STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 1-1

1 STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

1.1 Overview

An important aspect of geomechanical analysis and design is the use of structural support to stabilize
a rock or soil mass. Structures of arbitrary geometry and properties, and their interaction with a rock
or soil mass, can be modeled with FLAC 3D. This section describes the types of structural-support
members (beams, cables, piles, shells, geogrids and liners), or structural elements, available in
FLAC 3D, as well as the numerical formulation that supports the structural-element logic.
The structural elements can either be independent of, or coupled to, the grid representing the
solid continuum. The structural-element logic is implemented with the same explicit, Lagrangian
solution procedure as the rest of the code (as opposed to an implicit, matrix-inversion procedure):
the full dynamic equations of motion are solved, even for modeling processes that are essentially
static. Large displacements, including geometric nonlinearity, can be accommodated by specifying
a large-strain solution mode; and the full dynamic response of the system in the time domain can
also be obtained with the dynamic-analysis option.
This overview section is organized as follows. We begin with a brief description of the six types
of structural-support members provided by FLAC 3D. This is followed, in Section 1.1.2, by a high-
level introduction describing the relevant terminology. The means by which structural elements are
created and joined to one another is discussed next (in Sections 1.1.3 and 1.1.4). The discussion
includes a description of how particular physical entities (e.g., physical beams) that are composed of
a collection of beam structural elements and nodes can be referred to – for purposes of plotting and
specification of property and boundary conditions – as a single unit. The general procedures are also
described for specification of boundary and initial conditions (in Section 1.1.5), stresses in shells
(in Section 1.1.6), coordinate systems and sign conventions (in Section 1.1.7), damping conditions
(in Section 1.1.8), thermal expansion (in Section 1.1.9) and material properties (in Section 1.1.10).
It is helpful to discuss the various conditions that can be prescribed at structural nodes before
describing each of the types of structural elements in FLAC 3D. This is done in Section 1.2. This
section also includes a summary of the commands associated with nodes.
Each type of structural element is then described in detail in Sections 1.3 – 1.9. This includes a
description of the mechanical behavior, the required properties and associated commands. Finally,
simple examples are included at the end of each section, illustrating the application of each structural-
element type.
A detailed discussion of the general formulation of the structural-element logic in FLAC 3D is
provided in Section 1.10. Users wishing to implement more complex interaction between structural
elements and the grid should consult this section to gain an understanding of the implementation
procedure.
Throughout this section, matrices and vectors will be denoted by boldface type. The mathematical
symbols [ ],  , { } and   will designate a rectangular matrix, diagonal matrix, column
vector and row vector, respectively. Also, structure and element matrices will be described by

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uppercase and lowercase English alphabet characters. For example, [K] and [k] designate structure
and element stiffness matrices, respectively.

1.1.1 Types of Structural Elements

Six forms of structural-support members can be specified. Each of these members can be joined to
one another and/or the grid.
1. Beam Structural Elements – Beam structural elements (beamSELs) are two-
noded, straight, finite elements with six degrees of freedom per node: three
translational components, and three rotational components. A physical beam
(i.e., an arbitrarily curved, beam structure of isotropic material and bisym-
metrical cross-section) can be modeled as a collection of beamSELs. Each
beamSEL behaves as a linearly elastic material with no failure limit; however,
it is possible to introduce a limiting plastic moment, or even a plastic hinge
(across which discontinuity in rotation may develop), between beamSELs.
BeamSELs may be rigidly connected to the grid such that forces and bending
moments develop within the beam as the grid deforms, and they may be loaded
by point or distributed loads. BeamSELs are used to model structural-support
members in which bending resistance and limited bending moments occur, in-
cluding support struts in an open-cut excavation and general framed structures
loaded by point or distributed loads. (See Section 1.3.)
2. Cable Structural Elements – Cable structural elements (cableSELs) are two-
noded, straight, finite elements with one axially oriented translational degree-
of-freedom per node. A physical cable (i.e., an arbitrarily curved, cable struc-
ture of isotropic material) can be modeled as a collection of cableSELs. Each
cableSEL can yield in tension or compression, but cannot resist a bending
moment. A shear-directed (parallel with the cable axis) frictional interaction
occurs between the cable and the grid. A cable may be anchored at a spe-
cific point in the grid, or grouted so that force develops along its length in
response to relative motion between the cable and the grid. Cables may also
be point-loaded or pretensioned. CableSELs are used to model a wide va-
riety of structural-support members for which tensile capacity is important,
including cable bolts and tiebacks. (See Section 1.4.)
3. Pile Structural Elements – Pile structural elements (pileSELs) are two-noded,
straight, finite elements with six degrees of freedom per node. A physical
pile can be modeled as a collection of pileSELs. The stiffness matrix of a
pileSEL is identical to that of a beamSEL; however, in addition to providing
the structural behavior of a beam, both a normal-directed (perpendicular to the
pile axis) and a shear-directed (parallel with the pile axis) frictional interaction
occurs between the pile and the grid. In this sense, piles offer the combined
features of beams and cables. In addition to skin-friction effects, end-bearing
effects can also be modeled (see Section 1.5.5.1). Piles may be loaded by point
or distributed loads. PileSELs are used to model structural-support members,

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such as foundation piles, for which both normal- and shear-directed frictional
interaction with the rock or soil mass occurs. (See Section 1.5.)
A special material model is also available as an extension to the pile element
to simulate the behavior of rockbolt reinforcement. This model includes the
ability to account for changes in confining stress around the reinforcement,
strain-softening behavior of the material between the structural element and
the grid, and tensile rupture of the element. (See Section 1.5.1.3.)
4. Shell Structural Elements – Shell structural elements (shellSELs) are three-
noded, flat finite elements. Five finite-element types (2 membrane elements,
1 plate-bending element and 2 shell elements) are available. A physical shell
(i.e., an arbitrarily curved, shell structure of either isotropic or orthotropic
material) can be modeled as a faceted surface composed of a collection of
shellSELs. The structural response of the shell is controlled by the finite-
element type (to resist membrane loading only, bending loading only, or both
membrane and bending loading). Each shellSEL behaves as an isotropic or
orthotropic, linearly elastic material with no failure limit; however, one can
introduce a plastic-hinge line (across which a discontinuity in rotation may
develop) along the edges between shellSELs, using the same double-node
procedure as is applied to beams. ShellSELs may be rigidly connected to the
grid such that stresses develop within the shell as the grid deforms, and they
may be loaded by point loads or surface pressures. ShellSELs are used to
model the structural support provided by any thin-shell structure in which the
displacements caused by transverse-shearing deformations can be neglected.
(See Section 1.7.)
5. Geogrid Structural Elements – Geogrid structural elements (geogridSELs)
are three-noded, flat, finite elements that are assigned a finite-element type that
resists membrane but does not resist bending loading. A physical membrane
can be modeled as a collection of geogridSELs. The geogridSEL behaves as
an isotropic or orthotropic, linearly elastic material with no failure limit. A
shear-directed (in the tangent plane to the geogrid surface) frictional interaction
occurs between the geogrid and the FLAC 3D grid, and the geogrid is slaved
to the grid motion in the normal direction. A geogrid can be anchored at a
specific point in the FLAC 3D grid, or attached so that stress develops along its
surface in response to relative motion between the geogrid and the FLAC 3D
grid. The geogrid can be thought of as the two-dimensional analog of a one-
dimensional cable. GeogridSELs are used to model flexible membranes whose
shear interaction with the soil are important, such as geotextiles and geogrids.
(See Section 1.8.)
6. Liner Structural Elements – Liner structural elements (linerSELs) are three-
noded, flat finite elements that can be assigned any of the five finite-element
types available for shellSELs. A physical liner can be modeled as a collection
of linerSELs that are attached to the surface of the FLAC 3D grid. In addition
to providing the structural behavior of a shell, a shear-directed (in the tangent

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plane to the liner surface) frictional interaction occurs between the liner and
the FLAC 3D grid. Also, in the normal direction, both compressive and tensile
forces can be carried, and the liner may break free from (and subsequently come
back into contact with) the grid. LinerSELs are used to model thin liners for
which both normal-directed compressive/tensile interaction and shear-directed
frictional interaction with the host medium occurs, such as shotcrete-lined
tunnels or retaining walls.(See Section 1.9.)
An option that allows interaction with the FLAC 3D grid on both sides of the
liner is available with the liner element. The “embedded” liner is described in
Section 1.9.1.2.

1.1.2 Terminology

With the addition of structural-element logic, FLAC 3D can model the structural response of a me-
chanical system that is composed of a solid continuum and a framework of load-carrying members.
The solid continuum is represented by a collection of polyhedral-shaped zones, each of which is
associated with a set of gridpoints. The framework is represented by a collection of structural
elements, each of which is associated with a set of nodes. The framework interacts with the solid
continuum by means of links which connect nodes to zones (not simply to gridpoints) or to other
nodes.
Six degrees of freedom, composed of three translational components and three rotational compo-
nents, are associated with each node. Each node also has its own local orthogonal coordinate system.
The node-local system provides the directions in which the equations of motion for the node are
solved, and also defines the directions in which the node can be attached to a target entity via a link.
A link supports the following three attachment conditions, which are specified independently for
each local direction of its source node: free, rigid and deformable. See Section 1.10.1 for a detailed
description of structural-element links.
For most modeling situations, it is not necessary to specify link properties; instead, it is sufficient
to create, position and assign properties to the desired structural elements. Nodes (and links, if
necessary) will be created automatically, and will inherit necessary information from the structural
elements that use them.

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1.1.3 Geometry Creation

The six types of structural elements (beamSELs, cableSELs, pileSELs, shellSELs, geogridSELs
and linerSELs) provide the building blocks, or components, needed to model six types of physical
items: beams, cables, piles, shells, geogrids and liners. Each physical item is associated directly
with a collection of component objects of the same type. For example, a cable is associated with a
collection of cableSELs, whereas a liner is associated with a collection of linerSELs. The association
between physical items and their corresponding component objects is implemented by storing two
distinct identification numbers for each structural element:
(1) ID – The ID number refers to the physical item.
(2) CID – The component-ID number refers to the component object itself.
Properties may be specified for each type of physical item, and will be inherited automatically by
the associated component objects. For example, the command
sel cable property gr fric=30.0 range id=3

will assign a grout friction angle of 30 degrees to all cableSELs with an ID number of 3, whereas
the command
sel cable property gr fric=30.0 range cid=3

will assign a grout friction angle of 30 degrees to the cableSEL with a component-ID number of 3.
The sel geom plot item allows one to view the six different SEL types, as well as the nodes and the
links. The ID numbers of the nodes and links can also be viewed, as can the ID and CID numbers
of the SELs. Refer to Section 1 in the Plot Command Reference for a complete description of this
plot item.
1.1.3.1 Beam, Cable and Pile Structural Elements

The geometry of beams, cables and piles is defined by their corresponding collection of component
objects. Complex, arbitrarily curved items can be created by using a succession of SEL beam, SEL
cable or SEL pile commands. Each command takes an optional ID argument to denote the ID of the
item to be created. (If no ID is provided, the next available ID will be used.) Each command also
requires specification of a beginning and ending location, and generates a user-specified (default
of one) number of SELs that lie along a straight line joining the two end locations. New nodes are
created automatically at uniformly spaced internal points along the line. If a node already exists at
one of the SEL end locations and is used by a SEL with the same ID as that given in the command,
a new node is not created at this location; otherwise, a new node is created.
The following example, depicted in Figure 1.1, illustrates the association mechanism between nodes
and SELs. The nodes are not drawn in these plots. Instead, the cableSELs are drawn at 90% of
their true length. Consider a curved cable, identified by an ID of 5, that is composed of a collection
of 7 cableSELs and 8 nodes. Each cableSEL stores the cable ID of 5, as well as its own unique
component-ID, or CID. This can be seen by moving the mouse over an element and examining the

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information window. In this way, the 7 cableSELs are combined to form a complex, arbitrarily
curved cable that can be referred to by the single ID of 5.

A
,rp,00A   0 l0 g
0r
prG.G,rp,0S6Sp6,/0

A 60
e

0A   0 l0 g

  l000N

Figure 1.1 Representation of a single curved cable identified by an ID of 5

The commands necessary to produce the model shown in Figure 1.1 are given in Example 1.1.
Alternatively, one could bypass the high-level SEL cable command altogether and create the same
cable by first creating the 8 nodes (via a series of SEL node commands) and then creating the 7
cableSELs (via a series of SEL cablesel commands).

Example 1.1 Creating a single curved cable identified by an ID of 5

new
sel cable id=5 begin=(0.0,4.0,0.0) end=(3.0,4.0,0.0) nseg=2
sel cable id=5 begin=(3.0,4.0,0.0) end=(6.0,3.0,0.0) nseg=3
sel cable id=5 begin=(6.0,3.0,0.0) end=(9.0,1.0,0.0) nseg=2
plot create plot SELId
plot add sel cable line width 4 shrink 0.9 colorby id addlabel ’5’ black
plot add axes scale 15
plot set center (4.5,2.525,0) eye (4.5,2.525,12.798) vertical (0,1,0)
plot post plot SELId filename "114F0005.ps" manual

There is no restriction that requires the end locations to lie within the FLAC 3D grid; in fact, it is not
necessary to have a grid at all. (Recall that the structural elements can either be independent of, or

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coupled to, the grid representing the solid continuum.) When using the SEL beam, SEL cable or SEL
pile command, if any of the nodes used by the newly created SELs lie within zones, these nodes
will be linked to these zones, and the link properties will be set consistent with the corresponding
SEL behavior described in Sections 1.3 – 1.5 and Section 1.10.1.
The most common reason to specify more than one segment between end locations is to improve
accuracy, especially with piles and cables that are interacting with the host medium. In this case,
the distribution of shear forces along each pile or cable is a function, to some extent, of the number
of nodes. The following rules-of-thumb have been used to determine the number of nodes to use
when modeling cables:
1. Try to provide approximately one node in each FLAC 3D zone. The reasoning
here is that since the zones are constant-stress regions, it is not necessary to
have more than one interaction point within a zone.
2. Try to provide two to three cableSELs within the development length of the
cable. The development length of the cable is determined by dividing the
specified yield strength, Ft , by the grout cohesive strength, cg . By following
this procedure, failure by “pull-out” can occur if such conditions arise. If the
cableSELs are too long, then only the yield failure mode of each cableSEL
is possible. (This reasoning also applies to pileSELs if used to simulate the
behavior of rockbolts.)
1.1.3.2 Shell, Geogrid and Liner Structural Elements

The geometry of shells, geogrids and liners is defined by their corresponding collection of compo-
nent objects. Complex, arbitrarily curved surfaces can be created using a succession of SEL shell,
SEL geogrid and SEL liner commands, which will create the necessary SELs, nodes and links by
attaching each SEL directly to zone faces. Note that after creating the SELs, nodes and links with
this command, the zones may be deleted, and the SELs may be positioned by moving the nodes with
the SEL node init command. Alternatively, as with the beam, cable and pile SELs, shells, geogrids
and liners can be created by first creating the nodes (via a series of SEL node commands) and then
creating the SELs (via a series of either SEL shellsel, SEL geogridsel or SEL linersel commands).
The commands needed to create a curved section of a shell are given in Example 1.2. The GENERATE
zone cylinder command is used first to create a grid with a curved surface. The SEL shell command
is then used to create shellSELs on the curved surface. Next, the grid is deleted. The shells can
then be repositioned if necessary by using the SEL node init command. In Example 1.2, we move
the curved shell in the negative z-direction with the command SEL node init zpos add -25.0. The
steps involved in creating the curved section of a shell are illustrated in Figures 1.2 and 1.3. If any
of the nodes used by the newly created SELs lie within zones, these nodes will be linked to these
zones, and the link properties will be set consistent with the corresponding SEL behavior described
in Sections 1.7 – 1.9 and Section 1.10.1.

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Example 1.2 Creating a curved shell

new
def set_vals
global ptA = 25.0 * sin(40.0*degrad)
global ptB = 25.0 * cos(40.0*degrad)
end
@set_vals
gen zone cylinder p0=( 0.0, 0.0, 0.0) ...
p1=(@ptA, 0.0,@ptB) ...
p2=( 0.0,25.0, 0.0) ...
p3=( 0.0, 0.0,25.0) ...
p4=(@ptA,25.0,@ptB) ...
p5=( 0.0,25.0,25.0) ...
size=(1,2,2)
sel shell id=5 range cylinder end1=(0.0, 0.0,0.0) ...
end2=(0.0,25.0,0.0) radius 24.5 not

plot create plot SELGeom

plot add sel geom addlabel ’5’ white shrink 0.9 marktype node ...
markstyle type cube color white planar fill off
plot add axes pos (0,0,0) size 3
plot add zone addlabel "Zone" white
plot set center (6.5348,11,11) eye (15.793,-36.289,47.243) ...
vertical (-0.023807,0.60519,0.79573)
plot post plot SELGeom filename "114F0041.ps" manual

delete zone ; delete all zones

sel node ini zpos add -25.0
plot set center (7.4702,9.31,-3.7012) eye (10.246,-14.593,15.182) ...
vertical (-0.030605,0.61741,0.78605)
plot post plot SELGeom filename "114F0018.ps" manual

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A
,rp,0Z07   0D l0Z g
0r
prG.G,rp,0S8Sp8,40
 L   
080 
 80rg,p:3e.
 
7 80D 000000b 
5 
 

Z07   0D l0Z g

  l000b

Figure 1.2 Representation of a curved shell created by attaching shellSEL

elements to a cylinder-shaped grid – step 1: create shell attached
to grid

A
,rp,005   0 l0 g
0r
prG.G,rp,0S8Sp8,40
 L   
080 
 80rgp3er/4
 

05   0 l0 g

  l000b

Figure 1.3 Representation of a curved shell created by attaching shellSEL

elements to a cylinder-shaped grid – step 2: delete grid and repo-
sition shell

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1.1.4 Joining Structural Elements to One Another and to the Grid

Structural elements can be joined to one another either by sharing a node or by having one of their
nodes linked to either another node or to a zone (see Section 1.1.2). If two or more structural
elements share a node, all forces and moments are transferred between the SELs at the node. If it is
necessary to limit or eliminate specific forces and/or moments that are transferred between SELs,
then two separate nodes may be created and connected by a node-to-node link, and the appropriate
attachment conditions set. For example, if it is necessary to join two beams with a ball-joint, a
node-to-node link can be added between the two beam end nodes, and the attachment conditions set
in all translational and rotational directions to be rigid and free, respectively. The same procedure
can be applied when joining SELs to the grid, except that in this case, a node-to-zone link must be
established between the node and the zone in which it lies. Node-to-node and node-to-zone linkage
is controlled via the SEL link command, and the linkage conditions are described in Section 1.10.1.
Any structural element component (SEL, node or link) can be deleted either individually or within
a selected range by using the SEL delete command.
The SEL creation commands (SEL type, where type = {beam, cable, pile, shell, geogrid, liner})
are designed to maintain a clear separation between different physical items being modeled. For
example, if modeling two separate piles lying end-to-end, issue two separate SEL pile commands
and specify two separate IDs (e.g., 1 and 2). This will result in the creation of two nodes lying in
the same geometric location: one is used by pile-1; one is used by pile-2. Forces and moments will
not be transferred between the adjoining pileSELs; instead, only forces will be transmitted into the
surrounding zone at the common location. This mimics two separate piles lying end-to-end. If a
single pile is desired, then issue two separate SEL pile commands, but this time specify the same
ID for each. This will result in the creation of a single node that is shared by the pileSELs on
each side of the common location. Forces and moments will be transferred between the adjoining
pileSELs. In most modeling situations, the default link attachment conditions that are set by the
SEL creation commands should not be modified, because these attachment conditions produce the
desired SEL-grid interaction for each particular SEL type.

1.1.5 Specifying Boundary and Initial Conditions

All boundary and initial conditions (with the exception of distributed loads applied to beam and pile
surfaces, pressure loads applied to shell, liner, and geogrid surfaces and pretension forces applied
to cables) are specified with the SEL node command. The nodal conditions include
(1) velocity-fixity conditions,
(2) current velocity components, and
(3) applied point loads (forces and/or moments).
There are two coordinate systems associated with each node: the global system and the node-local
system. The node-local system is used to specify attachment conditions that control how the node
interacts with the grid. Also, the equations of motion are solved in these local directions. Therefore,
one may fix or free velocities in these directions only. The orientation of the node-local system is

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set automatically at the start of a set of cycles based on the type of SELs that use the node. (See
the SEL node command for a full description of these two systems.)
Velocities and rotations at nodes are fixed and freed in the node-local system using the SEL node
fix and SEL node free commands. Velocities and rotations are initialized to specified values in the
global system using the SEL node init command. Point loads are applied at nodes in either the global
or the node-local system using the SEL node apply command.
Distributed loads are applied to beams and piles using the SEL beam apply and SEL pile apply
commands, respectively. The keyword phrase ydist value zdist value is given with each command
to prescribe the value of the distributed load acting in the y- and z-directions of the beam or pile
system. Pressure loads are applied to shell surfaces using the SEL type apply commands, where
type = {shell, geogrid, liner}. Positive pressure acts in the positive z-direction of the SEL system.
Note that in large-strain mode, the applied loads remain aligned with the corresponding SEL system
directions, which may rotate as the SEL location changes.
Pretension forces are applied to cables using the SEL cable pretension command. A positive
pretension force places the cable into tension. See Section 1.4.1.4 for additional information.

1.1.6 Stresses in Shells

This section provides a brief introduction to shell behavior. Much of the information in this section
is taken from Cook et al. (1989). Consult that text for a more complete discussion.
A shell forms a curved surface in space. Usually a shell is thin in comparison with its span.
Geometrically, a shell is described by its thickness, t, and the shape of the shell mid-surface. If
the mid-surface is flat, then the shell is called a plate. In general, a shell simultaneously displays
bending stresses and membrane stresses. Bending stresses in a shell correspond to bending stresses
in a plate and produce bending and twisting moments and transverse-shear forces. Membrane
stresses correspond to stresses in a plane-stress problem: they act tangent to the mid-surface, and
produce mid-surface tangent forces. These moments and forces per unit length are called stress
resultants. There are a total of eight stress resultants, which can be divided into those that arise
from bending action and those that arise from membrane action. These will be described in the
following two sections.
1.1.6.1 Bending Action

We can account for the bending action of a shell in terms of plate-bending theory, which extends
beam theory from one dimension to two as follows. Define a surface coordinate system xyz such
that x and y are orthogonal coordinates in the mid-surface and z is a direction normal to the
mid-surface. Approximate the tangent plane to the shell mid-surface as a flat plate subjected to
“plate bending,” meaning that external loads have no components parallel to the xy-plane and that
σxx = σyy = σxy = 0 on the mid-surface z = 0. Such a flat plate, like a straight beam, supports
transverse loads by bending action. Figure 1.4 shows stresses that act on cross sections of a plate
whose material is homogeneous and linearly elastic, subjected to plate-bending loading. Normal
stresses σxx and σyy vary linearly with z, and are associated with bending moments Mx and My .
Shear stress σxy also varies linearly with z, and is associated with twisting moment Mxy . Normal

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stress σzz is considered negligible in comparison with σxx , σyy and σxy . Transverse shear stresses
σzy and σzx vary quadratically with z. Lateral load q includes surface load and body force, both in
the z-direction.
Stresses in Figure 1.4 produce the bending stress resultants

 +t/2
Mx = σxx z dz
−t/2

 +t/2
My = σyy z dz (1.1)
−t/2

 +t/2
Mxy = σxy z dz
−t/2

and the transverse-shear stress resultants

 +t/2
Qx = σzx dz
−t/2
(1.2)
 +t/2
Qy = σzy dz
−t/2

The bending resultants are moments per unit length, and the transverse-shear resultants are forces
per unit length. Differential total moments and forces are Mx dy, Qx dy, and so on, as shown in
Figure 1.4. The following stress distributions are consistent with the assumptions of plate-bending
theory, and satisfy Eqs. (1.1) and (1.2):

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12Mx z
σxx =
t3
12My z
σyy =
t3

σzz ≈ 0

12Mxy z (1.3)
σxy =
t3
 
3Qx  2
σzx = 1 − 2z/t
2t
 
3Qy  2
σzy = 1 − 2z/t
2t

Stresses σxx , σyy and σxy are largest at the surface z = ±t/2, whereas transverse-shear stresses,
σzx and σzy , are largest at the mid-surface. Two points should be noted:
(1) The differential equations of equilibrium for a plate element under a general
state of stress indicate that σzz varies as a cubic parabola over the thickness
of the plate (Ugural 1981). But this stress, according to the assumptions of
plate-bending theory, is negligible compared with the other stress components
– this assumption becomes unreliable in the vicinity of highly concentrated
transverse loads.
(2) σzx and σzy , according to the assumptions of plate-bending theory, are negligi-
ble compared with the other stress components; however, when these stresses
are integrated through the thickness, they produce transverse-shear stress re-
sultants, Qx and Qy , that are of the same order of magnitude as the surface
loading and moments.

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Figure 1.4 Bending action in a shell showing: (a) stresses that act on a differ-
ential element of a homogeneous, linearly elastic plate subjected
to plate-bending loading; and (b) stress resultants corresponding
with these stresses. (Stress resultants are drawn acting in their
positive sense.)

1.1.6.2 Membrane Action

We can account for the membrane action of a shell in terms of plane-stress conditions. Define a
surface coordinate system xyz such that x and y are orthogonal coordinates in the mid-surface, and
z is a direction normal to the mid-surface. Approximate the tangent plane to the shell mid-surface
as a flat plate subjected to plane-stress conditions, meaning that the plate is loaded in its own
plane. Such a flat plate supports these loads by membrane action. Figure 1.5 shows stresses that
act on cross sections of a plate whose material is homogeneous and linearly elastic, subjected to
plane-stress loading. Normal and shear stresses σxx , σyy and σxy are constant through the thickness.
Stresses in Figure 1.5 produce the membrane stress resultants

 +t/2
Nx = σxx dz
−t/2

 +t/2
Ny = σyy dz (1.4)
−t/2

 +t/2
Nxy = σxy dz
−t/2

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The membrane resultants are forces per unit length. Differential total forces are Nx dy, Ny dx and
so on, as shown in Figure 1.5. The following stress distributions are consistent with the plane-stress
assumptions and satisfy Eq. (1.4):

Nx
σxx =
t
Ny
σyy =
t
Nxy
σxy = (1.5)
t

σzz = 0

σzx = 0

σzy = 0

Figure 1.5 Membrane action in a shell showing: (a) stresses that act on
a differential element of a homogeneous, linearly elastic plate
subjected to plane-stress loading; and (b) stress resultants corre-
sponding with these stresses. (Stress resultants are drawn acting
in their positive sense.)

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1.1.6.3 General Shell Stresses

A shell structure simultaneously displays bending stresses and membrane stresses. The stresses
and stress resultants acting in a general shell consist of a superposition of these two loading modes
(see Sections 1.1.6.1 and 1.1.6.2). We can express these stress quantities in terms of a surface
coordinate system xyz, where x and y are orthogonal coordinates in the shell mid-surface and z is
a direction normal to the mid-surface. The eight stress resultants can be divided into bending (Mx ,
My and Mxy ), transverse-shear (Qx and Qy ) and membrane (Nx , Ny and Nxy ) stress resultants
(see Eqs. (1.1), (1.2) and (1.4)). The distribution of stress through the shell thickness follows from
the particular plate or shell theory used to model structural behavior. For both the Kirchhoff (thin-
shell) and Reissner (thick-shell) theories, the stress distributions correspond with a superposition
of Eqs. (1.3) and (1.5):

Nx 12Mx z
σxx = +
t t3
Ny 12My z
σyy = +
t t3
Nxy 12Mxy z
σxy = +
t t3
(1.6)
σzz = 0
 
3Qx  2
σzx = 1 − 2z/t
2t
 
3Qy  2
σzy = 1 − 2z/t
2t

The stresses and stress resultants are sketched in Figures 1.4 and 1.5, which also provide the sign
convention for the stress resultants.
1.1.6.4 Stress Recovery Procedure

General shell stresses are computed in FLAC 3D as follows. Refer to Section 1.10.3 for a more
detailed description of the stress-recovery procedure. Each shell-type structural element (shellSEL,
geogridSEL and linerSEL) has an associated finite-element stiffness matrix that defines the structural
response (see Section 1.10.2). Each shell-type SEL stores an internal force vector containing the
generalized nodal forces acting on the SEL. During each timestep, the internal force vector is
updated by multiplying the SEL stiffness matrix with the incremental nodal displacements (nodal
velocities multiplied by timestep). Note that shell stresses are not computed during each timestep.
Shell stresses are only computed by invoking a stress-recovery procedure that uses the internal force
vector and the stiffness matrix to first compute stress resultants, and then compute stresses using

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Eq. (1.6). These stress resultants are in equilibrium with the generalized nodal forces acting on the
SEL.
The structural properties of shell-type SELs include material properties (e.g., E and ν for an isotropic
material) and thickness. These properties are embodied in the SEL stiffness matrix. If a structural
property is modified during a simulation, then: (1) the generalized nodal forces and the stress
resultants will remain the same; and (2) the stresses will change only if the thickness is altered (see
Eq. (1.6) and note that a change in thickness will affect the stresses even if the stress resultants do
not change).
The stress-recovery procedure requires that a consistent surface coordinate system be established
prior to recovering any stress quantities. The surface coordinate system, xyz, establishes x and y
as orthogonal coordinates in the shell mid-surface, and z as normal to the mid-surface. The stress
resultants are expressed in terms of this system. The surface coordinate system is stored at each
node, and can be set with the SEL recover surface command and the FISH function nd ssysx. It
can be printed with the LIST sel recover command and plotted with the systemtype surface keywords
of the sel geom plot item.
After establishing the surface coordinate system over a patch of shell-type elements, stress resultants
and stresses can be recovered for these elements with the SEL recover sres and SEL recover stress
commands. These values can be queried, sampled as histories, and viewed as colored contours:
1. The values can be queried with the LIST sel recover sres, LIST sel recover stress
and LIST sel recover pstress commands, and the FISH functions sst sres,
sst str and sst pstr.
2. The values can be sampled as histories with the HISTORY add sel recover
command.
3. The values can be plotted as color contours with the sel shcontour plot item.
The stress resultants and stresses become invalid after any step is taken, or if the surface coordinate
system is altered; also, the stresses become invalid if the depth factor is altered. In these cases, the
values must be recovered again.
The stress-recovery procedure involves two steps: (1) creation of a consistent surface coordinate
system; and (2) recovery of stress quantities. Both of these steps can be limited to only apply
to a range of shell-type SELs. This allows one to control whether nodal averaging will occur
between shell-type SELs that use the same node. For example, suppose that one wished to recover
stresses throughout a capped cylindrical pressure vessel. The curvature across the cap edge is
not continuous, and some of the stresses across this edge are also not continuous. We could
recover stresses separately in the cap and in the cylinder walls by performing two separate recovery
operations for the shell-type SELs in these regions. When doing so, the z-direction of the surface
coordinate system for the nodes along the edge would be different in each case.

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1.1.7 Local Systems and Sign Conventions

Each SEL has its own local coordinate system. For beams and piles, this system is used to specify
both the cross-sectional moments of inertia and applied distributed loading. For shells, geogrids and
liners, this system is used to specify orthotropic material properties and applied pressure loading.
Each node has its own node-local coordinate system. This system is used to specify attachment
conditions that control how the node interacts with the grid, and also defines the directions in which
the equations of motion are solved. The orientation of the node-local system is set automatically at
the start of a set of cycles based on the type of SELs that use the node (see the SEL node command).
Responses are computed for nodes and for each type of SEL. Nodal responses include forces
and moments, as well as translational and rotational velocities and displacements. Forces and
translational velocities are positive in the direction of the positive coordinate axes (either global or
node-local) at the node. Positive moments and rotational velocities follow the “right-hand rule”:
With the thumb pointing in the direction of the positive coordinate axis, the fingers are curled in
the positive direction of rotation. The double arrows in Figure 1.7 indicate the direction of the
right-hand thumb to define the positive moment and rotation.
Responses for each type of SEL, and the associated sign conventions, are described in the sections
named “Response Quantities” associated with each SEL type (later in this chapter). The sign
convention for force and moment distributions in beams and piles is shown in Figures 1.7 and 1.48,
and the sign convention for stress resultants in shells, geogrids and liners is shown in Figures 1.4 and
1.5, where the xyz-axes correspond with the surface coordinate system used during stress recovery
(see Section 1.1.6.4).

1.1.8 Specifying Damping and Timestep Conditions

The same damping conditions applied to the FLAC 3D grid for static and dynamic analysis can also
be applied to the structural elements. Note that the damping conditions specified with the SET
dynamic damping command only apply to the zones, and the SEL set damp command must be used
to specify damping conditions for the structural elements.
The SEL set damp command can be used to change the damping condition, and the SEL node
ldamp command can be used to change the damping constants at nodes for either local damping
or combined damping. The timestep used for either static or dynamic analysis can be adjusted by
using the SEL set safety fac command. Also, the computation of the rotational degree-of-freedom
masses during dynamic analysis can be controlled by the SEL set scale rmass command.

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1.1.9 Thermal Expansion in Structural Elements

The effect of linear thermal expansion is implemented in the structural element formulation in
FLAC 3D. The temperature change occurs as a result of either heat conduction or temperature
re-initialization in the FLAC 3D zones (for CONFIG thermal).
The effect of heat conduction in the structural element is not considered. It is assumed that the zone
temperature is communicated instantaneously to the structural elements. The temperature change
generates thermal expansion/contraction in the structural element axial direction. The effect of the
lateral expansion in the element is neglected, and no other coupling takes place.
The incremental axial force generated by thermal expansion in the element is calculated using the
formula (note that compression is positive for axial forces)

F = EAαT (1.7)

where E is the Young’s modulus of the element, A is the cross-sectional area, α is the linear thermal
expansion coefficient, and T is the temperature increment for the element.
The structural-element nodal temperature increment is determined by interpolation of nodal tem-
perature increments in the host zone, and stored in a structural node offset. For a 1D structural
element (i.e., beam, cable or pile), the temperature change is calculated as the average of values
at the two nodes. The thermal strain increment of a 1D element is computed as the product of
the thermal linear expansion coefficient, temperature change for the step, and element length. For
a 2D structural element (i.e., shell, geogrid or liner), the temperature change is calculated as the
average of values at the three nodes. The thermal strain increment of a 2D element is computed
as the product of the thermal linear expansion coefficient, temperature change for the step, and the
lengths of the vectors from the element centroid to each node. (There are three of these vectors.)
Thermal strains, thermal strain increments and temperatures at structural nodes are not stored.
Note that when a large temperature increment is specified for cables, it is advisable to assign nonzero
compressive yield strength to the cables in order to avoid compressive yielding during the thermal
expansion stage.

1.1.10 Material Properties

Properties are assigned to structural elements with the SEL type property commands, where type =
{beam, cable, pile, shell, geogrid, liner}. The range logic can be used to limit the property settings
to only those SELs within the specified range. The properties for each structural-element type are
described in detail in the following sections. Note that all quantities must be given in a consistent
set of units (see Table 1.1).

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Table 1.1 Systems of units for some structural-element properties

Property Unit SI Imperial

area length2 m2 m2 m2 cm2 ft2 in2

axial or shear stiffness force/disp N/m kN/m MN/m Mdynes/cm lbf /ft lbf /in
exposed perimeter length m m m cm ft in
moment of inertia length4 m4 m4 m4 cm4 ft4 in4
plastic moment force-length N-m kN-m MN-m Mdynes-cm ft-lbf in-lbf
yield strength force N kN MN Mdynes lbf lbf
Young’s modulus stress Pa kPa MPa bar lbf /ft2 psi

where 1 bar = 106 dynes / cm2 = 105 N / m2 = 105 Pa.

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1.2 Structural-Element Nodes

1.2.1 Mechanical Behavior

Six degrees of freedom, composed of three translational components and three rotational compo-
nents, are associated with each node. All mass associated with the structural elements is lumped at
the nodes; each node inherits mass from the structural elements that use it.
There are two coordinate systems (the global system and the node-local system) associated with
each node:
1. The global system can be used to specify generalized velocity and displacement
boundary conditions, nodal positions and applied loads. The global system
does not change throughout the course of a simulation.
2. The node-local system is used to specify attachment conditions that control
how the node interacts with the grid. Also, the equations of motion are solved
in these local directions. Therefore, one may fix or free velocities in these
directions only.
The orientation of the node-local system is set automatically at the start of a
set of cycles (or when the CYCLE 0 command is executed), based on the type
of SELs that use the node. For beams and shells, the local system is aligned
with the global system. For cables and piles, the local system is oriented such
that (1) the x-axis is aligned with the average axial direction of all cableSELs
or pileSELs using the node, and (2) the yz-axes are arbitrarily oriented in the
cable or pile cross-sectional plane. For geogrids and liners, the local system is
oriented such that (1) the z-axis is aligned with the average normal direction of
all geogridSELs or linerSELs using the node, and (2) the xy-axes are arbitrarily
oriented in the geogrid or liner tangent plane. When running in large-strain
mode, the orientation of the node-local system is updated automatically, based
on the motion of the SELs that use the node (unless this behavior is inhibited
by the SEL node fix lsys command).
In general, geometry creation is carried out as described in Section 1.1.3. In addition, individual
nodes can be repositioned by using the SEL node init xpos, SEL node init ypos and SEL node init
zpos commands. Any SELs that are moved as a result of moving nodes will retain their default
attachment conditions. The optional keyword phrases add, mul and grad gx gy gz are also provided
to assist with moving nodes; these keywords are used in the same way as in the INITIALIZE command
when applied to gridpoints.
Accumulated displacement and rotation at nodes can be assigned initial values with the SEL node
init command. For example, these components can be initialized to zero at any stage of analysis.
Note that displacement values are not used as part of the computation cycle. Instead, incremental
displacements are computed by multiplying the nodal velocity by the timestep.

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1.2.2 Response Quantities

Nodal responses include displacement, velocity, position and out-of-balance force. These quantities
can be expressed in either the global or node-local coordinate system. The nodal responses can be
accessed via FISH, and
1. printed with the LIST sel node command,
2. monitored with the HISTORY add sel node command, and
3. plotted with the sel vector plot item.

1.2.3 Associated Commands

All of the commands associated with structural-element nodes are listed in this section. They are
divided into those commands that allow one to create nodes and specify nodal properties, print
properties and responses, and monitor responses. See Section 1 in the Command Reference for
detailed descriptions of all of the commands.

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Table 1.2 Node commands (create and specify properties)

SEL node <id id> x,y,z
SEL node keyword
apply keyword
force Fx,Fy,Fz
moment Mx,My,Mz
remove [force,moment]
system [global,local]
fix keyword
lsys
x
xrot
y
yrot
z
zrot
free keyword
lsys
x
xrot
y
yrot
z
zrot

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Table 1.2 Node commands (create and specify properties, continued)

SEL node keyword
init keyword
xdisp value
xpos value
xrdisp value
xrvel value
xvel value
ydisp value
ypos value
yrdisp value
yrvel value
yvel value
zdisp value
zpos value
zrdisp value
zrvel value
zvel value
ldamp value
local keywords. . .
xdir Xx,Xy,Xz
ydir Yx,Yy,Yz

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Table 1.3 Node commands (print properties and responses)

LIST sel node keyword
apply <[ force, moment ]>
disp <[ tran, rot ]> <[ global, local ]>
fixity
fob <[ tran, rot ]> <[ global, local ]>
ldamp
link
local
local fix
mass <[ tran, rot ]>
pos <[ current, reference ]>
stiffness <[ tran, rot ]>
vel <[ tran, rot ]> <[ global, local ]>

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Table 1.4 Node commands (monitor responses)

HISTORY add sel node keyword <local> . . .
xdisp
xfob
xpos
xrdisp
xrfob
xrvel
xvel
ydisp
yfob
ypos
yrdisp
yrfob
yrvel
yvel
zdisp
zfob
zpos
zrdisp
zrfob
zrvel
zvel

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1.3 Beam Structural Elements

1.3.1 Mechanical Behavior

Each beam structural element is defined by its geometric and material properties. A beamSEL is
assumed to be a straight segment of uniform bisymmetrical cross-sectional properties lying between
two nodal points. An arbitrarily curved structural beam can be modeled as a curvilinear structure
composed of a collection of beamSELs. By default, each beamSEL behaves as an isotropic, linearly
elastic material with no failure limit; however, one can specify a limiting plastic moment or introduce
a plastic-hinge location (across which a discontinuity in rotation may develop) between beamSELs
(see Section 1.3.5.4). The general properties of the finite element used by each beamSEL are
described in Section 1.10.2.1. BeamSELs are suitable for modeling structural beams in which the
displacements caused by transverse-shearing deformations and out-of-plane (longitudinal) warping
of the cross section can be neglected.
Each beamSEL has its own local coordinate system, shown in Figure 1.6. This system is used to
specify both the cross-sectional moments of inertia and applied distributed loading, and to define
the sign convention for force and moment distributions across beamSELs that comprise a single
beam (see Figure 1.7). The beamSEL coordinate system is defined by the locations of its two nodal
points (labeled 1 and 2 in Figure 1.6), and by the vector Y. The beamSEL coordinate system is
defined such that
(1) the centroidal axis coincides with the x-axis,
(2) the x-axis is directed from node-1 to node-2, and
(3) the y-axis is aligned with the projection of Y onto the cross-sectional plane
(i.e., the plane whose normal is directed along the x-axis).
The beamSEL coordinate system can be modified with the SEL beam property ydirection command.
(If Y is not specified, or is parallel with the local x-axis, then Y defaults to the global y- or x-
direction, whichever is not parallel with the local x-axis.) The beamSEL coordinate system can be
viewed with the sel geom plot item and printed with the LIST sel beam local command. The nodal
connectivity can be printed with the LIST sel beam connect command.
The 12 active degrees-of-freedom of the beam finite element are shown in Figure 1.6. For each
generalized displacement (translation and rotation) shown in the figure, there is a corresponding
generalized force (force and moment). The stiffness matrix of the beam finite element includes all
six degrees of freedom at each node to represent axial, shear and bending action within a beam
structure.

