Volume 8, Issue 11, November 2023 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology

ISSN No:-2456-2165

SEHONYETSO Significance of Onset Diacritic

Apostrophe as Distinctive/Contrastive Marker in
Written Sesotho
Masechaba ML Mokhathi-Mbhele
National University of Lesotho

Abstract:- The purpose of this paper is to present that with focus on alphabet writing systems and relevant theories
the onset diacritic apostrophe on some Sesotho words are consulted. The types of spelling are three andthey
initiated with nasal sounds is compulsory. This comprise phonetic because symbols or letters are selected to
description is underpinned by Integrated Multiple represent the sound pronunciation; it may be ideographicas
Patterns (IMP) (of spelling) theory. The design is it reflects ideas but lack pronunciation and the last is a mix
qualitative as description depends on the rules of Sesotho of the first and the second types. Crammer (1998) adds
and the speakers’ perspective of the use of the onset thatmay be pre-phonetic and phonetic areessential patterns
diacritic apostrophe. The description alleviates within words syllable juncture and meaning
compromise of accurate form-meanings of words derivation.Spelling knowledge is noted with four forms that
anchored by assumption. Population encompasses sixty- include phonological (sound patterning), visual (visible),
eight words and all this data is used for purposive morphemic (word based) and etymological (origin)
random sampling. Participant observation is the knowledge. Stages of spelling development are generally
instrument for this written data collection. The seventeen noted to be five despite academia differencesbut Frith
observations categorized as Findings draw structural (1985) lists three stages noted as logographic, alphabetic and
and functional contrasts on these nasals initiated Sesotho orthographic which he argues are an interconnected process
words. The findings project obligation of explicit onset with reading and are empowered by writers’ knowledge
apostrophe in writing some Sesotho words beginning aboutspelling. Crammer (1998) adds that each stage is
with nasals for it successfully attains form-meaning characteristics specific.The spelling development has
distinction or contrast. Integration of Phonetics, underpinning theories and such include dual-route theories,
Phonology, Morphology, Syntax, Semantics and stage and phase theories, constructivist theory and
Sociolinguistics disciplines cannot be overemphasized. Integration of Multiple Patterns theories. Treiman (2017)
Recommendation proposes obligatory explicit onset explains that researchers who opt for constructivist theory
diacritic apostrophe where applicable on handwritten argue that writers (children as the focus) build their own
and computer typed Sesotho nasals to ascertain and hypotheses about how writing works. The letter in printed
facilitate for accurate and appropriate spelling for words represent syllables in spoken language. Further,
effective and productive communication and rid the written words should represent properties of referent objects.
meaning-assumption problem. Treiman (ibid) in conformity with Ehri, (2000), Frith,
(1985), Gentry, (1982) further notes that the Stage and phase
Keywords:- Onset, diacritic, apostrophe, nasals, integration. theories focus on the empowered ability to map sounds to
letters.
I. INTRODUCTION
This theory has confirmed that learners have displayed
Writing as a skill to achieve communicative purposes their phonological knowledge capability (as a very crucial
is an art that requires discreetness employed to foster tool) in spelling. She further clarifies that the stage and
accuracy and appropriateness of word usage. Such phase theory describes English as well as other alphabetic
discreetness is ascertained by accuracy in spelling in order writing systems. Treiman (2017) explains that dual-route
to achieve required form-meaning appropriateness. This theories are accomplished by linking phonemes to
paper presents the background on spelling and diacritics, graphemes as individual or group letters uttered as single
provides literature review, describes findings analysis and phonemes. She further describes, in conformity with Barry
the related discussion and also concludes on the description. (1994), Kreiner & Gough (1990)’s postulation that the dual-
II. BACKGROUND route theories are accomplished by linking phonemes to
graphemes as individual or group letters uttered as single
Spelling, as the sequential order of letters based on the phonemes. She clarifies that the dual-route theories - both
phonology or sound system of a language is a valuable asset the lexical and non-lexical routes - support accurate spelling.
that facilitates for a successful, functional, purposeful Treiman (2017:9) claims that “phonology is important in
communication in the spoken or written mediums. The spelling as dual-route theories suggest… Graphotatics and
written medium requires more detailed discreetness as it morphology play important roles in spelling, and these roles
comprises marks on paper that carry the required accuracy are [sic] not adequately acknowledged by dual-route
and appropriateness of the intended discourses. Thus, theories.” This is to say that spelling explicates phonology
writers of a language need to be concise with their spelling and morphology in writing as spelled words must employ
skill. Studies on writing incorporate spelling development the directly accurate lexicons.

