the application’s performance is degraded as compared to simple
structure.
 It requires careful planning for designing the layers, as the higher layers use the
functionalities of only the lower layers.
  Micro-kernel

This structure designs the operating system by removing all non-essential components
from the kernel and implementing them as system and user programs. This resultsfails, in
a smaller kernel called the micro-kernel. Advantages of this structure are that all new
services need to be added to user space and does not require the kernel to be modified.
Thus it is more secure and reliable as if a service fails, then rest of the operating system
remains untouched. Mac OS is an example of this type of OS.
Advantages of Micro-kernel structure
1. It makes the operating system portable to various platforms.
2. As microkernels are small so these can be tested effectively.
Disadvantages of Micro-kernel structure
1. Increased level of inter module communication degrades system performance.

The image below shows Micro-Kernel Operating System Structure:

Advantages of Micro-Kernel Structure:

o It enables portability of the operating system across platforms.

o Due to the isolation of each Micro-Kernel, it is reliable and secure.
o The reduced size of Micro-Kernels allows for successful testing.
o The remaining operating system remains unaffected and keeps running properly even if a
component or Micro-Kernel fails.
Disadvantages of Micro-Kernel Structure:

o The performance of the system is decreased by increased inter-module communication.

o The construction of a system is complicated.

 Client Server model

The client-server model is a fundamental concept in operating systems and networking that describes the
interaction between two types of entities: clients and servers. This model is commonly used in distributed
computing and networked systems. Here's an overview of the client-server model in operating systems:
Client: The client is a program or device that requests services or resources from a server. Clients initiate
communication by sending requests to servers. Clients are typically end-user devices like computers,
smartphones, or IoT devices, but they can also be software applications or processes running on these
devices.

Server: The server is a program or device that provides services or resources to clients. Servers are
designed to wait for incoming requests from clients, process those requests, and respond accordingly.
Examples of servers include web servers, file servers, email servers, and database servers.

Advantages of Client-server networks:

o Centralized: Centralized back-up is possible in client-server networks, i.e., all the data is
stored in a server.
o Security: These networks are more secure as all the shared resources are centrally
administered.
o Performance: The use of the dedicated server increases the speed of sharing resources.
This increases the performance of the overall system.
o Scalability: We can increase the number of clients and servers separately, i.e., the new
element can be added, or we can add a new node in a network at any time.

Disadvantages of Client-Server network:

o Traffic Congestion is a big problem in Client/Server networks. When a large number of clients
send requests to the same server may cause the problem of Traffic congestion.
 o It does not have a robustness of a network, i.e., when the server is down, then the client requests
cannot be met.
o A client/server network is very decisive. Sometimes, regular computer hardware does not serve a
certain number of clients. In such situations, specific hardware is required at the server side to
complete the work.
o Sometimes the resources exist in the server but may not exist in the client. For example, If the
application is web, then we cannot take the print out directly on printers without taking out the print
view window on the web.

 VMs (virtual machines)

Based on our needs, a virtual machine abstracts the hardware of our personal computer, including
the CPU, disc drives, RAM, and NIC (Network Interface Card), into a variety of different
execution contexts, giving us the impression that each execution environment is a different
computer. An illustration of it is a virtual box.

An operating system enables us to run multiple processes concurrently while making it appear
as though each one is using a different processor and virtual memory by using CPU
scheduling and virtual memory techniques.

The fundamental issue with the virtual machine technique is disc systems. Let’s say the physical
machine only has three disc drives, but it needs to host seven virtual machines. The programme
that creates virtual machines would need a significant amount of disc space in order to provide
virtual memory and spooling, so it should be clear that it is impossible to assign a disc drive to
every virtual machine. The answer is to make virtual discs available.
We can develop a virtual machine for a variety of reasons, all of which are fundamentally
connected to the capacity to share the same underlying hardware while concurrently supporting
various execution environments, i.e., various operating systems.

Disk systems are the fundamental problem with the virtual machine technique. If the actual
machine only has three-disc drives but needs to host seven virtual machines, let's imagine that. It
is obvious that it is impossible to assign a disc drive to every virtual machine because the program
that creates virtual machines would require a sizable amount of disc space in order to offer virtual
memory and spooling. The provision of virtual discs is the solution.

The result is that users get their own virtual machines. They can then use any of the operating
systems or software programs that are installed on the machine below. Virtual machine software
is concerned with programming numerous virtual machines simultaneously into a physical
machine; it is not required to take into account any user-support software. With this configuration,
it may be possible to break the challenge of building an interactive system for several users into
two manageable chunks.

Advantages of Virtual Machines:

o Due to total isolation between each virtual machine and every other virtual machine, there
are no issues with security.
o A virtual machine may offer an architecture for the instruction set that is different from
that of actual computers.
o Simple availability, accessibility, and recovery convenience.

Disadvantages of Virtual Machines:

o Depending on the workload, operating numerous virtual machines simultaneously on a host

computer may have an adverse effect on one of them.
o When it comes to hardware access, virtual computers are less effective than physical ones.