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θz1
θx1
w1 u1

1 v1
θy1
y
θz2

w2
2
u2
v2
θy2
θx2

Figure 1.6 BeamSEL coordinate system and 12 active degrees-of-freedom

of the beam finite element

1.3.2 Response Quantities

Beam responses include force and moment vectors that act at the end of each beamSEL. These
quantities can be expressed in the global system or in the beamSEL coordinate system. The beam
responses can be accessed via FISH and
(1) printed with the LIST sel beam type command, where type = {force, moment,
nforce},
(2) monitored with the HISTORY add sel beamsel command, and
(3) plotted with the sel bcontour plot item.
The sign convention in Figure 1.7 provides a continuous description of force and moment dis-
tributions across beamSELs that comprise a single beam. It assumes that the set of beamSELs
comprising the beam are oriented consistently, such that their local coordinate systems form a con-
tinuous description of the beam orientation. Such will be the case if the beam is created using the
SEL beam command. The nodes of each beamSEL so created will be ordered such that the overall
beam direction goes from the begin to the end point (i.e., the nodal connectivity of each beamSEL
will be ordered such that the direction from end 1 to end 2 corresponds with the direction from the
begin point to the end point). The nodal connectivity can be printed with the LIST sel beam connect
command.

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Figure 1.7 Sign convention for forces and moments at the ends of a beamSEL
(Axes show beamSEL coordinate system, ends 1 and 2 correspond
with order in nodal connectivity list, and all quantities are drawn
acting in their positive sense.)

1.3.3 Properties

Each beamSEL has 10 properties:

(1) density mass density, ρ (optional – needed if dynamic mode or
gravity is active) [M/L3 ]
(2) emod Young’s modulus, E [F/L2 ]
(3) nu Poisson’s ratio, ν
(4) pmoment plastic moment capacity, M P (optional – if not specified,
M P is assumed to be infinite) [F·L]
(5) thexp thermal expansion coefficient αt [1/T ]
(optional – used for thermal analysis)
(6) xcarea cross-sectional area, A [L2 ]
(7) xciy second moment with respect to beamSEL y-axis, Iy [L4 ]
(8) xciz second moment with respect to beamSEL z-axis, Iz [L4 ]
(9) xcj polar moment of inertia, J [L4 ]
(10) ydirection vector Y whose projection onto the beamSEL cross-section
defines the beamSEL y-axis (optional – if not specified,
Y defaults to the global y- or x-direction, whichever is not
parallel with the beamSEL x-axis)

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The material behavior is described by properties 1-5, and the cross-sectional geometry is described
by properties 6-10. For the general beamSEL cross-section shown in Figure 1.8, the polar moment
of inertia, J , and second moments, Iy and Iz , are defined in the beamSEL coordinate system xyz
by the integrals


J = r 2 dA
A

Iy = z2 dA (1.8)
A

Iz = y 2 dA
A

in which the two principal axes of the cross section are defined by the beamSEL y- and z-axes.

dA

r
y

Figure 1.8 General beamSEL cross-section in beamSEL yz-plane

Beam properties are easily calculated, or obtained from handbooks. For example, typical values
for structural steel are 200 GPa for Young’s modulus, and 0.3 for Poisson’s ratio. For concrete,
typical values are 25 to 35 GPa for Young’s modulus, 0.15 to 0.2 for Poisson’s ratio, and 2100 to
2400 kg/m3 for mass density. Composite systems, such as reinforced concrete, should be based on
the transformed section.
If a plastic moment is specified, the value may be calculated as follows. Consider a flexural
member of width, b, and height, h. If the member is composed of a material that behaves in an
elastic-perfectly plastic manner, the elastic and plastic resisting moments can be computed. The
moment necessary to produce yield stress, σy , in the outer fibers is defined as the elastic moment,
M E , and is calculated as

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bh2
M E = σy (1.9)
6

For yielding to occur throughout the section, the yield stress must act on the entire section, and the
location of the resultant force on one-half of the section must be h/4 from the neutral surface. The
resisting moment, defined as the plastic moment, M P , is

bh2
M P = σy (1.10)
4

The section at which the plastic moment occurs can continue to deform without inducing additional
resistance after it reaches M P . The plastic-moment capacity limits the internal moment carried by
each beamSEL.
In order to limit the moment that is transmitted between beamSELs, the moment capacity at the
nodes must also be restricted. The condition of increasing deformation with a limiting resisting
moment that results in a discontinuity in the rotational motion is called a plastic hinge. Potential
plastic-hinge locations can be defined by creating double nodes at each hinge location, adding a
node-to-node link between these nodes, and then specifying appropriate link attachment conditions.
If the limiting moment is reached at beamSELs connected by such a plastic hinge double-node, then
a discontinuity in the rotational motion will develop. See Section 1.3.5.4 for an example application
of plastic hinges modeled with both single and double nodes.
The preceding discussion assumes a section that is symmetric about the neutral axis. However, if
the section is not symmetric (for example, a T-section), or if the stress-strain relations for tension
and compression differ appreciably (for example, reinforced concrete), the neutral axis shifts away
from the fibers that yield first, and it is necessary to relocate the neutral axis before the resisting
moment can be evaluated. The neutral axis may be found by integrating the stress profile over the
section and solving for the location of the axis at which stress is zero. In some cases, the integral can
be expressed in terms of one unknown (in which case, the solution may not be difficult). However,
if the stress-strain relation for the material does not resemble an ideal elasto-plastic diagram, the
solution may involve a number of trials. Nearly all texts on reinforced concrete or steel design
provide procedures and examples for calculating plastic moments.
The present formulation in FLAC 3D assumes that beamSELs behave elastically until they reach the
plastic moment. This assumption is reasonably valid for symmetric rolled-steel sections, because
the difference between M P and M E is not large. However, for reinforced concrete, the plastic
moment may be as much as an order of magnitude greater than the elastic moment.

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1.3.4 Associated Commands

All of the commands associated with beams are listed in this section. They are divided into
those commands that allow one to create a beam and specify beam properties, print properties and
responses, and monitor responses. Note that all boundary and initial conditions, with the exception
of distributed loads applied to beam surfaces, are specified with the SEL node command. See
Section 1 in the Command Reference for detailed descriptions of all of the commands.

Table 1.5 Beam commands (create and specify properties)

SEL beamsel nodes nd1,nd2
SEL beam begin x,y,z end x,y,z
SEL beam keyword
apply keyword
ydist value
zdist value
property keyword
(1) density value
(2) emod value
(3) nu value
(4) pmoment value
(5) thexp value
(6) xcarea value
(7) xciy value
(8) xciz value
(9) xcj value
(10) ydirection Yx,Yy,Yz

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Table 1.6 Beam commands (print properties and

responses)
LIST sel beam keyword
apply
connect
elemtype
force
group
id
length
local
moment
nforce
position
property keyword
surfarea
volume

Table 1.7 Beam commands (monitor responses)

HISTORY add sel beamsel keyword
force keyword
Fx
Fy
Fz
moment keyword
Mx
My
Mz

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1.3.5 Example Applications

Simple examples are given to illustrate the use of beams.

1.3.5.1 Simple Beam – Two Equal Concentrated Loads

A simply supported beam is loaded by two equal concentrated loads, symmetrically placed as shown
in Figure 1.9. The shear and moment diagrams for this configuration are also shown in the figure.
The shear force magnitude, V , is equal to the applied concentrated load, P . The maximum moment,
Mmax , occurs between the two loads and is equal to P a. The maximum deflection of the beam,
max , occurs at the center and is given by AISC (1980, p. 2-116) as

Pa
max = (3L2 − 4a 2 ) (1.11)
24EI
where: E = Young’s modulus; and
I = second moment of inertia (I = Iy = Iz ).

Y
P P

X
3 3 3
a a
L

Pa

Figure 1.9 Simply supported beam with two equal concentrated loads (dis-
tance in units of meters)

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Several properties are used in this example:

cross-sectional area (A) 0.006 m3

Young’s modulus (E) 200 GPa
Poisson’s ratio (ν) 0.30
second moment with respect to local y-axis (Iy ) 200 × 10−6 m4
second moment with respect to local z-axis (Iz ) 200 × 10−6 m4
polar moment of inertia (J ) 0.0

Point loads of P = 10,000 N are applied at the two locations shown in Figure 1.9.
The FLAC 3D model consists of 10 beamSELs and 11 nodes, as shown in Figure 1.10. The beam
is created by issuing three separate SEL beam commands (all with an ID of 1) to ensure that nodes
will lie exactly at the beam third points. Also, four beamSELs are created in the middle third to
ensure that a node will lie at the exact beam center, so that the displacement of this node can be
compared with max . Boundary conditions corresponding to beam-theory behavior are imposed
on all the nodes: namely, no translation in the z-direction, and no rotation about the x- and y-axes.
Simple supports are specified at the beam ends by restricting translation in the y-direction. And
two point loads acting in the negative y-direction are applied at the beam third points. The data file
for this example is listed in Example 1.3.

A   m.muuum m4!  m5  mDm  m 

/mm"m m
rctrmAm5   m/ qmA C
msGtL
fnrGnrctrmtrhLchrrm,N
 L   
5 hmA8
t
kmhm 
 hmcCcLs

Am5   m/ qmA C

N  qmNkmm,

Figure 1.10 FLAC 3D model for simple beam problem

The project file for this example is located in “sel\beam\concent-loads\concent-loads.f3prj.”

FLAC 3D Version 5.01

1 - 36 Structural Elements

Example 1.3 Simple beam – two equal concentrated loads

new
title "Simple Beam --- Two Equal Concentrated Loads Symmetrically Placed"

; ==================================================================
; Create the grid, insure that nodes will exist at third points.
;
sel beam id=1 begin=( 0, 0, 0) end=( 3, 0, 0) nseg=3
sel beam id=1 begin=( 3, 0, 0) end=( 6, 0, 0) nseg=4
sel beam id=1 begin=( 6, 0, 0) end=( 9, 0, 0) nseg=3
; ==================================================================
; Assign beam properties
;
sel beam id=1 prop emod=2e11 nu=0.30 &
xcarea=6e-3 xcj=0.0 xciy=200e-6 xciz=200e-6
; ==================================================================
; Specify model boundary conditions (including applied loads)
;
sel node fix z xr yr ; restrict all non-beam modes
sel node fix y range id=1 ;
sel node fix y range id=9 ; ; rollers at beam ends
sel node apply force=(0.0,-1e4,0.0) range id=2 ; apply point loads
sel node apply force=(0.0,-1e4,0.0) range id=5 ;
; ==================================================================
; Setup histories for monitoring behavior.
;
history add id=10 sel node ydisp id=7
history add id=30 sel beamsel moment mz end2 cid=1 ; moment, right of SEL-1
history add id=31 sel beamsel moment mz end1 id 2 ; moment, left of SEL-2
; ==================================================================
; Bring the problem to equilibrium
;
solve ratio=1e-7
save equal-concent-loads

; ==================================================================
; Print out beam responses.
;
list sel beam force
list sel beam moment
list sel node disp range id=7

return

FLAC 3D Version 5.01

STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 1 - 37

The displacement field is shown in Figure 1.11. The maximum displacement occurs at the beam
center and equals 6.469×10−3 m, which corresponds exactly with the theoretical value of Eq. (1.11).
This value can be printed with the command
list sel node disp range id=7

An alternative means of visualizing the displacement field for a small-strain simulation is to use the
sel beam plot item and specify a nonzero value for the magnification factor. Figure 1.12 shows both
the undeformed and deformed shapes by adding two sel beam plot items to the view, and specifying
magnification factors of zero and 100, respectively.

A 7  m,muuum3 m8!  m.  mUm7  mR 

5   m  mm  m
rctrm:m.   m9 qm: C
7msDtL
fnrDnrctrmtrbLcbrrmGN

. bm 
F:4O6N
a a 
N#  bmcCccyLyDPL
7 bmtcLCdLD

:m.   m9 qm: C

N  qmNFmm7G

Figure 1.11 Displacement field of simple beam

FLAC 3D Version 5.01

1 - 38 Structural Elements

A   m.muuum m4!  m5  mUm  mR 

/mm"m m
rctrmAm5   m/ qmA C
msGtL
fnrGnrctrmtrhLchrrm,N

5 hm 
FA9O$N

8m9hmtcc
5 hm 
FA9O$N

Am5   m/ qmA C

N  qmNFmm,

Figure 1.12 Deformed (magnification of 100) and undeformed shapes of sim-

ple beam

Figures 1.13 and 1.14 show the shear force and moment distributions, which correspond exactly with
the theoretical solutions. These two plot items display these quantities in the beamSEL coordinate
system using the sign convention of Figure 1.7. In this model, all beamSEL systems are aligned
with the global system (LIST sel beam local). Thus, the shear force and moment act in the beamSEL
y- and z-directions, respectively. The shear forces and moments acting at the ends of each beamSEL
can be printed with the commands
list sel beam force
list sel beam moment

The evolution of moment at x = 1 is shown in Figure 1.15 to reach a steady-state value of 10,000
N-m. In this plot, we overlay two histories: one has sampled the moment acting at the right end of
beamSEL 1; and the other has sampled the moment acting at the left end of beamSEL 2. If expressed
in a consistent system, these two values should be identical, and the plot demonstrates that they
are. This is the case because the beamSELs comprising the beam have a consistent orientation
(having been created using the SEL beam command). Note that if we print the moment acting on
each beamSEL in terms of the global system with the command
list sel beam nforce rot global range cid=1,2

we find that the moment acting on the right end of beamSEL 1 is positive, while the moment acting
on the left end of beamSEL 2 is negative. This is the correct behavior that satisfies equilibrium.

FLAC 3D Version 5.01

STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 1 - 39

A   m,muuum m8!  m.  m+m  mU 

"mm     m m"m
rctrm:m.   m9 qm: C
mshtL
fnrhnrctrmtrbLcbrrmG3
 a   a 
tCrccc8EcL
tCcccc8EcL
hCcccc8Ecd
yCcccc8Ecd
LCcccc8Ecd
rCcccc8Ecd
cCcccc8Ecc
urCcccc8Ecd
uLCcccc8Ecd
uyCcccc8Ecd
uhCcccc8Ecd
utCcccc8EcL

:m.   m9 qm: C

3  qm36mmG

Figure 1.13 Shear force distribution in simple beam

A   m.muuum m4!  m5  m+m  mU 

.  m m     m m"m
rctrmAm5   m/ qmA C
msgtL
bnrgnrctrmtrhLchrrm,6
 a   a 
dCrscc4EcL
dCrccc4EcL
dCcccc4EcL
rCgccc4EcL
rCyccc4EcL
rCLccc4EcL
rCrccc4EcL
rCcccc4EcL
tCgccc4EcL
tCyccc4EcL
tCLccc4EcL
tCrccc4EcL
tCcccc4EcL
gCcccc4Ecd
yCcccc4Ecd
LCcccc4Ecd
rCcccc4Ecd
cCcccc4Ecc
utCtsyP4ucd

Am5   m/ qmA C

6  qm67mm,

Figure 1.14 Moment distribution in simple beam

FLAC 3D Version 5.01

1 - 40 Structural Elements

A   mImuuum m.!  mG  m3m  mv 

4 mm  m mm#=t
rctrm9mG   m8 qm9 C
msHtL 
fnrHnrctrmtrbLcbrdm0A

# 
dcmuA mmI.3mt
dtmuA mmI.3mr 
%Cm






4!eyr"















9mG   m8 qm9 C           
A  qmAMmm0  eyr

Figure 1.15 Evolution of moment at x = 1 in simple beam

FLAC 3D Version 5.01

STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 1 - 41

1.3.5.2 Cantilever Beam with Applied Moment at Tip

A cantilever beam is subjected to an applied moment at its tip, as shown in Figure 1.16. This problem
is an example of geometric nonlinearity, whereby deformations significantly alter the location of
loads, so that equilibrium equations must be written with respect to the deformed geometry. Such
problems can be solved by running FLAC 3D in large-strain mode. The large-strain y-direction
deflection at the beam tip (assuming that the material remains linearly elastic) is given by Cook et
al. (1989, pp. 529-531) as

  
EI ML
vtip = 1 − cos (1.12)
M EI
where: E = Young’s modulus; and
I = second moment of inertia (I = Iy = Iz ).

M X

Figure 1.16 Cantilever beam with applied moment at tip

Several properties and loading conditions are used in this example:

cross-sectional area (A) 0.006 m3

Young’s modulus (E) 200 GPa
Poisson’s ratio (ν) 0.30
second moment with respect to local y-axis (Iy ) 200 × 10−6 m4
second moment with respect to local z-axis (Iz ) 200 × 10−6 m4
polar moment of inertia (J ) 0.0
beam length (L) 10 m
applied moment at tip (M) 5 × 106 N-m

For these conditions, the theoretical tip deflection, vtip , is given by Eq. (1.12) to be 5.477 m.
The FLAC 3D model consists of 10 beamSELs and 11 nodes. Boundary conditions corresponding
to beam-theory behavior are imposed on all the nodes: namely, no translation in the z-direction,
and no rotation about the x- and y-axes. The left end is fully fixed in all six degrees of freedom.

FLAC 3D Version 5.01

1 - 42 Structural Elements

And a moment vector aligned with the z-direction is applied to the node at the beam tip. The data
file for this example is listed in Example 1.4.
The final structural configuration is shown in Figure 1.17. The y-direction deflection at the beam
tip (LIST sel node disp range id=2) equals 5.498 m, which is within 0.5% of the analytical solution.

A 9  %ndn n nnu)nn nb  o n   m

   n    nb n n8km
g6(gnyn9   nA dny f
n(gusE
E5gc5g6(gn(gLs6Lg)n.U
 L   
9 Lny/
(
nLn 
 Ln6f6usc6)c

yn9   nA dny f

U  dnUnn.

Figure 1.17 Final structural configuration

The project file for this example is located in “sel\beam\cantilever\cantilever.f3prj.”

Example 1.4 Cantilever beam with applied moment at tip

; Solution for Cantilever beam, applied moment of 5e6 at tip
; (large-strain solution)
new
title
Cantilever beam, applied moment of 5e6 at tip (large-strain solution)
;
sel beam begin=(0,0,0) end=(10,0,0) nseg=10
sel beam prop emod=2.0e11 nu=0.30
sel beam prop XCArea=6e-3 XCIz=200e-6 XCIy=200e-6 XCJ=0.0
;
sel node fix z xr yr ; restrict all non-beam modes
sel node fix x y z xr yr zr range id=1 ; fully fix left end
sel node apply moment=(0,0,5e6) range id=2 ; apply moment at tip

FLAC 3D Version 5.01

STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 1 - 43

;
history add id=10 sel node ydisp id=2 ; y-displacement at tip
;
set large
solve ratio=1e-7
;
list sel node disp range id=2 ; print tip displacement
save applied-moment-at-tip

return

1.3.5.3 Buckling of an Axially Loaded Beam

This example demonstrates the buckling behavior of an axially loaded beam with small initial
deflection. The beam rests on a base, and is fixed in lateral translation at its ends. A global system
of coordinates is defined with the z-axis pointing upwards, oriented along the axis of the beam, and
with origin at the base of the beam. The beam initial shape is defined by the equation

πz
x0 = f0 sin (1.13)
l

where l is beam length, and f0 is maximum initial deflection.

The additional deflection taken by the beam under an axial load, P , is predicted from linear stability
analysis by the equation

f0 sin( πlz )
x − x0 = Pcr
(1.14)
P −1

where Pcr is the minimum critical load for buckling.

The minimum critical load is defined as

EI
Pcr = π 2 (1.15)
l2

where E is Young’s modulus, and I is moment of inertia for lateral flexion.

The additional deflection at the center of the beam f is thus

f0
f = (1.16)
Pcr /P − 1

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1 - 44 Structural Elements

For this example, the beam is 200 m long, and the maximum amplitude of initial deflection is 1 cm
(or 0.005% of the beam length). Young’s modulus is 257 MPa, and the moment of inertia for lateral
flexion is 5.333 m4 . The beam is modeled using 100 elements, translation is fixed in all directions
at the base, and in the x- and y- directions at the top. An axial load is applied in increments at the
beam top until the critical load is reached. After each increment, the model is cycled to mechanical
equilibrium and the load deflection is recorded in a table (see Example 1.5).
The beam deflection is seen to increase beyond measure as the load converges to the minimum
critical value, as expected. A comparison between analytical solution and numerical prediction for
additional deflection at the center of the beam is presented in Figure 1.18. As can be seen, the
match between the solutions is very good.

A 7#  i  iiii "i i   i   h

yi5   i4 %
Lc.LiMi4   i8 wiM h
ivrL.Cuv 
2sL©sLc.Li.0Lr0c©i7N
( 
.i/y74D5
Ci    



l!A%&'










Mi4   i8 wiM h          
N  wiNUii7 $l!

Figure 1.18 Load deflection curve

The project file for this example is located in “sel\beam\buckling\buckling.f3prj.”

Example 1.5 Axial loading of a beam with small initial deflection

; Axial loading of a beam with small initial deflection.
; Load versus additional deflection at beam half length:
; comparison between
; - numerical prediction (table 1)
; - minimum critical load (table 3)
; - analytical solution (table 4)
; from Linear Stability Analysis in [Massonnet,

FLAC 3D Version 5.01

STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 1 - 45

; Resistance des Materiaux, 1960]

;
set fish autocreate off

new
title "Axial loading of a beam with small initial deflection."

def setup
global _h = 200.
global _E = 2.57e8
global _I = 5.333
global _A = 4.
global Pcr = (pi/_H)ˆ2 * _E * _I
global _f0 = 0.01
local _steps = 10
global ii = 0
global deltaP = Pcr / float(_steps + 1)
global x2val = 0.0
global z2val = 0.0
local jj = 1
loop jj (1,100)
global x1val = x2val
global z1val = z2val
z2val = float(jj)*_h/100.
x2val = _f0 * sin(pi*z2val/_h)
command
sel beam id=1 begin=(@x1val,0,@z1val) end=(@x2val,0,@z2val) nseg=1
end_command
end_loop
command
table 1 name FLAC3D
table 4 name analytical
set large
sel beam id=1 prop emod @_E xcarea @_A ydir=0,1,0 ...
xciy=@_I xciz=@_I xcj=0.0 nu=0.3
sel node fix x,y,z range z -.01 .01
sel node fix x,y range z 199.9 200.1
end_command
end
@setup

; create history
his add sel node xdisp id=51
his add sel node ydisp id=51

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1 - 46 Structural Elements

def load_deflection
global thisload = deltaP * float(ii)
global mthisload = -thisload
command
sel node apply force=(0,0,@mthisload) system global range z 199.9 200.1
solve ratio 1e-7 force 0.0 step 50000000
end_command
store_it
end

def store_it
local np = nd_head
loop while np # null
local _id = nd_id(np)
if _id = 51 then
local xval = nd_pos(np,2,1)
local yval = nd_pos(np,2,2)
local deflec = sqrt(xvalˆ2 + yvalˆ2) - _f0
table(1,deflec) = thisload ; numerical sol.
xval = _f0/(Pcr/thisload - 1.)
table(4,xval) = thisload ; analytic sol.
table(3,xval) = Pcr
endif
np = nd_next(np)
end_loop
end

set @ii = 1
@load_deflection
save f1
set @ii=2
@load_deflection
save f2
set @ii=3
@load_deflection
save f3
set @ii=4
@load_deflection
save f4
set @ii=5
@load_deflection
save f5
set @ii=6
@load_deflection
save f6

FLAC 3D Version 5.01

STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 1 - 47

set @ii=7
@load_deflection
save f7
set @ii=8
@load_deflection
save f8
set @ii=9
@load_deflection
save f9
set @ii=10
@load_deflection
save f10
set @ii=10.2
@load_deflection
save f10p2
set @ii=10.4
@load_deflection
save f10p4
set @ii=10.6
@load_deflection
save f10p6
set @ii=10.8
@load_deflection
save f10p8
set @ii=10.9
@load_deflection
save f10p9

save axially-loaded

ret

1.3.5.4 Plastic Hinge Formation in a Beam Structure

This example demonstrates two methods, referred to as the single-node and the double-node meth-
ods, by which FLAC 3D can be used to calculate the initiation and subsequent behavior of a plastic
hinge in a beam. The single-node method involves specifying the limiting plastic moment that
can be carried by the beamSELs comprising the beam. This is done by specifying the desired
plastic-moment capacity using the SEL beam property pmoment command. With this method, a
hypothetical hinge can form between beamSELs; however, because the beamSELs are joined with
a single node, a true discontinuity in the rotational motion cannot develop at these locations. The
double-node method involves creating double nodes at each potential hinge location and then ap-
propriately linking these nodes together. The double nodes allow a discontinuity in the rotation to
occur when the limiting plastic moment is reached. The double-node method should be applied to
calculate the large-strain, post-failure behavior of a structure. If it is only necessary to determine

FLAC 3D Version 5.01

1 - 48 Structural Elements

the solution at the limiting plastic moment, then the single-node method is sufficient. In the fol-
lowing discussion, we first define the example problem, and then solve it in two ways by using the
single-node method, and then using the double-node method.
A concentrated vertical load, P , is applied at the center of a 10 m long, simply supported beam
with a plastic-moment capacity, M P , of 25 kN-m. The system, along with the shear and moment
diagrams, is shown in Figure 1.19. From these shear and moment diagrams, we find that the specified
plastic-moment capacity corresponds with a maximum vertical load of 10 kN and a maximum shear
force of 5 kN. If we apply a constant vertical velocity to the beam center, we expect that the limiting
values of moment and shear force will be 25 kN-m and 5 kN, respectively.

Y
P

L L
2 2

V
P
2

PL
4

Figure 1.19 Simple beam with single concentrated load

The FLAC 3D model demonstrating the single-node method (see Example 1.6) is created by issuing
a single SEL beam command and specifying two segments. This produces a model containing 2
beamSELs and 3 nodes, with both beamSELs sharing the center node (node ID of 3). The beam is
assigned the same properties as in Section 1.3.5.1 but, in addition, the plastic-moment capacity is
set to 25 kN-m with the SEL beam property pmoment command. Simple supports are specified at
the beam ends by restricting translation in the y-direction. A constant vertical velocity is applied
to the center node, and the moment and shear force acting at the right end of beamSEL 1 are
monitored during the calculation to determine when the limiting value is reached. Note that we
specify combined local damping for this problem (SEL set damp combined), in order to eliminate
the ringing that can occur with the default local damping scheme when the system is being driven
by a constant motion.
The project file for this example is located in “sel\beam\plastic-hinge\plastic-hinge.f3prj.”

FLAC 3D Version 5.01

STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 1 - 49

Example 1.6 Plastic hinge formation (single-node method)

; File for Plastic hinge formation (single-node method)
;
set fish autocreate off
new
title "Plastic hinge formation (single-node method)"
;
sel beam begin=(0,0,0) end=(10,0,0) nseg=2
sel beam prop emod=2.0e11 nu=0.30
sel beam prop XCArea=6e-3 XCIz=200e-6 XCIy=200e-6 XCJ=0.0
sel beam prop pmom=25e3
;
sel node fix z xr yr ; restrict all non-beam modes
sel node fix y range id=1 ; simple support at left end
sel node fix y range id=2 ; simple support at right end
;
sel node fix y range id=3 ; apply constant vertical velocity
sel node init yvel local -5e-6 range id=3 ; to center node
;
history add id=10 sel node ydisp id=3 ; y-displacement of center node
history add id=30 sel beamsel moment mz end2 cid=1 ; moment
history add id=20 sel beamsel force fy end2 cid=1 ; shear force
;
sel set damp combined
cycle 3000

list sel beam moment

list sel beam force
list sel node disp rot
save single

return

We find that the limiting values of moment and shear force are equal to the analytical values of
25 kN-m and 5 kN, respectively (see Figures 1.20 and 1.21). Also, the moment and shear force
distributions correspond with the analytical solution (see Figures 1.22 and 1.23). We also see that
a discontinuity in the rotational motion at the center location does not develop; the rotation of the
center node is zero (LIST sel node disp rot).

FLAC 3D Version 5.01

1 - 50 Structural Elements

A   a" a  ag m a"e

N aa "a aa/Ya)a% a a a   

Md)MaAa3   a: raA (
abddd
u-Mv-Md)Ma)MpSdpbda,N 
)  A A A3A A 
bdamN aa./Ya)
%(am)da&m  aa a ab 




m!Aztb









Aa3   a: raA (        
N  raNUaa, $m!Aztmd

Figure 1.20 Moment at right end of beamSEL 1 versus applied center dis-
placement (single-node method)

A   a" a  ag m a"e

"aaa "a aa8Ba)a% a a a   

Sd)SaMa9   a4 raM (
abddd
p-Su-Sd)Sa)S©Ed©bda.N 
* AA AnfA A+Ay 
Sda&m:aa38Ba)
%(am)da&m  aa a ab





r!Ayfd


















Ma9   a4 raM (        
N  raNUaa. $r!Ayfrn

Figure 1.21 Shear force at right end of beamSEL 1 versus applied center
displacement (single-node method)

FLAC 3D Version 5.01

STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 1 - 51

A   a" a  ag m a"e

U a     a  a
Md)Ma+a8   a5 ra+ (
abddd
I-M1-Md)Ma)MCudCb)a9U
 a   a 
M(©ddd4odu
M(uddd4odu
M(M©dd4odu
M()ddd4odu
)(I©dd4odu
)(1ddd4odu
)(2©dd4odu
)(©ddd4odu
)(b©dd4odu
)(Mddd4odu
)(d©dd4odu
I(dddd4odb
0(©ddd4odb
2(dddd4odb
u(©ddd4odb
b(dddd4odb
)(©ddd4odb
d(dddd4odd
m)(uM))4m)u

+a8   a5 ra+ (

U  raUaa9

Figure 1.22 Moment distribution at limit condition (single-node method)

A   a" a  ag m a"e

"aa     a  a
Sd)Sa+a:   a7 ra+ (
abddd
I-S1-Sd)Sa)SCudCb)a/U
 a   a 
0(ddddAodb
2(ddddAodb
©(ddddAodb
u(ddddAodb
b(ddddAodb
S(ddddAodb
)(ddddAodb
d(ddddAodd
m)(ddddAodb
mS(ddddAodb
mb(ddddAodb
mu(ddddAodb
m©(ddddAodb
m©(ddddAodb

+a:   a7 ra+ (

U  raUaa/

Figure 1.23 Shear force distribution at limit condition (single-node method)

FLAC 3D Version 5.01

1 - 52 Structural Elements

The FLAC 3D model demonstrating the double-node method (see Example 1.7) is created by issuing
two separate SEL beam commands. This produces a model containing 2 beamSELs and 4 nodes.
Going from left to right, the left beamSEL uses nodes 1 and 2, and the right beamSEL uses nodes 3
and 4. Note that nodes 2 and 3 lie in the same location, but they will not interact with one another.
We now create an appropriate linkage between nodes 2 and 3 with the commands
sel link 2 target=node tgt num=3
sel link attach xdir=rigid ydir=rigid zdir=rigid &
xrdir=rigid yrdir=rigid zrdir=nydeform
sel link constit nydeform 6 area=1.0 k=6.4e8 ycomp=25e3 ytens=25e3

The first command creates a node-to-node link from node 2 to node 3. The second command sets
the attachment conditions for the three translational directions and the x- and y-rotational directions
to be rigid, and specifies a normal-yield spring to be inserted in the z-rotational direction. The third
command sets the properties of this normal-yield spring as follows. We set the area to unity, and we
set both the compressive and tensile yield strengths equal to the desired plastic-moment capacity of
25 kN-m. Finally, we set the spring stiffness equal to a value that is large enough to make the spring
deformation small relative to the beam deformation. We determine this value by computing the
rotational stiffnesses of the two beamSELs that use the spring (each rotational stiffness is 4EI /L,
where L is beamSEL length) and multiplying this value by 10.
Now that the double nodes have been appropriately linked to one another, the beam is assigned
the same properties as in Section 1.3.5.1 – we do not specify a plastic-moment capacity with the
SEL beam property pmoment command, because we want the plastic moment to develop in the
normal-yield spring. Simple supports are specified at the beam ends by restricting translation in the
y-direction. A constant vertical velocity is applied to node 3 (not to node 2, because we cannot fix
a velocity component that has a rigid attachment condition – such a velocity component is slaved
to remain equal to the velocity of the entity to which it is attached), and the moment and shear force
acting at the right end of beamSEL 1 are monitored during the calculation to determine when the
limiting value is reached. Note that we specify combined local damping for this problem (SEL set
damp combined), in order to eliminate the ringing that can occur with the default local damping
scheme when the system is being driven by a constant motion.
The project file for this example is located in “sel\beam\plastic-hinge\plastic-hinge.f3prj.”

Example 1.7 Plastic hinge formation (double-node method)

; File for Plastic hinge formation (double-node method)

set fish autocreate off

new
title "Plastic hinge formation (double-node method)"
;
sel beam id=1 begin=(0,0,0) end=(5,0,0) nseg=1
sel beam id=2 begin=(5,0,0) end=(10,0,0) nseg=1
;
sel link 2 target=node tgt_num=3

FLAC 3D Version 5.01

STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 1 - 53

sel link attach xdir=rigid ydir=rigid zdir=rigid &

xrdir=rigid yrdir=rigid zrdir=nydeform
sel link constit nydeform 6 area=1.0 k=6.4e8 ycomp=25e3 ytens=25e3
;
sel beam prop emod=2.0e11 nu=0.30
sel beam prop XCArea=6e-3 XCIz=200e-6 XCIy=200e-6 XCJ=0.0
;
sel node fix z xr yr ; restrict all non-beam modes
sel node fix y range id=1 ; simple support at left end
sel node fix y range id=4 ; simple support at right end
;
; apply constant vertical velocity to center node-3
; --- must apply velocity to target node.
sel node fix y range id=3
sel node init yvel local -5e-6 range id=3
;
history add id=10 sel node ydisp id=3 ; y-displacement of center node
history add id=30 sel beamsel moment mz end2 cid=1 ; moment
history add id=20 sel beamsel force fy end2 cid=1 ; shear force
;
sel set damp combined
cycle 3000
list sel beam moment
list sel beam force
list sel node disp rot
;
save double

return

We find that the limiting values of moment and shear force are equal to the analytical values of
25 kN-m and 5 kN, respectively (see Figures 1.24 and 1.25). Also, the moment and shear force
distributions correspond with the analytical solution (see Figures 1.26 and 1.27). We also see that
a discontinuity in the rotational motion at the center location has developed; the rotation of nodes
2 and 3 are nonzero and equal and opposite to one another (LIST sel node disp rot).

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1 - 54 Structural Elements

A   a" a  ag  m a"e

N aa "a aa/Yaba% a a a   

-ub-aAa3   a: raA (
a)uuu
vd-1d-ub-ab-pMup)ba,N 
)  A A A3A A 
)uamN aa./Yab
%(ambua&m  aa a a) 




m!Aztb









Aa3   a: raA (        
N  raNUaa, $m!Aztmd

Figure 1.24 Moment at right end of beamSEL 1 versus applied center

displacement (double-node method)

A   a" a  ag  m a"e

"aaa "a aa8Baba% a a a   

-ub-aMa9   a4 raM (
a)uuu
pd-vd-ub-ab-©Su©)ba.N 
* AA AnfA A+Ay 
-ua&m:aa38Bab
%(ambua&m  aa a a)





r!Ayfd


















Ma9   a4 raM (        
N  raNUaa. $r!Ayfrn

Figure 1.25 Shear force at right end of beamSEL 1 versus applied center
displacement (double-node method)

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STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 1 - 55

A   a" a  ag  m a"e

U a     a  a
-ub-a+a8   a5 ra+ (
a)uuu
Id-1d-ub-ab-CMuC)ba9U
 a   a 
-(©uuu4ouM
-(Muuu4ouM
-(-©uu4ouM
-(buuu4ouM
b(I©uu4ouM
b(1uuu4ouM
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0(©uuu4ou)
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)(uuuu4ou)
b(©uuu4ou)
u(uuuu4ouu
m)(u©©)4mb)

+a8   a5 ra+ (

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Figure 1.26 Moment distribution at limit condition (double-node method)

A   a" a  ag  m a"e

"aa     a  a
-ub-a+a:   a7 ra+ (
a)uuu
Id-1d-ub-ab-CSuC)ba/U
 a   a 
0(uuuuAou)
2(uuuuAou)
©(uuuuAou)
S(uuuuAou)
)(uuuuAou)
-(uuuuAou)
b(uuuuAou)
u(uuuuAouu
mb(uuuuAou)
m-(uuuuAou)
m)(uuuuAou)
mS(uuuuAou)
m©(uuuuAou)
m©(uuuuAou)

+a:   a7 ra+ (

U  raUaa/

Figure 1.27 Shear force distribution at limit condition (double-node method)

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1 - 56 Structural Elements

These two examples demonstrate that both the single-node and the double-node methods produce
the same behavior near the limiting moment; however, if we were to continue loading the structure in
a large-strain fashion, then the double-node method would produce more reasonable results because
it would allow a discontinuity to develop in the rotation at the center. We illustrate this behavior
by modifying the double-node example to represent a cantilever beam (fixed at the left end) with
a vertical load applied at the free end (see Example 1.8). The problem is run in large-strain mode,
and the load is specified such that it will remain oriented in the negative y-direction throughout the
simulation.
The project file for this example is located in “sel\beam\plastic-hinge\plastic-hinge.f3prj.”

Example 1.8 Plastic hinge formation in cantilever (double-node method)

; file for Plastic hinge formation in cantilever (double-node method)

set fish autocreate off

new
title "Plastic hinge formation in cantilever (double-node method)"
;
sel beam id=1 begin=(0,0,0) end=(5,0,0) nseg=1
sel beam id=2 begin=(5,0,0) end=(10,0,0) nseg=1
;
sel link 2 target=node tgt_num=3
sel link attach xdir=rigid ydir=rigid zdir=rigid &
xrdir=rigid yrdir=rigid zrdir=nydeform
sel link constit nydeform 6 area=1.0 k=6.4e8 ycomp=25e3 ytens=25e3
;
sel beam prop emod=2.0e11 nu=0.30
sel beam prop XCArea=6e-3 XCIz=200e-6 XCIy=200e-6 XCJ=0.0
;
sel node fix z xr yr ; restrict all non-beam modes
sel node fix x y z xr yr zr range id=1 ; fully fix left end
sel node apply force=(0,-5.5e3,0) range id=4 ; apply force at tip
;
sel set damp combined
set large
cycle 10000

save cantilever

return

The final structural configuration and moment distribution are shown in Figure 1.28. We see that
the double-node method allows a discontinuity to develop in the rotation at the beam center.

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STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 1 - 57

A   a" a  a a  %ag  m a"e

   a    a a a    
bduba5a:   aM ra5 v
audddd
1(b0(bdubaubI)dI-ba/N
 a   a 
mbv)©S)3md-
mbvSddd3od-
mSvdddd3od-
m2vSddd3od-
muvdddd3od)
muvbSdd3od)
muvSddd3od)
muv2Sdd3od)
mbvdddd3od)
mbvbSdd3od)
mbvSddd3od)
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m)vbSdd3od)
m)vSddd3od)
m)v2Sdd3od)
m)v1)1S3od)

5a:   aM ra5 v

N  raNUaa/

Figure 1.28 Final structural configuration and moment distribution in can-

tilever (double-node method)

1.3.5.5 Braced Excavation

The tutorial example in Section 2.2 in the User’s Guide illustrates a collapsing trench. Here,
we support this trench with one strut that braces the excavation walls at the top. The following
command sequence is for the simple case in which the brace is placed immediately upon excavation.
The strut is represented as a single beam composed of two beamSELs, and is created using the SEL
beam command. Use of this command ensures that the two ends of the beam are attached to
the grid such that the translational degrees-of-freedom are rigidly connected and the rotational
degrees-of-freedom are free.
Figure 1.29 shows the position of the brace, and Figure 1.30 illustrates the reduced displacements
in the excavation walls, compared to that shown in Figure 2.2 in Section 2.2 in the User’s Guide.
The project file for this example is located in “sel\beam\braced-support\braced-support.f3prj.”

Example 1.9 Braced support of a vertical excavation

; File for "Braced support with a beam of a vertical excavation"

set fish autocreate off

new
set proc 1
title "Braced support with a beam of a vertical excavation"

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1 - 58 Structural Elements

gen zone brick size 6 8 8

model mech mohr
prop bulk 1e8 shear 0.3e8 fric 35
prop coh 1e10 tens 1e10
set grav 0 0 -9.81
ini dens 1000
fix x range x -0.1 0.1
fix x range x 5.9 6.1
fix y range y -0.1 0.1
fix y range y 7.9 8.1
fix z range z -0.1 0.1
hist n 5
hist add unbal
set mech force 50
solve
save braced_support0
;
prop coh 1e3 tens 1e3
model mech null range x 2 4 y 2 6 z 5 10
set large
ini xdis 0 ydis 0 zdis 0
sel beam begin=( 2, 4, 8) end=( 4, 4, 8) nseg=2
sel beam prop emod=2.0e11 nu=0.30
sel beam prop XCArea=6e-3 XCIz=200e-6 XCIy=200e-6 XCJ=0.0
hist add gp zdisp 4 4 8
solve
save braced_support_final

call braced-support-plot
call braced-support-check

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A 9a a "aaaaa%  a#% 

9a#%  a a "aa
xvlxaya/   aA hay m
a01©
CfxIfxvlxalxg©vgn0a4N
 
/ ga a
DE:
 n   
/ gay8
l
Eaga 
 gavmv1x0xCn

ya/   aA hay m

N  haNEaa4

Figure 1.29 Braced excavation supported with a beam

A 4a a "aaaaa%  a#% 

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xvlxaMa9   a3 haM m
a20D
Ifx1fxvlxalxCDvCn2a7+
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 nc   n 
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bxm02vv8ivn
bxm02vx8ivn

Ma9   a3 haM m

+  ha+Naa7

Figure 1.30 Displacement contours and axial force in strut for braced exca-
vation

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1.4 Cable Structural Elements

Cable and bolt reinforcements in rock have two somewhat different functions. In hard rock subjected
to low magnitude in-situ stress fields, failure is often localized and limited to wedges of rock directly
adjacent to openings. The effect of the rock-bolt reinforcement here is to provide a local resistance
to wedge displacement at the joint surfaces. In some cases, the bending, in addition to the axial
stiffness of the reinforcement, may be important in resisting shear deformations. In FLAC 3D, this
type of bolt action may be modeled using pile structural elements, which have a flexural rigidity
(see Section 1.8.3). If bending effects are not important, cable structural elements are sufficient,
because they provide a shearing resistance (by means of the grout properties) along their length.
One can model reinforcing systems (e.g., cable bolts) in which the bonding agent (grout) may fail
in shear over some length of the reinforcement. The numerical formulation that accounts for this
shear behavior of the grout annulus is described in Section 1.4.1.2.