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Volume 8, Issue 11, November 2023 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165
Nonetheless, Treiman and Kessler (2014) complement relevant sound was indicated with a sükunor sukoon, an
the noted theories and contributethe Integration of Multiple Arabic word that means ‘a sigh of relief’ or ‘rest’. sükun is
Patterns (IMP) theory designed to describe spelling described as a circle at the top of a vowel, the diacritic that
development.IMP identifies two spelling patterns in which marks the end of a syllable. The consonant follows the
one integrates written symbols within a language system vowel but it is not followed by a vowel. Hallberg (2022)
noted as “writing’s inner pattern” and refers to the other notes that in Arabic languages diacritics on the vowels bear
pattern as the “writing’s outer pattern”. This complement a gradient than a binary function, differentiates genres based
magnifies Treiman’s (2017:9) view that, “Links between on their number on each vowel, add various forms
written symbols and linguistic units may involve phonology, dependent on their prioritized conventional order. They give
but they may involve morphology and other aspects of orthographic variation noted in reading exercises.
linguistic structure as well.” She comments that this IMP
framework extends spelling role to ‘non-phonological Diacritics form part of the punctuation marks and it
knowledge’ beyond the stage and phase theories and these also coexists with them in writing to differentiate meanings
theories are employed to develop spelling for required form- of words that employ them. For instance, in English, when
meaning accuracy and appropriateness in communication. an apostrophe occurs in a word regardless of its position, its
Based on the view that phonology and morphology and impact is that it replaces the letters and sounds which have
other linguistic aspects actively facilitate for spelling been intentionally omitted (ellipted). Inits ellipsis, it enfolds
accuracy-appropriateness, this paper explores the discourse the number aspect as in students’ books which refers to
of the onset diacritic apostrophe in the writing of Sesotho books of more than one student yet for those of one student
words (as Sesotho is an alphabet language), and emphasizes would read as a student’s book. The diacritics employed by
the obligation of the onset apostrophe diacritic prior to the the exemplified languages confirm that diacritics are
nasal consonants in some Sesotho words to attain accurate punctuation marks in different places and they bear
and appropriate meanings of such words to ascertain the consensually agreed meanings by speakers and writing
targeted communicative purposes. What is a diacritic? system designers to achieve various but crucial functions
that ensure writing accuracy and reading appropriateness.
III. DEFINING THE TERM ‘DIACRITIC’
As known, the use of diacritics is tradition in written
A diacritic as described by Zelazko (2023) is a mark communication and the academic sphere has its own designs
near or through an alphabetic character to represent a of diacritics application. As known, the use of diacritics is
pronunciation different from that of the unmarked character. tradition in written communication and the academic sphere
Zelazko (ibid) clarifies that the represented sounds may be has its own designs of diacritics application. Diacritics’
‘phonemes’ or ‘phonetic units’ not occurring in the written basic function is to represent sounds that are intentionally
or read script. She clarifies that these unavailable word units omitted but essential and still maintaining the original
were in an unwavering sense, “adaptations of the Latin meaning of the word. This view insinuates that diacritics
alphabet and they required a means of representing sounds embed ellipsis. This view introduces the major function
that do not occur in Latin.” (Zelazko, (2023,p.1). The major performed by diacriticsas being to represent sounds
concern about these adaptations was the representation intentionally ellipsed,(made unavailable) but represented by
variations decided upon as in some cases there would be the diacriticand the commonly used in the English and
placement of the marks at initial or mid or terminal Sesotho languages is the apostrophe. Among these diacritic
positions. In other cases, monophthong sounds would marks noted as those occurring above and below and on the
consensually be combined to form graphemes as /s/ and /h/ sides of the vowels and consonants some languages that
forms /sh/ [ʃ] in English and [ʃ] is realized as /sz/ in Polish include Sesotho use the apostrophe and it forms part of the
and /sj/ in Dutch and /sch/ in German. Sesotho and some of Sesotho writing system. It functions as an onset marker or
the African languages also refer to /sh/in the English mid marker or terminal marker in various languages and in
version. In other cases, the solution to the adaptations’ Sesotho the apostrophe exclusively occurs initially and in
concern was to make marks below or above some letters or mid position of words. In this study, the discourse of the
on the lateral left or right, especially in relation to vowels in apostrophe as the diacritic in the initial position of the
order to differentiate their form and meaning. Zelazko collected Sesotho words is the focal concern.
(2023) notes examples of Latin Slavic alphabets that include
Polish, Czech, Croatian with letters such as /š/, /ã/, /ȥ/,/ć/, Allen, et.al (1987) describe an apostrophe with a dual
/ś/,/ᾳ/. The Latin Turkish alphabet which was incepted 1928 feature of being a punctuation mark and sometimes a
and covered Turkey by 1930 contained 29 alphabets diacritical mark and highlights that this feature occurs with
inclusive of five with diacritic marks – two vowels ő, ü and languages(such as English)that use Latin alphabet and some
three consonants /ş/, /ğ/, /ç/. Inclusive, the /i/ letter without other alphabets. The process that embraces use of
the top dot to form [ɩ] that functioned as a new sound. apostropheis deletion or omission of letters or sounds.(… )
claims that “Omission can also be called deletion. It is the
Zelazko (2023) further clarifies that in languages that [intentional] missing of one or more items that must exist in
include Arabic, Hebrew and other Semitic languages, a sentence or utterance.” The general function is to contract
vowels lacked diacritical marks but later they were a full word or clause hence the apostrophe would be labelled
introduced to make distinct representation of vowels and a contractor. When applied,long words are contracted as the
consonants. These diacritics occurred either above or below Englishcannot is contracted to can’t; still maintaining the
the consonant preceding the vowel and the absence of a original meaning or reference. A further function pertains to

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Volume 8, Issue 11, November 2023 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165
deletion of sounds or letters in the temporal or spoken number aspects of student’s versus students’ which mark
medium as in until being pronounced or written as ‘till. singular and plural possession respectively. Articulation and
stress and tone challenges are also combated as the diacritic
Another function notes a simultaneous deletion of would be best placed to illuminate the desired and required
theinitial sound, mid-sound and terminal sound which could meaning. The noted processes occur in various ways in
occur in a structure as in`Tis true he isn’t comin’ which some African languages with Sesotho inclusive, hence the
arises from It is true he is not coming.In another case, This is author of this paper decided to describe the significance of
me may result in T’is meas the letters not boldedin“this”are the onset diacritic apostrophe on Sesotho words in this paper
deleted and the bolded “T” remains with “is” verb, both of to emphasize its requirement, alleviate the challenge of its
which are combined to form the new word “T’is”. Mid-word use, overcome its marginalization and incompetence which
impact of diacritic apostrophe is noted in even which is justified by assumptive preference of accessing meaning
becomese’en when the consonant ‘v’ is replacedwith the in context as this poses a serious threat on the accurate
diacritic. The terminal deletion is noted in doing which writing and appropriateness of Sesotho.