1.4.1 Mechanical Behavior

Each cable structural element is defined by its geometric, material and grout properties. A cableSEL
is assumed to be a straight segment of uniform cross-sectional and material properties lying between
two nodal points. An arbitrarily curved structural cable can be modeled as a curvilinear structure
composed of a collection of cableSELs. The cableSEL behaves as an elastic, perfectly plastic
material that can yield in tension and compression, but cannot resist a bending moment. A cable
may be grouted such that force develops along its length in response to relative motion between
the cable and the grid. The grout behaves as an elastic, perfectly plastic material, with its peak
strength being confining stress dependent, and with no loss of strength after failure. CableSELs are
suitable for modeling structural-support members in which tensile capacity is important, and for
which axially directed frictional interaction with the rock or soil mass occurs.
Each cableSEL has its own local coordinate system, shown in Figure 1.31. This system is used to
define the average axial cable direction. The cableSEL coordinate system is defined by the locations
of its two nodal points, labeled as 1 and 2 in Figure 1.31. The cableSEL coordinate system is defined
such that
(1) the centroidal axis coincides with the x-axis,
(2) the x-axis is directed from node-1 to node-2, and
(3) the y-axis is aligned with the projection of the global y- or x-direction
(whichever is not parallel with the local x-axis) onto the cross-sectional plane.
The cableSEL coordinate system cannot be modified. It can be viewed with the sel geom plot item
and printed with the LIST sel cable local command. The nodal connectivity can be printed with the
LIST sel cable connect command.
The orientation of the node-local system for all nodes used by cableSELs is set automatically at the
start of a set of cycles (or when the CYCLE 0 command is executed), such that the x-axis is aligned
with the average axial direction of all cableSELs using the node, and the yz-axes are arbitrarily
oriented in the cable cross-sectional plane.

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Cables support large-strain sliding (by setting the slide property to on) whereby the interpolation
locations (used by the cable nodes to transfer forces and velocities to and from the zones – see
Section 1.10.1) will migrate through the grid when running in large-strain mode. This allows one
to calculate the large-strain, post-failure behavior of a cable whereby substantial sliding between
the cable nodes and the zones occurs. If a cable node moves out of all zones, then a connection
with the zones will not be reestablished if the node is later moved back into zones; however, the
connection remains intact as the cable nodes slide between zones.
The two active degrees-of-freedom of the cable finite element are shown in Figure 1.31. For each
axial displacement shown in the figure, there is a corresponding axial force. The stiffness matrix of
the cable finite element includes only this single degree-of-freedom at each node to represent axial
action within a cable structure.

z
u1

1 y

2
u2

Figure 1.31 CableSEL coordinate system and 2 active degrees-of-freedom of

the cable finite element

The following four subsections describe (1) the axial behavior of the cable itself, (2) the shear
behavior of the grout annulus, (3) the normal behavior at the grout interface, and (4) the means by
which cables may be pretensioned. The behavior is described in terms of the cable properties listed
in Section 1.4.3 (refer to this list for a summary of relevant notations).

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1.4.1.1 Axial Behavior

The axial behavior of conventional reinforcement systems may be assumed to be governed entirely
by the reinforcing member itself. The reinforcing member is usually composed of steel, and may be
either a bar or a cable. Because the reinforcing member is slender, it offers little bending resistance
(particularly in the case of a cable), and is treated as a one-dimensional structural member with
the capacity to sustain uniaxial tension. (Compression is also allowed; however, when modeling
support that is primarily loaded in compression, pile structural elements are recommended.)
A one-dimensional constitutive model is adequate for describing the axial behavior of the reinforcing
member. The axial stiffness, K, is determined based on the reinforcement cross-sectional area, A,
Young’s modulus, E, and cableSEL length, L, by the relation

AE
K= (1.17)
L

A tensile- and compressive-yield strength, Ft and Fc , may be assigned to the cableSEL such that
cable forces that are greater than these limits cannot develop (see Figure 1.32). If either Ft or Fc is
not specified, the cable will have infinite strength for loading in that direction.

axial force
(tension)
Ft

EA
1
(contraction) axial strain
(extension)

Fc

(compression)

Figure 1.32 Cable material behavior for cableSELs

In evaluating the axial forces that develop in the reinforcement, displacements are computed at nodal
points along the reinforcement axis, as shown in Figure 1.33. Out-of-balance forces at each node
are computed from axial force in the reinforcement, as well as shear forces contributed through

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STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 1 - 63

shear interaction along the grout annulus. Axial displacements are computed by integrating the
nodal accelerations using the out-of-balance axial force and a mass lumped at each node.

Reinforcing
Element (Steel)

Grout Annulus

EXCAVATION

m
Axial Stiffness
of Steel
m

Slider
Reinforcement m (Cohesive Strength of Grout)
Nodal Point
Spring
(Shear Stiffness of Grout)

Figure 1.33 Mechanical representation of fully bonded reinforcement

1.4.1.2 Shear Behavior of Grout Annulus

The shear behavior of the cable-rock interface is cohesive and frictional in nature. The system is
idealized (as shown in Figure 1.34(a)), and represented numerically as a spring-slider system located
at the nodal points along the cable axis (as shown in Figure 1.33). The shear behavior of the grout
annulus during relative shear displacement between the cable/grout interface and the grout/rock
interface (as shown in Figure 1.34(b)) is described numerically by (1) the grout shear stiffness, kg ,
(2) the grout cohesive strength, cg , (3) the grout friction angle, φg , (4) the grout exposed perimeter,
pg , and (5) the effective confining stress, σm (Figure 1.34(c)). The mechanical behavior of the
grouted-cable system is depicted in terms of these parameters in Figure 1.35. Note that the grout
properties associated with each cableSEL are averaged at cable nodes.
The effective confining stress, σm , acts in the plane perpendicular to the cable axis, and is computed
at each nodal point along the cable axis, based on the stress acting in the zone to which the nodal
point is linked. Denote the cable-axis direction as x  , and denote the principal stresses acting in the
y  z -plane as σ1 and σ2 , such that σ1 > σ2 (tension positive). Then the value of σm is taken as

 σ1 + σ2 
σm = − +p (1.18)
2
where p = pore pressure

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1 - 64 Structural Elements

rock x'
cable
S EL-1 SEL-
cable 2

rock

grout cable grout

(a) idealized system
x'

σm
cable

us

(c) effective confining stress (b) relative shear displacement, us

between cable and rock

Figure 1.34 Idealization of grouted-cable system

| Fs | |Fs max |
L L

|Fs max |
L
φg
kg
1 cg

| us | (tension) σm pg
(compression)
(a) shear force/length versus
relative shear displacement, us (b) shear-strength criterion

Figure 1.35 Grout material behavior for cableSELs

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In computing the relative displacement at the cable-rock interface, an interpolation scheme is used
to calculate the displacement of the rock in the cable axial direction at each cable node, based
on the displacement field in the zone to which the node is linked. The interpolation scheme uses
weighting factors that are determined by the distance to each of the gridpoints of the zone. The
same interpolation scheme is used to apply forces developed at the cable-rock interface back to the
gridpoints of the zone.
1.4.1.3 Normal Behavior at Grout Interface

As explained above, an interpolated estimate of grid velocity is made at each cable node. The
velocity normal to the cable-axis direction is transferred directly to the node (i.e., the cable node is
“slaved” to the grid motion in the normal direction). The node exerts no normal force on the grid if
the two cableSELs that share the node are colinear; however, if the two cableSELs are not colinear,
then a proportion of their axial forces will act in the normal direction. This net force acts both on
the grid and on the cable node (in opposite directions). Thus, an initially straight cable can sustain
normal loading if it is allowed finite deflection, using the large-strain solution mode.
1.4.1.4 Pretensioning

Cables may be pretensioned via the SEL cable pretension command. A positive value assigns a
tensile axial force into all of the cableSELs comprising the cable. It is important to note that
the cable with specified pretension is initially unlikely to be in equilibrium with other structural
elements or the FLAC 3D grid to which it is linked. In other words, some displacement of the cable
nodes and linked entities is probably required to achieve equilibrium, and these displacements will
likely result in some loss of the initial pretension.
In practice, pretensioned cables may be fully grouted, or they may be left ungrouted over part of
their length. In either case, some anchorage length is provided (usually at the far end) to support
the cable during pretensioning. To simulate this pretensioning in FLAC 3D, one need only specify
anchorage properties for the cableSELs comprising the anchorage length, and other properties (e.g.,
cg = 0) for the cableSELs comprising the free length.
As an alternative to specifying a pretension to the free length, a load can be applied to the free end
via the SEL node apply command. After equilibrating forces have developed in the anchorage, the
loaded node can be connected to the FLAC 3D grid or to another structural element. The procedure
for subsequent grouting of the free length is simply to change the grout properties of the cableSELs
comprising the free length to appropriate values for a grouted section.

1.4.2 Response Quantities

Cable responses include force, stress and yield state of the cableSEL itself, and stress, displacement
and slip state of the shear coupling springs that represent the grout. Additional coupling-spring
information includes the current loading direction and the confining stress. The cable responses
can be accessed via FISH and
(1) printed with the LIST sel cable type command, where type = {force, grout,
nforce, stress, yield},

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1 - 66 Structural Elements

(2) monitored with the HISTORY add sel cablesel command, and
(3) plotted with the sel cabcontour and sel cabstate plot items.
The sign of the grout stress refers to the average axial cable direction such that positive grout stresses
act on the cable in the positive average axial cable direction. This sign convention assumes that
the set of cableSELs comprising the cable are oriented consistently, such that their local coordinate
systems form a continuous description of the cable orientation. Such will be the case if the cable is
created using the SEL cable command. The nodes of each cableSEL so created will be ordered such
that the overall cable direction goes from the begin to the end point (i.e., the nodal connectivity of
each cableSEL will be ordered such that the direction from end 1 to end 2 corresponds with the
direction from the begin point to the end point). The nodal connectivity can be printed with the
LIST sel cable connect command.

1.4.3 Properties

Each cableSEL possesses 12 properties:

(1) density mass density, ρ (optional – needed if dynamic mode or
gravity is active) [M/L3 ]
(2) emod Young’s modulus, E [F/L2 ]
(3) gr coh grout cohesive strength (force) per unit length, cg [F/L]
(4) gr fric grout friction angle, φg [degrees]
(5) gr k grout stiffness per unit length, kg [F/L2 ]
(6) gr per grout exposed perimeter, pg [L]
(7) slide large-strain sliding flag (default: off)
(8) slide tol large-strain sliding tolerance
(9) thexp thermal-expansion coefficient, αt [1/T]
(optional – used for thermal analysis)
(10) xcarea cross-sectional area, A [L2 ]
(11) ycomp compressive yield strength (force), Fc [F]
(12) ytension tensile yield strength (force), Ft [F]

The area, modulus and yield strength of the cable are usually readily available from handbooks,
manufacturer’s specifications, etc. The grout properties are more difficult to estimate. The grout
annulus is assumed to behave as an elastic-perfectly plastic solid. As a result of relative shear dis-
placement, ut , between the tendon surface and the borehole surface, the shear force, F t , mobilized
per length of cable is related to the grout stiffness, kg :

F t = kg ut (1.19)

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Usually, kg can be measured directly in laboratory pull-out tests. Alternatively, the stiffness can
be calculated from a numerical estimate for the elastic shear stress, τG , obtained from an equation
describing the shear stress at the grout/rock interface (St. John and Van Dillen 1983):

G u
τG = (1.20)
(D/2 + t) ln(1 + 2t/D)

where: u = relative displacement between the element and the surrounding material;
G = grout shear modulus;
D = reinforcing diameter; and
t = annulus thickness.
Consequently, the grout shear stiffness, kg , is simply given by

2π G
kg = (1.21)
ln (1 + 2t/D)

In many cases, the following expression has been found to provide a reasonable estimate of kg for
use in FLAC 3D :

2π G
kg  (1.22)
10 ln (1 + 2t/D)

The one-tenth factor helps to account for the relative shear displacement that occurs between the
host-zone gridpoints and the borehole surface. This relative shear displacement is not accounted
for in the present formulation.
The maximum shear force per cable length in the grout is determined by the relation illustrated in
Figure 1.35. The values for bond cohesive strength, cg , and friction angle, φg , can be estimated
from the results of pull-out tests conducted at different confining pressures or, should such results
not be available, the maximum force per length may be approximated from the peak shear strength
(St. John and Van Dillen 1983):

τpeak = τI QB (1.23)

where τI is approximately one-half of the uniaxial compressive strength of the weaker of the rock
and grout, and QB is the quality of the bond between the grout and rock (QB = 1 for perfect
bonding).
Neglecting frictional confinement effects, cg may then be obtained from

cg = π(D + 2t) τpeak (1.24)

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1 - 68 Structural Elements

Failure of reinforcing systems does not always occur at the grout/rock interface. Failure may occur
at the reinforcing/grout interface, as is often true for cable reinforcing. In such cases, the shear
stress should be evaluated at this interface. This means that the expression (D + 2t) is replaced by
(D) in Eq. (1.24).
The calculation of cableSEL properties is demonstrated by the following example. A 25.4 mm
(1 inch)-diameter locked-coil cable was installed at 2.5 m spacing. The reinforcing system is
characterized by several properties:

cable diameter (D) 25.4 mm

hole diameter (D + 2t) 38 mm
cable modulus (E) 98.6 GPa
cable ultimate tensile capacity 0.548 MN
grout compressive strength 20 MPa
grout shear modulus (Gg ) 9 GPa
friction (ignored) 0

Two independent methods are used in evaluating the maximum shear force in the grout. In the first
method, the bond shear strength is assumed to be one-half the uniaxial compressive strength of
the grout. If the grout-material compressive strength is 20 MPa, and the grout is weaker than the
surrounding rock, the grout shear strength is then 10 MPa.
In the second method, reported pull-out data are used to estimate the grout shear strength. The
report presents results for 15.9 mm (5/8 inch)-diameter steel cables grouted with a 0.15 m (5.9
inch) bond length in holes of varying depths. The testing indicated capacities of roughly 70 kN.
If a surface area of 0.0075 m2 (0.15 m × 0.05 m) is assumed for the cables, then the calculated
maximum shear strength of the grout is

70 x 103 N
2
= 9.33 x 106 N/m2 = 9.33 MPa
0.0075 m

This value agrees closely with the 10 MPa estimated above, and either value could be used. As-
suming failure occurs at the cable/grout interface, the maximum bond force per length is (using
Eq. (1.24) with D + 2t replaced by D)

cg = π (0.0254 m) (10 MPa) = 800 kN/m

The grout stiffness, kg , is estimated from Eq. (1.22). For the assumed values shown above, a grout
stiffness of 1.5 × 1010 N/m m is calculated.

Another example estimation of grout properties from pull-out tests is presented in Section 10 in the
Examples volume.

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1.4.4 Associated Commands

All of the commands associated with cables are listed in this section. They are divided into those
commands that allow one to create cables and specify cable properties, print and plot properties and
responses, and monitor responses. Note that all boundary and initial conditions, with the exception
of pretension forces applied to cables, are specified with the SEL node command. See Section 1 in
the Command Reference for detailed descriptions of all of the commands.

Table 1.8 Cable commands (create and specify properties)

SEL cablesel nodes nd1,nd2
SEL cable begin x,y,z end x,y,z
SEL cable keyword
pretension value
property keyword
(1) density value
(2) emod value
(3) gr coh value
(4) gr fric value
(5) gr k value
(6) gr per value
(7) slide on/off
(8) slide tol value
(9) thexp value
(10) xcarea value
(11) ycomp value
(12) ytension value

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Table 1.9 Cable commands (print properties and

responses)
LIST sel cable keyword
connect
elemtype
force
group
grout keyword
confinement
displacement
slip
stress
id
length
local
nforce
position
property keyword
stress
surfarea
volume
yield

Table 1.10 Cable commands (monitor responses)

HISTORY add sel cablesel keyword
force
grout keyword
disp
slip
stress
stress
yield

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1.4.5 Example Applications

Simple examples are given to illustrate the use of cables.

1.4.5.1 Cable-Reinforced Beam

This example illustrates the behavior of a simply supported, lightly reinforced beam subjected to
gravity loading. CableSELs are used to represent the reinforcement. The input commands are listed
in Example 1.10.
A vertical crack is created through the beam center by adding a zero-strength interface. If the model
is run without reinforcement (by removing the SEL cable commands), the system behaves as two
separate pieces that separate at the interface – the two blocks are supported on rollers; thus they can
move away from one another as the system collapses (see Figure 1.36).

A
,rp,00T   0U l0 g
0.rrr
8G,/G,rp,0p,:Sr:pp0E
 
T :0U 000000E 
'HN
$U*

0T   0U l0 g

  l000E

Figure 1.36 Structural configuration after 3540 cycles (no cable present)

If the model is rerun with a cable inserted within the beam near its bottom fiber, then the cable
carries the tension that develops in the lower portion of the beam. The final axial force distribution
in the cable after the model has stabilized is shown in Figure 1.37. These tensile forces in the cable
are produced by the grout stresses that have developed along the cable length (see Figure 1.38).
The maximum vertical center-line displacement is approximately 10 mm.

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A
,rp,050T   0m l05 g
0SSrp
8G,/G,rp,0p,:Sr:p,0E
 
  :0 0
T :0m 000000E 
3Hx
$5m6
 
  :0 0
#  :0rgrr884/8
 :04,gr/r8
n* 
egp8SrHure
egrrrrHure
Sg9errHure
SgerrrHure
Sg,errHure
SgrrrrHure
.g9errHure
.gerrrHure
.g,errHure
.grrrrHure
,g9errHure
,gerrrHure
,g,errHure
,grrrrHure
pg9errHure
pgerrrHure
pg,errHure
pgpp4.Hure

Figure 1.37 Final axial force distribution in cable

A
,rp,030T   0m l03 g
0SSrp
8G,/G,rp,0p,:Sr:p,0E7
 
  :0 0
T :0m 000000E 
-Hx
$3m6
 
  :0 0
7#  :0rgrr884/8
 :04,gr/r8
n  , n 
.ge/e4Hure
.gerrrHure
.grrrrHure
,gerrrHure
,grrrrHure
pgerrrHure
pgrrrrHure
egrrrrHurS
rgrrrrHurr
iegrrrrHurS
ipgrrrrHure
ipgerrrHure
i,grrrrHure
i,gerrrHure
i.grrrrHure
i.gerrrHure
i.ge/e9Hure

30T   0m l03 g

7  l07N00E

Figure 1.38 Final grout stress distribution

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The average axial direction of the cable goes from left to right, corresponding with the orientation
of the begin and end points given with the SEL cable command. In Figure 1.38, we see that the
grout stresses are positive on the right side of the cable and negative on the left side of the cable.
These values can be printed with the LIST sel cable grout stress command.
In the previous model, the grout cohesive strength was set to a very large value to prevent grout
failure. If we set the grout cohesive strength equal to 1.5 × 105 N/m and rerun the model, we
find that the system still stabilizes; however, during the loading process the grout yields (cable
slips) in the middle region (see Figure 1.39). The grout stress in this region is equal to the grout
cohesive strength (see Figure 1.40), the tensile force is distributed farther along the cable (compare
Figures 1.37 and 1.41), and the maximum vertical centerline displacement has increased from 10
mm to 11.5 mm.

A
,rp,0m0E   0H l0m g
04pS.
9G,3G,rp,0p,/Sr/p,0yY
 
U  /0 0
E /0H 000000y 
OTR
$mHx
 
U  /0 0
Y#  /0rgrpperr4
 /0e.g3p9
n  , n  
DW0&mTOF
&mTOF0mD0Uy
&mTOFmDH0DW;

m0E   0H l0m g

Y  l0YD00y

Figure 1.39 Final grout slip state (reduced grout cohesive strength)

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A
,rp,0m0E   0H l0m g
04pS.
9G,3G,rp,0p,/Sr/p,0yN
 
  /0 0
E /0H 000000y 
-TR
$mHx
 
  /0 0
N#  /0rgrpperr4
 /0e.g3p9
n  , n 
pgS939Ture
pg,errTure
pgrrrrTure
4gerrrTurS
egrrrrTurS
,gerrrTurS
rgrrrrTurr
i,gerrrTurS
iegrrrrTurS
i4gerrrTurS
ipgrrrrTure
ipg,errTure
ipgS939Ture

m0E   0H l0m g

N  l0NU00y

Figure 1.40 Final grout stress distribution (reduced grout cohesive strength)

A
,rp,0m0E   0H l0m g
04pS.
9G,3G,rp,0p,/Sr/p,0y
 
  /0 0
E /0H 000000y 
'TR
$mHx
 
  /0 0
#  /0rgrpperr4
 /0e.g3p9
n* 
Sg949STure
Sg4errTure
SgerrrTure
Sg,errTure
SgrrrrTure
.g4errTure
.gerrrTure
.g,errTure
.grrrrTure
,g4errTure
,gerrrTure
,g,errTure
,grrrrTure
pg4errTure
pgerrrTure
pg,errTure
pgrrrrTure
4gerrrTurS
eg94r,TurS

Figure 1.41 Final axial force distribution in cable (reduced grout cohesive
strength)

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The project file for this example is located in “sel\cable\reinforced-beam\reinforced-beam.f3prj.”

Example 1.10 Cable-reinforced beam

new
title "Cable-reinforced beam"
; Create beam (composed of zones) with zero-strength interface at center
gen zone brick size 6 1 3 group left
gen zone brick size 6 1 3 p0 (6,0,0) nomerge group right
interface 1 face range plane norm (1,0,0) origin 6,0,0 dist 0.1 group right
interface 1 prop kn 1e10 ks 1e10 fric 0
interface 1 ctolerance 1e-2
model mech elas
prop bulk 1e9 shear .3e9
ini dens 2400
fix z range z 0.0 x 0.0 ; roller support, left end
fix z range z 0.0 x 12 ; roller support, right end
fix y
set grav 0,0,-10
set large
hist add unbal
hist add gp zdisp 6,1,0
save cable-rb-start
;
; Run problem with no cable present
ini damp combined
cycle 3000
save cable-rb-no
;
; Now rerun problem with a cable present
rest cable-rb-start
;
sel cable id=1 begin=(0.1, 0.5, 0.1) end=(11.9, 0.5, 0.1) nseg=13
sel cable prop xcarea=2e-3 emod=200e9 yTens=1e20 ...
gr_k=1e10 gr_coh=1e20 ; 1e11
;
hist add sel cable force (6,0.5,0)
hist add sel cable grout stress (6,0.5,0)
hist add sel cable grout slip (6,0.5,0)
;
ini damp combined
solve
save cable-rb
;
; Now allow the cable to fail
sel cable prop gr_coh 1.5e5

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;
solve
save cable-rb-fail
;

1.4.5.2 Soil Nailing

This example demonstrates the ability of cable elements to simulate support provided by materials
such as soil nails in the construction of reinforced embankments. In this example, three soil nails
are installed at different levels in a vertical embankment. Two conditions are examined: (1) only
cohesive resistance is assumed between the nails and the soil; and (2) both cohesive and frictional
resistance are included. The data file is listed in Example 1.11. The command
sel cable prop gr per=0.314 gr fric=25

is removed from the data file for the first case.

In the first case, the soil nails are not sufficient to support the embankment. Figure 1.42 shows the
axial forces in the cables, and indicates that the slip condition has been reached in the grout for all
nodes.
In the second case, by including a frictional resistance at the nail/soil interface of 25◦ , the nails
are now sufficient to stabilize the embankment. Figure 1.43 plots the axial forces in the cables for
this case. Note that significantly higher axial forces can now develop as a result of the frictional
resistance.

A
,rp,070F   0x l07 g
0errp
8G,/G,rp,0p,:Sr:p/0DN
 
W  :0 0
F :0x 000000D 
ULTD)
 
W  :0 0
N#  :0rgr,9p.8
 :0.r
n  , n  
  0Crlrlrg,o
OY0&7L)U
&7L)U07O0WD
&7L)U7Ox0OY;
n* 
.g9S89Lur,
.gerrrLur,
.g,errLur,
.grrrrLur,
,g9errLur,
,gerrrLur,
,g,errLur,
,grrrrLur,
pg9errLur,
pgerrrLur,
pg,errLur,
pgrrrrLur,
9gerrrLurp
egrrrrLurp
,g9rSpLurp

Figure 1.42 Axial forces in nails with only cohesive strength at soil/nail in-
terface (the embankment is collapsing)

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A
,rp,060F   0x l06 g
0errp
8G,/G,rp,0p,:Sr:p/0D)
 
Y  :0 0
F :0x 000000D 
ULTD(
 
Y  :0 0
)#  :0rgrr,e5S9S
 :0.r
n  , n  
  0Crlrlrg,o
NO0&6L(U
&6L(U06N0YD
&6L(U6Nx0NO;
n* 
pg,88pLurS
pg,rrrLurS
pgprrrLurS
pgrrrrLurS
8grrrrLur.
/grrrrLur.
9grrrrLur.
5grrrrLur.
egrrrrLur.
SgrrrrLur.
.grrrrLur.
,grrrrLur.
pg,..8Lur.

60F   0x l06 g

)  l0)N00D

Figure 1.43 Axial forces in nails with both frictional and cohesive strength at
soil/nail interface (the embankment is stable)

The project file for this example is located in “sel\cable\soil-nailing\soil-nailing.f3prj.”

Example 1.11 Soil nailing support

new
title "Soil nailing (using cables)"
gen zone brick size 11 1 11
model mech mohr
prop bulk 5e9 shear 1e9 coh 4e4 fric 30
ini dens 2000
fix x z range z 0
fix x range x 0
fix x range x 11
fix y
;
ini szz = -2.2e5 grad 0,0,2e4
ini sxx = -1.32e5 grad 0,0,1.2e4
ini syy = -0.88e5 grad 0,0,0.8e4
set grav 0,0,-10
;
hist add unbal
hist add gp xdisp 0,0,11

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;
solve
;
free x range x 0.0
;
sel cable id=1 begin=(0.0, 0.5, 3.5) end=(8, 0.5, 3.5) nseg=8
sel cable id=2 begin=(0.0, 0.5, 6.5) end=(8, 0.5, 6.5) nseg=8
sel cable id=3 begin=(0.0, 0.5, 9.5) end=(8, 0.5, 9.5) nseg=8
sel cable prop xcarea=5.02e-3 emod=200e9 ytens=1e10 ...
gr_k=7e6 gr_coh=1e2
save cable-sn-start
;
step 5000
save cable-sn
;
; Re-run with lower friction
rest cable-sn-start
sel cable prop gr_per=0.314 gr_fric=25
;
step 5000
save cable-sn-fric
;
return

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1.5 Pile Structural Elements

1.5.1 Mechanical Behavior

Each pile structural element is defined by its geometric, material and coupling-spring properties. A
pileSEL is assumed to be a straight segment of uniform, bisymmetrical cross-sectional properties
lying between two nodal points. An arbitrarily curved structural pile can be modeled as a curvilinear
structure composed of a collection of pileSELs. The stiffness matrix of a pileSEL is identical to
that of a beamSEL; however, in addition to providing the structural behavior of a beam (including
the ability to specify a limiting plastic moment), both a normal-directed (perpendicular to the pile
axis) and a shear-directed (parallel with the pile axis) frictional interaction occurs between the pile
and the grid. In this sense, piles offer the combined features of beams and cables. In addition to
skin-friction effects, end-bearing effects can also be modeled (see Section 1.5.5.1). PileSELs are
suitable for modeling structural-support members, such as foundation piles, for which both normal-
and shear-directed frictional interaction with the rock or soil mass occurs.
A special material model is also available as an extension to the pile element, to simulate the behavior
of rockbolt reinforcement. The model is activated by specifying SEL pile property rockbolt on, and
includes the ability to account for changes in confining stress around the reinforcement, strain-
softening behavior of the material between the pile and the grid, and tensile rupture of the pile.
Each pileSEL has its own local coordinate system, shown in Figure 1.44. This system is used to
specify both the cross-sectional moments of inertia and applied distributed loading, and to define
the sign convention for force and moment distributions across pileSELs that comprise a single pile
(see Figure 1.48). The pileSEL coordinate system is defined by the locations of its two nodal points,
labeled 1 and 2 in Figure 1.44, and by the vector Y. The pileSEL coordinate system is defined such
that
(1) the centroidal axis coincides with the x-axis,
(2) the x-axis is directed from node-1 to node-2, and
(3) the y-axis is aligned with the projection of Y onto the cross-sectional plane
(i.e., the plane whose normal is directed along the x-axis).
The pileSEL coordinate system can be modified with the SEL pile property ydirection command. (If
Y is not specified, or is parallel with the local x-axis, then Y defaults to the global y- or x-direction –
whichever is not parallel with the local x-axis.) The pileSEL coordinate system can be viewed with
the sel geom plot item, and printed with the LIST sel pile local command. The nodal connectivity
can be printed with the LIST sel pile connect command.
The orientation of the node-local system for all nodes used by pileSELs is set automatically at the
start of a set of cycles (or when the CYCLE 0 command is executed), such that the x-axis is aligned
with the average axial direction of all pileSELs using the node, and the yz-axes are arbitrarily
oriented in the pile cross-sectional plane.

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Piles support large-strain sliding (by setting the slide property to on), whereby the interpolation
locations (used by the pile nodes to transfer forces and velocities to and from the zones – see
Section 1.10.1) will migrate through the grid when running in large-strain mode. This allows one
to calculate the large-strain, post-failure behavior of a pile, whereby substantial sliding between the
pile nodes and the zones occurs. If a pile node moves out of all zones, then a connection with the
zones will not be reestablished if the node is later moved back into zones; however, the connection
remains intact as the pile nodes slide between zones.
Piles interact with the grid via shear and normal coupling springs. The coupling springs are
nonlinear, spring-slider connectors that transfer forces and motion between the pile and the grid
at the pile nodes (by way of the link emanating from each pile node). The behavior of the shear
coupling springs is identical to the shear behavior of a grouted cable, as described in Section 1.4.1.2.
The behavior of the normal coupling springs includes the ability to model load reversal and the
formation of a gap between the pile and the grid. The normal coupling springs can simulate the effect
of the host medium squeezing around the pile. The formulations for the shear and normal coupling
springs and the rockbolt logic are presented in the following three subsections. The behavior is
described in terms of the pileSEL properties listed in Section 1.5.3 (refer to this list for a summary
of relevant notations).

θz1
θx1
w1 u1

1 v1
θy1
y
θz2

w2
2
u2
v2
θy2
θx2

Figure 1.44 PileSEL coordinate system and 12 active degrees-of-freedom of

the beam finite element used by each pileSEL

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1.5.1.1 Behavior of Shear Coupling Springs

The shear behavior of the pile-grid interface is cohesive and frictional in nature. It is modeled in the
same way as the grouted-cable system (described in Section 1.4.1.2), in which the grout properties
are replaced by the corresponding shear coupling spring properties of (1) stiffness, ks , (2) cohesive
strength, cs , (3) friction angle, φs , and (4) exposed perimeter, p. The mechanical behavior of the
pile in the shear direction is depicted in terms of these parameters, as well as the effective confining
stress, σm (also defined in Section 1.4.1.2), in Figure 1.45. Note that the shear coupling spring
properties associated with each pileSEL are averaged at pile nodes.

| Fs | |Fs max |
L L

|Fs max |
L
φs
ks
1 cs

| us | (tension) σm p
(compression)
(a) shear force/length versus
relative shear displacement, us (b) shear-strength criterion

Figure 1.45 Shear-directional material behavior for pileSELs

1.5.1.2 Behavior of Normal Coupling Springs

The normal behavior of the pile-grid interface is cohesive and frictional in nature. It is modeled in a
fashion similar to the grouted-cable system, and is represented numerically as a spring-slider system
located at the nodal points along the pile axis, as shown in Figure 1.33. The normal behavior of the
pile-grid interface, during relative normal displacement, un , between the pile and the host medium
(as shown in Figure 1.46) is described numerically by the normal coupling spring properties of
(1) stiffness, kn , (2) cohesive strength, cn , (3) friction angle, φn , (4) exposed perimeter, p, and (5)
gap-use flag, g. The mechanical behavior of the pile in the normal direction is depicted in terms
of these parameters, as well as the effective confining stress, σm (defined in Section 1.4.1.2), in
Figure 1.47. Note that the normal coupling spring properties associated with each pileSEL are
averaged at pile nodes.

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x'

-2
z'

EL
eS
portion of host medium

pil
(fixed)
y'

un

y'z'-plane

pileSEL-1
pile cross-sectional plane

displaced position

(a) relative normal displacement, un

between pile and host medium

Figure 1.46 Idealization of normal-directional behavior of pileSELs

| Fn | |Fnmax |
L L

|Fnmax |
L
φn
kn
1 cn

| un | (tension) σm p
g = on g = off
(compression)
(a) normal force/length versus
relative normal displacement, un (b) normal-strength criterion

Figure 1.47 Normal-directional material behavior for pileSELs

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When a pile is loaded laterally, a gap may open between the pile and the host medium. If the load is
reversed, the pile first must traverse this gap before it can load the host medium on the opposite side.
The effect of a gap is considered by setting the gap-use flag to on. In the current implementation of
gap behavior, two gap values are stored for each of the two normal directions of the link emanating
from each pile node. The two gap values record positive and negative relative displacements along
their corresponding direction. Thus, the “gap” appears as a parallelogram with its sides oriented
parallel with the y  z -axes of Figure 1.46. Initially, each pile node has no gap, and the gap grows
independently in the two normal directions during relative normal displacements occurring while
the maximum normal force is acting. The gap does not close, it only expands. The size of the gap
can be accessed via FISH and printed with the LIST sel pile coupling yield normal command.
1.5.1.3 Rockbolt Behavior

An extension of the pileSEL logic is available to simulate the behavior of rockbolt reinforcement.
The behavior of these elements is similar to the behavior of cable elements, except that they also
include bending resistance. By invoking the SEL pile property rockbolt on command, the following
additional behavior is included in the pileSEL.
1. The pileSEL itself may yield in the axial direction. The yield strength is
specified by the property (tyield).
2. Rockbolt breakage is simulated based upon a user-defined tensile failure strain
(tfstrain). A strain measure, based on adding the axial and bending plastic
ax , is accu-
strains, is evaluated at each pile node. The axial plastic strain, εpl
mulated based on the average strain of pileSELs using the node. The bending
plastic strain is averaged over the pileSEL and then accumulated. The total
plastic tensile strain, εpl , is then calculated by

d θpl
εpl = ax
εpl + (1.25)
2 L
where: d = rockbolt diameter;
L = pileSEL length; and
θ = average angular rotation over the pileSEL.
If this strain exceeds the limit, tfstrain, the forces and moment in this pileSEL
are set to zero, and the pileSEL is assumed to have failed.
3. The effective confining stress acting on the pileSEL is based on the change
in stress since installation. Stresses in the grid around the pileSEL are stored
when the element is installed and, as calculation progresses, the effective
confining stress around the element is calculated as the change in stress from
the installation state. (For the default pileSEL, the effective confining stress is
based on the current stress state in the zones surrounding the pile.)

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4. A user-defined table (cs cftable) can be specified to give a correction factor for
the effective confining stress, in cases of non-isotropic stress, as a function of a
deviatoric stress ratio. By default, the confining stress acting on piles is given
by Eq. (1.18). By specifying a table with cs cftable and setting the cs cfincr
flag, factors are applied to the value of σm to account for non-isotropic stresses.
5. Softening as a function of shear displacement for the shear coupling-spring
cohesion and friction angle properties can be prescribed via the user-defined
tables cs sctable and cs sftable.

1.5.2 Response Quantities

Pile responses include force and moment acting on the pile itself, and stress, displacement and
yield state in both the normal and shear coupling springs. Additional coupling-spring information
includes the current loading direction, the confining stress and the gap being tracked by the normal
springs. The pile responses can be accessed via FISH, and
(1) printed with the LIST sel pile type command, where type = {coupling, force,
nforce, moment},
(2) monitored with the HISTORY add sel pilesel command, and
(3) plotted with the sel pcontour and sel pstate plot items.
The sign convention in Figure 1.48 provides a continuous description of force and moment distribu-
tions across pileSELs that comprise a single pile. It assumes that the set of pileSELs comprising the
pile are oriented consistently, such that their local coordinate systems form a continuous description
of the pile orientation. Such will be the case if the pile is created using the SEL pile command. The
nodes of each pileSEL so created will be ordered such that the overall pile direction goes from the
begin point to the end point (i.e., the nodal connectivity of each pileSEL will be ordered such that
the direction from end 1 to end 2 corresponds with the direction from the begin point to the end
point). The nodal connectivity can be printed with the LIST sel pile connect command.

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Figure 1.48 Sign convention for forces and moments at the ends of a pileSEL
(Axes show pileSEL coordinate system, ends 1 and 2 correspond
with order in nodal connectivity list, and all quantities are drawn
acting in their positive sense.)

1.5.3 Properties

Each pileSEL possesses 20 properties (an additional 7 properties control the rockbolt logic and are
listed in Section 1.5.3.1):
(1) cs ncoh normal coupling spring cohesion per unit length, cn [F/L]
(2) cs nfric normal coupling spring friction angle, φn [degrees]
(3) cs ngap normal coupling spring gap-use flag, g (default: off)
(4) cs nk normal coupling spring stiffness per unit length, kn [F/L2 ]
(5) cs scoh shear coupling spring cohesion per unit length, cs [F/L]
(6) cs sfric shear coupling spring friction angle, φs [degrees]
(7) cs sk shear coupling spring stiffness per unit length, ks [F/L2 ]
(8) density mass density, ρ (optional – needed if dynamic mode or
gravity is active) [M/L3 ]
(9) emod Young’s modulus, E [F/L2 ]
(10) nu Poisson’s ratio, ν
(11) perimeter exposed perimeter, p [L]

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(12) pmoment plastic moment capacity, M P (optional – if not specified,

M P is assumed to be infinite) [F·L]
(13) slide large-strain sliding flag (default: off)
(14) slide tol large-strain sliding tolerance
(15) thexp thermal-expansion coefficient, αt [1/T]
(16) xcarea cross-sectional area, A [L2 ]
(17) xciy second moment with respect to pileSEL y-axis, Iy [L4 ]
(18) xciz second moment with respect to pileSEL z-axis, Iz [L4 ]
(19) xcj polar moment of inertia, J [L4 ]
(20) ydirection vector Y whose projection onto the pileSEL cross-section
defines the pileSEL y-axis (optional – if not specified,
Y defaults to the global y- or x-direction, whichever is not
parallel with the pileSEL x-axis)

The material behavior is described by properties 1-5, and the cross-sectional geometry is described
by properties 6-10. For a general cross-section, shown in Figure 1.8, the polar moment of inertia, J ,
and second moments, Iy and Iz , are defined in the pileSEL coordinate system xyz by the integrals
of Eq. (1.8), in which the two principal axes of the cross section are defined by the pileSEL y- and
z-axes. The behavior of the shear and normal coupling springs is described by properties 11-20.
Pile element properties are determined in a fashion similar to that used for beam elements (see
Section 1.3.3).
The exposed perimeter of a pile element and the properties of the coupling springs should be
chosen to represent the behavior of the pile/medium interface commensurate with the problem
being analyzed. For piles in soil, the pile/soil interaction can be expressed in terms of a shear
response along the length of the pile shaft as a result of axial loading (e.g., a friction pile), or in
terms of a normal response when the direction of loading is perpendicular to the pile axis (e.g.,
piles used to stabilize a slope).
Pile/soil interaction will depend on whether the pile was driven or cast-in-place. The interaction is
expressed in terms of the shear resistance that can develop along the length of the pile. For example,
driven friction piles receive most of their support by friction or adhesion from the soil along the
pile shaft. A cast-in-place end-bearing pile, on the other hand, receives the majority of its support
from soil near the tip of the pile.
In many cases, properties needed to describe the site-specific response of the pile/soil interaction
will not be available. However, a reasonable understanding of the soil properties at the site is usually
provided from standard in-situ and laboratory tests. In such cases, the pile/soil shear response can
be estimated from the soil properties. If the failure associated with the pile/soil response is assumed
to occur in the soil, then the lower limits for cs sfric and cs scoh can be related to the angle of
internal friction of the soil (for cs sfric) and the soil cohesion times the perimeter of the pile (for
cs scoh). If failure is assumed to occur at the pile/soil interface, the values for cs sfric and cs scoh
may be reduced to reflect the smoothness of the pile surface.