changes to doin’and a repetitive mid-terminal deletion may
occur in c’m’onfrom come on. Additional function of the IV. LITERATURE REVIEW
apostrophe diacritic is to serve as a possession marker based
on the number aspect (singularity and plurality) as in dog’s Recent studies conducted on diacritics include Chetail
tail (singular) and dogs’ tails(plural).In all these cases and Boursain (2018) who wanted to establish if there are
above, the apostrophe is crucial to maintain the meanings of shared or separated representations for letters with diacritics
the original expressions. These functions are very essential in order to identify the processes by which letters in the
especially in lectures’ note-taking when one tries to front end of visual word recognition. Kinoshita, et.al. (2021)
accumulate sizeable, useful content in a Listening-Writing study on letter identity and visual similarity in the
context. processing of diacritic letters which focused on the
processing of orthographic representations. Their intent was
It is acceptable to use diacritics and their appropriate to establish if diacritics are variants of base letters. Hallberg
application is a dire need for clarity in writing. Zelazko (2022) worked on principles of variation in the use of
(2023) notes that it is not that necessary in Arabic whereas diacritics (taškil) in Arabic books and observed that the
in Japanese it is essential for the Japan eseemploy it to number of diacritics makes genres differ. These studies are
differentiate the sounds for clear meaning. In linguistics it is rather focused on issues other than the intent for this study
crucial to decide on whether or not to employ diacritics in which wants to establish the significance and impact of the
language as a common usage and it is further crucial to onset diacritic apostrophe on the spelling of Sesotho words
determine the location of diacritics to display the latitude in to enhance accuracy and appropriateness in form-meaning
content and usage, accuracy, common sense that allows of Sesotho words and evade the practice of assuming
intelligent choice of place for a diacritic. Such a decision meanings of words that require explicit onset diacritic
would explicate the intended meaning, readership or type of apostrophe to explicate this demand.
publication, as the publication would be register sensitive
(formal or informal). To be precise, the major problem that led to this study
arises from misinterpretation and anomaly of written
The noted functions of the diacritic reflect inO’Grady Sesotho words which demand but suffer the onset diacritic
et.al’s (1997) view that diacritics may occur as initial, mid apostrophe. This misinterpretation is propelled by context
or terminal elements. When the diacritic occurs initially it is based assumption of word-meanings. That assumption
said to function as an onset diacritic and therefore, in their dominantly perpetuates compromise of words such as `m’e
description, it functions as a proclitic marker. Proclitic [mmἑ] ‘mother’ which is normally typed /mme/. The correct
occurs at the initial position (at the beginning) of the articulation of this /mme/ spelling is [mme] ‘therefore’ and it
word.English language uses the proclitic marker selected as is a conjunction. This omission of the diacritic apostrophe is
an apostrophe. An example is noted in the contraction of the an incompetency and an oversight for it requires accurate
clause It iswhich can be presented as ‘Tis form as in: `Tis use of the onset diacritic to breed that obligatory meaning
essential to spell carefully in tests; in until which takes the contrastive significance. The aim of this paper is to present
form of `Till, `neath is the contraction of beneath. The linguistic occurrences which create awareness that onset
proclitic marker is sometimes referred to as an onset apostrophe diacritic in the writing of Sesotho language is
diacritic. As a terminal element it functions as an enclitic compulsory as it has distinctive or contrastive impact on the
marker and English as well as Sesotho use the enclitic form-meaning of those specific Sesotho words and
markers in various ways. Guma (1971) attests to the fact that reverence to its physical presence in written Sesotho is
Sesotho possesses the proclitics which could be equated to compulsory. A further intent is for the writer to select
the functions of English auxiliary verbs for they magnify conventions that are consensually and strictly observed and
explication and he also presents enclitics in Sesotho. this idea implores the current author to produce convincing
arguments that support the functional context suitability of
Application of diacritics is advantageous in that they the onset diacritic apostrophe and its skillful balance to
complement some word combinations as they specify word scholarship. The objective is to present the functions
references and economize space as noted in This is embraced by the physical presence of the onset apostrophe
restructuring to `Tis and in It is which takes the form of It’s diacritic in the writing of Sesotho as a guide to writers to
and will not changing to won’t; they differentiate the

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Volume 8, Issue 11, November 2023 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
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evade the assumptive practice which distorts the accuracy The first specific observation is that the onset diacritic
and appropriateness of written Sesotho. apostrophe on Sesotho words renders focus to the Phonetic
and Phonology contexts as it exclusively precedesvarious
V. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK places of articulation (a Phonetics concept) and such being
initial to bilabial, velar, alveolar and palatal nasals places of
Integration of Multiple Patterns (IMP) spellingtheory articulation. On these places the apostrophe diacritic occurs
is the underpinning theory to scrutinize the cross-linguistic at the initial position of the Sesotho words without an option
description of the Sesotho words obliged to employ the of being omitted or replaced as the Phonological rules of
physical presence of the onset diacritic apostrophe and Sesotho structure in word order demand. This onset position
ascertain accurate-appropriate form-meaning of words in is compulsory in the noted data as its absence redesigns
writing. As Treiman (2017:9) claims, with IMP, “Links word meaning discretely differently. This is to say that
between written symbols and linguistic units may involve phonetics and phonology serve as the bases for significance
phonology, but they may involve morphology and other of the onset diacritic apostrophe in the spelling of these
aspects of linguistic structure as well” and this view serves collected Sesotho words. The onset diacritic apostrophe is
as the framework of the description observed in the analysis obliged to precede the nasalizedplaces of articulation that
of the collected data. Her comment that this IMP framework include the bilabial /m/, the alveolar /n/, the palatal /ny/ and
extends spelling role to ‘non-phonological knowledge’, the velar /ng/ and its occurrence causes form-meaning
includes the morphological character of words to distinguish contrast. As explained the apostrophe diacritic represents the
meaning enfolded in the words that bear the diacritic versus initial nasal and it is preferred to repeating that nasal. Thus,
those void of the diacritic. these places of articulation comprise but are not limited to:
VI. METHODOLOGY A. Bilabial
This study employs qualitative design that describes mala [mala] ‘intestines’ vs`mala [mmala] ‘colour’;
form-meaning of these words and emphasizes the essence of mane ma:ne] ‘yonder’ vs `mane [mmane] ‘lightening’,
the physical inscription of the onset apostrophe diacritic in mela [mela] ‘lines’ vs `mela[mmela] ‘grew on me’;
written Sesotho. The study’s populationreflected as the mena [mena] ‘fold’ vs `mena[mmena] ‘played tricks on
number of collected words noted as data counts to fifty- me (with words)’ or ‘entice me’
seven words. This data was collected from formal and metsa [metsa] ‘swallow as a whole’ vs `metsa
informal written interaction in various scenarios that require [mmetsa] ‘throw (something at…]’ or swallow me’;
the typing of Sesotho. All the data was used as a purposive
random sample due to its small size and it was collected B. Alveolar
using the participatory observation instrument as speakers nete [netɛ] ‘smear’vs `nete[nnete] ‘truth’
write as well as type the words particularly using computers.
The research question addressed notes, To confirm that the C. Palatal
onset apostrophe diacritic in the written Sesotho is nyarela [ɲarɛla] ‘peep into a place’ vs `nyarela[nɲarέla]
significant, in which linguistic contexts is the onset ‘peep at me’
apostrophe diacritic obligatory and what is its impact? This
question reveals the research gap which establishes the D. Velar
significant discourse of the onset apostrophe diacritic on ngotla [ŋɔtla] ‘hide’ vs `ngotla[ŋŋɔtla] ‘hit me
Sesotho words, a description to be displayed by this study. (dialectal)’;
Data analysis unravels the linguistic quality of the Sesotho
words and the findings counting to seventeen observations and these exemplify the obligatory essence of the onset
are elaborated in the discussion with structural and apostrophe diacritic as its absence results in inaccurate and
functional observations. inappropriate meanings. That obligation is meaning discrete
or distinctive or contrastive as translated.