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1.5.3.1 Rockbolt Properties

If the rockbolt logic is active (SEL pile property rockbolt on), then 7 properties can also be assigned
(in addition to those listed in Section 1.5.3):
(21) cs cfincr flag to activate incremental confining stress logic (default: off)
(22) cs cftable number of table relating effective confining stress
factor to deviatoric stress
(23) cs sctable number of table relating cohesion of shear coupling
spring to relative shear displacement
(24) cs sftable number of table relating friction angle of shear
coupling spring to relative shear displacement
(25) rockbolt flag to activate rockbolt logic (default: off)
(26) tfstrain tensile failure strain (nondimensional)
(27) tyield axial tensile yield strength (force units), [F]

Examples that illustrate the effect of these properties are given in Section 10 in the Examples
volume.

1.5.4 Associated Commands

All of the commands associated with piles are listed in this section. They are divided into those
commands that allow one to create piles and specify pile properties, print and plot properties and
responses, and monitor responses. Note that all boundary and initial conditions, with the exception
of distributed loads applied to pile surfaces, are specified with the SEL node command. See Section 1
in the Command Reference for detailed descriptions of all of the commands.

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Table 1.11 Pile commands (create and specify properties)

SEL pilesel nodes nd1,nd2
SEL pile begin x,y,z end x,y,z
SEL pile keyword
apply keyword
ydist value
zdist value
property keyword
(1) density value
(2) emod value
(3) nu value
(4) pmoment value
(5) thexp value
(6) xcarea value
(7) xciy value
(8) xciz value
(9) xcj value
(10) ydirection Yx,Yy,Yz
(11) cs scoh value
(12) cs sfric value
(13) cs sk value
(14) cs ncoh value
(15) cs nfric value
(16) cs ngap on/off
(17) cs nk value
(18) perimeter value
(19) slide on/off
(20) slide tol value

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Table 1.12 Pile commands (rockbolt properties)

SEL pile property keyword
(21) cs cfincr on/off
(22) cs cftable value
(23) cs sctable value
(24) cs sftable value
(25) rockbolt on/off
(26) tfstrain value
(27) tyield value

Table 1.13 Pile commands (print properties and

responses)
LIST sel pile keyword
apply
connect
coupling keyword
confinement
displacement
stress
yield
elemtype
force
group
id
length
local
moment
nforce
position
property keyword
surfarea
volume

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Table 1.14 Pile commands (monitor responses)

HISTORY add sel pilesel keyword
coupling keyword
disp
stress
yield
force keyword
Fx
Fy
Fz
moment keyword
Mx
My
Mz

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1.5.5 Example Applications

Simple examples are given to illustrate the use of piles.

1.5.5.1 Axially Loaded Pile

Piles transfer axial loads to the ground via two mechanisms: skin friction along the shaft, and
end-bearing. The pile logic directly includes skin-friction effects, and end-bearing effects can be
included by making a small modification to the linkage at the bottom pile node. Both effects are
examined in this example.
Skin Friction – The ultimate bearing capacity of a single pile of length L in a cohesionless soil is a
function of the shaft resistance due to skin friction, as given by (Cernica 1995)

Qs = Li (as )i (ss )i (1.26)

i

where: Li = increment i of pile length;

(as )i = area of pile surface in length L in contact with soil; and
(ss )i = unit shaft resistance.
For uniform soil conditions and constant pile cross-section, ss and as are constant, and

Qs = Las ss (1.27)

In free-draining cohesionless soil, the value for ss is assumed to equal

ss = Ks σavg tan φs (1.28)

where: Ks = average coefficient of earth pressure on the pile shaft;
σavg = average effective overburden pressure along the pile shaft; and
φs = angle of skin friction.
End Bearing – The ultimate bearing capacity due to end-bearing resistance of a single pile is
typically calculated based on the principles of bearing capacity for shallow foundations using the
bearing capacity factors Nc , Nq and Nγ . For a single pile in a cohesionless soil, the end-bearing
capacity, Qp , is given by (Cernica 1995)

Qp = Ap γ LNq (1.29)
where: Ap = area of pile tip;
γ = unit weight of soil; and
 φ 2
Nq = 1+sin
1−sin φ , where φ is the friction angle of the soil.

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The total pile capacity for a single pile in a cohesionless soil is then

 1 + sin φ 2
Q = Qs + Qp = Las Ks σavg tan φs + Ap γ L (1.30)
1 − sin φ

In this example, a single pile in a cohesionless soil is axially loaded by applying a constant vertical
velocity to the top of the pile. The axial force in the top pileSEL is monitored to determine the
limiting load (i.e., the ultimate bearing capacity). The pile length within the soil is 7 m, and the pile
diameter is 1 m. The soil has a friction angle of 10◦ , and the skin friction between the pile shaft
and soil is also assumed to be 10 ◦ . The unit weight of the soil is 20,000 N/m3 , and the stress state
is assumed to be isotropic (Ks = 1). The average effective overburden pressure along the pile shaft
is calculated at the mid-depth of the pile to be 70,000 Pa, assuming that the strength varies linearly.
If only skin friction along the shaft is considered, using Eqs. (1.27) and (1.28), the ultimate bearing
capacity for the pile is Qs = 271 kN. If the end-bearing capacity is included, using Eq. (1.30), the
total bearing capacity Q = 493 kN.
In the FLAC 3D data file (see Example 1.12), the analysis is first conducted by only accounting for
the shaft resistance. cs sfric is set to 10◦ , and the other coupling spring strength parameters are set
to zero. The history of the axial force in the top pileSEL is plotted versus vertical displacement of
the top node in Figure 1.49. The limiting load is equal to 280 kN, which can be printed with the
command
list sel pile force range cid 1

This figure also contains a plot of the coupling-spring shear-stress distribution along the pile, and
shows the linear increase in shear stress with depth. Note that combined damping (SEL set damp
combined), rather than local damping, is used for this analysis because there is significant uniform
motion in one direction as a result of the downward loading on the pile (see Section 1.1.2.7 in
Theory and Background).
The link at the bottom node provides the pile-grid interaction described in Section 1.5.1. This
interaction does not include end-bearing effects. To include end-bearing effects, we must delete
this link, replace it with a new link containing a normal-yield spring in the axial direction, and
specify appropriate spring properties. We include end-bearing effects by including commands after
creating the pile:
sel delete link range id 29
sel link id=100 2 target zone
sel link attach ydir=free zdir=free range id 100
sel link attach xrdir=free yrdir=free zrdir=free range id 100
sel link attach xdir=nydeform range id 100
sel link constit nydeform 1 area=1.0 k=5.4e11 ycomp=2.22e5 range id 100

The bottom node has an ID of 2, and the link emanating from this node has an ID of 29 (LIST sel
node link range id 2). The first two commands delete this link and replace it with a new link that is
given an ID of 100. All link properties are specified with respect to the node-local system of the

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source node. Because the source node is used by a pileSEL, its node-local system will be oriented
such that the x-direction is aligned with the pile axis (LIST sel node local range id 2). Note that
this orientation is set automatically at the start of a set of cycles, or when the CYCLE 0 command is
executed.
The next three commands set attachment conditions for all link directions to be free, except for the
x-direction, in which a normal-yield spring is inserted. The final command sets the properties of
this spring as follows. The spring stiffness, K, should be at least as large as the axially directed
stiffness of the bottom node in the original system (before its link has been deleted). The command
list sel node stiff range id 2

shows this value to be 5.4 × 1011 N/m. Thus, we set the spring area equal to 1.0 m2 , and the spring
stiffness equal to 5.4 × 1011 N/m3 . We set the compressive yield strength of the spring equal to the
bearing capacity at 7 m depth, as given by Eq. (1.29) to equal 222 kN.
The results are shown in Figure 1.50. The limiting load equals 490 kN when end-bearing resistance
is included. Both FLAC 3D results (for skin friction alone, and for skin friction plus end bearing)
compare well with the solutions given in Eqs. (1.27) and (1.30).
The project file for this example is located in the folder “sel\pile\axially-loaded-pile\axially-
loaded-pile.f3prj.”

Example 1.12 Axially loaded pile – skin friction and end-bearing

; Axially loaded pile example application

set fish autocreate off

new
title "Axially Loaded Pile"
;
gen zone brick size 15 15 15 edge=11
model mech elastic
pro bulk=5e9 she=1e9 density=2000
;
fix z range z=(-0.01, 0.01)
fix x range x=(-0.01, 0.01)
fix x range x=(10.99, 11.01)
fix y range y=(-0.01, 0.01)
fix y range y=(10.99, 11.01)
init szz -2.20e5 grad=(0, 0, 2.0e4)
init sxx -2.20e5 grad=(0, 0, 2.0e4)
init syy -2.20e5 grad=(0, 0, 2.0e4)
set gravity=(0.0, 0.0, -10.0)
solve
; =======================================================
; Create a pile in the center of the soil block

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1 - 94 Structural Elements

sel pile id=1 begin=(5.5, 5.5, 12.0) end=(5.5, 5.5, 4.0) nseg=32
sel pile prop Emod=8.0e10 Nu=0.30 XCArea=0.7854 &
XCJ=0.0 XCIy=0.0 XCIz=0.0 &
Per=3.14 &
CS_sK=1.3e11 CS_sCoh=0.0 CS_sFric=10.0 &
CS_nK=1.3e11 CS_nCoh=0.0 CS_nFric= 0.0 CS_nGap=off
; =======================================================
; Specify and apply velocity to pile tip.
sel node FIX x range id=1
sel node INIT xVel local 0.5e-8 range id=1
; =======================================================
; Set up histories for monitoring model behavior
hist add id=1 unbal
hist add id=2 sel node zdisp id=1
hist add id=3 sel pileSEL force fx cid=1
; =======================================================
sel set damp combined
save pile-ini
; =======================================================
; Apply velocity to achieve total displacement of 10e-5 m
cycle 20000
sav pile-ax1
; =======================================================
; Include end-bearing effect
restore pile-ini
sel delete link range id 29
sel link id=100 2 target zone
sel link attach ydir=free zdir=free range id 100
sel link attach xrdir=free yrdir=free zrdir=free range id 100
sel link attach xdir=nydeform range id 100
sel link constit nydeform 1 area=1.0 k=5.4e11 ycomp=2.22e5 range id 100
cycle 20000
sav pile-ax2

return
; EoF

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STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 1 - 95

A M#  i-i6 

CscCiOiD   iT 0iO I
viCsssc
,tCptCscCic.Cr.c,iM5 
 
6  .i i
D .iT iiiiiiM  
EFUM-
43F
2s ,5s st7 
sIssssF2ss
1CIgsssF2sn

 s.2/s4-o
1gIssssF2sn 
1rIgsssF2sn
1cIssssF2su
1cICgssF2su
1cIgsssF2su 
1cIrgssF2su
1CIssssF2su
1CICgssF2su 
1CIgsssF2su
1CIguGnF2su
#  
1ni<1Uii6 vF-ic
%Ii1Ci1  ii i ic




OiD   iT 0iO I           
5  0i53iivM   s. /s4-16

Figure 1.49 Friction pile: top force-displacement history and shear stress
along shaft

A M#  i-iX 

CscCiOiD   iT 0iO I
iCsssc
,tCptCscCic.Cr.c,iM5 
 
X  .i i
D .iT iiiiiiM  
EFUM-
43F
2s ,5s st7 
sIssssF2ss
1CIgsssF2sn
 s.2/s4-o

1gIssssF2sn 
1rIgsssF2sn
1cIssssF2su
1cICgssF2su
1cIgsssF2su 
1cIrgssF2su
1CIssssF2su
1CICgssF2su 
1CIgsssF2su
1CIgs,gF2su
#  
1ni<1UiiX F-ic
%Ii1Ci1  ii i ic




OiD   iT 0iO I           
5  0i53iiM   s. /s4-16

Figure 1.50 Friction and end-bearing pile: top force-displacement history

and shear stress along shaft

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1 - 96 Structural Elements

1.5.5.2 Laterally Loaded Pile

A vertical pile is subjected to a lateral displacement at its top. The pile is pushed in one direction,
then the loading is reversed and the pile is pushed in the opposite direction. This loading cycle is
performed for the case of no normal gap present, and then for 100% of the gap effective. The results
demonstrate the response of the pile structural elements to lateral loading both with and without
the effect of a gap between the pile and the medium.
In the FLAC 3D data file (see Example 1.13), the pile (composed of 8 pileSELs) is created in the center
of the soil block such that the top pile node is one meter above the soil surface (see Figure 1.51).
We wish to apply to the top node a constant lateral velocity of 1 × 10−8 that will move the node
along the diagonal of the soil block. This direction is described by a vector of (1, 1, 0) in the global
system. We specify this nodal velocity condition with the command
sel node init xvel=0.707e-8 yvel=0.707e-8 range id 1

We must also specify the appropriate velocity-fixity condition at this node with the SEL node fix
command, which requires specification of fixity directions in the node-local system, not the global
system. Because the top node is used by a pileSEL, its node-local system will be oriented such that
the x-axis is aligned with the pile axis, and the yz-axes lie in the pile cross-sectional plane. In our
model, the node-local system of the top node is oriented such that the x-axis points in the negative
global z-direction, the y-axis points in the positive global y-direction, and the z-axis points in the
positive global x-direction. The orientation of the node-local system can be printed and visualized
with the commands
list sel node local range id 1
plot add sel geom systemtype node

Note that this orientation is set automatically at the start of a set of cycles, or when the CYCLE 0
command is executed. Therefore, we fix the lateral velocity to remain constant with the command
sel node fix y z range id 1

We wish to monitor the applied load acting at the top node, and plot this value versus the displacement
of the top node. If the loading is applied in a quasi-static fashion, then the applied load acting at
the top node will equal the shear force acting at the top end of the top pileSEL. The shear forces
are expressed in the pileSEL coordinate system (see Figure 1.48). In order to obtain the shear force
acting in the diagonal direction in which the load is being applied, we must rotate the y-axis of the
pileSEL system such that it lies along this diagonal. We do this, and then print and visualize the
result, with the commands
sel pile prop ydir=(1,1,0)
list sel pile local range cid 1
plot add sel geom systemtype sel

The applied lateral load can then be monitored with the command
history add sel pilesel force fy end1 cid 1

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STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 1 - 97

A ' t t 

ncCntRtm   tE 0tR I

tgcccC
4snSsncCntC9n49CStU
 
m 9t t
>O
2
m 9t 
RN>$

Rtm   tE 0tR I

  0tttU

Figure 1.51 Soil block and vertical pile

The x- and y-components of the applied displacement can be monitored with the HISTORY add sel
node xdisp and HISTORY add sel node ydisp commands; however, we wish to monitor the lateral
displacement occurring along the diagonal. To do this, we use the FISH function disp lat, which
accesses the x- and y-components of the displacement using the nd rdisp function.
For this problem, the cohesion and friction of the normal coupling spring are set to 0.01 MN/m
and zero, respectively. The no-gap case is run by specifying cs ngap off in the SEL pile property
command. The full-gap case is run by specifying cs ngap on. Figure 1.52 shows the normal load
at the pile top versus displacement for the no-gap case, and Figure 1.53 shows the results for the
full-gap case. During the lateral loading, the limiting normal force is the same for both cases.
However, the normal load versus displacement histories are different. In the model with a full gap,
it is necessary to close the gap before the force with opposite direction is generated. The pile is
unloaded when it returns to its initial position.

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1 - 98 Structural Elements

A N t t 


ncCnt(tf   t4 0t( I
tC,cccC
6snSsncCntC9n69C6tYU 
# 
1nt&1vtt ENtC 
%Itgt ? tpv(_i






r!A%&"













(tf   t4 0t( I         
U  0tUttY $r!A%&r"

Figure 1.52 Shear load at top of pile versus lateral displacement for no gap

A N t t 


ncCnt(tf   t4 0t( I
tC,cccC
6snSsncCntC9n69C6tYU 
# 
1nt&1vtt ENtC 
%Itgt ? tpv(_i





r!A%&"














(tf   t4 0t( I         
U  0tUttY $r!A%&r"

Figure 1.53 Shear load at top of pile versus lateral displacement for full gap

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STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 1 - 99

Additional information about the system behavior can be learned by studying the model at the end
of the first stage of loading, when the initial applied displacement is 0.4 mm. At this stage, the upper
portion of the pile is compressing the soil in the (1, 1, 0) direction, while the lower portion of the pile
is compressing the soil in the minus (1, 1, 0) direction. The plots of nodal displacement, bending
moment in the pile, and stress and yield state of the normal coupling springs (see Figures 1.54 and
1.55) confirm this loading mode, and indicate that the normal coupling springs above and below
the load-reversal point are yielding. The normal stress is zero over the top pileSEL, because the
top node is above the soil surface. We can print the normal stress and the direction in which it is
acting with the command
list sel pile coupling stress normal

which indicates that the normal stress at the yielding nodes equals 3.185 kPa. This equals normal
cohesion, cs , divided by perimeter, p, as it should. The pile responses can also be accessed via
FISH.

A ) t t 

ncCnt5tF   tO 0t5 I

7tgcccC
4snSsncCntC9n49CStfY
2
btN9tC
F 9t 
E5NP-Y
2l l  l l  l ,5l5
btN9tGccc
3  tpC0c0ci
EPt&5U)b
&5U)bt5EtWf73
&5U)b5EOtEP;
2l ,5l lo  f
btN9tGccc
cIccccU2cc
1nIGcccU2cn
1GIccccU2cn
1.IGcccU2cn
1CIccccU2cu
1CInGccU2cu
1CIGcccU2cu
1CI.GccU2cu
1nIccccU2cu
1nInGccU2cu
1nIGcccU2cu
1nI.GccU2cu
1uIccccU2cu
1uICSg.U2cu

5tF   tO 0t5 I

Y  0tYEtt7f

Figure 1.54 Stress and yield state of normal coupling springs (undeformed
and deformed by 5000 magnification, end of first loading stage,
gap on)

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1 - 100 Structural Elements

A 3 t t 

ncCnt5tF   tO 0t5 I

tgcccC
4snSsncCntC9n49CStf-
2
btN9tC
F 9t 
65N7$-
2l   l 
btN9tGccc
GIGcccU2cg
GIccccU2cg
gIGcccU2cg
gIccccU2cg
uIGcccU2cg
uIccccU2cg
nIGcccU2cg
nIccccU2cg
CIGcccU2cg
CIccccU2cg
GIccccU2cu
cIccccU2cc
1,I.4.gU1cg

5tF   tO 0t5 I

-  0t-6ttf

Figure 1.55 Moment distribution (undeformed and deformed by 5000 magni-

fication, end of first loading stage, gap on)

The project file for this example is located in “sel\pile\laterally-loaded\laterally-loaded.f3prj.”

Example 1.13 Laterally loaded pile

; File for "Laterally loaded pile"

set fish autocreate off

new
title "Laterally loaded pile"

gen zone brick size 8 8 8 edge=11

model mech elastic
pro bulk=5e9 she=1e9 density=2000
;
fix z range z=(-0.01, 0.01)
fix x range x=(-0.01, 0.01)
fix x range x=(10.99, 11.01)
fix y range y=(-0.01, 0.01)
fix y range y=(10.99, 11.01)
init szz -2.20e5 grad=(0, 0, 2.0e4)
init sxx -1.32e5 grad=(0, 0, 1.2e4)
init syy -0.88e5 grad=(0, 0, 8.0e3)

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STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 1 - 101

set gravity=(0.0, 0.0, -10.0)

solve
; =======================================================
; Create a pile in the center of the soil block
sel pile id=1 begin=(5.5, 5.5, 12.0) end=(5.5, 5.5, 4.0) nseg=8
sel pile id=1 prop Emod=8.0e10 Nu=0.30 XCArea=0.7854 &
XCJ=9.82e-2 XCIy=4.91e-2 XCIz=4.91e-2 &
Per=3.14 &
CS_sK=1.3e11 CS_sCoh=1.0e10 CS_sFric=0.0 &
CS_nK=1.3e09 CS_nCoh=1.0e04 CS_nFric=0.0 &
CS_nGap=off
sel pile id=1 prop ydir=(1,1,0) ; so that shear force Fy corresponds with
; diagonal direction
; =======================================================
def setup
global np = nd_find(1)
end
@setup
def disp_lat
local _mag = sqrt( nd_rdisp(np,1,1)ˆ2 + nd_rdisp(np,1,2)ˆ2 )
if nd_rdisp(np,1,1) < 0.0 then ; determine sign
disp_lat = -_mag
else
disp_lat = _mag
end_if
end
; =======================================================
hist add id=1 unbal
hist add id=2 sel pilesel force fy end1 cid 1 ; shear force at top
hist add id=3 sel pilesel moment mz (5.5, 5.5, 8.0) ; moment in middle
hist add id=4 fish disp_lat ; lateral displacement
; =======================================================

; =======================================================
sel set damp combined
sel node fix y z range id 1 ; fix velocities in lateral plane, top node
; move (+) diag-dir
sel node init yvel local 0.707e-8 zvel local 0.707e-8 range id 1

save init

; =======================================================
; Run no-gap case
; =======================================================
cycle 40000 ; disp of +4e-4
save ng01

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1 - 102 Structural Elements

; move (-) diag-dir

sel node init yvel local -0.707e-8 zvel local -0.707e-8 range id 1
cycle 80000 ; disp of -8e-4
save ng02

; move (+) diag-dir

sel node init yvel local 0.707e-8 zvel local 0.707e-8 range id 1
cycle 40000 ; disp of +4e-4
save ng-final

; =======================================================
; Run full-gap case
; =======================================================
restore init
sel pile property cs_ngap on

cycle 40000 ; disp of +4e-4

save fg01

; move (-) diag-dir

sel node init yvel local -0.707e-8 zvel local -0.707e-8 range id 1
cycle 80000 ; disp of -8e-4
save fg02

; move (+) diag-dir

sel node init yvel local 0.707e-8 zvel local 0.707e-8 range id 1
cycle 40000 ; disp of +4e-4
save fg-final

return

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1.6 Shell-Type Structural Elements

The shell-type structural elements include shellSELs, geogridSELs and linerSELs. The mechanical
behavior of these SELs can be divided into the structural response of the shell material itself, and
the way the SEL interacts with the grid. The structural response of the shell material is common
to all shell-type SELs, and is described in this section. Specific behaviors that differ for each SEL
type are described in the section for that type.

1.6.1 Mechanical Behavior

Each shell-type structural element (shellSEL, geogridSEL or linerSEL) is defined by its geometric
and material properties. A shell-type SEL is assumed to be a triangle of uniform thickness lying
between three nodal points. An arbitrarily curved structural shell can be modeled as a faceted
surface composed of a collection of shell-type SELs. Each shell-type SEL behaves as an isotropic
or anisotropic, linearly elastic material with no failure limit; however, one can introduce a plastic-
hinge line (across which a discontinuity in rotation may develop) along the edges between shell-type
SELs, using the same double-node procedure as applied to beams (see Section 1.7.5.3). Each shell-
typeSEL provides a different means of interacting with the grid (see Sections 1.7 to 1.9). The
structural response of the shell is controlled by the finite element assigned to the SEL. There are
five finite elements available: 2 membrane elements, 1 plate-bending element and 2 shell elements.
The general properties of these finite elements are described in Section 1.10.2.2. Because these
are all thin-shell finite elements, shell-type SELs are suitable for modeling thin-shell structures in
which the displacements caused by transverse-shearing deformations can be neglected. Thick-shell
structures should be modeled with FLAC 3D zones.
Each shell-type SEL has its own local coordinate system shown in Figure 1.56. This system
is used to specify applied pressure loading. A separate material coordinate system is used to
specify orthotropic material properties, and a surface coordinate system (providing a continuous
description of the shell mid-surface spanning adjacent shell-type SELs) is used to recover stresses
– see Section 1.1.6. The shell-type SEL coordinate system is defined by the locations of its three
nodal points, labeled 1, 2 and 3 in Figure 1.56. The shell-type SEL coordinate system is defined
such that
(1) the shell-type SEL lies in the xy-plane,
(2) the x-axis is directed from node-1 to node-2, and
(3) the z-axis is normal to the SEL plane and positive on the “outside” of the shell
surface. (The two sides of each shell-type SEL are designated as outside and
inside.)
The shell-type SEL coordinate system cannot be modified.

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θz1

θx1
w1
u1
1 v1
θy1
y

θz2 w3
w2 3
v3
2 u3 θy3
u2 v2 θx3 θz3
θy2
θx2

Figure 1.56 Shell-type SEL coordinate system and 18 degrees of freedom

available to the shell finite elements

1.6.2 Response Quantities

Stress quantities (which include stress resultants and stresses acting in the shell) can be recovered
for all shell-type SELs. The stress resultants are expressed in a surface coordinate system that
provides a continuous description of the shell mid-surface spanning adjacent shell-type SELs. The
stresses are expressed in the global coordinate system. Stress quantities can only be recovered
after a consistent surface coordinate system has been established (see Section 1.1.6.4). The stress
quantities can be accessed via FISH, and
(1) printed with the LIST sel recover type command, where type = {sres, stress,
pstress},
(2) monitored with the HISTORY add sel recover command, and
(3) plotted with the sel shcontour plot item.
Generalized nodal forces acting on shell-type SELs can be monitored with the HISTORY add sel
sforce command.

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1.6.3 Properties

Each shell-type SEL possesses 4 properties:

(1) density mass density, ρ (optional – needed if dynamic mode or
gravity is active) [M/L3 ]
(2a) isotropic isotropic material properties: E and ν where E is Young’s
modulus [F/L2 ] and ν is Poisson’s ratio.
       
(2b) orthotropic orthotropic material properties, {c11 m , cm , cm , cm } {cb , cb , cb , cb }
12 22 33 11 12 22 33
[F /L2 ], which define the membrane and bending material-stiffness
matrices [Em  ] and [Eb  ], respectively, in the material directions x  y  z ,
and the matx vector (Xx, Xy, Xz), whose projection onto the shell surface
defines the x  -axis of the material coordinate system (see Eq. (1.36)
and Figure 1.57). The material directions correspond with the principal
directions of orthotropy.
     
(2c) anisotropic anisotropic material properties, {c11 m , cm , cm , cm , cm , cm } and
12 13 22 23 33
     
b , cb , cb , cb , cb , cb } [F /L2 ], which define the membrane and
{c11 12 13 22 23 33
bending material-stiffness matrices [Em  ] and [Eb  ], respectively, in the
material directions x  y  z , and the matx vector (Xx, Xy, Xz), whose
projection onto the shell surface defines the x  -axis of the material
coordinate system (see Eq. (1.37) and Figure 1.57).
(3) thexp thermal-expansion coefficient, αt [1/T]
(4) thickness thickness, t [L]

The material constitutive behavior may be isotropic, orthotropic or anisotropic; thus, property (2a),
(2b) or (2c) must be specified. It is assumed that the material properties are homogeneous over
the shell-type SEL (i.e., they do not vary with position) and that the shell thickness is constant. A
description of the material properties follows.
The shell-type SELs model general shell behavior as a superposition of membrane and bending
actions via the five 3-noded triangular finite elements described in Section 1.10.2.2. The material
properties of the finite elements that model membrane and bending actions are described by the
material-rigidity matrices

 +t/2
[Dm ] = [Em ]dz = t[Em ]
−t/2

 +t/2 t3
[Db ] = [Eb ]z2 dz = [Eb ] (1.31)
−t/2 12

respectively, where t is the shell thickness and [Em ] and [Eb ] are material-stiffness matrices that
relate stresses to strains via the constitutive relations

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⎡ ⎤
σx m
c11 m
c12 m
c13 εx
⎢ ⎥
{ σm } = σy = [Em ]{ε} = ⎢
⎣
m
c22 m ⎥
c23 ⎦ εy
τxy sym. m
c33 γxy
m

⎡ ⎤
b
c11 b
c12 b
c13
σx ⎢ ⎥ εx
{ σb } = σy = [Eb ]{ε} = ⎢
⎣
b
c22 b ⎥
c23 ⎦ εy (1.32)
τxy sym. b
c33 γxy
b

The material-rigidity matrices are used to form the finite element stiffness matrices ([Dm ] is used
by the CST and CST hybrid finite elements, and [Db ] is used by the DKT finite element) and to
recover stress resultants. The stresses in Eq. (1.32) are obtained from the stress resultants by

1 Nx
{ σm } = Ny
t Nxy

12 Mx
{ σb } = My z (1.33)
t3 Mxy

In the following discussion, we use [E] when referring to relations that apply to both [Eb ] and
[Em ]. For isotropic material properties, only E, v and t must be specified. For orthotropic and
anisotropic material properties, the material directions and t must be specified. For most cases,
[Em ] = [Eb ] = [E]; however, when modeling equivalent or transformed orthotropic shells (with
elastic properties equal to the average properties of components of the original shell) and controlling
the membrane and bending rigidities independently, it is necessary to set [Em ] = [Eb ].
1.6.3.1 Isotropic Material Properties

For the case of an isotropic shell, [Em ] = [Eb ] = [E], and the six constants of [E] are related to the
two elastic constants of Young’s modulus, E, and Poisson’s ratio, ν, by

E
c11 = c22 =
1 − ν2
E
c33 =
2(1 + ν) (1.34)
 
E
c12 =ν
1 − ν2
c13 = c23 = 0

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The cij are invariant constants and retain the same values in any orthogonal coordinate system.
1.6.3.2 Orthotropic and Anisotropic Material Properties

Under the assumptions of linear elasticity, the general constitutive matrix of material stiffness
coefficients is symmetric and can be expressed in terms of 21 independent elastic constants. An
orthotropic material has three preferred directions of elastic symmetry, and its material-stiffness
matrix can be expressed in terms of 9 independent elastic constants:

⎡ ⎤
⎧ ⎫    ⎧ ⎫
⎪ σx ⎪ C11 C12 C13 0 0 0 ⎪ εx  ⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎢ ⎥⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪ σ  ⎪ ⎪ ⎢ 
C22 
C23 0 0 0 ⎥⎪⎪ εy  ⎪ ⎪
⎨ y ⎪ ⎬ ⎢  ⎥⎨⎪ ⎪
⎬
σz ⎢ C33 0 0 0 ⎥ εz
=⎢  ⎥ (1.35)
⎪
⎪ τx  y  ⎪
⎪ ⎢ C44 0 0 ⎥⎪ γx  y  ⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎢ ⎥⎪⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ xz ⎭
⎩ τ   ⎪ ⎣ sym. 
C55 0 ⎦⎩⎪ γx  z ⎪⎪
⎭
τy  z 
C66 γy  z

in which x  y  z are the principal directions of orthotropy. This relation describes a three-dimensional
orthotropic continuum. The relation can be restricted to describe an orthotropic shell by enforcing
the Kirchhoff thin-plate conditions of plane stress (σz = 0) and no transverse-shear strain (γx  z =
γy  z = 0), so that the material-stiffness matrix can be expressed in terms of 4 independent elastic
constants:

⎡ ⎤
σx  
c11 
c12 0 ⎥ εx 
⎢
{ σ } = σy  = [E ]{ε } = ⎢
 
⎣

c22 0 ⎥⎦ εy  (orthotropic shell) (1.36)
τx  y  sym. 
c33 γx  y 

in which the shell mid-surface lies in the x  y  -plane. The material-stiffness matrix expressed in the
principal directions (denoted here by [E ]) has four independent constants that define an orthotropic
material.
The material-stiffness matrix of an anisotropic shell can be expressed in terms of 6 independent
elastic constants:

⎡ ⎤
σx  
c11 
c12 
c13 εx 
⎢ ⎥
{ σ } = σy  = [E ]{ε } = ⎢
⎣

c22  ⎥
c23 ⎦ εy  (anisotropic shell) (1.37)
τx  y  sym. 
c33 γx  y 

in which the shell mid-surface lies in the x  y  -plane. The material-stiffness matrix expressed in the
material directions (denoted here by [E ]) has six independent constants that define an anisotropic
shell.

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Consider a shell-type SEL with its local coordinate system, xyz, rotated with respect to the x  -axis
by an angle, β, as shown in Figure 1.57. The strain-transformation matrix, [Tε ], relates the strains
in the two systems via

{ ε } = [Tε ]{ε} (1.38)

[Tε ] can be expressed in terms of β as

⎡ ⎤
⎢ 2 c2 s2 cs ⎥
[ Tε ] = ⎢
⎣ s c2 −cs ⎥ ⎦ , c = cosβ (1.39)
−2cs 2cs c −s
2 2 s = sinβ

The stresses in the two systems are related via

{ σ } = [Tε ]T {σ  } (1.40)

Substituting Eq. (1.36) or Eq. (1.37) and Eq. (1.38) into the preceding yields

{ σ } = [Tε ]T [E ][Tε ]{ε} (1.41)

in which

[ E ] = [Tε ]T [E ][Tε ] (1.42)

Thus we have, from Eqs. (1.42) and (1.31), the expression

[ Dm ] = t[Tε ]T [Em  ][Tε ]

and

t3
[ Db ] = [Tε ]T [Eb  ][Tε ] (1.43)
12

for the material-rigidity matrices of a shell in which the material directions are not aligned with the
x and y axes. For an orthotropic shell, [E ] has two zero terms, but these terms will not, in general,
be zero for [E] when the principal directions of orthotropy are not aligned with the x and y axes.

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y
y′

x′

β
x
Figure 1.57 Shell-type SEL coordinate system xyz and material coordinate
system x  y  z

1.6.3.3 Determination of Orthotropic Material Properties

The material-stiffness matrix [Em  ] and [Eb  ] can be expressed in terms of the elastic constants in
Eq. (1.35) via

 C
C13
  13
c11 = C11 − 
C33
 C
C23
  23
c22 = C22 − 
C33 (1.44)
 
c33 = C44
 C
C13
  23
c12 = C12 − 
C33

They can also be expressed in terms of the effective Poisson’s ratios (νx  and νy  ), effective moduli
(Ex  and Ey  ) and shear modulus (G) for orthotropic plates (Ugural 1981, p. 141):

 Ex 
c11 =
1 − νx  νy 
Ey 

c22 =
1 − νx  νy  (1.45)

c33 =G
Ex  νy Ey  νx

c12 = =
1 − νx  νy  1 − νx  νy 

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Ugural states that the orthotropic plate moduli and Poisson’s ratios are obtained by tension and
shear tests, as in the case of isotropic materials.
When it is not possible to determine the material stiffnesses experimentally, an equivalent or trans-
formed orthotropic plate (with elastic properties equal to the average properties of components
of the original plate), for which the membrane stiffnesses are approximated with the relations in
Eq. (1.45), and the bending stiffnesses are approximated with the following rigidities, can be used.

 12
b
c11 = Dx 
t3
 12
b
c22 = 3 Dy 
t (1.46)
b  12
c33 = 3 Gx  y 
t
 12
b
c12 = 3 Dx  y 
t

Dx  , Dy  , Dx  y  and Gx  y  represent the flexural rigidities and the torsional rigidity of an orthotropic
plate, respectively. Rigidities for some commonly encountered cases are given in Figure 1.58.
These cases include a reinforced concrete slab with orthogonal steel bars, a plate reinforced by
equidistant stiffeners, a plate reinforced by a set of equidistant ribs, and a corrugated plate.

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Figure 1.58 Rigidities of various orthotropic plates (from Ugural 1981, Table
6.1, where H = 2Gxy + Dxy ∗ )

* used with the permission of McGraw-Hill Publishing Company.

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1.6.4 Associated Commands

The commands that are common to all shell-type SELs are listed in this section. These commands
relate to stress recovery. They are divided into those commands that allow one to recover stresses,
print and plot stresses, and monitor stresses. Those commands that support the creation of shell-type
SELs and the specification of properties for shell-type SELs are listed with the commands for the
particular SEL type. See Section 1 in the Command Reference for detailed descriptions of all of
the commands.

Table 1.15 Stress-recovery commands

SEL recover keyword
sres
stress <depth factor v>
surface <surfx Xx,Xy,Xz>

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Table 1.16 Stress-recovery commands (printing)

LIST sel recover keyword
depth
pstress
sres keyword
Mx
My
Mxy
Nx
Ny
Nxy
Qx
Qy
stress keyword
xx
yy
zz
xy
zy
zx
surface

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Table 1.17 Stress-recovery commands (monitor stresses)

HISTORY add sel recover keyword
sres keyword
Mx
My
Mxy
Nx
Ny
Nxy
Qx
Qy
stress keyword
xx
yy
zz
xy
zy
zx
pstress keyword
1
2
3

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1.7 Shell Structural Elements

1.7.1 Mechanical Behavior

The mechanical behavior of each shell structural element can be divided into the structural response
of the shell material itself (see Section 1.6.1), and the way in which the shellSEL interacts with the
grid. ShellSELs may be rigidly connected to the grid such that stresses develop within the shell as
the grid deforms; however, more generalized grid connections are available with geogridSELs and
linerSELs.

1.7.2 Response Quantities

ShellSEL responses include stress resultants and stresses acting in the shell (see Section 1.6.2).

1.7.3 Properties

Each shellSEL possesses 4 properties:

(1) density mass density, ρ (optional – needed if dynamic mode or
gravity is active) [M/L3 ]
(2a) isotropic isotropic material properties: E and ν where E is Young’s
modulus [F/L2 ] and ν is Poisson’s ratio, or
(2b) orthotropic orthotropic material properties: c11  , c , c , c and material
12 22 33
directions x  y  z where the values are defined by Eq. (1.36)
(2c) anisotropic anisotropic material properties: c11  , c , c , c , c , c
12 13 22 23 33
  
and material directions x y z where the values are defined
by Eq. (1.37)
(3) thexp thermal-expansion coefficient, αt [1/T]
(4) thickness thickness, t [L]

The material constitutive behavior may be isotropic, orthotropic or anisotropic; thus, property (2a),
(2b) or (2c) must be specified. See Section 1.6.3 for a description of the orthotropic and anisotropic
constitutive values.

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1.7.4 Associated Commands

All of the commands associated with shells are listed in this section. They are divided into those
commands that allow one to create and specify shell properties, print and plot properties and
responses, and monitor responses. Note that all boundary and initial conditions, with the exception
of pressure loads applied to shell surfaces, are specified with the SEL node command. See Section 1
in the Command Reference for detailed descriptions of all of the commands.

Table 1.18 Shell commands (create and specify properties)

SEL shellsel <. . . > nodes nd1,nd2,nd3
SEL shell <. . . >
SEL shell keyword
apply pressure value
property keyword
(1) density value
(2a) isotropic values. . .
(2b) orthotropic values. . .
(2c) anisotropic values. . .
(3) thexp value
(4) thickness value

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Table 1.19 Shell commands (print properties and

responses)
LIST sel shell keyword
apply
connect
elemtype
group
id
local
nforce
position
property keyword
surfarea
volume

Table 1.20 Shell commands (monitor responses)

HISTORY add sel keyword
recover (see Table 1.17)

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1.7.5 Example Applications

Simple examples are given to illustrate the use of shells.

1.7.5.1 Simple Beam – Two Equal Concentrated Loads

A simply supported beam is loaded by two equal concentrated loads symmetrically placed, as
described in Section 1.3.5.1. Here we replicate this problem using shell elements to compute
maximum mid-span deflection along with moment and shear distributions, which we compare with
the analytical solution.
The analytical solution corresponds with beam-theory assumptions; therefore, we must assign
boundary conditions and properties to the shell model to replicate these conditions. We create a
shell model of the beam shown in Figure 1.9, such that length equals 9 m and depth, d, equals 1 m.
There are two issues to consider:
(1) A plate manifests greater stiffness than a beam by a factor of 1/(1−ν 2 ), because
the plate material through the depth (the z-direction in Figure 1.9) inhibits
development of anticlastic curvature, κz (Ugural 1981, p. 8). Therefore, we
set ν = 0 in our shell model.
(2) If the x-direction of the surface coordinate system is aligned with the beam
axis (the x-direction of Figure 1.9), then the shear force, V , equals Qx d, where
Qx is the transverse-shear stress resultant, and the moment, M, equals Mx d,
where Mx is the bending stress resultant. Note that the equilibrium equations
for a plate give

∂Mx ∂Mxy
Qx = + (1.47)
∂x ∂y

The beam-theory solution assumes that Mxy = 0. But in our plate, the sides are
slightly less stiff than the inside, which produces inward twist (with curvature
κz ) along each side edge. We can minimize this effect by restraining rotation
about the x-axis, but the nodes at the cross-diagonal points away from the
edges still displace slightly less than those along the edges, to produce small
twisting moments, Mxy . The values of Qx that we compute will be correct
on the inside, but incorrect for elements along the edges. The only way to
completely eliminate Mxy would be to impose the exact non-twist beam-theory
deformation field. In our case, we are imposing the loading and computing
the deformation field, so we expect the slight error in Qx along the edges.
The FLAC 3D model contains 144 shellSELs and 88 nodes, as shown in Figure 1.59. We utilize a
cross-diagonal mesh pattern to ensure symmetric response, and we utilize a DKT plate bending
finite element (see Section 1.10.2.2) because this is a small-strain, plate-bending problem. The
same results would be produced if we used either of the shell finite elements, because no membrane
loading occurs. We set the Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio equal to 200 GPa and 0, respectively.

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We set the shell thickness equal to 0.133887 m to produce a second moment of inertia, I , equal to
200 × 10−6 m4 . Boundary conditions consist of simple supports at the beam ends, and two point
loads, each of which is 10,000 N. The point loads are distributed to the four nodes along each load
line based on tributary length associated with each node. Thus, the inner nodes carry twice the load
of the outer nodes. The data file for this example is listed in Example 1.14.

A   m/mo m  m" A'd

©L)©mm:   mN nm h

m©1c)0
CE©cE©L)©m)©G0LG1tm9
 L   

m:   mN nm h

  nmmm9

Figure 1.59 FLAC 3D model for simple beam problem modeled with shellSELs

The displacement field is shown in Figure 1.60. The maximum displacement occurs at the beam
center and equals 6.469×10−3 m, which corresponds exactly with the theoretical value of Eq. (1.11).
This value can be printed with the command
list sel node disp range id=19

An alternative means of visualizing the displacement field for a small-strain simulation is to use
the sel geom plot item and specify a nonzero value for the deformation factor. Figure 1.61 shows
both the undeformed and the deformed shape by adding two sel geom plot items to the view, and
specifying deformation factors of zero and 100, respectively.

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A   m/mo m  m" A'd

©L)©m3m:   mx nm3 h

m©1c)0
CE©cE©L)©m)©G0LG1tm9
 L   
L L 
#  GmLhLLI0IC)1
 Gm20hCC01

3m:   mx nm3 h

  nmmm9

Figure 1.60 Displacement field of simple beam modeled with shellSELs

A   m8mo m  m" /'d

 m m9m"
UL)UmMm4   m7 nmM h
mUD0)r
1EU0EUL)Um)UIrLID2m5
 L   
 L   
9m:Im)LL

Mm4   m7 nmM h

  nmmm5

Figure 1.61 Deformed (factor of 100) and undeformed shapes of simple beam
modeled with shellSELs

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Figures 1.62 and 1.63 show the shear force and moment distributions. Based on this scale, they
correspond with the theoretical solutions. These two plot items display these quantities in the surface
coordinate system that is specified with the systemtype surface switchword, and set such that the
surface x-direction corresponds with the global x-direction, the surface y-direction corresponds with
the global z-direction, and the surface z-direction corresponds with the negative global y-direction.
The sign convention for these stress resultants is shown in Figure 1.4. We see that positive Mx
corresponds with stretching of the fibers in the positive z-direction of the surface, and positive Qx
corresponds with shear forces acting in the positive z-direction of the positive x-directed surface.

A   m4mo m 

"mm    
m" :-d

rL)rm+m9   mA nm+ h

mrt2)c
0Er2ErL)rm)r1cL1t©m8X
7e9
0h0000:sLf
0hLLLL:sLf
2hLLLL:sLf
©hLLLL:sLf
bhLLLL:sLf
thLLLL:sLf
chLLLL:sLf
fhLLLL:sLf
rhLLLL:sLf
)hLLLL:sLf
LhLLLL:sLL
g)hLLLL:sLf
grhLLLL:sLf
gfhLLLL:sLf
gchLLLL:sLf
gthLLLL:sLf
gbhLLLL:sLf
g©hLLLL:sLf
g2hLLLL:sLf
g0hLLLL:sLf
g0h0000:sLf
 <mGm)nLnL
 e   
 m
 1mLhrt02L2

+m9   mA nm+ h

X  nmX=mm8

Figure 1.62 Shear force distribution in simple beam modeled with shellSELs

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A   m4mo m 

= m    
m" :Xd

ML)Mm7m9   m3 nm7 h

mMb0)r
1EM0EML)Mm)MIrLIb0m8=
7e)
thLLLL:sLr
Mh2bLL:sLr
MhbLLL:sLr
MhMbLL:sLr
MhLLLL:sLr
)h2bLL:sLr
)hbLLL:sLr
)hMbLL:sLr
)hLLLL:sLr
2hbLLL:sLt
bhLLLL:sLt
MhbLLL:sLt
Mh©Mbb:sLM
 <mGm)nLnL
 e   
 m
 ImLhMb10L0

7m9   m3 nm7 h

=  nm=ymm8

Figure 1.63 Moment distribution in simple beam modeled with shellSELs

A closer examination of the shear force and moment distributions in the left third of the beam is
provided in Figures 1.64 and 1.65. The moment distribution is constant across the depth, and varies
linearly from zero at the support to 3 × 104 at the third point, which corresponds exactly with the
theoretical solution. The shear distribution is not constant across the depth. It has the correct value
away from the edges, but deviates from the beam-theory solution along the edges. The exact values
can be obtained by printing them for the desired shellSELs. In Figure 1.66, the shellSELs and nodes
are shown. To determine the CID of a shellSEL, or the ID of a node, use the GUI picking system.
We can print the stress resultants along the lower half of the line at x = 1.5 with the commands
sel recover surface surfx 1 0 0
list sel recover sres mx range cid=59
list sel recover sres qx range cid=59
list sel recover sres mx range cid=107
list sel recover sres qx range cid=107

The nodes 7 and 42 of shellSEL 59 lie at x = 1.5 away from the edge, and the values of Qx and Mx
are found to be 1.0 × 104 and 1.5 × 104 , respectively, which correspond exactly with the theoretical
values. The nodes 42 and 67 of shellSEL 107 lie at x = 1.5 near the edge, and the values of Qx and
Mx are found to be 9.25 × 103 and 1.5 × 104 , respectively. We see that there is an error of 7.5% in
the value of shear force along the edge. This deviation from the beam-theory solution arises from
the nonzero value of Mxy that develops at the nodes along the edge (see Figure 1.67).

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A   m4mo m 

"mm    
m" :Xd

rL)rm3m9   mM nm3 h

mrt2)c
0Er2ErL)rm)r1cL1t2m8=
7e9
0h0000:sLf
0h0LLL:sLf
0h2LLL:sLf
0h©LLL:sLf
0hbLLL:sLf
0htLLL:sLf
0hcLLL:sLf
0hfLLL:sLf
0hrLLL:sLf
0h)LLL:sLf
0hLLLL:sLf
2h0LLL:sLf
2h2LLL:sLf
2h©LLL:sLf
2hbLLL:sLf
2htLLL:sLf
2hcLLL:sLf
2hfLLL:sLf
2hrLLL:sLf
2h)t)r:sLf
 <mGm)nLnL
 e   
 m
 1mLh)c))cc

3m9   mM nm3 h

=  nm=ymm8

Figure 1.64 Shear force distribution in left third of simple beam modeled with
shellSELs

A   m4mo m 

= m    
m" :Xd

ML)Mm+m9   m7 nm+ h

mMb0)r
1EM0EML)Mm)MIrLIb0m8=
7e)
Mh12t2:sLr
Mh2bLL:sLr
MhbLLL:sLr
MhMbLL:sLr
MhLLLL:sLr
)h2bLL:sLr
)hbLLL:sLr
)hMbLL:sLr
)hLLLL:sLr
2hbLLL:sLt
bhLLLL:sLt
MhbLLL:sLt
Mh©Mb©:sLM
 <mGm)nLnL
 e   
 m
 ImLh)r))rr

+m9   m7 nm+ h

=  nm=ymm8

Figure 1.65 Moment distribution in left third of simple beam modeled with
shellSELs

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A   m/mo m  m" M'd

©L)©mUm:   mk nmU h

m©1c)0
CE©cE©L)©m)©G0LG1cm9
 L   
mGm 
 GmLhL)1c))0

Um:   mk nmU h

  nmmm9

Figure 1.66 ShellSELs are shown as outlines, and nodes are shown as cubes

A   m8mo m  m" /-d

  m m    
TL)Tm7m4   mA nm7 h
mTr2)t
0ET2ETL)Tm)T1tL1r2m5f
7e)
Tht0©b/sLT
ThTrLL/sLT
ThLLLL/sLT
)h©rLL/sLT
)hrLLL/sLT
)hTrLL/sLT
)hLLLL/sLT
©hrLLL/sL)
rhLLLL/sL)
ThrLLL/sL)
LhLLLL/sLL
gThrLLL/sL)
grhLLLL/sL)
g©hrLLL/sL)
g)hLLLL/sLT
g)hTrLL/sLT
g)hrLLL/sLT
g)h©rLL/sLT
gThLLLL/sLT
gThTrLL/sLT
gTht0©b/sLT
 <mCm)nLnL
 e   
 m
 1mLh)t))tt

7m4   mA nm7 h

f  nmfXmm5

Figure 1.67 Twisting moment distribution in left third of simple beam

modeled with shellSELs

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The stress-recovery procedure smooths bending and membrane resultants at the nodes, and then
uses the bending resultants to compute the constant value of transverse-shear resultants within each
shellSEL. The best accuracy is obtained by smoothing these values over each surface patch for
which the stresses will vary continuously. In this problem, when we compute stresses using the SEL
recover command, by default, stresses are recovered, and thus smoothed, for all shellSELs in the
model. The HISTORY add sel recover command, however, only recovers stresses for the particular
shellSEL identified; therefore, smoothing does not occur. In this problem, we sampled a history of
Qx in shellSEL 59 using the command
history add id=30 sel recover sres Qx surfX 1,0,0 cid=59

A plot of this quantity is shown in Figure 1.68, where we see that the value does not equal the value
of 1.0 × 104 , which we obtained above from the plot item and from the SEL recover sres command.
We can confirm that the history value is correct by issuing the commands
sel recover surface surfx 1,0,0
sel recover sres range cid=59
list sel recover sres qx range cid=59

where we see that now Qx equals 6.9 × 103 , which corresponds with the value sampled by the
history mechanism. For this problem, the smoothing process is necessary to produce good values
of Qx .

A   m/mo m  m" Mvd

©L)©mxm:   m- nmx h

m©1c)0 
CE©cE©L)©m)©G0LG1Cm9N
# 
2Lmg@#mm" gmMvm1C 
%hm




3!eyr











xm:   m- nmx h            
N  nmNUmm9  eyr"

Figure 1.68 Evolution of shear force at centroid of shellSEL 59 (computed

with no nodal smoothing)

The project file for this example is located in “sel\shell\simple-beam\simple-beam.f3prj.”

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Example 1.14 Simple beam modeled with shellSELs

new
title "Simple Beam (modeled using shellSELs)"
gen zone brick size 12,3,1 &
p0 0,0,1.0 p1 9,0,1.0 p2 0 0 0 p3 0 1 1.0
sel shell id=1 crossdiag elemtype=dkt range y -0.1 0.1
sel shell id=1 prop iso=(2e11, 0.0) thick=0.133887
delete zone
sel node fix x y xr yr range x=(-0.1, 0.1) ; support at left end - hinge
sel node fix y xr yr range x=( 8.9, 9.1) ; support at right end - roller
sel node fix z xr yr ; restrict non-beam deformation modes
sel node apply force=(0,-1667,0) range union id=71 id=12 ; out nds, left
sel node apply force=(0,-3333,0) range union id=46 id=13 ; in nds, left
sel node apply force=(0,-1667,0) range union id=79 id=24 ; out nds, rt.
sel node apply force=(0,-3333,0) range union id=54 id=25 ; in nds, rt.
history add id=1 unbal
history add id=10 sel node ydisp id=19 ; displ at center
; moment, left third
history add id=20 sel recover sres Mx surfX 1,0,0 cid=59
; shear, left third
history add id=30 sel recover sres Qx surfX 1,0,0 cid=59
solve ratio=1e-7
list sel node disp range id=19
save shell0

return

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1.7.5.2 Cantilever Beam with Applied Moment at Tip

A cantilever beam is subjected to an applied moment at its tip, as described in Section 1.3.5.2. Here
we replicate this problem using shell elements to compute the large-strain y-direction deflection at
the beam tip.
The FLAC 3D model simulates a beam of 10 m length and 1 m depth. We utilize a cross-diagonal
mesh pattern to ensure symmetric response, and we utilize the DKT-CST hybrid shell finite element
(see Section 1.10.2.2). We set the Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio equal to 200 GPa and 0,
respectively. We set the shell thickness equal to 0.133887 m to produce a second moment of inertia,
I , equal to 200 × 10−6 m4 . The left end is fully fixed in all six degrees of freedom. The total
applied moment at the tip is 5 MN-m, one-half of which is assigned to each of the two nodes at the
tip. The data file for this example is listed in Example 1.15.
The final structural configuration is shown in Figure 1.69. The y-direction deflection at the beam
tip (LIST sel node disp range id=31) equals 5.471 m, which is within 0.1% of the analytical solution.

A 6  %nnb  n" /'msn n n nb  g m

   n    nb n n" /'
)EL)nMn6   n5 snM h
nLL--co
fS)cS)EL)nL)©d-©E)n7
 L   

Mn6   n5 snM h

  snnn7

Figure 1.69 Final structural configuration

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The project file for this example is located in “sel\shell\cantilever-beam\cantilever-beam.f3prj.”

Example 1.15 Cantilever beam using shellSELs with applied moment at tip
new
title
Cantilever beam (using shellSELs), applied tip moment (large-strain)
gen zone brick size 10,1,1 &
p0 0,0,1.0 p1 10,0,1.0 p2 0 0 0 p3 0 1 1.0
sel shell id=1 crossdiag elemtype dkt_csth range y -0.1 0.1
sel shell id=1 prop iso=(2e11, 0.0) thick=0.133887
delete zone
sel node fix x y z xr yr zr range x=(-0.1, 0.1) ; fully fix left end
sel node fix z xr yr ; restrict non-beam deformation modes
sel node apply moment=(0,0,2.5e6) range x=(9.9, 10.1)
history add id=1 unbal
history add id=10 sel node ydisp (10,0,0)
set large
solve ratio=1e-7
;
list sel node disp range id=31 ; print tip displacement
save shell-ls

return

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1.7.5.3 Plastic Hinge Formation in a Shell Structure

This example demonstrates a procedure by which FLAC 3D can be used to calculate the initiation
and subsequent behavior of a plastic hinge line that forms within a shell structure. We replicate
the double-node method described in Section 1.3.5.4 using shell elements. We create double nodes
along the hinge line, and then appropriately link these nodes together. The double nodes allow
a discontinuity in the rotation to occur when the limiting plastic moment is reached. For shell
elements, there is no analog to the single-node method (using the SEL beam property pmoment
command) that can be used to model plastic hinges in beam elements.
The problem to be considered is described in Section 1.3.5.4 and shown in Figure 1.19. The FLAC 3D
model simulates a beam of 10 m length and 1 m depth (see Figure 1.70). The data file for this
example is listed in Example 1.16. We utilize a cross-diagonal mesh pattern to ensure symmetric
response, and we utilize a DKT-CST hybrid shell finite element (see Section 1.10.2.2) to support
the membrane loading that will develop after failure if the problem is run in large-strain mode. We
set the Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio equal to 200 GPa and 0, respectively. We set the shell
thickness equal to 0.133887 m to produce a second moment of inertia, I , equal to 200 × 10−6 m4 .

A   a" a  ag  m a"a "a" 8Ue

-ub-aAa9   a4 raA (

awuuuu
2d-©d-ub-ab-0Sb0u)a.
 L   

Aa9   a4 raA (

  raaa.

Figure 1.70 FLAC 3D model for plastic hinge example using shellSELs

We issue two separate SEL shell commands to produce a model containing two separate shell
sections: one for the left half of the beam; the other for the right half of the beam. Figure 1.71
shows the shellSELs colored by ID; Figure 1.72 shows an outline of the shellSELs, and shows the
link nodes as cubes. To get the CID of a shellSEL or the ID of a node, use the GUI picking system.
Notice that there is a set of eight nodes that overlap along the beam center line.

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A   a" a  ag  m a"a "a" 9Ne

43aa  %   a" a  
-ub-a4a.   a8 ra4 (
awuuuu
Dd-Id-ub-ab-vSbvuIapk
 L   
5ava"
 vau(uEu-SDS

4a.   a8 ra4 (

k  rak5aap

Figure 1.71 ShellSELs colored by ID (link nodes are shown as spheres)

We now create appropriate linkages between these nodes with the commands
sel link 18 target=node tgt num=50
sel link 19 target=node tgt num=49
sel link 32 target=node tgt num=68
sel link 45 target=node tgt num=81
sel link attach xdir=rigid ydir=rigid zdir=rigid &
xrdir=rigid yrdir=rigid zrdir=nydeform
sel link constit nydeform 6 area=1.0
sel link constit nydeform 6 ycomp=8.33e3 ytens=8.33e3 range id=94,95
sel link constit nydeform 6 ycomp=4.17e3 ytens=4.17e3 range id=93
sel link constit nydeform 6 ycomp=4.17e3 ytens=4.17e3 range id=96
sel link constit nydeform 6 k=5e9

The first four commands create node-to-node links from nodes on the left section to those on the
right section. The links are shown in Figure 1.72. The next command affects all links by setting the
attachment conditions for the three translational directions and the x- and y-rotational directions to
be rigid, and specifying a normal-yield spring to be inserted in the z-rotational direction. The final
commands set the properties of these normal-yield springs as follows. We set all areas to unity, and
we set both the compressive and tensile yield strengths equal to the desired plastic-moment capacity
(based on the tributary length associated with each node). The total plastic-moment capacity is 25
kN-m, so we assign 8.33 kN-m to the two center springs and 4.17 kN-m to the two end springs.
Finally, we set the spring stiffness equal to a value that is large enough to make the spring deformation

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small relative to the shell deformation. We choose a value of 5 × 109 , which is approximately the
rotational stiffness of the nodes just to the left of the center (LIST sel node stiffness rot range id 16).

A   a" a  ag  m a"a "a" /Ne

N a 
-ub-aAa3   a: raA (
awuuuu
©d-kd-ub-ab-2Sb2uka,U
 L   
N a2a"
 2au(uS©©)w

Aa3   a: raA (

U  raUaa,

Figure 1.72 Link nodes at beam center

Now that the double-nodes have been appropriately linked to one another, simple supports are
specified at the beam ends by restricting translation in the y-direction. A constant vertical velocity
is applied to the four target nodes on the right section, and the moment acting at the centroid of
shellSEL 45 is monitored during the calculation to determine when the limiting value is reached.
We find that the limiting value of moment is reached (see Figure 1.73). The value at the beam
center is found by
sel recover surface surfx 1 0 0
sel recover sres
list sel recover sres mx range cid=45

to be 24.86 kN, which is within 1% of the specified moment capacity. The commands
list sel node disp rot range id=19 any id=49 any
list sel link constit nydeform disp

indicate that a discontinuity in the rotational motion across the hinge line has developed. The
rotation of nodes 19 and 49 are equal and opposite with a value of 1.92 × 10−3 radians. Note that
the total rotation that has occurred in the normal-yield springs (LIST sel link constit nydeform disp)
equals 3.84 × 10−3 radians, which is the sum of the equal and opposite rotations on each side of
the hinge line.

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A U  a" a  ag  m a"a "a" .xe

y aa  aa" .xaSEa% a a a   
-ub-a8aG   a9 ra8 ( 
awuuuu
4d-Md-ub-ab-5Sb5uMaIy 
# 
-uamy#aa" ma.xaSE

%(ambua&m  aa a aS4


 l l  l l7 lfhl2-f









)





8aG   a9 ra8 (                
y  rayYaaI !l l  l2-1M

Figure 1.73 Moment at centroid of shellSEL 45 versus applied center dis-

placement

The project file for this example is located in “sel\shell\plastic-hinge\plastic-hinge.f3prj.”

Example 1.16 Plastic hinge formation (using shellSELs)

new
title
Plastic hinge formation (double-node method with shellSELs)
gen zone brick size 12,3,1 &
p0 0,0,1.0 p1 10,0,1.0 p2 0 0 0 p3 0 1 1.0
sel shell id=1 elemtype=dkt_csth crossdiag range y -0.1 0.1 x -0.1 5.1
sel shell id=2 elemtype=dkt_csth crossdiag range y -0.1 0.1 x 4.9 10.1
delete zone
;sel delete sel range x 4.9 10.1 ; to visualize left section
;sel delete sel range x -0.1 5.1 ; to visualize right section
sel link 18 target=node tgt_num=50
sel link 19 target=node tgt_num=49
sel link 32 target=node tgt_num=68
sel link 45 target=node tgt_num=81
sel link attach xdir=rigid ydir=rigid zdir=rigid &
xrdir=rigid yrdir=rigid zrdir=nydeform
sel link constit nydeform 6 area=1.0
sel link constit nydeform 6 ycomp=8.33e3 ytens=8.33e3 range id=94,95

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sel link constit nydeform 6 ycomp=4.17e3 ytens=4.17e3 range id=93

sel link constit nydeform 6 ycomp=4.17e3 ytens=4.17e3 range id=96
sel link constit nydeform 6 k=5e9
sel shell prop iso=(2e11, 0.0) thick=0.133887
sel node fix y xr yr range x=(-0.1, 0.1) ; support at left end - roller
sel node fix y xr yr range x=(9.9, 10.1) ; support at rt. end - roller
sel node fix z xr yr ; restrict non-beam deformation modes
sel node fix y range union id=50 id=49 id=68 id=81
sel node init yvel local -5e-7 range union id=50 id=49 id=68 id=81
history add id=1 unbal
history add id=10 sel node ydisp id=49
history add id=20 sel recover sres Mx surfX 1,0,0 cid=45

sel set damp combined

cycle 30000
list sel node disp rot range id=49 ; should be equal and opposite
list sel node disp rot range id=19

sel recover surface surfx 1 0 0

sel recover sres
list sel recover sres mx range cid=45
list sel recover sres mx range cid=99
save shell-dn

call plastic-hinge-plot
call plastic-hinge-check

return

1.7.5.4 Isotropic Rectangular Plate with Applied Pressure

An isotropic rectangular plate (4 m by 8 m) is simply supported along its edges. The solution for
bending and deflection of the plate when subjected to a uniform pressure, p, is given by Ugural
(1981, pp. 66-73). The maximum deflection, wmax , occurs at the plate center and equals

δ1 pa 4
wmax = (1.48)
D

The maximum bending stress resultants also occur at the plate center and equal

Mx = δ3 pa 2
(1.49)
My = δ2 pa 2

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1 - 134 Structural Elements

where: a = short length of plate;

Et 3
D = flexural rigidity = 12(1−ν 2)

(E is Young’s modulus, ν is Poisson’s ratio and t is plate thickness); and

δ1 ,δ2 ,δ3 = coefficients from Table 3.1 of Ugural (1981)
(δ1 = 0.01013, δ2 = 0.1017, δ3 = 0.0464).
Shell properties are specified:

thickness (t) 0.3 m

Young’s modulus (E) 30 GPa
Poisson’s ratio (ν) 0.30

For an applied pressure of 240 kPa, the plate oriented such that a = 4 m (aligned with the y-
axis), and the long dimension of the plate aligned with the x-axis, the maximum plate deflection is
wmax = 8.39 mm, and the maximum bending stress resultants are Mx = 178 kN and My = 391 kN
(where the surface coordinate system in which Mx and My are expressed is aligned with the global
system).
The FLAC 3D model consists of 64 shellSELs, as shown in Figure 1.74. Only half of the plate is
modeled; a symmetry plane is prescribed at half the long dimension (at x = 4). The nodes along
the symmetry edge have their x-velocities and y- and z-rotations fixed. The other three edges have
only their z-velocities fixed to simulate simple supports. (Although the proper classical plate theory
boundary condition for a simple support includes also constraining rotation about an axis in the plane
of the plate directed normal to the edge, such classical boundary conditions tend to overconstrain
the mesh and produce results that are too stiff (Cook 1989, p. 332)). The pressure loading is applied
with the SEL shell apply pressure command. We utilize a cross-diagonal mesh pattern to ensure
symmetric response, and we utilize the DKT plate finite element (see Section 1.10.2.2). The same
results would be produced if we used either of the shell finite elements, because no membrane
loading occurs. The data file for this example is listed in Example 1.17.

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A
,rp,00J   0 l0 g
0p,67
/G,9G,rp,0p,8Sp8pp0K
 L   

0J   0 l0 g

  l000K

Figure 1.74 FLAC 3D model for rectangular plate problem

The displacement field is shown in Figures 1.75 and 1.76. The maximum plate deflection occurs at
the plate center and equals 8.223 mm, which is within 2% of the theoretical value. This value can
be printed with the command
list sel node disp range id=22

Contours of the bending stress resultants Mx and My are shown in Figures 1.77 and 1.78. The exact
values computed at the plate center (node 22) are computed and printed with the commands
sel recover surface surfx 1 0 0
sel recover sres
list sel recover sres mx range cid=47 ; center at node 22
list sel recover sres my range cid=47 ; center at node 22

The bending stress resultants are averaged at the nodes. Thus, the values from shellSELS 47, 46,
32 and 31 at node 22 are the same. The computed values of Mx and My are 182 kN and 396 kN,
respectively, which are both within 2.3% of the analytical values.

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A
,rp,00F   0 l0 g
0p,67
/G,9G,rp,0p,8Sp8p,0m
 L   
N0Q80prr

0F   0 l0 g

  l000m

Figure 1.75 Deformed (magnification of 100) shape of rectangular plate

A
,rp,003   0N l0 g
0p,67
/G,9G,rp,0p,8Sp8p,0-
7et 
rgrrrrXurr
iegrrrrXirS
ipgrrrrXir.
ipgerrrXir.
i,grrrrXir.
i,gerrrXir.
i.grrrrXir.
i.gerrrXir.
iSgrrrrXir.
iSgerrrXir.
iegrrrrXir.
iegerrrXir.
i6grrrrXir.
i6gerrrXir.
i7grrrrXir.
i7gerrrXir.
i9grrrrXir.
i9g,,.eXir.
 <0A0plrlr

03   0N l0 g

  l000-

Figure 1.76 Contours of plate deflection

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STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 1 - 137

A
,rp,0N03   0y l0N g
0p,67
/G,9G,rp,0p,8Sp8p,0-
7e)
,g96p6XurS
,grrrrXurS
rgrrrrXurr
i,grrrrXurS
iSgrrrrXurS
i6grrrrXurS
i9grrrrXurS
ipgrrrrXure
ipg,rrrXure
ipgSrrrXure
ipg6rrrXure
ipg9rrrXure
ipg9,.SXure
 <0A0plrlr
 e   
 0
 80rgp9.7p,

N03   0y l0N g

  l000-

Figure 1.77 Contour of bending stress resultant Mx

A
,rp,0N03   0y l0N g
0p,67
/G,9G,rp,0p,8Sp8p,0-
7e)
pg6p,7XurS
rgrrrrXurr
i,gerrrXurS
iegrrrrXurS
i7gerrrXurS
ipgrrrrXure
ipg,errXure
ipgerrrXure
ipg7errXure
i,grrrrXure
i,g,errXure
i,gerrrXure
i,g7errXure
i.grrrrXure
i.g,errXure
i.gerrrXure
i.g7errXure
i.g/e7rXure
 <0A0plrlr
 e   
 0
 80rgp9.7p,

N03   0y l0N g

  l000-

Figure 1.78 Contour of bending stress resultant My

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The project file for this example is located in “sel\shell\plate-applied-pressure\plate-applied-

pressure.f3prj.”

Example 1.17 Rectangular plate with applied pressure

new
title "Rectangular plate with applied pressure"
gen zone brick size 4,4,1 p0 0,0,-1
sel shell id=1 elemtype=dkt crossdiag range z -0.1 0.1
sel shell id=1 prop iso=(30e9, 0.3) thick=0.3
delete zone

range name edgeA x=( 3.9, 4.1)

range name edgeB y=( 3.9, 4.1)
range name edgeC x=(-0.1, 0.1)
range name edgeD y=(-0.1, 0.1)

sel node fix z range union nrange edgeB & ; simply supported condition
nrange edgeC &
nrange edgeD
sel node fix x yr zr range nrange edgeA ; symmetry condition
sel shell apply press -240e3
history add id=1 unbal
history add id=10 sel node ydisp id=22 ; deflection at plate center

solve ratio=1e-7

list sel node disp range id=22

sel recover surface surfx 1 0 0
sel recover sres
list sel recover sres mx range cid=47 ; center at node 22
list sel recover sres my range cid=47 ; center at node 22

save shell-rect

FLAC 3D Version 5.01

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1.7.5.5 Advancing Lined Tunnel (Rigidly Connected to Zones)

This example demonstrates how to simulate the sequential operations of excavating and adding
support to an advancing tunnel. The tunnel has a circular cross-section and is located at 5 m depth
in a soft elastic soil (E = 48.2 MPa, ν = 0.34) with isotropic in-situ stresses of 1 MPa. The tunnel
is supported by shotcrete (E = 10.5 GPa, ν = 0.25) with a thickness of 0.2 m. The shotcrete
remains elastic and rigidly connected to the soil throughout the simulation. (The shotcrete/soil
interface can be allowed to fail in either tension or shear, such that gaps can form and slip can occur,
if we use linerSELs instead of shellSELs – see Section 1.9.5.3.) The data file for this example is
listed in Example 1.18.
We begin with an initial tunnel of 2 m total length. For simplicity, we assume that the excavation
proceeds simultaneously on both tunnel faces; therefore, we need model only one quarter-section
of the tunnel by applying symmetry boundary conditions on the three symmetry planes. We model
the excavation process by assigning the null material model to zones. We then allow the stresses
to redistribute. The model at this stage is shown in Figure 1.79. We now install the shotcrete by
creating shellSELs and attaching them to the tunnel surface with the SEL shell command. The next
tunnel segment is excavated and, again, the stresses are allowed to redistribute. The model at this
stage is shown in Figure 1.80. This excavation sequence can be repeated to follow the entire tunnel
construction.

A 9%  vU v  ve$  v8 vv T

ZotZvDv8   vM (vD y

vsZo
ICZ1CZotZvtZG)tGt2v9O
 
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O  (vONvv9

Figure 1.79 Stage 1: excavate tunnel section 1

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A 7%  vF v  ve$  v9 vv T

ZotZvbv9   v4 (vb y

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Figure 1.80 Stage 2: install shotcrete in section 1; excavate tunnel section 2

Figures 1.81 and 1.82 show the displacements that occur during the second excavation stage for
the case with no support and the case with support, respectively. The z-displacement history at the
tunnel crown is included in each figure. We see that the support reduces the crown displacement
from approximately 12 mm to 1 mm.

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A 4% 

v+ v  ve$  v/ vv T

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Figure 1.81 Displacements during stage 2 – no support

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Figure 1.82 Displacements during stage 2 – shotcrete support

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The stresses in the shotcrete can be computed using the stress-recovery procedure (see Sec-
tion 1.1.6.4). The bending stress resultant, Mx , where the x-direction lies along the tunnel axis, is
shown in Figure 1.83. We see that bending is most extreme at the front of the liner near the tunnel
face. A plot of the deformed shape of the liner in Figure 1.84 indicates that this intense bending
arises from the large pinching deformation.

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Figure 1.83 Bending stress resultant, Mx , at end of stage 2

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A 7%  vF v  ve$  v9 vv T

ZotZvDv9   v4 (vD y

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Figure 1.84 Deformed (magnification of 150) shape of shotcrete at end of

stage 2

One additional excavation stage is performed. The model at the end of this stage is shown in
Figure 1.85. The shotcrete support has been extended into tunnel section 2 by issuing another
SEL shell command, and specifying an ID number that differs from the ID number of the shell in
tunnel section 1. This creates a “cold-joint” between the two shotcrete segments. (There will be a
collection of double nodes lying along the interface: one is used by segment one; the other is used
by segment two. Forces and moments will not be transferred between the adjoining shellSELs;
instead, only forces will be transmitted into the surrounding zones at the common locations. This
mimics two separate shell segments lying next to one another.) The deformation that occurs during
stage 3 begins to load the new shell segment, and produces additional load in the previous shell
segment. Both the displacement (see Figure 1.86) and the bending stress (see Figure 1.87) fields
are discontinuous across the joint.

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A 6%  vU v  ve$  v/ vv T

ZotZvDv/   vM (vD y

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Figure 1.85 Stage 3: install shotcrete in section 2; excavate tunnel section 3

A 6%  v5 v  ve$  v/ vv T

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ICZ1CZotZvtZG)tGt0v6N
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Figure 1.86 Deformed (magnification of 150) shape of shotcrete at end of

stage 3

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A 6%  v- v  veU  v/ vv T

ZotZvEv/   vM (vE y

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Figure 1.87 Bending stress resultant, Mx , at end of stage 3

The project file for this example is located in “sel\shell\advancing-tunnel\advancing-tunnel.f3prj.”

Example 1.18 Advancing lined tunnel

new
title
Advancing Lined Tunnel (Rigidly Connected to Zones)
gen zone radcyl dim 1.0 p0 0 0 0 p1 5 0 0 p2 0 2 0 p3 0 0 5 &
ratio 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.2 size 1 8 4 4 fill group tunnel
gen zone radcyl dim 1.0 p0 0 2 0 p1 5 2 0 p2 0 5 0 p3 0 2 5 &
ratio 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.2 size 1 3 4 4 fill group tunnel
group zone section1 range y 0 1 group tunnel
group zone section2 range y 1 2 group tunnel
group zone section3 range y 2 3 group tunnel
group zone section4 range y 3 4 group tunnel
group zone section5 range y 4 5 group tunnel
model mech elastic
prop bulk 50e6 shear 18e6
init sxx -1e6 syy -1e6 szz -1e6
fix x range x -0.001 0.001
fix z range z -0.001 0.001
fix y range y -0.001 0.001
fix x y z range x 4.99 5.01

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fix x y z range y 4.99 5.01

fix x y z range z 4.99 5.01
hist add id=1 unbal
; --- Stage 1: excavate tunnel section 1
model mech null range group section1
solve
save shell-tun1
;
init xdisp 0.0 ydisp 0.0 zdisp 0.0
hist add id=2 gp zdis 0 1 1
hist add id=3 gp zvel 0 1 1
; --- Stage 2: excavate tunnel section 2
mod mech null range group section2
save shell-tun1-temp
solve
save shell-tun2ns
restore shell-tun1-temp
; --- Add shotcrete
sel shell id=1 range cyl end1 0 0 0 end2 0 1.01 0 rad 1.0
sel node fix x yr zr range x -0.1 0.1 ; symmetry conditions
sel node fix y xr zr range y -0.1 0.1
sel node fix z xr yr range z -0.1 0.1
sel shell id=1 prop iso=(10.5e9, 0.25) thick=0.2
solve
sel recover surface surfx (0,1,0)
sel recover sres
save shell-tun2
; --- Stage 3: excavate tunnel section 3
mod mech null range group section3
sel shell id=2 range cyl end1 0 0.99 0 end2 0 2.01 0 rad 1.0
sel node fix x yr zr range x -0.1 0.1 ; symmetry conditions
sel node fix y xr zr range y -0.1 0.1
sel node fix z xr yr range z -0.1 0.1
sel shell id=2 prop iso=(10.5e9, 0.25) thick=0.2
solve
sel recover surface surfx (0,1,0)
sel recover sres
save shell-tun3

return

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1.8 Geogrid Structural Elements

1.8.1 Mechanical Behavior

The mechanical behavior of each geogridSEL can be divided into the structural response of the
geogrid material itself (see Section 1.6.1) and the way in which the geogridSEL interacts with
the FLAC 3D grid. By default, geogridSELs are assigned the CST plane-stress element that resists
membrane but does not resist bending loading (see Section 1.10.2.2). A membrane structure can be
modeled as a collection of geogridSELs. The geogrid behaves as an isotropic or orthotropic, linear
elastic material with no failure limit. A shear-directed (in the tangent plane to the geogrid surface)
frictional interaction occurs between the geogrid and the FLAC 3D grid, and the geogrid is slaved
to the grid motion in the normal direction. The geogrid can be thought of as the two-dimensional
analog of a one-dimensional cable. Geogrids are used to model flexible membranes whose shear
interaction with the soil are important, such as geotextiles and geogrids.
The orientation of the node-local system for all nodes used by geogridSELs is set automatically
at the start of a set of cycles (or when the CYCLE 0 command is executed), such that the z-axis is
aligned with the average normal direction of all geogridSELs using the node, and the xy-axes are
arbitrarily oriented in the geogrid tangent plane (see Figure 1.89(a)).
A geogrid is embedded in the interior of the FLAC 3D grid. The behavior at the geogrid-soil interface
is summarized in Figures 1.88 to 1.90. The stresses acting on the geogrid are shown in Figure 1.88.
These stresses, consisting of an effective confining stress, σm , and a total shear stress, τ , are
balanced by the membrane stresses that develop within the geogrid itself. These membrane stress
resultants (see Section 1.1.6) are denoted by N̄ in Figure 1.88. The interface behavior is represented
numerically at each geogrid node by a rigid attachment in the normal direction and a spring-slider in
the tangent plane to the geogrid surface. The orientation of the spring-slider changes in response to
relative shear displacement us between the geogrid and the host medium, as shown in Figure 1.89.
The fact that there is only a single spring slider at each node makes the geogrid behave in a fashion
similar to a coarse mesh of cross-linked bars. The spring-slider carries the total shear force acting
over the tributary area on both sides of the geogrid surface. Also, the effective confining stress is
assumed to be acting equally on both sides of the geogrid surface.

Figure 1.88 Stresses acting on the geogridSELs surrounding a node

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Figure 1.89 Idealization of interface behavior at a geogrid node

The normal behavior of the geogrid-soil interface is described below. The shear behavior of the
geogrid-soil interface (see Figure 1.90) is cohesive and frictional in nature, and is controlled by
the coupling spring properties of (1) stiffness per unit area, k, (2) cohesive strength, c, (3) friction
angle, φ, and (4) effective confining stress, σm . Note that the coupling-spring properties associated
with each geogridSEL are averaged at geogrid nodes.
The effective confining stress, σm , acts perpendicular to the geogrid surface, and is computed at
each geogrid node, based on the stress acting in the single zone to which the node is linked. Denote
the geogrid surface normal direction as z. The value of σm is taken as

σm = σzz + p (1.50)
where p = pore pressure

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Figure 1.90 Shear-directional interface behavior for geogridSELs

In computing the relative displacement at the geogrid-soil interface, an interpolation scheme is used
to calculate the grid displacement, based on the displacement field in the zone to which the node
is linked. The interpolation scheme uses weighting factors that are determined by the distance to
each of the zone gridpoints. The same interpolation scheme is used to apply forces developed in
the geogrid-soil interface back to the gridpoints of the zone.
As explained above, an interpolated estimate of grid velocity is made at each geogrid node. The
velocity normal to the geogrid surface is transferred directly to the node (i.e., the geogrid node is
slaved to the grid motion in the normal direction). The node exerts no normal force on the grid
if all the geogridSELs that share the node are coplanar; however, if they are not coplanar, then
a proportion of their membrane force will act in the normal direction. This net force acts both
on the grid and on the geogrid node (in opposite directions). Thus, an initially flat geogrid can
sustain normal loading if it is allowed finite deflection, using the large-strain solution mode. This
normal force is transferred to the gridpoints of the single zone to which the node is attached. The
attachment is to only one zone on one side of the geogrid surface, and this side may not correspond
with the side going into compression. There is no provision for the formation or tracking of gaps
between the geogrid and the soil (i.e., the geogrid is assumed to be fully embedded within the soil
at all times).
Geogrids support large-strain sliding (by setting the slide property to on), whereby the interpolation
locations (used by the geogrid nodes to transfer forces and velocities to and from the zones – see
Section 1.10.1) will migrate through the grid when running in large-strain mode. This allows one to
calculate the large-strain, post-failure behavior of a geogrid, whereby substantial sliding between
the geogrid nodes and the zones occurs. If a geogrid node moves out of all zones, then a connection

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with the zones will not be reestablished if the node is later moved back into zones; however, the
connection remains intact as the geogrid nodes slide between zones.

1.8.2 Response Quantities

Geogrid responses include stresses in the geogrid itself, as well as stress, displacement and yield
state in the shear coupling springs. Additional coupling-spring information includes the current
loading direction and the effective confining stress. The geogrid responses can be accessed via
FISH, and
(1) printed with the LIST sel geogrid type command, where type = {coupling and
nforce},
(2) monitored with the HISTORY add sel geogridsel command, and
(3) plotted with the sel geocontour plot item.
Refer to Section 1.6.2 for a summary of the commands that support recovery of stresses acting in
the geogrid itself.

1.8.3 Properties

Each geogridSEL possesses 9 properties:

(1) density mass density, ρ (optional – needed if dynamic mode or
gravity is active) [M/L3 ]
(2a) isotropic isotropic material properties: E and ν, where E is Young’s
modulus [F/L2 ] and ν is Poisson’s ratio, or
(2b) orthotropic orthotropic material properties: c11  , c , c , c and material
12 22 33
  
directions x y z where the values are defined by Eq. (1.36), or
(2c) anisotropic anisotropic material properties: c11  , c , c , c , c , c
12 13 22 23 33
and material directions x  y  z where the values are defined
by Eq. (1.37)
(3) thexp thermal-expansion coefficient, αt [1/T]
(4) thickness thickness, t [L]
(5) cs scoh coupling spring cohesion (stress units), c [F/L2 ]
(6) cs sfric coupling spring friction angle, φ [degrees]
(7) cs sk coupling spring stiffness per unit area, k [F/L3 ]
(8) slide large-strain sliding flag (default: off)
(9) slide tol large-strain sliding tolerance

The material constitutive behavior may be isotropic, orthotropic or anisotropic; thus, property (2a),
(2b) or (2c) must be specified. See Section 1.6.3 for a description of the orthotropic and anisotropic
constitutive values. The shear behavior of the geogrid-soil interface is controlled by the three
coupling-spring properties, 5-7.

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1.8.4 Associated Commands

All of the commands associated with geogrids are listed in this section. They are divided into those
commands that allow one to create and specify geogrid properties, print and plot properties and
responses, and monitor responses. Note that all boundary and initial conditions, with the exception
of pressure loads applied to geogrid surfaces, are specified with the SEL node command. See
Section 1 in the Command Reference for detailed descriptions of all of the commands.

Table 1.21 Geogrid commands (create and specify properties)

SEL geogridsel <. . . > nodes nd1,nd2,nd3
SEL geogrid <. . . >
SEL geogrid keyword
apply pressure value
property keyword
(1) density value
(2a) isotropic values. . .
(2b) orthotropic values. . .
(2c) anisotropic values. . .
(3) thexp value
(4) thickness value
(5) cs scoh value
(6) cs sfric value
(7) cs sk value
(8) slide on/off
(9) slide tol value

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Table 1.22 Geogrid commands (print properties and

responses)
LIST sel geogrid keyword
apply
connect
coupling keyword
confinement
displacement
stress
yield
elemtype
group
id
local
nforce
position
property keyword
surfarea
volume

Table 1.23 Geogrid commands (monitor responses)

HISTORY add sel keyword
geogridsel coupling keyword
disp
stress
yield
recover (see Table 1.17)

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1.8.5 Example Applications

1.8.5.1 Simple Test of Geogrid-Soil Interface Behavior

A geogrid is embedded in a soil block and then pulled out of the block. The soil is represented by
a single zone, and the geogrid is represented by a single geogridSEL. The shear stress and shear
displacement of one of the coupling springs is monitored and plotted to demonstrate the effects of
the geogrid-soil interface properties on system response.
The FLAC 3D model consists of one geogridSEL embedded in one zone, as shown in Figure 1.91.
The geogrid is initially created, using the SEL geogrid command, to consist of two geogridSELs
that lie on the zone face at y = 1. Then one of the geogridSELs is deleted, and the remaining
geogridSEL is moved into the zone interior with the SEL node init command. The zone is assigned
elastic properties, and is fully fixed in all directions. The geogrid is assigned isotropic material
properties and a thickness, and a constant velocity of 1 × 10−6 m/step in the global x-direction is
applied to all geogrid nodes. The shear stress and total shear displacement in the coupling spring at
node 1 are monitored using the history mechanism. The geogrid-soil interface properties are then
varied to demonstrate their effects on the system behavior. The data file for this example is listed
in Example 1.19.