VII. DATA ANALYSIS
The second observation is that the onset apostrophe
Seventeen observations have been recorded and diacritic denotes the deictic form of females and the function
discussed in this analysis and the major note is that the observed is meaning distinctive. The onset apostrophe
described features and functions are generally taken for cannot be compromised to evade misrepresentation of the
granted and assumed hence the oversight of the essence to intended meaning of the word.The structure of the initial
physically present the apostrophe diacritic when writing the letters demand the explicit presence of the onset diacritic
relevant Sesotho words. The overarching explicit use of the apostrophe /’/ which should appear in the expression mme
onset apostrophe diacritic on written Sesotho words selected oa [mmἑ wa] ‘mother of’ before the name beginning with
as obligatory datareveals that the apostrophe diacritic occurs the bilabial nasal. This expression is rewritten as `m’a
prior to nasals and its absence renders meaning anomalies [mma] which is further rewritten as ‘`Ma- [mma] when used
and inaccuracies and inappropriateness. The various in a personal name. The names use the onset diacritic
functions of the diacritic listed in the background are apostrophe to precede the nasals that begin the rest of the
complemented with this new view from the use of the onset name known as the stem. It is noteworthy that among
diacritic in Sesotho and this new view that displays the onset Basotho, women names, at birth and at marital rites are
apostrophe diacritic that precedes nasals is presented with constructed with the onset diacritic apostrophe and they
seventeen observations. denote ‘mother of…’ At birth, the names are normally an

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Volume 8, Issue 11, November 2023 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
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ancestral resemblance but at marital rite they may express formed by the contrast of [m] vs [mm].Innganga [ŋaŋa] ‘be
the wish or desire or the expectation of the extended family stubborn’ vs `nganga[[ŋŋaŋa] ‘stretched my legs apart’, the
concerning the conduct of the bride being welcomed into the graphemes are [ŋ] vs [ŋŋ]. In nyokola [ɲōkōla] ‘begin to rot’
in-law family, considered the mother of the family. They vs `nyokola[nɲōkōla] ‘chase me away’, nyanya [ɲaɲa]
may contrast female vs common nouns as in the Bilabial ‘breastfeed’ or ‘verbally soil one’ vs `nyanya[nɲaɲa] ‘sweet
initiated names`Mafatše [mmafatshe] ‘mother of the ground talk to get required information’or ‘speak ill of me’, the
or floor’ vs mafatše [mafatshe] ‘worlds’;`Motseng graphemes are [ɲ] vs [ɲɲ].
[mmōtsἑŋ] ‘ask him/her (plural)’ vs motseng [mōtseŋ] ‘at/in
the village’ which are common nouns and the cause of the The fourth observation is that, in some cases, a feature
contrast is the onset diacritic apostrophe. Nonetheless, it is that is more inclined to functioning as phonemes reflects. A
worthy to note that if the name such as `Mantle [mmantlἑ] phoneme, as Mokhathi-Mbhele (2018) simplifies, is
‘mother of the beautiful’ can be spelled without the onset observed where an identical pair of words differs with one
diacritic apostrophe, it deduces an insult mantle [mantlἑ] letter that occurs in the same position within the pair and it
‘faeces’ and in the Basotho culture it is detestable to be contrasts the forms and meanings of the pair. An example is
given such a name unless it is a family name such as tola [tɔla] ‘bathe’ vs tula [tula] ‘pulp’. The form-meaning
Masepatsana.[masepatsana] ‘stools’. contrast brought by the onset diacritic apostrophe in
examples such as metso [metsō] ‘roots’ vs `metso [mmetsɔ]
In addition to the bilabial articulation, the Alveolar ‘throat’ and nete [netέ] ‘smear’ vs `nete [nnete] pairs occurs