A 7  mmm8  d7 m4 mu"% 

"m  mmo m   79bm m mV f-
cnacm4m,   m8 rm4 -
7mvvnn
LIcEIcnacmaczhnzhnmCU
 
, zm m
OZ9
 n   
n n 
U#  zmn-nnvv
7 zmcn-hyL(

4m,   m8 rm4 -

U  rmUZmm7C

Figure 1.91 FLAC 3D model for simple test of geogrid-soil interface behavior

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The shear stress versus total shear displacement is shown in Figures 1.92 and 1.93. The peak shear
stress is given by (see Figure 1.90)

τmax = c + σm tan φ (1.51)

where: c = coupling spring cohesion;
σm = effective confining stress; and
φ = coupling spring friction angle.
For the initial properties specified, the case with zero and 1.73 kPa confining stress give expected
peak shear stresses of 4 and 5 kPa, respectively. The effect of the specified confinement is to raise
the response plots by 1 kPa, and this is what we find. Also, the slope of these curves equals the
coupling spring stiffness per unit area (SEL geogrid property cs sk). When any of the geogrid
properties are modified, the system responds accordingly. Quantitative values of shear stress, shear
displacement, yield state and effective confining stress at the nodes of each geogridSEL can be
printed with the commands
list sel geogrid coupling stress
list sel geogrid coupling displacement
list sel geogrid coupling yield
list sel geogrid coupling confinement

A   mmmM  d mE m/"% 

"mmo  fm%-m"m 
cnacmEm8   mM rmE - 
mvvnn
.Ic)Icnacmac©hn©hnm9

# 
am8  mmmamm   4'ma
%-mcm8  m mmamm   4'ma



 s)5 ,s-^r














Em8   mM rmE -             
  rmmm9   s)5 ,s-^xS

Figure 1.92 Shear stress versus total shear displacement (confining stress of
zero)

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A   mmmM  d mE m/"% 

"mmo  fm%-m"m 
cnacmEm8   mM rmE - 
mvvnn
.Ic)Icnacmac©hn©ham9

# 
am8  mmmamm   4'ma
%-mcm8  m mmamm   4'ma




 s)5 ,s-^r













Em8   mM rmE -             
  rmmm9   s)5 ,s-^xS

Figure 1.93 Shear stress versus total shear displacement (confining stress of
1.73 kPa)

The project file for this example is located in “sel\geogrid\soil-interface\soil-interface.f3prj.”

Example 1.19 Simple test of geogrid-soil interface behavior

set fish autocreate off
title "Simple Test of Geogrid-Soil Interface Behavior"
gen zone brick size=(1,1,1)
model mech elastic ; for the rock, sandy shale
prop bulk=3.33e9 she=2.5e9 ; for the rock, E=6 GPa, nu=0.2
init syy=@conf_stress_ ; apply confining stress, zero or -1.73e3
fix x y z
;
sel geogrid range y=0.99,1.01
sel delete geogrid range cid=2
sel node init ypos add -0.5
sel geogrid property thick=0.1 iso=( 20e9, 0.2)
sel geogrid property cs_sk=2.3e6 cs_scoh=4e3 cs_sfric=30.0
;
history add sel geogridsel coupling stress cid=1
history add sel geogridsel coupling disp cid=1
sel node fix x y z
sel node init xvel local 1e-6

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;
cycle 3000

sel geogrid property cs_scoh=6e3 cs_sk=1.3e6

cycle 2000

sel geogrid property cs_scoh=5e3

cycle 500

return

1.8.5.2 Geogrid Pull-out Test

A geosynthetic sheet is embedded in a box of soil and then pulled out of the soil, as shown in
Figure 1.94. The total pull-out force and displacement are monitored and plotted. The test is
performed for different values of confining stress. This example provides guidance in selecting
geogrid properties, and demonstrates the shear response of the geogrid-soil system. It makes use
of properties described in Beneito and Gotteland (2001).

We assume that both the soil (E = 15 MPa, ν = 0.3, ρ = 1950 kg/m3 ) and the geogrid (E =
26 GPa, ν = 0.33, t = 5 mm) remain elastic, and that all failure occurs at the geogrid-soil interface.
The interface properties (k, c, φ) are estimated as follows.
We assume that a set of pull-out tests have been performed at different confining pressures. The
value of k is set equal to the slope of the pull-out stress versus displacement plot. In Beneito and
Gotteland (2001), this slope increases for increasing confinement. For our purposes, we match the
slope for a confinement of 39 kPa (which corresponds with the weight of the soil above the geogrid)
by setting

S 23 kPa
k= = = 2.3 × 106 N/m3 (1.52)
U 10 mm
where: S = pull-out stress (pull-out force/(embedded geogrid area)); and
U = pull-out displacement.
The values of c and φ are found from a plot of maximum pull-out force versus confinement. The
slope of this curve equals tan φ, and the y-intercept equals c. In Beneito and Gotteland (2001), the
cohesion is zero, and the maximum pull-out stress for confinements of 100 and 25 kPa is 54 and 12
kPa, respectively. For our purposes, we match these data by setting

c=0
 
−1 54 − 12 (1.53)
φ = tan = 29.2 degrees
100 − 25

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The FLAC 3D model consists of 60 geogridSELs and 250 zones, as shown in Figure 1.95. The data
file for this example is listed in Example 1.20. We begin with a regular grid of size 10 by 5 by
5 zones and then (1) adjust the zone spacing in the y-direction to conform with the 0.6 m width
of the geogrid, and (2) adjust the zone spacing in the z-direction such that the geogrid lies in the
center of a layer of zones. This second adjustment ensures that the confining stress acting on the
geogrid equals the true value at this depth (recall that the stress is constant within each FLAC 3D
zone and corresponds with the value at the zone centroid). The modeling sequence then proceeds
as follows. Begin with a stress-free soil, fix the sides and bottom of the box, install the geogrid
(create it on the top surface and then reposition it to its final location), activate gravity and cycle
to reach equilibrium, and then apply a constant pressure to the top surface (in the initial run, this
pressure is zero) and cycle to equilibrium. At this stage, the top of the soil has moved down by 3
mm, the sides and bottom of the box are being compressed by the soil, and a confining stress of 39
kPa is acting on the geogrid surface (LIST sel geogrid coupling confinement).

Figure 1.94 Geogrid pull-out test configuration

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Figure 1.95 FLAC 3D model for geogrid pull-out test

The pull-out test is performed by applying a constant horizontal velocity to the geogrid nodes along
the box front. We fix these nodal velocities in the geogrid plane (which corresponds with the node-
local xy-axes – see the SEL node command), and then specify a velocity in the global x-direction.
During the test we monitor the applied displacement and force. The applied force is equal to the
total out-of-balance force acting on the geogrid nodes along the box front (computed with the
po stress FISH function), and the pull-out stress equals this force divided by the embedded
geogrid area. We also monitor the shear stress and total shear displacement in the six coupling
springs along the geogrid centerline at 0.5 m intervals from front to back. (The locations of the
history monitoring points correspond with the points Pi in Figure 1.94, and can be displayed with
the location plot item.)
The pull-out stress versus applied displacement is shown in Figure 1.96 for the case in which no
pressure is applied to the top surface. An applied displacement of approximately 10 mm is necessary
to mobilize all of the frictional resistance of the geogrid. During this test, the effective confining
stress acting on the geogrid surface is equal to 39 kPa. For this value of confinement, and for
the geogrid interface properties specified, the maximum shear stress should equal (see Eq. (1.51))
21.8 kPa. The value we obtain is 21.76 kPa, which matches the theoretical value. Also, the slope
of this curve equals the coupling spring stiffness (see Eq. (1.52)).
In Figure 1.97, we compare the evolution of the shear stress acting in the coupling spring at the
front face with the pull-out shear stress. We find that the front coupling spring yields before the
overall system yields. This is to be expected, because the yielded region begins at the front face
and then propagates back into the soil block. We also find that the maximum stress in the coupling

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STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 1 - 159

spring slightly exceeds that of the overall system (22.22 kPa versus 21.76 kPa). Also, the effective
confining stress acting on the coupling spring at the front face (LIST sel geogrid coupling confinement
range cid 40) equals 39.73 kPa, which is slightly larger than the average value of 39 kPa acting on the
entire geogrid. Figure 1.97 illustrates the difference between the local response at a geogrid node
and the global response of the entire geogrid system. In the entire system, the effective confining
stress differs over different parts of the geogrid because of boundary effects from the box walls.

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applied to top surface)

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Figure 1.97 Pull-out shear stress and coupling spring stress at P0 versus ap-
plied displacement (no pressure applied to top surface)

In Figure 1.98, we plot the geogrid displacements, Ui , at the locations Pi (from Figure 1.94)
versus the applied displacement U0 over the range from 9 to 12 mm. In this plot, the histories
10-15 correspond with the points P0 -P5 , respectively. We observe the phenomenon of progressive
mobilization of the geogrid as the yielded region progresses inward from the front face. The
equal slopes indicate that all points are moving at the same rate as the front face, and the offsets
demonstrate that the front points have moved farther than the back points (also see Figure 1.99).
The very small offset occurs because the geogrid is much stiffer than the surrounding soil, such that
very little strain develops in the geogrid itself prior to yielding.

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ment (no pressure applied to top surface)

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Figure 1.99 Geogrid displacement field (U0 = 12 mm; no pressure applied to

top surface)

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At an applied displacement of 12 mm, we examine the shear stresses acting on the geogrid (see
Figure 1.100) and the membrane stress resultant, Nx (where the x-direction is parallel with the
global x-direction), acting within the geogrid (see Figure 1.101). In Figure 1.100, we overlay the
yield state of the coupling springs. First, we note that all of the coupling springs are yielding. The
shear stresses acting on the geogrid have reached a constant maximum value that ranges from 21.2
to 22.4 kPa over the geogrid surface. The value is largest at the front face, and slightly lower at
the far end. The membrane stress resultant acting within the geogrid is largest at the front face
(53.7 kN/m), and declines as one moves away from the face. This occurs because more load is
transferred to the soil as one moves away from the front face. The membrane stress is constant
across the geogrid width; thus, we can estimate the stress in the global x-direction at the mid-surface
by dividing the value of Nx by the geogrid thickness to yield 10.7 MPa, which is what we see in
the contour plot in Figure 1.102. The actual xx-stress in a geogridSEL adjacent to the front face is
found to be 10.07 MPa using the commands
sel recover surface surfx 1 0 0
sel recover stress depth fac 0.0
list sel recover stress xx range cid=40 ; prints xx-stress
plot add sel geocontour sxx ; plots xx-stress contour

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applied to top surface)

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Figure 1.101 Membrane stress resultant Nx acting within the geogrid (U0 =
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Figure 1.102 xx-stress acting within the geogrid (U0 = 12 mm; no pressure
applied to top surface)

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The simulation is rerun with an applied pressure of 61 kPa on the top surface. This increases the
geogrid confinement to 100 kPa, which corresponds with the laboratory data used in Eq. (1.53), and
for which the expected maximum pull-out stress is 54 kPa. The computed value equals 55.8 kPa
(see Figure 1.103).

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Figure 1.103 Pull-out shear stress versus applied displacement (pressure of 61

kPa applied to top surface)

The project file for this example is located in “sel\geogrid\pull-out\pull-out.f3prj.”

Example 1.20 Geogrid pull-out test: “PULL-OUT.F3DAT”

; File for running ’Geogrid Pull-Out Test’

new
title "Geogrid Pull-Out Test"
set fish autocreate off

gen zone brick size 10,5,5 &

p0 0,0,0 p1 2.5,0,0 p2 0 1.5 0 p3 0 0 2.5
init ypos add 0.15 range y 0.29 0.31 ; adjust grid grading in y-direc
init ypos add -0.15 range y 1.19 1.21
init ypos add 0.05 range y 0.59 0.61
init ypos add -0.05 range y 0.89 0.91
init zpos add -0.25 range z 0.49 0.51 ; adjust grid grading in z-direc

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init zpos add -0.25 range z 0.99 1.01

model mech elastic
prop bulk=12.5e6 shear=5.77e6 dens=1950. ; E=15 MPa, nu=0.3
fix x range union x -0.1 0.1 x 2.4 2.6 ; box sides: x-faces
fix y range union y -0.1 0.1 y 1.4 1.6 ; box sides: y-faces
fix z range z -0.1 0.1 ; box bottom
sel geogrid range z 2.49 2.51 y 0.44 1.06 ; create geogrid on top surface
sel node init zpos add -2.0 ; move down to final location
sel geogrid prop iso=(26e9, 0.33) thick=5e-3 &
cs_sk=2.3e6 cs_scoh=0.0 cs_sfric=29.2
set grav 0 0 -10

solve
save init

;; ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
;; No pressure applied to top surface
;apply szz -61e3 range z 2.49 2.51 ; apply pressure to top surface
solve
save init0
call pull-out-common
cycle 120000 ; use 300000 when applied pressure is 61 kPa
save p0k

;; ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
;; 61kPa pressure applied to top surface
restore init
apply szz -61e3 range z 2.49 2.51 ; apply pressure to top surface
solve
save init61k
call pull-out-common
cycle 300000
save p61k

return

Example 1.21 Geogrid pull-out test: “PULL-OUT-COMMON.F3DAT”

; --------------------
def po_stress
; ----- Compute pull-out stress by summing out-of-balance force acting
; on front wall and dividing by geogrid embedded area.
local _sum = 0.0
local np = nd_head
loop while np # null

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1 - 166 Structural Elements

if nd_pos(np,2,1) > 2.49 then

_sum = _sum - nd_rfob(np,1,1)
end_if
np = nd_next(np)
end_loop
po_stress = _sum / 1.5 ; embedded area is 0.6*2.5 = 1.5
end
; --------------------
sel node fix x y range x 2.49 2.51 ; fix velocity in geogrid plane
; (node-local xy-axes)
sel node init xvel local 1e-7 range x 2.49 2.51
sel node init xdisp=0.0 ydisp=0.0 zdisp=0.0 & ; reset nodal displ.
xrdisp=0.0 yrdisp=0.0 zrdisp=0.0

history add id=10 sel node xdisp id=21 ; point P0

history add id=11 sel node xdisp id=17 ; point P1
history add id=12 sel node xdisp id=13 ; point P2
history add id=13 sel node xdisp id=9 ; point P3
history add id=14 sel node xdisp id=5 ; point P4
history add id=15 sel node xdisp id=2 ; point P5
history add id=20 sel geogridsel coupling stress nd3 cid=40 ; point P0
history add id=21 sel geogridsel coupling stress nd3 cid=36 ; point P1
history add id=22 sel geogridsel coupling stress nd3 cid=32 ; point P2
history add id=23 sel geogridsel coupling stress nd3 cid=28 ; point P3
history add id=24 sel geogridsel coupling stress nd3 cid=24 ; point P4
history add id=25 sel geogridsel coupling stress nd2 cid=22 ; point P5
history add id=201 sel geogridsel coupling disp nd3 cid=36 ; point P1
history add id=100 fish @po_stress

sel set damp combined

; check expected pull-out stress value

def check(msg,target,tol)
global err = abs(po_stress - target)
if err > tol
local str = buildstr(msg+" - Stress (%1) outside tolerance",po_stress)
error = buildstr(str + "Expecting %2",target)
endif
end

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STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 1 - 167

1.8.5.3 Geogrid-Reinforced Embankment

This example illustrates the behavior of a soil embankment reinforced with three geogrid layers.
It is similar to the soil-nailing example in Section 1.4.5.2, wherein cables are used to reinforce the
embankment. Three geogrids are installed at different levels in a vertical embankment. There is
assumed to be no cohesive resistance between the geogrids and the soil. The friction angle of the
geogrid-soil interface necessary to stabilize the embankment is determined. The data file is listed
in Example 1.22.
The FLAC 3D model consists of 48 geogridSELs and 121 zones, as shown in Figure 1.104. The
model simulates a one-meter wide section of soil subjected to plane-strain conditions (no out-of-
plane motion). During the construction of the actual embankment, the soil would have been added
gradually with each geogrid layer being emplaced and then covered with soil. Instead, we simply
emplace all three geogrid layers into a stress-free soil, and then install the soil in-situ stresses that
correspond with the soil weight. At this stage, each geogrid layer is subjected to a different confining
stress that increases with depth. We now create the embankment by removing the constraint on the
left side of the model, and cycle until either equilibrium is reestablished or it becomes clear that the
embankment is collapsing.

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The soil is modeled as a Mohr-Coulomb material, and assigned the same properties as in Sec-
tion 1.4.5.2. Geogrids in FLAC 3D remain elastic; failure can occur in the geogrid-soil inter-
face and/or in the soil zones. The geogrid is assigned the same properties as in Section 1.8.5.2
(E = 26 GPa, ν = 0.33, t = 5 mm, k = 2.3 N/m3 , c = 0), and the friction angle is varied.

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For a geogrid-soil interface friction angle of 0 degrees, the shear resistance of the geogrid is not
mobilized, and the soil itself does not have sufficient strength to prevent the collapse of the em-
bankment. Figure 1.105 shows that the geogrids are carrying no load, and that the slip condition
has been reached at all geogrid nodes. A plot of the x-displacement of the top-left gridpoint (see
Figure 1.106) indicates that the embankment is collapsing.
By including a frictional resistance at the geogrid-soil interface of 5◦ , the geogrids are sufficient to
stabilize the embankment (see Figure 1.107). Figure 1.108 plots the tensile stress in the geogrids
for this case. The top geogrid layer has slipped and transferred load to the lower layers. The
displacement field of the soil and the geogrids is shown in Figure 1.109. The counterclockwise
rotation of the system and the decrease in pull-out deformation with depth are evident in this plot.

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gle of zero (the embankment is collapsing)

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STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 1 - 169

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face friction angle of zero (the embankment is collapsing)

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face friction angle of five degrees (the embankment is stable)

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gle of five degrees (the embankment is stable)

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Figure 1.109 Displacement field in soil and geogrids with geogrid-soil interface
friction angle of five degrees (the embankment is stable)

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The project file for this example is located in the folder “sel\geogrid\reinf-embankment\reinf-
embankment.f3prj.”

Example 1.22 Geogrid-reinforced embankment

; Geogrid Example Problem ’Reinforced embankment’
title "Reinforced embankment (using geogrids)"
set fish autocreate off

; Create soil
gen zone brick size 11 1 11
model mech mohr
prop bulk 5e9 shear 1e9 coh 4e4 fric 30
ini dens 2000
; Create three geogrid layers
sel geogrid id=1 range x=(0.0,8.0) z=(10.99, 11.01)
sel node init zpos add -7.5 range z=(10.99, 11.01)
sel geogrid id=2 range x=(0.0,8.0) z=(10.99, 11.01)
sel node init zpos add -4.5 range z=(10.99, 11.01)
sel geogrid id=3 range x=(0.0,8.0) z=(10.99, 11.01)
sel node init zpos add -1.5 range z=(10.99, 11.01)
sel geogrid prop iso=(26e9, 0.33) thick=5e-3 &
cs_sk=2.3e6 cs_scoh=0.0
sel geogrid prop cs_sfric=@sfric_;
; Assign BCs and install soil in-situ stresses
fix x z range z -.1,.1
fix x range x -.1,.1
fix x range x 10.9,11.1
fix y
ini szz = -2.2e5 grad 0,0,2e4
ini sxx = -1.32e5 grad 0,0,1.2e4
ini syy = -0.88e5 grad 0,0,0.8e4
set grav 0,0,-10

hist add unbal

hist add gp xdisp 0,0,11
solve
; Remove constraint on left side of model.
free x range x -.1,.1
;
step 5000
save sf

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1.9 Liner Structural Elements

1.9.1 Mechanical Behavior

1.9.1.1 Single-Side Liner-Grid Interaction

The mechanical behavior of each linerSEL can be divided into the structural response of the liner
material itself (see Section 1.6.1), and the way in which the linerSEL interacts with the FLAC 3D
grid. By default, linerSELs are assigned the DKT-CST shell element that resists both membrane
and bending loading (see Section 1.10.2.2). A physical liner can be modeled as a collection of lin-
erSELs that are attached to the surface of the FLAC 3D grid. In addition to providing the structural
behavior of a shell, a shear-directed (in the tangent plane to the liner surface) frictional interaction
occurs between the liner and the FLAC 3D grid. Also, in the normal direction, both compressive and
tensile forces can be carried, and the liner may break free from (and subsequently come back into
contact with) the grid. Liners are used to model thin liners for which both normal-directed com-
pressive/tensile interaction and shear-directed frictional interaction with the host medium occurs,
such as shotcrete-lined tunnels or retaining walls.
The orientation of the node-local system for all nodes used by linerSELs is set automatically at the
start of a set of cycles (or when the CYCLE 0 command is executed) such that the z-axis is aligned
with the average normal direction of all linerSELs using the node, and the xy-axes are arbitrarily
oriented in the linerSEL tangent plane (see Figure 1.111(a)).
A liner is attached to the surface of the FLAC 3D grid. The behavior at the liner-zone interface is
summarized in Figures 1.110 to 1.113. The stresses acting on the liner are shown in Figure 1.110.
These stresses, consisting of a normal stress, σn , and a shear stress, τ , are balanced by stresses
that develop within the liner itself (these stress resultants – see Section 1.1.6 – are denoted by
R̄ in Figure 1.110). The interface behavior is represented numerically at each liner node by a
linear spring with finite tensile strength in the normal direction, and a spring-slider in the tangent
plane to the liner surface. The orientation of the spring-slider changes in response to relative shear
displacement us between the liner and the host medium, as shown in Figure 1.111. (Note that the
liner is drawn below the zones in Figure 1.110 and above the zones in Figure 1.111.)

Figure 1.110 Stresses acting on the linerSELs surrounding a node

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Figure 1.111 Idealization of interface behavior at a liner node

The normal behavior of the liner-zone interface (see Figure 1.112) is controlled by the normal
coupling spring properties of (1) stiffness per unit area, kn , and (2) tensile strength, ft . The shear
behavior of the liner-zone interface (see Figure 1.113) is cohesive and frictional in nature, and is
controlled by the shear coupling spring properties of (1) stiffness per unit area, ks , (2) cohesive
strength, c, (3) residual cohesive strength, cr , and (4) friction angle, φ, and by the interface normal
stress, σn . If the liner fails in tension, then the effective cohesion drops from c to cr , and the tensile
strength is set to zero. The total relative normal displacement, un , continues to be tracked such that
compressive normal stresses will again develop when the gap closes. Note that the coupling spring
properties associated with each linerSEL are averaged at liner nodes.
In computing the relative displacement at the liner-zone interface, an interpolation scheme is used
to calculate the grid displacement, based on the displacement field in the zone to which the node
is linked. The interpolation scheme uses weighting factors that are determined by the distance to
each of the zone gridpoints. The same interpolation scheme is used to apply forces developed in
the liner-zone interface back to the gridpoints of the zone.
Liners support large-strain sliding (by setting the slide property to on), whereby the interpolation
locations (used by the liner nodes to transfer forces and velocities to and from the zones – see
Section 1.10.1) will migrate through the grid when running in large-strain mode. This allows one to
calculate the large-strain, post-failure behavior of a liner, whereby substantial sliding between the
liner nodes and the zones occurs. At each liner node, if large-strain sliding is on and the tensile stress
exceeds the interface tensile strength, then the link that joins this liner node to a zone surface will
be deleted; however, if this node later comes back into contact with any zone face, the connection
will be reestablished (via a new link with appropriate liner properties).

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Figure 1.112 Normal-directional interface behavior for linerSELs

Figure 1.113 Shear-directional interface behavior for linerSELs

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1.9.1.2 Embedded Liner Behavior

The liner structural element can also be made to interact with FLAC 3D zones on both sides of the
liner. Additional coupling springs are added to the embedded liner for this capability. (The default
liner only provides a single link on each node, whereas the embedded liner provides two links on
each node.) Independent properties are specified on each side of the embedded liner (side1 and
side2). The embedded liner mechanical behavior is similar to the default liner behavior described
above, except that the zone-liner interface is active on both sides of the embedded liner.

1.9.2 Response Quantities

Liner responses include stresses in the liner itself, as well as stress, displacement, yield state and
loading direction in both the normal and shear coupling springs. The liner responses can be accessed
via FISH, and
(1) printed with the LIST sel liner type command, where type = {coupling and
nforce},
(2) monitored with the HISTORY add sel linersel command, and
(3) plotted with the sel lincontour plot item.
Refer to Section 1.6.2 for a summary of the commands that support recovery of stresses acting in
the liner itself.
1.9.2.1 Embedded Liner Response Quantities

Embedded liner response quantities are similar to the default liner response quantities described
above, except that side1 or side2 information is output (with the LIST sel liner command), or can be
specified with HISTORY add sel linersel command.
The plotting of links on liners is changed if the liner is embedded. Links are typically plotted as
a circle at the link location. Side1 links are plotted as the default circle size, and side2 links are
plotted as a smaller circle (inside the side1 circle if both links occur at the same location).

1.9.3 Properties

Each linerSEL has 12 properties:

(1) density mass density, ρ (optional – needed if dynamic mode or
gravity is active) [M/L3 ]
(2a) isotropic isotropic material properties: E and ν where E is Young’s
modulus [F/L2 ] and ν is Poisson’s ratio, or
(2b) orthotropic orthotropic material properties: c11  , c , c , c and material
12 22 33
directions x  y  z where the values are defined by Eq. (1.36), or

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(2c) anisotropic anisotropic material properties: c11  , c , c , c , c , c

12 13 22 23 33
and material directions x  y  z where the values are defined
by Eq. (1.37)
(3) thexp thermal-expansion coefficient, αt [1/T]
(4) thickness thickness, t [L]
(5) cs ncut normal coupling spring tensile strength (stress units), ft [F/L2 ]
(6) cs nk normal coupling spring stiffness per unit area, kn [F/L3 ]
(7) cs scoh shear coupling spring cohesion (stress units), c [F/L2 ]
(8) cs scohres shear coupling spring residual cohesion (stress units), cr [F/L2 ]
(9) cs sfric shear coupling spring friction angle, φ [degrees]
(10) cs sk shear coupling spring stiffness per unit area, ks [F/L3 ]
(11) slide large-strain sliding flag (default: off)
(12) slide tol large-strain sliding tolerance

The material constitutive behavior may be isotropic, orthotropic or anisotropic: thus, property (2a),
(2b) or (2c) must be specified. See Section 1.6.3 for a description of the orthotropic and anisotropic
constitutive values. The normal and shear behavior of the liner-grid interface is controlled by the
six coupling-spring properties, 5-10. These can be divided into strength (ft , c, cr , φ) and stiffness
(kn , ks ) properties. Choice of appropriate strength properties should be relatively straightforward,
as these correspond with measurable macroscopic strength properties of the real physical system.
Choice of the stiffness properties is more complex and will be discussed below (refer to Section 2
in Theory and Background for a more detailed discussion).
Typically, we want the liner-zone interface to be stiff compared to the surrounding material, but able
to slip and perhaps open in response to the anticipated loading. For this situation, we simply need
to provide a means by which the liner elements can slide and/or open relative to the zone surfaces.
The strength properties are important, but the elastic stiffnesses are not. It is recommended that the
lowest stiffness consistent with small interface deformation be used. A good rule-of-thumb is that
kn and ks be set to ten times the equivalent stiffness of the stiffest neighboring zone. The apparent
stiffness (expressed in stress-per-distance units) of a zone in the direction normal to the surface is

 
(K + 43 G)
max (1.54)
zmin

where: K and G = the bulk and shear modulus, respectively; and

zmin = the smallest dimension of an adjoining zone in the normal direction.
The max [ ] notation indicates that the maximum value over all zones adjacent to the liner is to be
used (e.g., there may be several materials adjoining the liner). Note that Eq. (1.54) strictly applies
only to a planar surface subjected to normal penetration. If the surface is curved, as is the case
surrounding a circular excavation, the apparent stiffness should be increased by a factor of 10 to 100.
For a particular problem, it is recommended that one confirm that the interface deformation (i.e.,

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the displacement in the coupling spring) is small relative to the zone deformation. (The coupling
spring displacement is obtained via the LIST sel liner coupling displacement command; the zone
deformation is obtained via the LIST gp displacement command.)
1.9.3.1 Embedded Liner Properties

The embedded liner has the following independent properties on each side: cs ncut, cs nk, sc scoh,
cs scohres, cs fric and cs sk. All other liner properties (density, liner elastic properties, sliding
flag, sliding tolerance, thermal expansion coefficient, and thickness) are shared. The usual SEL
liner property command is used to set embedded liner properties, except that an optional side1 or
side2 keyword is used to specify the side-specific properties. If the side keyword is omitted, then
side1 is assumed.

1.9.4 Associated Commands

All of the commands associated with liners are listed in this section (see Tables 1.24 – 1.26).
They are divided into commands that allow one to create and specify liner properties, print and plot
properties and responses, and monitor responses. Note that all boundary and initial conditions, with
the exception of pressure loads applied to liner surfaces, are specified with the SEL node command.
See Section 1 in the Command Reference for detailed descriptions of all of the commands.
1.9.4.1 Embedded Liner Associated Commands

An embedded liner is created in a different way than a default liner. An embedded liner is created
with the command
SEL liner embedded group s1grp <range ...>
The embedded keyword indicates that this liner is two-sided. If the embedded keyword is used, then
the group keyword must also be used (see the description of the group keyword in Section 1 in the
Command Reference under the SEL liner command). The group keyword (when not used with the
range) causes FLAC 3D to restrict the creation of the liner to the boundaries of the specified group.
That is, any face in this group that has s1grp on one side and a different group on the other side will
be a potential location to create a liner. When used with the embedded keyword, the group name
also signifies which side of the liner will be side1. After the liner is created, the liner determines
side1 and side2 directions in a strictly geometric sense (no group information is used).
All other embedded liner commands are similar to the default liner commands mentioned previously.
Optional side1 and side2 keywords are used to specify which side of the liner the command applies
to. See Tables 1.27 and 1.28 for a summary of embedded liner commands.

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Table 1.24 Liner commands (create and specify properties)

SEL linersel <. . . > nodes nd1,nd2,nd3
SEL liner <. . . >
SEL liner keyword
apply pressure value
property keyword
(1) density value
(2a) isotropic values. . .
(2b) orthotropic values. . .
(2c) anisotropic values. . .
(3) thexp value
(4) thickness value
(5) cs ncut value
(6) cs nk value
(7) cs scoh value
(8) cs scohres value
(9) cs sfric value
(10) cs sk value
(11) slide on/off
(12) slide tol value

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Table 1.25 Liner commands (print properties and responses)

LIST sel liner keyword
apply
connect
coupling keyword
displacement
stress
yield
elemtype
group
id
local
nforce
position
property keyword
surfarea
volume

Table 1.26 Liner commands (monitor responses)

HISTORY add sel keyword
linersel coupling keyword
disp [ normal,shear ]
stress [ normal,shear ]
yield shear
recover (see Table 1.17)

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Table 1.27 Embedded liner commands (create and specify

properties)
SEL liner <. . . > embedded group s1grp
SEL liner property <side1, side2>
keyword
(1) cs ncut value
(2) cs nk value
(3) cs scoh value
(4) cs scohres value
(5) cs sfric value
(6) cs sk value

Table 1.28 Embedded liner commands (monitor responses)

HISTORY add sel linersel coupling <side1, side2> keyword
disp [ normal,shear ]
stress [ normal,shear ]
yield shear

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1.9.5 Example Applications

1.9.5.1 Simple Test of Liner-Zone Interface Behavior

A liner is placed on top of a soil block and then moved in various directions. The normal and shear
stress and displacement of one of the liner coupling springs is monitored and plotted to demonstrate
the effects of the liner-zone interface properties on system response.
The FLAC 3D model is a one-cubic-meter block of soil composed of 144 zones, with a 0.33 m square
concrete liner composed of 8 linerSELs centered on top of the soil block, as shown in Figure 1.114.
The data file for this example is listed in Example 1.23. The soil is assigned elastic properties
(E = 15 MPa, ν = 0.3). The liner material is assigned properties corresponding with a 0.1 m thick
concrete liner (E = 25 GPa, ν = 0.15, t = 0.1 m). The liner-zone interface properties (kn , ks , ft ,
c, cr , φ) are assigned as follows.

The interface stiffnesses (kn and ks ) are set equal to 8 × 108 N/m3 to ensure small interface defor-
mation using Eq. (1.54). Several interface strength properties are assigned:

tensile strength (ft ) 4 MPa

cohesion (c) 4 MPa
residual cohesion (cr ) 2 MPa
friction angle (φ) 20 degrees

In order to demonstrate the liner-zone interface behavior, the following conditions are imposed.
The velocities of all gridpoints and nodes are fully fixed. The same velocities are applied to all
nodes such that the liner moves as a rigid body. These conditions prevent internal stresses from
developing in both the zones and the liner material; only the liner-zone interface springs are being
exercised. The normal and shear stress and displacement at the center coupling spring is monitored
and plotted. In the plots of normal stress versus normal displacement, the sign convention is that
compression and overlap are positive (to correspond with Figure 1.112). In the plots of shear stress
versus shear displacement, the magnitude of both shear stress and shear displacement are plotted
(to correspond with Figure 1.113).

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A   mmmE - mU m8"% 

( mA
BacBmUm9   mA rmU Z
myyaa
©IByIBacBmcB2hy2aym.(
 
9 2m m
k):
 n   
  moararaZaaacf
)m2m"
 2maZacBcBvd

Um9   mA rmU Z

(  rm()mm.

Figure 1.114 FLAC 3D model for simple test of liner-zone interface behavior

The test is performed in six stages. During each stage, a normal or shear displacement is applied,
while the other displacement component is fixed. The displacements applied during each stage are
listed in Table 1.29, where positive/negative normal displacement indicates separation/overlap, and
shear motion along the diagonal in the direction (1, 1, 0) is positive. The testing results are shown
in Figures 1.115 to 1.120.

Table 1.29 Applied liner displacements

stage normal shear
(mm) (mm)
1a 0 +15
1b 0 −5
2 −10 0
3 0 +10
4 +20 0
5 0 +2
6a −20 0
6b 0 +6

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During stage 1, a positive shear displacement of 15 mm is followed by a negative shear displacement

of 5 mm. The response is shown in Figure 1.115, which can be compared with Figure 1.113. The
slope of this plot equals the shear coupling spring stiffness per unit area, ks , and the maximum value
equals the cohesion, c (because, at this stage, the interface normal stress is zero). The unloading
slope is the same as the loading slope.
During stage 2, the liner is moved downward by 10 mm. The response is shown in Figure 1.116,
which can be compared with Figure 1.112. The slope of this plot equals the normal coupling spring
stiffness per unit area, kn . At this stage, the interface normal stress, σn , equals 8 MPa. During stage
3, an additional shear displacement of 10 mm is applied, and the response is shown in Figure 1.117.
The shear stress increases and reaches a maximum value of 6.91 MPa, which corresponds with the
relation

τmax = c + σn tan φ (1.55)

where: c = cohesion;
σn = interface normal stress; and
φ = friction angle.
During stage 4, the liner is moved upward by 20 mm. The response is shown in Figure 1.118.
When the interface normal stress reaches the tensile strength ft of 4 MPa, the spring breaks,
causing the interface normal stress to drop to zero. When the liner fails in tension, the effective
cohesion becomes cr , and the tensile strength is set to zero. The total relative normal displacement
continues to be tracked such that compressive normal stress will again develop when the gap closes.
During stage 5, an additional shear displacement of 2 mm is applied, and the response is shown
in Figure 1.119. The peak shear stress drops from 6.91 to 2 MPa, because the interface normal
stress is zero, and the residual cohesion is now being used in Eq. (1.55). During stage 6, the liner
is moved downward by 20 mm, and then an additional shear displacement of 6 mm is applied. The
response is shown in Figure 1.120. The gap has closed, and the interface normal stress is again 8
MPa (LIST sel liner coupling stress normal range cid=3). The peak shear stress is 4.91 MPa (LIST
sel liner coupling stress shear range cid=3), in accord with Eq. (1.55).

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A   mmmU - mM m,"% 

"mm%Zm"m  mo  m f
BacBmMm9   m3 rmM Z 
mBaaa
uIBgIBacBmcByhgyaumG
# 
Bam9  m"mmmhmmU 8Umh

%ZmBcm9  m"m mmhmmU 8Umh



7e e.2/et2y











Mm9   m3 rmM Z                
  rmmmG 7ee. /et20P

Figure 1.115 Shear stress versus shear displacement (after stage 1)

A   mmm' - mM m,"% 

 mmofm%Zm  m  mo% f
BacBmMm3   m: rmM Z 
mhaaa
dIB.IBacBmcB©h.©admG

#  -cam3  m  mmmhmm' /'mh
%Zm-ccm3  m  m mmhmm' /'mh




  r r.2/rt2<














Mm3   m: rmM Z           
  rmmmG   rr. /rt20e

Figure 1.116 Normal stress versus normal displacement (after stage 2)

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A   mmmE - mA m,"% 

"mm%Zm"m  mo  m f
BacBmAm4   m: rmA Z 
mvaaa
uIBgIBacBmcByhgyaumGU
# 
Bam4  m"mmmhmmE /Emh

%ZmBcm4  m"m mmhmmE /Emh



7e e.2/et2y











Am4   m: rmA Z                
U  rmUmmG 7ee. /et20P

Figure 1.117 Shear stress versus shear displacement (after stage 3)

A   mmmU - mA m,"% 

 mmofm%Zm  m  mo% f
BacBmAm6   m: rmA Z 
m(aaa
dIB.IBacBmcB©h.©a.mG

#  -cam6  m  mmmhmmU /Umh
%Zm-ccm6  m  m mmhmmU /Umh




  r r.2/rt2<














Am6   m: rmA Z           
  rmmmG   rr. /rt20e

Figure 1.118 Normal stress versus normal displacement (after stage 4)

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A   mmmE - mA m,"% 

"mm%Zm"m  mo  m f
BacBmAm6   m: rmA Z 
mdBaa
uIBgIBacBmcByhgyagmGU
# 
Bam6  m"mmmhmmE /Emh

%ZmBcm6  m"m mmhmmE /Emh



7e e.2/et2y











Am6   m: rmA Z                
U  rmUmmG 7ee. /et20P

Figure 1.119 Shear stress versus shear displacement (after stage 5)

A   mmmU - mM m,"% 

"mm%Zm"m  mo  m f
BacBmMm8   m3 rmM Z 
mggaa
uIBgIBacBmcByhgyagmG
# 
Bam8  m"mmmhmmU /Umh

%ZmBcm8  m"m mmhmmU /Umh


7e e.2/et2y












Mm8   m3 rmM Z                
  rmmmG 7ee. /et20P

Figure 1.120 Shear stress versus shear displacement (after stage 6)

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The project file for this example is located in “sel\liner\liner-zone-interface\interface.f3prj.”

Example 1.23 Simple test of liner-zone interface behavior

; SEL Liner example application
; Simple test of Liner-Zone Interface Behavior
;
new
set fish autocreate off
title ’Simple Test of Liner-Zone Interface Behavior’

set directory input

; Create the soil.
gen zone brick size 6,6,4 &
p0 0,0,0 p1 1.0,0,0 p2 0 1.0 0 p3 0 0 1.0
model mech elastic
prop bulk=12.5e6 shear=5.77e6 ; soil
; Create the concrete liner.
sel liner range z=0.99,1.01 x=0.33,0.66 y=0.33,0.66
sel liner PROP iso=( 25e9, 0.15) thick=0.1 ; concrete
sel liner PROP cs_nk=8e8 cs_sk=8e8 &
cs_ncut=4e6 cs_scoh=4e6 cs_scohres=2e6 cs_sfric=20.0

fix x y z ; fully fix all zones

sel node fix x y z ; fully fix all nodes
history add id=1 unbal
history add id=10 sel linersel coupling stress normal nd3 cid=3
history add id=11 sel linersel coupling disp normal nd3 cid=3
history add id=20 sel linersel coupling stress shear nd3 cid=3
history add id=21 sel linersel coupling disp shear nd3 cid=3

; Apply six sets of normal/shear displacements to liner.

sel set damp combined
sel node init xvel local 0.707e-5 yvel local 0.707e-5 ; norm disp= 0 mm
cycle 1500 ; shr disp= +15 mm
sel node init xvel local -0.707e-5 yvel local -0.707e-5 ; norm disp= 0 mm
cycle 500 ; shr disp= -5 mm
save stage1

sel node init xvel local 0.0 yvel local 0.0

sel node init zvel local -1e-5 ; norm disp= -10 mm
cycle 1000 ; shr disp= 0 mm
save stage2

sel node init zvel local 0.0

sel node init xvel local 0.707e-5 yvel local 0.707e-5 ; norm disp= 0 mm

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1 - 188 Structural Elements

cycle 1000 ; shr disp= +10 mm

save stage3

sel node init xvel local 0.0 yvel local 0.0

sel node init zvel local 1e-5 ; norm disp= +20 mm
cycle 2000 ; shr disp= 0 mm
save stage4

sel node init zvel local 0.0

sel node init xvel local 0.707e-5 yvel local 0.707e-5 ; norm disp= 0 mm
cycle 200 ; shr disp= +2 mm
save stage5

sel node init xvel local 0.0 yvel local 0.0

sel node init zvel local -1e-5 ; norm disp= -20 mm
cycle 2000 ; shr disp= 0 mm
sel node init zvel local 0.0
sel node init xvel local 0.707e-5 yvel local 0.707e-5 ; norm disp= 0 mm
cycle 600 ; shr disp= +6 mm
save stage6

return

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1.9.5.2 Demonstration of Large-Strain Sliding

A 0.33 m-square liner is placed on top of a one-cubic-meter soil block, moved down into the soil,
and then moved laterally across the soil surface. The problem is run in large-strain mode. The
liner is moved downward by 10 cm, and then it is moved laterally along the diagonal until the liner
lies at the original corner of the top surface. For such large relative motion between the liner and
the zones, it is necessary to set the large-strain sliding flag of the liner to on. (Liners interact with
the grid via node-to-zone links. These links store the zone and an interpolation location within the
zone to allow transfer of forces and velocities between the nodes and the zones. By default, these
interpolation locations will not change, even if running in large-strain mode. The interpolation
locations can be allowed to migrate through the grid by setting the large-strain sliding flag to on.)
The FLAC 3D model is a one-cubic-meter block of soil composed of 144 zones, with a 0.33 m-square
concrete liner composed of 8 linerSELs centered on top of the soil block, as shown in Figure 1.121.
The soil is assigned elastic properties (E = 15 MPa, ν = 0.3). The liner material is assigned
properties corresponding with a 0.1 m-thick concrete liner (E = 25 GPa, ν = 0.15, t = 0.1 m),
and the liner-zone interface properties are assigned:

interface normal stiffness (kn ) 8 × 108 N/m3 (see Eq. (1.54))

interface shear stiffness (ks ) 8 × 108 N/m3 (see Eq. (1.54))
tensile strength (ft ) 0 MPa
cohesion (c) 0 MPa
residual cohesion (cr ) 0 MPa
friction angle (φ) 0 degrees

A b   mmN S m  mmmN 

0©20mTmM   mF -mT l

m©
pd0Gd0©20m20,1G,2cm5(
 
M ,mF mmmmmm5 
byE5N
k)y
 n   
  m ©-©-©l©©2f
)m,m"
 ,m©l©2020u0

TmM   mF -mT l

(  -m()mm5

Figure 1.121 FLAC 3D model for demonstration of large-strain sliding

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1 - 190 Structural Elements

First, the problem is run with large-strain sliding off by removing the command
sel liner prop slide=on

from the data file. The zz-stresses in the zones after applying the first 10 cm downward displacement
are shown in Figure 1.122. At this stage, the response is reasonable because large relative motion
between the liner nodes and the zones has not occurred. However, after moving the liner along
the diagonal, we see in Figure 1.123 that the zz-stresses and the zone deformation field no longer
correspond with the liner location. This is incorrect. The interpolation locations have not moved
from their original locations; therefore, the grid is still feeling a compressive force acting in the
block center.
When the problem is rerun with large-strain sliding on, the behavior is correct (see Figures 1.124
and 1.125). The zz-stresses and zone deformation field correspond with the liner location, because
the interpolation locations have migrated through the grid to follow the liner motion. In fact, it is
even possible to move the liner completely off the grid, as shown in Figure 1.126. If any liner nodes
later come back into contact with any zone faces, then the corresponding links will be reestablished
(see Figure 1.127).

A b   mm7 SU mU  mmm7 

0©20mTmM   mE -mT l

Um2©©©
pd0Gd0©20m20,1G,2cm5+
  ,n nG 
M  m,m)    my#  
  m mU\bm  "m,m2S©u
cl©©©©yg©c
0lc©©©yg©c
©l©©©©yg©©
S0lc©©©yg©c
Scl©©©©yg©c
Sulc©©©yg©c
S2l©©©©yg©C
S2l0c©©yg©C
S2lc©©©yg©C
S2luc©©yg©C
S0l©©©©yg©C
S0l0c©©yg©C
S0lc©©©yg©C
S0luc©©yg©C
S0lG©©©yg©C
 n   
  m ©-©-©l©1f
6m,m"
U ,m©l©©GuC2c2

TmM   mE -mT l

+  -m+6mmU5

Figure 1.122 Vertical stresses in the soil (large-strain sliding off; normal dis-
placement of 10 cm)

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STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 1 - 191

A b   mm7 SU mU  mmm7 

0©20mTmM   mE -mT l

Um0©©©
pd0Gd0©20m20,1G,2cm5+
  ,n nG 
M  m,m)    my#  
  m mU\bm  "m,m2S©u
cl©©©©yg©c
0lc©©©yg©c
©l©©©©yg©©
S0lc©©©yg©c
Scl©©©©yg©c
Sulc©©©yg©c
S2l©©©©yg©C
S2l0c©©yg©C
S2lc©©©yg©C
S2luc©©yg©C
S0l©©©©yg©C
S0l0c©©yg©C
S0lc©©©yg©C
S0luc©©yg©C
S0lG©©©yg©C
 n   
  m ©-©-©l©1f
6m,m"
U ,m©l©©GuC2uC

TmM   mE -mT l

+  -m+6mmU5

Figure 1.123 Vertical stresses in the soil (large-strain sliding off; shear dis-
placement of 47.6 cm)

A b   mm7 S4 m4  mmm7 

0©20mTmM   mE -mT l

4m2©©©
pd0Gd0©20m20,1G,2cm5+
  ,n nG 
M  m,m)    my#  
U  m m4\bm  "m,m2S©u
cl©©©©yg©c
0lc©©©yg©c
©l©©©©yg©©
S0lc©©©yg©c
Scl©©©©yg©c
Sulc©©©yg©c
S2l©©©©yg©C
S2l0c©©yg©C
S2lc©©©yg©C
S2luc©©yg©C
S0l©©©©yg©C
S0l0c©©yg©C
S0lc©©©yg©C
S0luc©©yg©C
S0lG©©©yg©C
 n   
U  m ©-©-©l©1f
6m,m"
4 ,m©l©©GuC1I1

TmM   mE -mT l

+  -m+6mm45

Figure 1.124 Vertical stresses in the soil (large-strain sliding on; normal dis-
placement of 10 cm)

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1 - 192 Structural Elements

A b   mm7 S4 m4  mmm7 

0©20mTmM   mE -mT l

4m0©©©
pd0Gd0©20m20,1G,2cm5+
  ,n nG 
M  m,m)    my#  
U  m m4\bm  "m,m2S©u
cl©©©©yg©c
0lc©©©yg©c
©l©©©©yg©©
S0lc©©©yg©c
Scl©©©©yg©c
Sulc©©©yg©c
S2l©©©©yg©C
S2l0c©©yg©C
S2lc©©©yg©C
S2luc©©yg©C
S0l©©©©yg©C
S0l0c©©yg©C
S0lc©©©yg©C
S0luc©©yg©C
S0lG©©©yg©C
 n   
U  m ©-©-©l©1f
6m,m"
4 ,m©l©©GpCuIp

TmM   mE -mT l

+  -m+6mm45

Figure 1.125 Vertical stresses in the soil (large-strain sliding on; shear dis-
placement of 47.6 cm)

A b   mm7 Sk mk  mmm7 

0©20mTmM   mE -mT l

km10©©
pd0Gd0©20m20,1G,2Im45
  ,n nG 
M  m,m(    my#  
U  m mk\bm  "m,m2S©u
cl©©©©yg©c
0lc©©©yg©c
©l©©©©yg©©
S0lc©©©yg©c
Scl©©©©yg©c
Sulc©©©yg©c
S2l©©©©yg©C
S2l0c©©yg©C
S2lc©©©yg©C
S2luc©©yg©C
S0l©©©©yg©C
S0l0c©©yg©C
S0lc©©©yg©C
S0luc©©yg©C
S0lG©©©yg©C
 n   
U  m ©-©-©l©1f
+m,m"
k ,m©l©22©CIc

TmM   mE -mT l

5  -m5+mmk4

Figure 1.126 Vertical stresses in the soil (large-strain sliding on; shear dis-
placement of 105 cm)

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STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 1 - 193

A M   mmh Sk mk  mmmh 

0©20mxmA   mP -mx l

kmIG1c
pd0Gd0©20m20,1G,2Im/7
  ,n nG 
A  m,m(    mb#  
U  m mk\Mm  "m,m2S©u
cl©©©©bg©c
0lc©©©bg©c
©l©©©©bg©©
S0lc©©©bg©c
Scl©©©©bg©c
Sulc©©©bg©c
S2l©©©©bg©C
S2l0c©©bg©C
S2lc©©©bg©C
S2luc©©bg©C
S0l©©©©bg©C
S0l0c©©bg©C
S0lc©©©bg©C
S0luc©©bg©C
S0lG©©©bg©C
 n   
U  m ©-©-©l©1f
+m,m"
k ,m©l©©p©1puC

xmA   mP -mx l

7  -m7+mmk/

Figure 1.127 Vertical stresses in the soil (large-strain sliding on; shear dis-
placement of −453 cm)

The project file for this example is located in “sel\liner\large-strain-sliding\sliding.f3prj.”

Example 1.24 Demonstration of large-strain sliding

; SEL Liner example application
; Demonstration of Large-Strain Sliding for a Liner
;
new
set fish autocreate off
title ’Demonstration of Large-Strain Sliding for a Liner’
set directory input

; Create the soil.

gen zone brick size 6,6,4 &
p0 0,0,0 p1 1.0,0,0 p2 0 1.0 0 p3 0 0 1.0
model mech elastic
prop bulk=12.5e6 shear=5.77e6 ; soil
; Create the concrete liner.
sel liner range z=0.99,1.01 x=0.33,0.66 y=0.33,0.66
sel liner PROP iso=( 25e9, 0.15) thick=0.1 ; concrete
sel liner PROP cs_nk=8e8 cs_sk=8e8 &
cs_ncut=0.0 cs_scoh=0.0 cs_scohres=0.0 cs_sfric=0.0

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1 - 194 Structural Elements

fix x y z range z=-0.01 0.01

sel node fix x y z ; fully fix all nodes
history add id=1 unbal
history add id=100 zone szz id=123

sel set damp combined

set large
save slide0

; Apply liner displacements - liner large strain-sliding off

sel node init xvel local 0.0 yvel local 0.0
sel node init zvel local -1e-4 ; norm disp= -10 cm
cycle 1000 ; shr disp= 0
save slide1-off

sel node init zvel local 0.0

sel node init xvel local 3.3e-4 yvel local -3.3e-4 ; norm disp= 0
cycle 1000 ; shr disp= +476 cm
save slide2-off

restore slide0
; Activate liner large strain-sliding
sel liner prop slide on

; Apply liner displacements

sel node init xvel local 0.0 yvel local 0.0
sel node init zvel local -1e-4 ; norm disp= -10 cm
cycle 1000 ; shr disp= 0
save slide1

sel node init zvel local 0.0

sel node init xvel local 3.3e-4 yvel local -3.3e-4 ; norm disp= 0
cycle 1000 ; shr disp= +476 cm
save slide2

cycle 1200 ; shr disp= +571 cm

save slide3

sel node init xvel local 0.0 yvel local 0.0

sel node init zvel local 1e-3 ; norm disp= +12 cm
cycle 120 ; shr disp= 0
sel node init zvel local 0.0
sel node init xvel local -3.3e-3 yvel local 3.3e-3 ; norm disp= 0
cycle 315 ; shr disp= -1500 cm
sel node init xvel local 0.0 yvel local 0.0
sel node init zvel local -1e-4 ; norm disp= -12 cm

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STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 1 - 195

cycle 1200 ; shr disp= 0

save slide4

return

1.9.5.3 Advancing Lined Tunnel (Slip at Liner-Soil Interface)

This examples demonstrates how to simulate the sequential operations of excavating and adding
support to an advancing tunnel. The tunnel has a circular cross-section, and is located at 5 m depth
in a soft elastic soil (E = 48.2 MPa, ν = 0.34) with isotropic in-situ stresses of 1 MPa. The tunnel
is supported by shotcrete (E = 10.5 GPa, ν = 0.25) with a thickness of 0.2 m. The shotcrete
remains elastic; however, the liner-soil interface can separate and/or slip. This example replicates
the example in Section 1.7.5.5, but replaces the shellSELs used in that example with the linerSELs
used here. The shellSELs provide a rigid connection with the soil, whereas the linerSELs provide an
elastic connection that allows gaps to form, and slip to occur. In this example, we first assign a large
cohesive strength to the soil-liner interface to reproduce the rigid behavior from Section 1.7.5.5,
and then we set the cohesive strength to zero and observe the slip and resulting stress redistribution.
We begin with an initial tunnel of 2 m total length. For simplicity, we assume that the excavation
proceeds simultaneously on both tunnel faces; therefore, we need to model only one quarter-section
of the tunnel by applying symmetry boundary conditions on the three symmetry planes. (Specifying
the proper symmetry conditions to the nodes on these planes requires first aligning the node-local
systems, as described below.) We model the excavation process by assigning the null material
model to zones. We then allow the stresses to redistribute. The model at this stage is shown in
Figure 1.128. We now install the shotcrete by creating linerSELs and attaching them to the tunnel
surface with the SEL liner command. The next tunnel segment is excavated and, again, the stresses
are allowed to redistribute. The model at this stage is shown in Figure 1.129. This excavation
sequence can be repeated to follow the entire tunnel construction. The data file for this example is
listed in Example 1.25.

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A 9%  vN v  v "v ve  v MNT

sp(svFv8   vy wvF h

vrsp
1Ss0Ssp(sv(sIr0Iprv94
 
8 Ivy vvvvvv9 
:Mb9N
M8F-5(
M8F-5s
M8F-5r
M8F-5E
M8F-5)
 n   
  vetphpp(wpwtphpp(T

Fv8   vy wvF h

4  wv45vv9

Figure 1.128 Stage 1: excavate tunnel section 1

A 9%  vN v  v "v ve  v MNT

sp(svFv8   vy wvF h

vrsp
1Ss0Ssp(sv(sIr0Iprv94
 
8 Ivy vvvvvv9 
:Mb9N
M8F-5(
M8F-5s
M8F-5r
M8F-5E
M8F-5)
 n   
  vetphpp(wpwtphpp(T
5vIv"
 IvphpE1r©rE

Fv8   vy wvF h

4  wv45vv9

Figure 1.129 Stage 2: install shotcrete in section 1; excavate tunnel section 2

FLAC 3D Version 5.01

STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 1 - 197

There are three symmetry planes in this model. Symmetry boundary conditions (zero displacement
normal to the plane, and zero rotation about two axes that lie in the plane) must be specified for the
nodes that lie upon these planes. These conditions are specified using the SEL node fix command;
however, this command operates on the degrees of freedom associated with the node-local system,
and the node-local systems of all nodes used by linerSELs are set automatically at the start of a
set of cycles (or when the CYCLE 0 command is executed), such that the z-axis is aligned with the
average normal direction of all linerSELs using the node, and the xy-axes are arbitrarily oriented in
the linerSEL tangent plane. For this model, the default orientation is shown in Figure 1.130. This
plot is obtained by issuing the commands
cycle 0
plot add sel geometry systemtype node

immediately after creating the liner. Nodes lying on the x = 0 and z = 0 planes must be reoriented
in order to specify the proper symmetry boundary conditions. This is accomplished with the
commands
sel node local xdir 1 0 0 ydir 0 -1 0 range x -0.1 0.1
sel node fix lsys range x -0.1 0.1
sel node fix x yr zr range x -0.1 0.1
sel node local xdir 0 0 -1 ydir 0 -1 0 range z -0.1 0.1
sel node fix lsys range z -0.1 0.1
sel node fix x yr zr range z -0.1 0.1
sel node fix y xr zr range y -0.1 0.1

These commands realign and then fix the appropriate node-local systems, and also specify the
proper velocity-fixity conditions. The realigned systems must be fixed with the SEL node fix lsys
command in order to prevent automatic realignment to the default orientation during the next set of
cycles. When realigning these systems, we must ensure that the local z-axis remains normal to the
liner tangent plane, because the node-local orientations define the liner-zone attachment conditions.
The final, realigned node-local system orientations are shown in Figure 1.131.

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1 - 198 Structural Elements

A 9%  vU v  v "v ve  v MUT

sp(sv6v8   vy wv6 h

vrsp
1Ss0Ssp(sv(sIr0Iprv9
 L   
v
 Ivph(©22E1

6v8   vy wv6 h

  wvvv9

Figure 1.130 Default orientation of node-local systems

A 9%  vU v  v "v ve  v MUT

sp(sv6v8   vy wv6 h

vrsp
1Ss0Ssp(sv(sIr0Iprv9
 L   
v
 Ivph(©22E1

6v8   vy wv6 h

  wvvv9

Figure 1.131 Orientation of node-local systems after realignment

FLAC 3D Version 5.01

STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 1 - 199

The liner-zone interface stiffnesses (kn and ks ) are set equal to 7.4 × 1010 N/m3 to ensure that the
interface deformation is small relative to the zone deformation using Eq. (1.54), and increasing the
value by a factor of 100 as suggested in the text following this equation. (We will confirm below
that the criterion of small interface deformation is met for our system.)
In the first run, we assign a large cohesive strength to the liner-zone interface. The behavior of
this model should be similar to the behavior of the rigidly connected system in Section 1.7.5.5.
Figures 1.132 and 1.133 show the displacements that occur during the second excavation stage for
the case with no support and with support, respectively. The z-displacement history at the tunnel
crown is included in each figure. We see that the support reduces the crown displacement from
approximately 12 mm to 1 mm.

A 4% 

vf v  v "v ve  v :fT

sp(sv6v/   vM wv6 h

v2E1 
1Ss0Ssp(sv(sIr0Ipsv45
  ,e-e  
(h2ppp:tps
(h©ppp:tps 
(hEppp:tps
(hsppp:tps
(hpppp:tps 
0hpppp:tpr
  e. /emcin

©hpppp:tpr 
Ehpppp:tpr
shpppp:tpr 
phpppp:lpp
# 
svt  vv v)p 
t(hsrEstpsvot,vt(hE12ptpr
%hv 











6v/   vM wv6 h        
5  wv5<vv4  e.i/emcn

Figure 1.132 Displacements during stage 2 – no support

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1 - 200 Structural Elements

A 4% 

vf v  v "v ve  v :fT

sp(sv6v9   vM wv6 h

v2E0 
1Ss0Ssp(sv(sIr0Ipsv45
  ,e-e  
(h2ppp:tps
(h©ppp:tps 
(hEppp:tps
(hsppp:tps
(hpppp:tps 
0hpppp:tpr

  e. /emcin
©hpppp:tpr 
Ehpppp:tpr
shpppp:tpr 
phpppp:lpp
# 
svt  vv v)p 
t1h2©(1tpEvot,vtrh)©(ptp)
%hv 











6v9   vM wv6 h        
5  wv5<vv4  e.i/emcn

Figure 1.133 Displacements during stage 2 – shotcrete support (liner-zone co-

hesion = 1020 )

The stresses in the shotcrete can be computed using the stress-recovery procedure (see Sec-
tion 1.1.6.4). The bending stress resultant, Mx , where the x-direction lies along the tunnel axis, is
shown in Figure 1.134. We see that bending is most extreme at the front of the liner near the tunnel
face. A plot of the deformed shape of the liner in Figure 1.135 indicates that this intense bending
arises from the large pinching deformation. These two plots can be compared with Figures 1.83
and 1.84. The close similarity indicates that the system is behaving like the rigidly connected case.

FLAC 3D Version 5.01

STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 1 - 201

A 4%  vX v  v "v ve  v :XT

sp(sv5v9   vM wv5 h

v2E0
1Ss0Ssp(sv(sIr0Ip(v4=
n)
(h((s2:lpE
(hpppp:lpE
2h)ppp:lpr
)hpppp:lpr
sh)ppp:lpr
phpppp:lpp
tsh)ppp:lpr
t)hpppp:lpr
t2h)ppp:lpr
t(hpppp:lpE
t(hs)pp:lpE
t(h)ppp:lpE
t(h2)pp:lpE
tshpppp:lpE
tshs)pp:lpE
tsh)ppp:lpE
tsh2)pp:lpE
trhpppp:lpE
trhs)pp:lpE
trh)ppp:lpE
trh)1Es:lpE
 <vGvpw(wp

5v9   vM wv5 h

=  wv=Nvv4

Figure 1.134 Bending stress resultant, Mx , at end of stage 2 (liner-zone cohe-

sion = 1020 )

A .%  vF v

F v:
 v "v ve  v 9FT

sp(svMv4   v: wvM h

voEm
ySsmSsp(sv(s©rm©psv.5
 L   
8v/©v()p
Nv©v"
 ©vphp(p)ps(

Mv4   v: wvM h

5  wv5Nvv.

Figure 1.135 Deformed (magnification of 150) shape of shotcrete at end of

stage 2 (liner-zone cohesion = 1020 )

FLAC 3D Version 5.01

1 - 202 Structural Elements

We confirm that the interface deformation is small relative to the zone deformation (and thus confirm
that our values of kn and ks are large enough) by plotting the normal displacement of the gridpoint,
node and coupling spring at the tunnel crown (see Figure 1.136). If the model is rerun with values
of kn and ks that are 100 times smaller than the current values, we find that the interface deformation
is no longer small relative to the zone deformation (see Figure 1.137). This leads to lower loads
being carried in the liner. The maximum value of bending stress resultant, Mx , is 44% less than its
previous value (compare Figures 1.138 and 1.134). In order to obtain the proper system response,
the values of kn and ks must be large enough to keep the interface deformation small relative to the
zone deformation.

A 4%  v6 v  v "v ve  v :6T

sp(sv-v9   vM wv- h

v2E0
1Ss0Ssp(sv(sIr0Ip(v4< 
# 
(ppvt  vv v)p 
t1h2©(1tpEvot,vtrh)©(ptp)
(p(vt  vv v vs)
t1hEppEtpEvot,vt(h2Eprtp)

(psv9  v  v v>vs)vv6 :6vrs
tEhpr0ptp)vot,vtsh(©2rtp)
  e. /emciH

%hv













-v9   vM wv- h        
<  wv<>vv4  e.i/emcn

Figure 1.136 Normal displacement of gridpoint, node and coupling spring at

tunnel crown at end of stage 2 (liner-zone cohesion = 1020 )

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STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 1 - 203

A 8%  v> v  v "v ve  v 3>T

sp(svfv/   vZ wvf h

v©0p 
1Ss0Ssp(sv(sIr0Ipsv84

# 
(ppvt  vv v)p 
trhr©rptprvot,vt(hs(Estpr
(p(vt  vv v vs) 
t0hp)0©tpEvot,vt)h©2sptp©

(psv/  v  v v7vs)vv> 3>vrs
tsh©(E2tprvot,vt(hp(©2tpr

  e. /emci3
%hv












fv/   vZ wvf h       
4  wv47vv8  e.i/emcn

Figure 1.137 Normal displacement of gridpoint, node and coupling spring at

tunnel crown at end of stage 2 (kn and ks reduced by factor of
100; liner-zone cohesion = 1020 )

A 8%  v= v  v "v ve  v 3=T

sp(sv4v/   v+ wv4 h

v©0p
1Ss0Ssp(sv(sIr0Ipsv8N
n)
rh001p3lpr
shpppp3lpr
phpppp3lpp
tshpppp3lpr
tEhpppp3lpr
t©hpppp3lpr
t0hpppp3lpr
t(hpppp3lpE
t(hsppp3lpE
t(hEppp3lpE
t(h©ppp3lpE
t(h0ppp3lpE
tshpppp3lpE
tshpprp3lpE
 <vGvpw(wp

4v/   v+ wv4 h

N  wvNUvv8

Figure 1.138 Bending stress resultant, Mx , at end of stage 2 (kn and ks reduced
by factor of 100; liner-zone cohesion = 1020 )

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1 - 204 Structural Elements

The normal and shear stresses acting on the liner at the end of stage 2 are shown in Figures 1.139
and 1.140. Both stresses are largest near the front of the liner near the tunnel face. These stresses
are causing the pinching deformation seen in Figure 1.135. If we set the cohesive strength of the
soil-liner interface to zero, and cycle to equilibrium, we observe that the liner springs back in the
negative global y-direction (see Figure 1.141) as the shear stresses acting on the liner go to zero.
The normal stresses acting on the liner and the bending stress resultant, Mx , are only minimally
affected.

A 4%  vf v  v "v ve  v :fT

sp(sv5v9   vM wv5 h

v2E0
1Ss0Ssp(sv(sIr0Ip(v4X
n ,5n  n n1
trh(0():lpE
t)hpppp:lp)
t(hpppp:lp©
t(h)ppp:lp©
tshpppp:lp©
tsh)ppp:lp©
trhpppp:lp©
trh)ppp:lp©
tEhpppp:lp©
tEh)ppp:lp©
t)hpppp:lp©
t)hs21s:lp©
 <vGv(wpwp

5v9   vM wv5 h

X  wvX=vv4

Figure 1.139 Normal stress acting on liner surface at end of stage 2 (liner-zone
cohesion = 1020 )

FLAC 3D Version 5.01

STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 1 - 205

A 4%  vf v  v "v ve 

"v  v
v :fT

sp(sv+v9   vM wv+ h

v©E2
0Ss2Ssp(sv(s1r21p(v4X
n ,5n7n n%
sh)0rE:lpo
sh)ppp:lpo
shs)pp:lpo
shpppp:lpo
(h©)pp:lpo
(h)ppp:lpo
(hs)pp:lpo
(hpppp:lpo
©h)ppp:lp)
)hpppp:lp)
sh)ppp:lp)
(ho0©0:t(p
 <vGv(wpwp

+v9   vM wv+ h

X  wvX=vv4

Figure 1.140 Shear stress acting on liner surface at end of stage 2 (liner-zone
cohesion = 1020 )

A 3%  vU v  v "v ve 

U v   
v 8UT

sp(svkv9   vM wvk h

v(rr©
0Ss2Ssp(sv(s1r21p(v3
 L   
v1v"
 1vphp(pr0sr
L L 
#  1vphppp(p0psr
 1v0)rhss(

kv9   vM wvk h

  wvvv3

Figure 1.141 Liner displacement produced by setting the liner-zone cohesion

to zero after stage 2

FLAC 3D Version 5.01

1 - 206 Structural Elements

One additional excavation stage is performed. The model at the end of this stage is shown in
Figure 1.142. The shotcrete support has been extended into tunnel section 2 by issuing another
SEL liner command and specifying an ID number that differs from the ID number of the liner in
tunnel section 1. This creates a “cold-joint” between the two shotcrete segments. (There will be a
collection of double nodes lying along the interface, one of which is used by segment one, and one
which is used by segment two. Forces and moments will not be transferred between the adjoining
linerSELs; instead, only forces will be transmitted into the surrounding zones at the common
locations. This mimics two separate liner segments lying next to one another.) The deformation
that occurs during stage 3 begins to load the new liner segment, and produces additional load in the
previous liner segment. Both the displacement and the bending stress fields (see Figure 1.143) are
discontinuous across the joint.

A 3%  vO v  v "v ve  v :OT

sp(svDv/   vb wvD h

vsE(r
1Ss0Ssp(sv(sIr0Ippv3N
 
/ Ivb vvvvvv3 
8:M3O
:/D-5(
:/D-5s
:/D-5r
:/D-5E
:/D-5)
 n   
  vetphpp(wpwtphpp(T
5vIv"
 IvphpE1r©rE

Dv/   vb wvD h

N  wvN5vv3

Figure 1.142 Stage 3: install shotcrete in section 2; excavate tunnel section 3

FLAC 3D Version 5.01

STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 1 - 207

A 3%  vX v  v "v ve  v :XT

sp(sv+v/   v5 wv+ h

vsE(r
1Ss0Ssp(sv(sIr0Ippv3=
n)
(hE)02:lpE
(hpppp:lpE
)hpppp:lpr
phpppp:lpp
t)hpppp:lpr
t(hpppp:lpE
t(h)ppp:lpE
tshpppp:lpE
tsh)ppp:lpE
trhpppp:lpE
trh)ppp:lpE
tEhpppp:lpE
tEh)ppp:lpE
tEh2E1E:lpE
 <vGvpw(wp

+v/   v5 wv+ h

=  wv=Nvv3

Figure 1.143 Bending stress resultants, Mx , at end of stage 3 (liner-zone co-

hesion of zero)

The project file for this example is located in “sel\liner\lined-tunnel\tunnel.f3prj.”

Example 1.25 Advancing lined tunnel with slip

; SEL Liner example application :
; Advancing Lined Tunnel with Slip at Liner-Soil interface
new
set fish autocreate off
title ’Advancing Lined Tunnel with Slip (using linerSELs)’

gen zone radcyl dim 1.0 p0 0 0 0 p1 5 0 0 p2 0 2 0 p3 0 0 5 &

ratio 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.2 size 1 8 4 4 fill group tunnel
gen zone radcyl dim 1.0 p0 0 2 0 p1 5 2 0 p2 0 5 0 p3 0 2 5 &
ratio 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.2 size 1 3 4 4 fill group tunnel
group zone section1 range y 0 1 group tunnel
group zone section2 range y 1 2 group tunnel
group zone section3 range y 2 3 group tunnel
group zone section4 range y 3 4 group tunnel
group zone section5 range y 4 5 group tunnel
model mech elastic
prop bulk 50e6 shear 18e6
init sxx -1e6 syy -1e6 szz -1e6

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1 - 208 Structural Elements

fix x range x -0.001 0.001

fix z range z -0.001 0.001
fix y range y -0.001 0.001
fix x y z range x 4.99 5.01
fix x y z range y 4.99 5.01
fix x y z range z 4.99 5.01
hist add id=1 unbal
; --- Stage 1: excavate tunnel section 1
model mech null range group section1
solve
save tun1
;
init xdisp 0.0 ydisp 0.0 zdisp 0.0
hist add id=2 gp zdis 0 1 1
hist add id=3 gp zvel 0 1 1
; --- Stage 2: excavate tunnel section 2
mod mech null range group section2
save tun2-ini
solve
save tun2ns
restore tun2-ini
; --- Add shotcrete
sel liner id=1 range cyl end1 0 0 0 end2 0 1.01 0 rad 1.0
sel liner id=1 prop iso=(10.5e9, 0.25) thick=0.2
sel liner id=1 prop cs_nk=7.4e10 cs_sk=7.4e10 cs_scoh=1e20
cycle 0
save tun2-tmp1
; --- Specify symmetry conditions for nodes along the 3 symmetry planes
sel node local xdir 1 0 0 ydir 0 -1 0 range x -0.1 0.1
sel node fix lsys range x -0.1 0.1
sel node fix x yr zr range x -0.1 0.1
sel node local xdir 0 0 -1 ydir 0 -1 0 range z -0.1 0.1
sel node fix lsys range z -0.1 0.1
sel node fix x yr zr range z -0.1 0.1
sel node fix y xr zr range y -0.1 0.1
history add id=100 gp zdisp (0,1,1)
history add id=101 sel node zdisp id=25
history add id=102 sel linersel coupling disp normal nd1 cid=32
cycle 0
save tun2-tmp2
solve
save tun2a
; Repeat excavation with lower stiffnesses (factor 100)
restore tun2-tmp2
sel liner id=1 prop cs_nk=7.4e8 cs_sk=7.4e8 cs_scoh=1e20
solve

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STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 1 - 209

save tun2a-lowstiff
; Pursue excavation with larger stiffnesses (reduce cohesion)
restore tun2a
sel node init xdisp=0.0 ydisp=0.0 zdisp=0.0
sel liner id=1 prop cs_scoh=0.0
solve
save tun2b
; --- Stage 3: excavate tunnel section 3
mod mech null range group section3
sel liner id=2 range cyl end1 0 0.99 0 end2 0 2.01 0 rad 1.0
; --- Specify symmetry conditions for nodes along the 3 symmetry planes
sel node local xdir 1 0 0 ydir 0 -1 0 range x -0.1 0.1
sel node fix lsys range x -0.1 0.1
sel node fix x yr zr range x -0.1 0.1
sel node local xdir 0 0 -1 ydir 0 -1 0 range z -0.1 0.1
sel node fix lsys range z -0.1 0.1
sel node fix x yr zr range z -0.1 0.1
sel node fix y xr zr range y -0.1 0.1
sel liner id=2 prop iso=(10.5e9, 0.25) thick=0.2
sel liner id=2 prop cs_nk=7.4e10 cs_sk=7.4e10 cs_scoh=0.0
solve
sel recover surface surfx (0,1,0)
sel recover stress
save tun3

return

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1.9.5.4 Liner-Reinforced Beam

A simply supported wooden beam (E = 8.6 GPa, ν = 0, length of 2.5 m, cross section of 45 by
90 mm) has a concentrated load of 2000 N applied at its center. The beam is modeled with 40
FLAC 3D zones. (Note that more zones are required to obtain the correct beam-theory solution. The
system, as modeled, is too stiff; however, it is sufficient for the present example.) The FLAC 3D
model and the displacement field are shown in Figure 1.144. The data file for this example is listed
in Example 1.26.
The problem is rerun with a 10 mm-thick steel liner (E = 200 GPa, ν = 0.3) attached to the
beam bottom. By setting the liner cohesive strength to a large value, no slip is allowed to occur
at the liner-beam interface. (The liner stiffnesses are chosen using Eq. (1.54).) The displacement
field of the liner-reinforced beam is shown in Figure 1.145. The presence of the liner has reduced
the maximum mid-span deflection from 9.4 to 5.4 mm. Shear stresses have developed along the
liner-beam interface (see Figure 1.146), and the maximum tensile xx-stress at the outer fiber of the
liner is approximately 35 MPa (see Figure 1.147) – the maximum tensile xx-stress at the liner mid-
surface is 24 MPa. By setting the liner cohesive strength to zero, slip is allowed to occur along the
liner-beam interface. The interface shear stresses go to zero, and the displacement field increases
to almost match that of the unlined beam (see Figure 1.148). The liner continues to provide some
stiffness to the composite system. A maximum tensile xx-stress of approximately 18 MPa is being
carried in the outer fiber of the liner; the maximum tensile xx-stress at the liner mid-surface is now
zero. This remaining stress arises from the bending to which the liner is subjected; the membrane
stretching contribution arising from the shear stresses acting on the liner surface has gone to zero.

A y  nnn 

CscCnxnD   nL 0nx I

nCCpSp
5tCStCscCnc8uC8cunb
 
D 8nL nnnnnnb 
EFUbN
 n   
 
#  8nsIss5uCSG5
 8ncpICc5u

xnD   nL 0nx I

  0nnnb

Figure 1.144 Displacement field of unlined wooden beam

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STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 1 - 211

A y  nnn 

CscCnNnD   nL 0nN I

nu,cus
3tCStCscCnc6uC6cCnb4
 
D 6nL nnnnnnb 
EFUbh
 n   
7n6n"
 6nsIscGc3.u
 
4#  6nsIsspu,Sc.
 6nC,IGG.c

NnD   nL 0nN I

4  0n47nnb

Figure 1.145 Displacement field of liner-reinforced wooden beam (no slip at

liner-beam interface)

A E  nnn 

CscCnUn+   n= 0nU I

nu,cus
3tCStCscCnc6uC6cun5
n ,5n7n n%
pI,u3S72sp
pIpsss72sp
pICpss72sp
pIssss72sp
GI.pss72sp
GIpsss72sp
GICpss72sp
GIssss72sp
uI.pss72sp
uIpsss72sp
uICpss72sp
uIssss72sp
CI.pss72sp
CIpsss72sp
CICpss72sp
CIssss72sp
cI.pss72sp
cIp,.,72sp
 <n8nc0s0s

Un+   n= 0nU I

  0nnn5

Figure 1.146 Shear stresses acting on the liner (no slip at liner-beam interface)

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1 - 212 Structural Elements

A 7  nnn 

CscCnNnE   n= 0nN I

nu,cus
3tCStCscCnc6uC6cun5
n$$
uIpu.c42s.
uIpsss42s.
uICpss42s.
uIssss42s.
CI.pss42s.
CIpsss42s.
CICpss42s.
CIssss42s.
cI.pss42s.
cIpsss42s.
cICpss42s.
cIssss42s.
.Ipsss42s,
pIssss42s,
CIpsss42s,
cICuG.42s,
 <n8nc0s0s
"nn8nc

NnE   n= 0nN I

  0nnn5

Figure 1.147 xx-stress carried in the outer fiber of the liner (no slip at liner-
beam interface)

A M  nnn 

CscCnLnb   nF 0nL I

nSpp,.
8tCStCscCnc5uC5cCnAk
 
b 5nF nnnnnnA 
yDEAm
 n   
hn5n"
 5nsIscGc8.u
 
k#  5nsIss8Cuu8c
 5ncpIu.pc

Lnb   nF 0nL I

k  0nkhnnA

Figure 1.148 Displacement field of liner-reinforced wooden beam (full slip at

liner-beam interface)

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We illustrate the effect of mesh configuration when connecting linerSELs to the FLAC 3D grid by
rerunning this example, but generating a cross-diagonal mesh by adding the keyword crossdiag
to the SEL liner command. The bending stress resultant field is shown for the two different mesh
types in Figures 1.149 and 1.150. We see that a near-zero bending moment is occurring at the
center of each zone face for the cross-diagonal mesh that has a node at the face center, whereas this
anomaly is absent for the crosshatch mesh. The reason for this behavior is described in the SEL
liner command reference, and will be repeated here.
When connecting linerSELs to the grid, it is best to locate nodes at gridpoints. If the finite-element
type can resist bending (DKT, DKT-CST or DKT-(CST hybrid) elements – see Section 1.10.2.2),
then incompatibilities can develop along linerSEL faces and zone faces because the transverse (out-
of-plane) displacement field varies celibacy across linerSEL faces, but varies only linearly across
zone faces. Thus, when connecting bending-resistant linerSELs to zone faces, it is best to utilize a
crosshatch mesh, because the middle node of the cross-diagonal mesh will be constrained to translate
according to the linear displacement field of the zone face; this overconstrains the linerSELs and
can produce near-zero moments at these mid-nodes when present in a nonzero moment field. It
should be noted that the overall structural stiffness provided by the linerSELs connected to the zone
faces with a crosshatch mesh is nearly the same as that arising from the cross-diagonal mesh. In
this problem, the maximum mid-span deflection for the cross-diagonal mesh is 5.2 mm, which is
only slightly less than the value of 5.4 mm produced by the crosshatch mesh. The cross-diagonal
mesh is a bit stiffer than the crosshatch mesh.

A E  nnn 

CscCnUn+   n= 0nU I

nu,cus
3tCStCscCnc6uC6cun4
n)
GIssss-2sC
uIpsss-2sC
uIssss-2sC
CIpsss-2sC
CIssss-2sC
cIpsss-2sC
cIssss-2sC
pIssss-2sc
sIssss-2ss
1pIssss-2sc
1cIssss-2sC
1cIpsss-2sC
1CIssss-2sC
1CIpsss-2sC
1uIssss-2sC
1uIpsss-2sC
1GIssss-2sC
 <n8nc0s0s

Un+   n= 0nU I

  0nnn4

Figure 1.149 Bending stress resultants, Mx , near liner center (crosshatch

mesh)

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A E  nnn 

CscCnn+   nN 0n I

nG4Gps
4tCStCscCnc9uC9cunM
n)
GIssssX2sC
uIpsssX2sC
uIssssX2sC
CIpsssX2sC
CIssssX2sC
cIpsssX2sC
cIssssX2sC
pIssssX2sc
sIssssX2ss
1pIssssX2sc
1cIssssX2sC
1cIpsssX2sC
1CIssssX2sC
1CIpsssX2sC
1uIssssX2sC
1uIpsssX2sC
1GIssssX2sC
 <n8nc0s0s

n+   nN 0n I

  0nnnM

Figure 1.150 Bending stress resultants, Mx , near liner center (cross-diagonal

mesh)

The project file for this example is located in “sel\liner\reinforced-beam\reinforced-beam.f3prj.”

Example 1.26 Liner-reinforced beam

; SEL Liner example application
; Liner Reinforced Beam
new
set fish autocreate off
title ’Bending of a liner’
gen zone brick size 20,1,2 &
p0 0,0,0 p1 2.5,0,0 p2 0 45e-3 0 p3 0 0 90e-3
model mech elastic
prop bulk=2.87e9 shear=4.3e9 ; wood: E=8.6 GPa, nu=0.0
fix x z range x=(-0.01, 0.01) z=(-0.01, 0.01)
fix z range x=(2.49,2.51) z=(-0.01,0.01)
apply zforce -1000 range x=1.249 1.251 z=89.9e-3 90.1e-3
;
history add id=1 unbal
history add id=2 gp zdisp (1.25,0,0)
save temp
solve
save unlined

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STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 1 - 215

; ------------------
restore temp
sel liner range z=(-0.01, 0.01)
sel liner prop iso=(200e9, 0.3) thick=10e-3 ; steel
sel liner prop cs_nk=1.9e12 cs_sk=1.9e12 cs_scoh=1e20 cs_ncut=1e20
history add id=12 sel node zdisp (1.25,0,0)
sel set damp combined
solve
save lined0
; ------------------
sel liner prop cs_scoh=0.0
solve
save lined1
; ------------------
restore temp
sel liner crossdiag range z=(-0.01, 0.01)
sel liner prop iso=(200e9, 0.3) thick=10e-3 ; steel
sel liner prop cs_nk=1.9e12 cs_sk=1.9e12 cs_scoh=1e20 cs_ncut=1e20
history add id=12 sel node zdisp (1.25,0,0)
sel set damp combined
solve
save lined_cross

return

1.9.5.5 Embedded Retaining Wall

The following example illustrates the use of the embedded liner to simulate a retaining wall (e.g.,
a sheetpile wall). The soil/wall properties chosen for this example are for demonstration purposes;
actual values for wall friction and adhesion can be found in the literature (e.g., Clayton et al. 1993).
The data file is given in Example 1.27.
The initial geometry for this example is shown in Figure 1.151. The model is stepped to an
equilibrium state with the embedded liner within the grid. Then, zones are nulled to simulate the
excavation, and the model is stepped to equilibrium again. Note that the tensile strength of the
soil is set to a high value during these stages. This minimizes the effect of inertial forces during
the excavation stage. The tensile strength is reset to the actual value of zero, and the model is
stepped to equilibrium for the final solution. The resulting displacements in the soil are plotted in
Figure 1.152. The moment distribution in the wall is shown in Figure 1.153.