articulation female name may be `Neileng [nnἑilἑŋ] ‘gave at the initial and terminal positions of bilabial nasals, velar
me what?’ and`Neheng [nnἑhἑŋ] ‘give to me(pl)’ and in the nasals, alveolar nasalsand palatal places of articulation. The
Palatalarticulation the female name may be noted examples are as follows:
`Nyalleng[ɲɲallἑŋ] ‘marry for me (pay bride price for me)’
occurs.`Ngoae [ŋŋwajἑ] ‘scratch me’ is the velar nasal E. Bilabial nasals
initiated family name. The forms of the same words without mala [mala] ‘intestines’ or ‘stomach ache’ vs
the onset diacritic apostrophe would be verbs that require a `mala[mmala] ‘colour’
concord to precede them to present acceptable form- malana [malana] ‘tripe’ vs `malana [mmalana]
meaning so that there is Ba mo neileng? [ba mō nἑilἑŋ] ‘colour-ish’
‘what have they given him/her?’ and ba neheng… [ba mane mane] ‘there’ or ‘yonder’ vs `mane [mmane]
nἑhἑŋ…] ‘give to them …’; mo nyalleng [mō ɲallἑŋ] ‘pay ‘lightening’
him/her daughter’s brideprice’ and mo ngoae [mō ŋwaje] mapa [mapa] ‘catch around waist’ vs `mapa[mmapa]
‘scratch him/her].The verbs are neile ‘given’, nehe give’, ‘map’
nyalle ‘pay brideprice’, ngoae ‘scratch’. mela [mela] ‘lines’ vs `mela[mmela] ‘grew on me’ or
‘beer malt’
Additional observation is that the onset diacritic mena [mena] ‘fold’ vs `mena[mmena] ‘played tricks on
apostrophe on female names commonly forms the structures me (with words)
that denote ‘mother of’, and such are bolded in mme metla [mɛtla] ‘run stupidly to unaccommodating
oa[mmἑ wa].The onset diacritic apostrophe replaces the someone’ vs `metla[mmɛtla] ‘sharpened someone’s (skills)’
bolded /m/ and the impact is that the bolded vowels also metso [metsō] ‘roots’ vs `metso [mmetsɔ] ‘throat’
experience replacement with a mid-word diacritic motseng [mōtseŋ] ‘in the village’ vs `motseng
apostrophe thus producing the prefix `ma- [mma]. There has [mmōtsἑŋ] ‘ask him/her’ and the latter may function as a
been ellipsis in these names.According to Baharaz (2016) female’s name.
ellipsis occurs where some words are omitted but still
maintaining the basic meaning of a structure. Halliday and F. Velar nasals
Hasan (1978) describe ellipsis as a Semantic process and nganga [ŋaŋa] ‘be stubborn’ vs `ngaga[[ŋŋaŋa]
Mokhathi-Mbhele (2014) observed that Basotho employed ‘stretched my legs apart’
this semantic effect of ellipsis on the independent clause ngotla [ŋɔtla] ‘hide’ vs `ngotla[ŋŋɔtla] ‘hit me
Sesotho names as texts in context to distinguish the names’ (dialectal)’
form-meanings. The apostrophe fills in that ellipsis.
G. Alveolar nasals
The third observation is that the form-meaning noto [nɔtɔ] ‘hammer’ vs `noto[nɔtɔ]
contrasted words bear distinctive graphemes feature. Harley noha [nōha] ‘snake’ or ‘guess’ vs `noha[nnōha] ‘guessed
(2007,p.1) explains, that a grapheme is “the letter or me’
combination of letters that represents a phoneme.” nete [netɛ] ‘smear’vs `nete[nnete] ‘truth’
Mokhathi-Mbhele (2023a) clarifies that a grapheme bears a noka [nōka] ‘river’ or ‘season a cooked dish’ vs
pseudo phoneme as all letters of the two compared words `noka[nnōka] ‘season me’ or ‘whip me’
are identical except for only one contrastive or distinctive nona [nɔna] ‘gain weight’ vs `nona[nnōna] ‘…’
pair or group of letters that represent a sound. The pair or
group of letters is the differentiating segment that occurs in H. Palatal affricatives
the same position in the two words. In these examples nyarela [ɲarɛla] ‘uneasy peep into a place’ vs
initiated by onset diacritic the pairsmatla [matla] ‘strength’ `nyarela[nɲarέla] ‘peep at me’
vs `matla [mmatla] ‘seek him/her’, mapa [mapa] ‘catch nyoka [ɲɔka] ‘uneven’ vs `nyoka[nɲōka] ‘beat me
around waist’ vs `mapa[mmapa] ‘map’the graphemes are thoroughly’

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nyokola [ɲōkōla] begin to rot’ vs `nyokola[nɲōkōla] nasal /-m-/ to form /-mm-/. The word changes to