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A
,rp,00F   0N l0 g
0r
:G,8G,rp,0p,5e95.p0L
 
F 50N 000000L 
'RH
$NU
 n   

0F   0N l0 g

  l000L

Figure 1.151 Initial geometry, showing the liner embedded within the grid

A
,rp,004   0N l0 g
0pr/3.p
/G,3G,rp,0p,:e9:.r0+
  ,n-n$l 
  :0 0
rgrrrrxurr
ipgrrrrxir.
i,grrrrxir.
i.grrrrxir.
iSgrrrrxir.
iegrrrrxir.
i9grrrrxir.
i8grrrrxir.
i3grrrrxir.
i/grrrrxir.
ipgrrrrxir,
ipgprrrxir,
ipgpeS.xir,
 
  :0 0
#  :0rgrpS/3r9
 :0pr.g3.3

04   0N l0 g

  l000+

Figure 1.152 Displacements of the soil behind the wall

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STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 1 - 217

A
,rp,0(0m   0E l0( g
0pr/3.p
/G,3G,rp,0p,:e9:.r0U+
 
m :0 0
X7O
 
m :0 0
X7O
n)
  0Cirgrplrlro
.g.Sp9Our.
rgrrrrOurr
ipgrrrrOurS
i,grrrrOurS
i.grrrrOurS
iSgrrrrOurS
iegrrrrOurS
i9grrrrOurS
i8grrrrOurS
i3grrrrOurS
i/grrrrOurS
ipgrrrrOure
ipgprrrOure
ipgp9epOure
 <0A0rlplr

(0m   0E l0( g

+  l0+700U

Figure 1.153 My bending stress resultant

The project file for this example is located in folder “sel\liner\embedded-retaining-wall\retaining-

wall.f3prj.”

Example 1.27 Modeling an embedded retaining wall

; SEL Liner example application
; Embedded Retaining Wall

new
set fish autocreate off
title ’Demonstration of Embedded Liner’

; Create the soil.

gen zone brick size 11,1,11
model mech mohr
prop bulk=5e9 shear=1e9 density 2000 coh 1e4 fric 30 tension 1e10
set gravity 0 0 -10

;group bottom
group zone right
group zone left range x -1 4 z 1 50

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; Faces we want to separate and create liner on, idenfied as boundary ...
; between group right and left
group face Liner internal range group right group left z 1.0 not

; make sure left and right sides move independently of each other
gen separate face origin (10,0,5) group NewFace range group Liner

fix x range x = -0.1 0.1

fix x range x = 10.9 11.1
fix z range z = -0.1 0.1
fix y

ini sxx -1.32e5 grad 0 0 1.2e4

ini szz -2.2e5 grad 0 0 2.0e4
ini syy -0.88e5 grad 0 0 0.8e4
hist add unbal

; create the embedded liner

; (side1 and and side2 properties are assumed to be the same)
sel liner internal embedded (10,0,5) range group Liner
sel liner PROP iso=( 2e9, 0.25) thick=1.0 dens 2000
sel liner PROP side1 cs_nk=1e11 cs_sk=1e11 cs_ncut=0.0 cs_scoh=0 ...
cs_scohres=0 cs_sfric=30.0
sel liner PROP side2 cs_nk=1e11 cs_sk=1e11 cs_ncut=0.0 cs_scoh=0 ...
cs_scohres=0 cs_sfric=30.0

set large
save ini
solve
save l1

model mech null range x 0 4 z 4 50

sel liner prop slide=on
solve
save l2

prop tension 0.0

solve
save l3
return

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1.10 General Formulation of Structural-Element Logic

The low-level implementation details of the structural-element logic are presented here. This
information need only be read by users interested in gaining a thorough understanding of the im-
plementation (perhaps, in order to implement nonstandard interaction between structural elements
and the grid). The structural-element logic has been developed in a general and flexible fashion in
order to support various (as yet unforeseen) application scenarios.

1.10.1 Structural-Element Links

Structural elements only interact with one another via nodes; and nodes, in turn, only interact
with the grid via links. Thus, structural-element links provide the sole means by which structural
elements interact with the grid. Each link connects a node to a target entity. Each node may only
have one link associated with itself. There are two types of links: (1) node-to-zone, which connect
nodes to zones (not simply to gridpoints); and (2) node-to-node, which connect nodes to other
nodes.
In addition to localizing the interaction between structural elements and the grid, links also provide
a general mechanism for implementing nonlinear constitutive behavior at a node, in terms of that
node’s local coordinate system. A link supports the following three attachment conditions, which
are specified independently for each local direction of its source node:
1) free Velocity of the source node in this local direction is unrelated to the
velocity of the target entity.
2) rigid Velocity of the source node in this local direction is slaved to remain
equal to the component of the velocity of the target entity in this direction (see
Figure 1.154).

3) deformable Denote the attachment direction by n[S] . The source node and
target entity are connected by a spring oriented in the direction n[S] . The
spring stiffness is an average stiffness per unit area associated with the link
(see Figure 1.155).
Deformable attachment conditions allow generalized constitutive models, which relate increments
of displacement and total force in a particular local direction, to be included in the model. There
are a total of five such models used to implement the grid interactions of cables, piles, geogrids
and liners (see Table 1.30). Only the linear and normal-yield springs are available for general use
(see the SEL link attach command). A normal-yield spring can be used to introduce plastic hinges
between beamSELs or pileSELs (see Section 1.3.5.4), and plastic-hinge lines along edges between
shell-type SELs (see Section 1.7.5.3). The normal-yield spring provides elastic perfectly plastic
behavior in both tension and compression, as well as the ability to track the formation of a gap that
may form during yield in each direction.

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so target
urc
e

n[S]

Figure 1.154 Physical analog of a rigid attachment condition

k
so target
urc
e

Δ n[S]

Figure 1.155 Physical analog of a deformable attachment condition

A plastic hinge may be introduced between two nodes by creating a node-to-node link between the
two nodes, aligning the node-local system for the target node such that a normal-yield spring can
be inserted in the direction of the axis about which the hinge is to rotate, while all other directions

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are kept free (see Sections 1.3.5.4 and 1.7.5.3). The properties of the normal-yield spring should
be set:
(1) Set the area equal to unity, and set the stiffness per unit area approximately ten
times larger than the stiffness of the structural components using the node.
(2) Set the compressive- and tensile-yield strengths equal to the plastic-moment
capacity (for beams and piles), or plastic-moment capacity per unit length (for
shell-type SELs).
The orientation of the node-local system is set automatically at the start of a set of cycles (or when
the CYCLE 0 command is executed), based on the type of SELs that use the node (see the description
at the start of the SEL node command). When using the SEL creation commands (SEL type, where
type = {beam, cable, pile, shell, geogrid, liner}), if any of the nodes comprising the newly created
SELs lie within zones, then node-to-zone links will be created and assigned the default attachment
conditions shown in Table 1.30:

Table 1.30 Default link attachment conditions for SEL types

DOF beam cable pile shell geogrid liner
1 rigid SY SY rigid PY PY
2 rigid rigid PY rigid PYDP PYDP
3 rigid rigid PYDP rigid rigid NY
4 free free free free free free
5 free free free free free free
6 free free free free free free

In Table 1.30, the symbols are defined as follows. “Rigid” means rigidly connected to the zone in
which the SEL is embedded; “free” means that there is no connection in this degree of freedom. SY
means shear-yield spring. PY and PYDP mean pile-yield and pile-yield dependent springs, which
act together to produce the behavior of a single nonlinear spring acting in the plane defined by these
two directions. NY means normal-yield spring. The nonlinear spring behaviors are not described
here; instead, the overall SEL-to-grid interaction behavior of each SEL type that uses these springs
is described in its own section.
SEL-to-grid interaction occurs via node-to-zone links. These links store the zone, and an interpo-
lation location within the zone, to allow transfer of forces and velocities between the nodes and the
zones. By default, these interpolation locations will not change, even if running in large-strain mode.
The interpolation locations can be allowed to migrate through the grid by setting the large-strain
sliding flag of the link to on. Typically, one sets this flag to on for cables, piles, geogrids and liners,
which then automatically set the flag to on for all links used by these SELs. The migration process
employs the large-strain sliding tolerance (see the SEL link and SEL set link zone tol commands).

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1.10.2 Finite Element Stiffness Matrices

The structural response of each structural element is described by the stiffness that it provides to the
surrounding system by means of its nodes. Each structural element has an associated stiffness matrix
that is formed using finite-element techniques. The stiffness matrix [k] relates generalized nodal
displacements (translations and rotations) {d} to generalized nodal forces (forces and moments) {F}
by means of the relation {F} = [k]{d}, in which [k] is a square symmetric matrix of a size equal to
the number of degrees of freedom associated with the finite element.
Six finite-element stiffness matrices have been implemented in FLAC 3D : a 2-noded beam finite
element, and five 3-noded shell finite elements. These stiffness-matrix formulations are described in
the following two subsections. BeamSELs and pileSELs utilize the beam finite element; cableSELs
utilize a degenerate form of the beam finite element in which only the local axially directed degrees-
of-freedom are employed; and, shellSELs, geogridSELs and linerSELs utilize different shell finite
elements. Note that the SEL-to-grid interaction occurs by means of the links which connect the
nodes used by SELs to the zones.
1.10.2.1 Beam Finite Element

The beam finite element in FLAC 3D is a two-noded, straight, finite element with six degrees of free-
dom per node: three translational components and three rotational components (see Figure 1.6).
The beam finite element stiffness matrix formulation is given in explicit form by McGuire and
Gallagher (1979, pp. 81-91). The element models the structural behavior of a beam that is straight,
prismatic and symmetrical about both principal cross-sectional axes (bisymmetrical), and composed
of isotropic material. The formulation considers displacements resulting from uniform axial defor-
mation, flexural deformation, and twisting deformation. It neglects displacements resulting from
transverse-shearing deformations, and displacements resulting from the out-of-plane (longitudinal)
warping of a cross section that torsional forces may cause. According to McGuire and Gallagher,
the equations embodied by the resulting stiffness matrix are sufficient for the analysis of the large
majority of the frameworks encountered in structural-engineering practice.
1.10.2.2 Shell Finite Elements

There are five 3-noded, triangular finite elements available for shell-type SELs: 2 plane-stress
elements, 1 plate-bending element and 2 shell elements. The plane-stress elements model membrane
action only, the plate-bending element models bending action only, and the shell elements model
general shell behavior as a superposition of membrane and bending actions (see Figures 1.4 and
1.5). These elements operate upon the 18 degrees of freedom available to the shell-type SELs (see
Figure 1.56).
CST Plane-Stress Element (6 degrees of freedom)
The CST plane-stress element is a three-noded plane-stress finite element with two translational
degrees-of-freedom per node (shown in Figure 1.156(a) by removing the rotational degree-of-
freedom). The CST hybrid element is described, and an explicit formulation of [kCST ] is given by
Cook et al. (1989).

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CST Hybrid Plane-Stress Element (9 degrees of freedom)

The CST hybrid plane-stress element is a three-noded plane-stress finite element with three degrees
of freedom per node: two translational components and one rotational component (shown in Fig-
ure 1.156(a)). The CST hybrid plane-stress element is formulated by the assumed-stress hybrid
approach. It provides a more competent membrane response than a constant strain triangle (CST)
through the inclusion of “drilling freedoms,” θz , among its degrees of freedom. The CST hybrid
element is described, and an explicit formulation of [kCSTH ] is given by Cook (1987).
DKT Plate Bending Element (9 degrees of freedom)
The DKT plate bending element is a three-noded plate finite element with three degrees of freedom
per node: one translational component and two rotational components (shown in Figure 1.156(b)).
The DKT plate bending element enforces the Kirchhoff plate theory assumptions at six discrete
locations (corners and mid-sides) within the element; thus, the designation DKT for Discrete Kirch-
hoff Triangle. The element is described by Batoz et al. (1980), who conclude that it is one of the
most efficient and reliable three-node (9 degrees of freedom) plate bending elements available at
the time of publication. An explicit formulation of [kDKT ] is given by Batoz (1982).
DKT-CST Hybrid Shell Element (18 degrees of freedom)
The DKT-CST hybrid shell element is a three-noded, flat, thin-shell finite element with six degrees
of freedom per node: three translational components and three rotational components. It combines
a nine degrees-of-freedom CST hybrid plane element to model membrane action in the shell with a
nine degrees-of-freedom DKT plate element to model bending action in the shell. This composite
flat shell element is referred to as a DKT-CST hybrid, and is described by Cook et al. (1989,
pp. 351-352).
Let a typical element lie in the xy-plane of a local coordinate system xyz. Nodal degrees-of-freedom
are shown in Figure 1.156, where θx θy  =  ∂w ∂y − ∂w∂x . Let these degrees of freedom be

called {d }, and be arranged in the order

{d } = ui vi θzi wi θxi θyi T (1.56)

where ui  = u1 u2 u3 , θxi  = θx1 θx2 θx3 , and so on. For the DKT-CST hybrid shell
element, whose stiffness matrix in local xyz-coordinates is called [k ], we have

⎧ ⎫
⎡ ⎤ ⎪ ui ⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
[kCSTH ] [0] ⎪
⎪ vi ⎪⎪
⎪
⎢ 9×9 ⎥ ⎨ ⎬
⎢ 9×9 ⎥ θzi
[k ]{d } = ⎢ ⎥ (1.57)
⎣ [0] [kDKT ] ⎦ ⎪
⎪
⎪
wi ⎪⎪
⎪
9×9 9×9 ⎪
⎪ xi ⎪
θ ⎪
⎩ ⎭
θyi

FLAC 3D Version 5.01

1 - 224 Structural Elements

where [kCSTH ] is the stiffness matrix of a CST hybrid plane-stress element, and [kDKT ] is the
stiffness matrix of a DKT plate-bending element.
The following observations about the DKT-CST hybrid element are appropriate (also see the ob-
servations about the DKT-CST element in the next section).
1. [kCSTH ] only contains degrees of freedom associated with membrane action,
and [kDKT ] only contains degrees of freedom associated with bending action.
Although membrane-bending coupling is present throughout an actual curved
shell, it is absent in an individual element (as evidenced by the 9 by 9 null
matrices of Eq. (1.57)). Nevertheless, the element works well enough to be
competitive with curved elements, as demonstrated by Carpenter et al. (1986).
2. The element provides a solution which converges to the classical Kirchhoff
thin-plate solution. Thus, the element is appropriate for modeling thin shells
in which the displacements caused by transverse-shearing deformations can
be neglected.

z z

θz1 u1 w1 θx1

v1 θy1
1 y 1
y

θz3 w3

θz2 3 w2 3 θy3
2 v3 2
u3 θx3
v2
u2 θy2
θx2
x (a) x (b)

Figure 1.156 DKT-CST hybrid flat shell finite element in a local xy-plane: (a)
degrees of freedom associated with membrane action (CST hybrid
sub-element); (b) degrees of freedom associated with bending
action (DKT sub-element)

DKT-CST Shell Element (15 degrees of freedom)

The DKT-CST shell element is a three-noded, flat, thin-shell finite element with five degrees of
freedom per node: three translational components and two rotational components. It combines
a six degrees-of-freedom CST plane element to model membrane action in the shell with a nine

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degrees-of-freedom DKT plate element to model bending action in the shell. This composite flat
shell element is referred to as a DKT-CST, and is described by Cook et al. (1989, pp. 351-352).
Let a typical element lie in the xy-plane of a local coordinate system xyz. Nodal degrees-of-freedom
are shown in Figure 1.156 by removing θz , where θx θy  =  ∂w ∂y − ∂w
∂x . Let these degrees of
freedom be called {d }, and be arranged in the order


{d } = ui vi wi θxi θyi T (1.58)

where ui  = u1 u2 u3 , θxi  = θx1 θx2 θx3 , and so on. For the DKT-CST shell
element, whose stiffness matrix in local xyz-coordinates is called [k ], we have

⎡ ⎤⎧ ⎫
⎪ ui ⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎨ vi ⎪
[kCST ] [0]
⎢ 6×9 ⎥ ⎬
⎢ 6×6 ⎥
[k ]{d } = ⎢ ⎥ wi (1.59)
⎣ [0] [kDKT ] ⎦ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
9×6 9×9 ⎩ θxi ⎪
⎪ ⎭
θyi

where [kCST ] is the stiffness matrix of a CST plane-stress element, and [kDKT ] is the stiffness matrix
of a DKT plate bending element.
The following observations about the DKT-CST element are appropriate.
1. [kCST ] only contains degrees of freedom associated with membrane action,
and [kDKT ] only contains degrees of freedom associated with bending action.
Although membrane-bending coupling is present throughout an actual curved
shell, it is absent in an individual element (as evidenced by the null matrices
of Eq. (1.59)).
2. The element provides a solution which converges to the classical Kirchhoff
thin-plate solution. Thus, the element is appropriate for modeling thin shells
in which the displacements caused by transverse-shearing deformations can
be neglected.
3. The element differs from the DKT-CST hybrid element by not having drilling
degrees-of-freedom. This makes the element overly stiff for problems with
large membrane-stress gradients. For such problems, the DKT-CST hybrid
element will perform better. For problems without large membrane-stress
gradients, the performance of the DKT-CST element will be much improved,
making it competitive with the DKT-CST hybrid element.
4. The lack of drilling degrees-of-freedom makes this element more suitable
for coupling with the FLAC 3D grid than the DKT-CST hybrid element. The

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FLAC 3D zones have a linear displacement variation, and the 3 drilling degrees-
of-freedom give the DKT-CST hybrid a quadratic in-plane displacement vari-
ation along its edges. When a shell-type SEL is rigidly connected to the
grid, only the translational degrees-of-freedom are slaved to move with the
grid, while the rotational degrees-of-freedom are left free. Because we are not
constraining the drilling degrees-of-freedom, it is possible for gaps to form be-
tween the SEL and the grid. These incompatibilities seem to be activated when
shell-type SELs of different sizes meet along a common line. The DKT-CST
element has a linear in-plane displacement variation along its edges, which is
fully compatible with that of the FLAC 3D zones and, thus, gaps cannot form
when these elements are rigidly connected to zones.
5. The two preceding observations lead to the following general recommendation
regarding choice of shell finite element. For problems in which a shell element
is being connected to FLAC 3D zones, use the DKT-CST element. For all other
problems, use the DKT-CST hybrid element.

1.10.3 Stress Recovery Procedure

The stress-recovery procedure is outlined in Section 1.1.6.4. A more detailed description of the
process is provided here. Stress recovery is applied to a group of shell-type SELs. Nodal averaging
of bending and membrane stress resultants only occurs for SELs within this group. Stress recovery
consists of two steps:
(1) Compute stress-resultant field.
(1a) Define the surface coordinate system at each node. This system has its z-
direction equal to the average z-direction of all shell-type SELs using the
node, and has its x-direction equal to the projection of a user-specified surfx
vector onto the z-plane.
(1b) Compute the bending and membrane stress resultants (Mx , My , Mxy , Nx , Ny
and Nxy ) at each node. These values are found by first computing them within
each shell-type SEL at its nodes, and then averaging the contributions from all
shell-type SELs that use each node. Note that these six stress resultants vary
linearly over each SEL.
The bending and membrane stress resultants within each shell-type SEL are
found using the flexibility-stiffness transformation from McGuire and Gal-
lagher (1979, pp. 76-77) to determine which displacements are consistent
with a given set of nodal forces acting on the element. This is done by forming
a flexibility matrix that is derived from the element stiffness matrix. The flexi-
bilities are derived from the stiffnesses by defining a stable, statically determi-
nate support system, removing from the stiffness matrix the rows and columns
corresponding to the support components, and inverting the remainder. These
displacements are then fed into stress-recovery procedures appropriate to the
particular finite element.

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(1c) Compute the transverse-shear stress resultants (Qx and Qy ) within each shell-
type SEL by enforcing the equilibrium equations

∂Mx ∂Mxy
Qx = +
∂x ∂y
(1.60)
∂My ∂Mxy
Qy = +
∂y ∂x

by assuming that the bending resultant field varies linearly over each SEL. Note
that Qx and Qy are constant over each shell-type SEL, and are not averaged
at nodes.
(2) Compute stress field at specified shell depth using Eq. (1.6), and then rotating the stresses
into the global system.

1.10.4 Governing Equations

The discretization and time integration of the equations that govern the dynamic response of the
structural elements and their associated entities (i.e., nodes and links) utilize standard finite-element
practice. The description given here is similar to that given in Chapter 13 of Cook et al. (1989).
The equations that govern the dynamic response of a structure can be derived by requiring the work
of external forces to be absorbed by the work of internal, inertial and damping forces for any small,
kinematically admissible motion. For a single element, this work balance becomes

  n
{δu} {F} dV +
T
{δu} {} dS +
T
{δu}Ti {p}i
Ve Se i=1
  (1.61)

= {δ}T {σ} + {δu}T ρ{ü} + {δu}T κd {u̇} dV
Ve

where {δu} and {δ} are, respectively, small arbitrary displacements and their corresponding strains,
{F} are body forces, {} are prescribed surface tractions that act over a portion of the element surface
S e, {p}i are concentrated loads that act at a total of n points on the element, {δu}Ti is the displacement
of the point at which load {p}i is applied, {σ} are stresses, ρ is the mass density of the material, κd
is a material-damping parameter analogous to viscosity, and volume integration is carried out over
the element volume, Ve.
If we express the displacement field {u} (which is a function of both space and time) and its first
two time derivatives as

{u} = [N]{d} {u̇} = [N]{ḋ} {ü} = [N]{d̈} (1.62)

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where shape functions [N] are functions of space only, and nodal degrees-of-freedom {d} are
functions of time only, then Eqs. (1.62) represent a local separation of variables. By substituting
Eqs. (1.62) into Eq. (1.61), and noting that {δu}, and thus {δd}, are arbitrary, one obtains

[m]{d̈} + [c]{ḋ} + {rint } = {rext } (1.63)

where the element mass and damping matrices are defined as


[m] = ρ[N]T [N] dV (1.64)
Ve


[c] = κd [N]T [N] dV (1.65)
Ve

and the element internal force and external load vectors are defined as


{r } =
int
[B]T {σ} dV (1.66)
Ve

  n
{r ext
}= [N] {F} dV +
T
[N] {} dS +
T
{p}i (1.67)
Ve Se i=1

where [B] is the strain-displacement matrix that satisfies {δ} = [B]{d}.

Eq. (1.63) is a system of coupled, second-order, ordinary differential equations in time, and is called
a finite-element semi-discretization because, although displacements {d} are discrete functions of
space, they are still continuous functions of time. The FLAC 3D structural-element logic employs an
explicit, direct-integration method which discretizes Eq. (1.63) in time, using the central-difference
method to obtain a sequence of uncoupled algebraic equations.
Recall that Eq. (1.63) was written for a single element. Equations for the assembled structural
system can be written as

[M]{D̈} + [C]{Ḋ} = {Rext } − {Rint } = {A} (1.68)

where {A} designates the accumulated out-of-balance force, and uppercase English alphabet char-
acters designate structure matrices which are constructed by the conceptual expansion of element
matrices to “structure size,” followed by addition of overlapping coefficients. See any standard
finite-element text (e.g., Cook et al. 1989) for a detailed description of the assembly procedure.

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The equations of motion, Eq. (1.68), are written for a specific instant of time:

[M]{D̈}n + [C]{Ḋ}n = {A}n (1.69)

where subscript n denotes time nt, and t is the size of the time increment or timestep.

1.10.5 Central-Difference Approximations

The central-difference approximations for acceleration at time nt, velocity at time (n − 1/2)t,
and velocity at time nt are given by

 
1
{D̈}n = {Ḋ}n+1/2 − {Ḋ}n−1/2 + O(t 2 ) (1.70)
t

 
1
{Ḋ}n−1/2 = {D}n − {D}n−1 + O(t 2 ) (1.71)
t

 
1
{Ḋ}n = {Ḋ}n−1/2 + {Ḋ}n+1/2 + O(t 2 ) (1.72)
2

These expressions are second-order accurate, which implies that halving the timestep should ap-
proximately quarter the error in the approximation.

1.10.6 Accumulated Out-of-Balance Force Vector

The structure internal force vector that makes up one portion of the accumulated out-of-balance
force vector {A}n in Eq. (1.69) is obtained by assembling the contributions from each structural
element and from each deformable direction of each link

 
{Rint }n = {rint }n (1.73)
j
j

with

{rint }n = {rint }n−1 + {rint }

 
= {rint }n−1 + [k]n−1/2 {d}n − {d}n−1 (1.74)
= {rint }n−1 + [k]n−1/2 {ḋ}n−1/2 t

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in which the central-difference approximation of Eq. (1.71) has been employed. The internal-force
vector {rint } that is maintained by each structural element and each deformable direction of each
link is also updated during the computation of {Rint }.
After distributing all of the internal forces to the appropriate nodes, each rigidly attached direction,
n[S] , of each link contributes the following portion of the accumulated out-of-balance force of its
source node A[S] to the accumulated out-of-balance force A[T] of its target entity as

 
A [T]
←A[T]
+ A [S]
·n [S]
n[S] (1.75)

1.10.7 Mass Matrix

The structure mass matrix in Eq. (1.69) is obtained by utilizing a nodal-lumping scheme, and
assembling the contributions from each structural element

numel
[M] = M = mj (1.76)
j =1

with

⎧ρV
⎨ jn j , all 3 translational d.o.f.
mj = j  2/3 (1.77)
⎩ 2 ρj Vj 3Vj
, all 3 rotational d.o.f.
5 nj 4π nj

where ρj , Vj and nj are the mass density, volume and number of nodes of element j . The rotational
inertias are found by assuming that the portion of element mass seen by each node is distributed as
a sphere.
After distributing the mass associated with all of the structural elements to the appropriate nodes,
each rigidly attached direction of each link contributes the following portion of its source mass in
direction-k m[S] [T]
k to the accumulated mass in target direction-i mi , using the weighting function

 ⎛ 
 [S] [T]  ⎞
nk · ni 
[S] ⎝ ⎠
m[T]
i ← m[T]
i + mk 3  [S] [T]  (1.78)
l=1 nk · nl 

where ni[S] and ni[T] are, respectively, the unit-vector triads of the source and target local coordinate
systems.

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1.10.8 Damping Formulation

The derivation of Eq. (1.65) utilized a viscous-damping parameter that is suitable for modeling
a Newtonian fluid; however, when modeling structural systems, we are less interested in viscous
damping than in dry friction and hysteresis loss. These energy-loss mechanisms are not well-
understood and, from a practical standpoint, Eq. (1.65) does not correctly represent structural
damping. Thus, three ad hoc damping schemes (local damping, combined local damping and
Rayleigh or proportional damping) are provided. The implementation details of the three damping
schemes are presented here; refer to Section 1.1.2.7 in Theory and Background and Section 1.4.3.1
in Dynamic Analysis for a description of the rationale behind each scheme.
The starting point for all three damping schemes is given by rewriting Eq. (1.69) as

[M]{D̈}n + {Rd }n = {A}n (1.79)

where {Rd }n represents the force produced by the damping mechanism at time nt.
1.10.8.1 Local Damping

Substitution of Eq. (1.70) into Eq. (1.79) yields

 
−1
{Ḋ}n+1/2 = {Ḋ}n−1/2 + t[M] {A}n − {R }n
d
(1.80)

The use of a diagonal mass matrix (as described in Section 1.10.7) uncouples this set of equations
such that we can rewrite them for a single degree of freedom i as

t  
(Ḋi )n+1/2 = (Ḋi )n−1/2 + (Ai )n − (Rid )n (1.81)
Mi

Local damping is provided by setting

 
(Rid )n = λi (Ai )n  sgn(Ḋi )n (1.82)

where λi is the local-damping factor for degree-of-freedom i, and

!
+1, if x ≥ 0
sgn(x) = (1.83)
−1, if x < 0

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The local-damping formulation is implemented by computing an undamped (Ḋi )ud and a damped
(Ḋi )d new velocity:

t
(Ḋi )ud = (Ḋi )n−1/2 + (Ai )n
Mi
  (1.84)
t
(Ḋi ) = (Ḋi )n−1/2 +
d
(Ai )n − λi |(Ai )n | sgn(Ḋi )n−1/2
Mi

and setting the actual new velocity equal to the damped velocity (only if the velocity has not changed
sign) as

!
(Ḋi )n+1/2 = (Ḋi )ud , if (Ḋi )n−1/2 (Ḋi )d ≤ 0 (1.85)
(Ḋi )d , otherwise

It can be shown that this implementation maintains second-order accuracy as follows. Assume that

(Ḋi )n+1/2 (Ḋi )n−1/2 > 0 (1.86)

This implies that

sgn(Ḋi )n = sgn(Ḋi )n−1/2 (1.87)

which makes Eq. (1.85) an exact expression of Eq. (1.82). Note that if the assumption of Eq. (1.86)
is not satisfied (i.e., the velocity either changes sign or is zero), then no damping is applied to this
degree of freedom.
1.10.8.2 Combined Local Damping

Combined local damping is provided by utilizing the same procedure as described for local damping,
but with Eq. (1.82) replaced by

  1 
(Rid )n = λi (Ai )n  sgn(Ḋi )n − sgn(Ȧi )n (1.88)
2

where

 
sgn(Ȧi )n = sgn (Ai )n − (Ai )n−1 (1.89)

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1.10.8.3 Rayleigh Damping

Rayleigh damping results by forming the damping matrix [C] as a linear combination of the stiffness
and mass matrices:

[C] = β[K] + α[M] (1.90)

where β and α are called, respectively, the stiffness- and mass-proportional damping constants.
The relation between β, α and the fraction of critical damping ξ at frequency ω is given by

1 α
ξ= βω + (1.91)
2 ω

Damping attributable to stiffness increases with increasing frequency, whereas damping attributable
to mass increases with decreasing frequency.
Damping constants β and α are related to the fractions of critical damping (ξ1 and ξ2 ) at frequencies
(ω1 and ω2 ) by

β = 2(ξ2 ω2 − ξ1 ω1 )/(ω22 − ω12 )

(1.92)
α = 2ω1 ω2 (ξ1 ω2 − ξ2 ω1 )/(ω22 − ω12 )

The governing equation of motion used when Rayleigh damping is active is derived as follows.
Express the force produced by the damping mechanism ({Rd }n in Eq. (1.79)) as the sum of the
stiffness and mass contributions:

{Rd }n = {Rβ }n + {Rα }n = {Rβ }n + α[M]{Ḋ}n (1.93)

and substitute this expression into Eq. (1.79) to obtain

[M]{D̈}n + α[M]{Ḋ}n = {A}n − {Rα }n (1.94)

Substitution of the central-difference approximations given by Eqs. (1.70) and (1.72) into
Eq. (1.94), followed by rearrangement of terms, yields

     
2 − αt 2t −1
{Ḋ}n+1/2 = {Ḋ}n−1/2 + [M] {A}n − {R }n
β
(1.95)
2 + αt 2 + αt

in which the stiffness contribution to the damping force is obtained by assembling the contributions
from each structural element and from each deformable direction of each link:

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{Rβ }n = {rβ }n j
(1.96)
j

with

 
{rβ }n = β[k]n−1/2 {d}n − {d}n−1 /t
(1.97)
= β[k]n−1/2 {ḋ}n−1/2

1.10.9 Computation of Stable Timestep

Time integration carried out using the central-difference method is a conditionally stable process.
The stable timestep for our central-difference equations (Eq. (1.80) if local or combined local
damping is active, or Eq. (1.95) if Rayleigh damping is active) is given by (Belytschko 1983)

"
2
tstab = F (ξmax ) where F (ξ ) = 1 + ξ 2 − ξ (1.98)
ωmax

where ωmax is the highest natural frequency of the discretized system, and ξmax is the fraction of
critical damping at ωmax . The value of ξmax is dependent upon the damping scheme,

!
ξmax =
1
2(βωmax + α/ωmax ) , (Rayleigh damping) (1.99)
max λi /π, (local or combined local damping)

The natural frequencies, ωn , of the discretized system are given by solution of the eigenproblem,

 
[K] − ω2 [M] {D̃} = {0} (1.100)

The maximum frequency can be bounded by applying Gerschgorin’s Theorem (Isaacson and Keller
1963) to Eq. (1.100) which, for a diagonal mass matrix, states that

2
ωmax ≤ max (Gi /Mi ) with i = 1, 2, . . . , ne (1.101)
i

where ne is the number of degrees of freedom, and Gi is the stiffness sum for the ith row of the
assembled stiffness matrix

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ne
 
Gi = Kii + Kij  (1.102)
j =1
j =i

The six components of Gi are stored at each structural-element node and expressed in terms of
the node-local system. Stiffness contributions are provided by all structural elements and by all
deformable directions of all links. After distributing all of the stiffnesses to the appropriate nodes,
each rigidly attached direction of each link contributes the following portion of its source stiffness
in direction-k G[S] [T]
k to the accumulated stiffness in target direction-i Gi , using the same weighting
function as given by Eq. (1.78), namely

⎛  
 [S] [T]  ⎞
nk · ni 
[S] ⎝ ⎠
G[T]
i ← G[T]
i + Gk 3  [S] [T]  (1.103)
l=1 nk · nl 

where ni[S] and ni[T] are, respectively, the unit-vector triads of the source and target local coordinate
systems.
The final timestep computed by the structural-element portion of FLAC 3D is

t = βu tstab (1.104)

where βu is a user-specified safety factor, and tstab is computed using Eqs. (1.98), (1.99) and
(1.101), in which Eq. (1.101) is only applied to active degrees-of-freedom.

1.10.10 Mass Scaling

The structural-element portion of FLAC 3D may be run in one of three modes (fully dynamic, fully
static or partially dynamic):
• When run in the fully dynamic mode (SEL set scale rmass off), mass scaling is
not applied; instead, the mass matrix reflects the actual mass of the structural
system and is assembled as described in Section 1.10.7. The timestep necessary
to ensure a stable integration of the equations of motion is determined as
described in Section 1.10.9.
• When run in the fully static mode, the values in the mass matrix are adjusted
to ensure that all degrees of freedom have the same frequency response – one
that is appropriate to ensure a stable integration of the equations of motion
for a fixed value of timestep. The procedure by which this is accomplished is
described below.

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• When run in the partially dynamic mode (SEL set scale rmass on), the mass
matrix reflects the actual mass of the translational degrees-of-freedom, and
only the translational degrees-of-freedom are considered when determining
the timestep necessary to ensure a stable integration of the equations of motion.
The masses of the rotational degrees-of-freedom are adjusted to ensure that all
rotational degrees-of-freedom have the same frequency response – one that is
appropriate to ensure a stable integration of the equations of motion for the
fixed value of timestep determined for the translational degrees-of-freedom.
The procedure by which this is accomplished is described below.
Fully Static Mode
For a given value of timestep t˜, stability requires that

2t˜ 2
tstab = = F (ξmax ) (1.105)
βu ωmax

where the estimated stable timestep has been multiplied by a safety factor of one-half.
By setting the maximum frequency equal to its bounding value provided by Eq. (1.101), one can
write

 2
F (ξmax )βu
2
ωmax = ≡ ψ 2 = max (Gi /Mi ) (1.106)
t˜ i

in which ψ has been introduced to represent the second term. One can ensure that all degrees of
freedom have the same frequency response by setting each Mi such that

Mi = Gi /ψ 2 (1.107)

ψ can be computed directly because ξmax is given by Eq. (1.99).

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Partially Dynamic Mode

1. Set all translational masses using the procedure described in Section 1.10.7.
2. Determine the timestep necessary to ensure a stable integration of the equations
of motion by only considering the translational degrees-of-freedom when using
the procedure described in Section 1.10.9.
3. Determine the highest natural frequency of the discretized system by applying
Eq. (1.101) to only the translational degrees-of-freedom, and call this value
ω . Set all masses associated with rotational degrees-of-freedom such that
they satisfy

Mi = Gi /ω 2 (1.108)

in order to ensure that the rotational degrees-of-freedom do not produce a

larger natural frequency than ω .

1.10.11 Computational Algorithm

1. Assume that boundary conditions consisting of externally applied loads,

{Rext }, as well as structural element, link and nodal properties have been
specified.
2. Set initial conditions:

n=0
{D}0 = {D(t = 0)}
{Ḋ}−1/2 = {Ḋ(t = 0)}
[k]−1/2 = [k(t = 0)] for all elements
{rint }−1 = {0} for all elements

3. Assemble the structure mass matrix M by considering the mode in which
the structural-element portion of FLAC 3D is being run. For the fully dynamic
case, employ the procedure described in Section 1.10.7. For the fully static or
partially dynamic cases, employ the procedures described in Section 1.10.10.
4. Compute stable timestep t, as described in Section 1.10.9.
5. Compute the accumulated out-of-balance force vector {A}n :
(a) Set {A}n = {Rext }n .

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(b) Assemble the contributions from each structural element, each de-
formable direction of each link, and each rigidly attached direction
of each link, as described in Section 1.10.6.
(c) If Rayleigh damping is active, assemble the stiffness contribution
to the damping force {Rβ }n using Eqs. (1.96) and (1.97).

6. Update all nodal velocities {Ḋ}n+1/2 :

(a) For all active degrees-of-freedom (i.e., those that are not fixed and
are not slaved), update velocities using Eq. (1.80) if local or com-
bined local damping is active, or Eq. (1.95) if Rayleigh damping is
active.
(b) For each rigidly attached direction n[S] of each link, set velocity of
source node Ḋ[S] equal to component
 [T]of velocity
 [S]of target entity in
the attached direction: Ḋ = Ḋ · n
[S] [S] n

7. Update all nodal positions. Each node stores 1) its reference position xref ,
which corresponds to its position at the time that all related stiffness matrices
were formed, 2) its current position xcur , and 3) its accumulated rotation θ cur
since the last update of xref . The displacement that has occurred since the last
update of xref is given by

! # ! #
dtran xcur − xref
{d} = =
drot θ cur

and the current positions and rotations are updated using the central-difference
approximation of Eq. (1.71):

{xcur }n+1 = {xcur }n + {ḋtran }n+1/2 t

(1.109)
{θ cur }n+1 = {θ cur }n + {ḋrot }n+1/2 t

8. Update all structural element stiffness matrices if a large-strain update is due;

otherwise, set

[k]n+1/2 = [k]n−1/2 for all elements

9. Set n ← n + 1, and go to step 3.

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1.11 References

AISC. Manual of Steel Construction, Eighth Edition. Chicago: American Institute of Steel
Construction Inc. (1980).
Batoz, J. L. “An Explicit Formulation for an Efficient Triangular Plate-Bending Element,” Int. J.
Num. Meth. Engng., 18(7), 1077-1089 (1982).
Batoz, J. L., K. J. Bathe and L. W. Lo. “A Study of Three-Node Triangular Plate Bending Elements,”
Int. J. Num. Meth. Engng., 15(12), 1771-1812 (1980).
Belytschko, T. “An Overview of Semidiscretization and Time Integration Procedures,” in Compu-
tational Methods for Transient Analysis, Chapter 1, pp. 1-65. T. Belytschko and T. J. R. Hughes,
eds. New York: Elsevier Science Publishers, B. V. (1983).
Beneito, C. and Ph. Gotteland. “Three-Dimensional Numerical Modeling of Geosynthetics Me-
chanical Behavior,” in FLAC and Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics (Proceedings of the Sec-
ond International FLAC Symposium on Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics, Lyon, France,
29-31 October 2001). D. Billaux et al., eds. Lisse: Balkema (2001).
Carpenter, N., H. Stolarski and T. Belytschko. “Improvements in 3-Node Triangular Shell Ele-
ments,” Int. J. Num. Meth. Engng., 23(9), 1643-1667 (1986).
Cernica, J. N. Geotechnical Engineering: Foundation Design, New York: John Wiley & Sons
Inc. (1995).
Clayton, C. R. I., J. Milititsky and R. T. Woods. Earth Pressure and Earth-Retaining Structures,
pp. 145-148. London: Blackie Academic & Professional (1993).
Cook, R. D. “A Plane Hybrid Element with Rotational D. O. F. and Adjustable Stiffness,” Int. J.
Num. Meth. Engng., 24(8), 1499-1508 (1987).
Cook, R. D., D. S. Malkus and M. E. Plesha. Concepts and Applications of Finite Element
Analysis, Third Edition. New York: John Wiley & Sons Inc. (1989).
Isaacson, E., and H. B. Keller. Analysis of Numerical Methods, pp. 135-136. New York: John
Wiley & Sons Inc. (1963).
Massonnet, C. E. Résistance Des Matériaux. Sciences Et Lettres, Liége (1960).
McGuire, W., and R. H. Gallagher. Matrix Structural Analysis. New York: John Wiley & Sons
Inc. (1979).
St. John, C. M., and D. E. Van Dillen. “Rockbolts: A New Numerical Representation and Its
Application in Tunnel Design,” in Rock Mechanics – Theory - Experiment - Practice (Proceedings
of the 24th U.S. Symposium on Rock Mechanics, Texas A&M University, June 1983), pp. 13-26.
New York: Association of Engineering Geologists (1983).
Ugural, A. C. Stresses in Plates and Shells, pp. 1-16. New York: McGraw-Hill Publishing
Company Inc. (1981).

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