‘chase me away’ mmoho[mmɔhɔ] ‘together’ as the onset apostrophe takes the
nyopa [ɲōpa] ‘barren person’ vs `nyopa[nɲōpa] ‘trouble form of the already existing nasal and duplicates it to form a
me’ doubled nasal. mmoho is then prefixed with /ha-/ to form
nyanya [ɲaɲa] ‘breastfeed’ or ‘verbally soil one’ vs hammoho [hammɔhɔ] ‘together’. That doubled nasal occurs
`nyanya[nɲaɲa] ‘sweet talk to get required information’or in the middle of the word as an infix when that disyllabic
‘speak ill of me’. word /mmoho/ is prefixed. As noted, the other prefixed
include /se-/ and /bo-/. Examples include:
The fifth impact of the onset diacritic apostrophe
depicts the meaning of ‘do unto me’ and the complement `moho [mmɔhɔ] ‘together’ vs hammoho[hammɔhɔ]
predicative concord ‘me’ is presented as the initial element ‘together’ (complementary distribution’
of the word in the form of the contrastive onset diacritic.A `muso [mmusɔ] ‘government’ vs semmuso [semmusɔ]
nominal complement in Eggin’s (1996:163) words is “a non- ‘officially’
essential participant in the clause that is somehow put to `ngoe [ŋŋwe] ‘one (number)’ vs bonngoe[bōŋŋwe]
effect by the main argument of the proposition.”Mokhathi- ‘unity’
Mbhele (2014:90) notes that this nominal complement ‘me’
“introduces the discourse” contained in the structures. She The doubling functions as an infix between the new
claims that this function makes a complement a legitimate prefixes /ha-/, /se-/and /bo-/ and the terminal elements /-ho/,
member of the nominal group as it occupies the Subject /-ngoe/ and/-so/.
position.Such classification bearing thePredicative
Object‘me’ as nominal complementdistinctively deduces The eighth observation reflects that the absence as well
the meaning of “do unto me” which reflects in: as the occurrence of the onset diacritic apostrophe on
Sesotho words employ the Semantic concept known as the
Nonosa [nōnōsa] ‘inflict fear’ vs `nonosa[nnōnōsa] Homonym feature whereby one word with the same spelling
‘entice’ or ‘inflict me with fear’ and same articulation bears more than one meaning.
Nena [nena] ‘loathe’ vs `nena[nnena] ‘loathe me’ Examples comprise:
Ngoapa [ŋwapa] ‘make a scratch’ vs `ngoapa[nŋwapa]
‘make a scratch on me’. I. Bilabial
mala [mala] ‘intestines’ or ‘stomach ache’ or ‘tattered
The complement ‘me’ is the main contrastive element clothes’
represented by the onset diacritic apostrophe. Guma (1971) `mapa[mmapa] ‘map’ or ‘catch me around the waist’
explains that of the predicative concords, the Object concord
denotes the speaker who is actually the object of the action J. Alveolar
or verb selected. With the onset apostrophe it occursinitially noha [nōha] ‘snake’ or ‘guess’
in the words that arearticulated at the bilabial, alveolar, `nonosa [[nnōnōsa] ‘entice’ or ‘inflict me with fear’.
velar, palatal places. For instance, there isthe bilabial nasal The ninth impact is that in these examples tone is of
/m-/ in [mmapa] “get me by the waist”; alveolar nasal /n-/ in utmost significance as it distinguishes some of the
[nnena] ‘loathe me’; velar nasal /ng-/ in [ŋŋwapa] ‘make a homonyms noted. Such tone is marked by tonemes. Guma
scratch on me’; palatal nasal /ny-/ in [ɲɲōkōla] ‘chase me (1971) explains that African languages are tone languages
away’. All these examples are deduced as “do unto me”. and they express their tone feature with tonemes noted as
The sixth impact is that the onset diacritic apostrophe Low (L) and High (H). Thus,noha [nōha] ‘snake’ bears the
reflects the double form of the initial letter of the wordas tonemes HL whereas ‘guess’ figures in LL. But with the
noted in the predicative object nominal complement onset diacritic apostrophe, [nōha]forms `noha [nnōha]
function and it further proceeds to replace that initial letter. ‘guess me’ which has a person specific distinctive meaning
This use of onset apostrophe complementsthe nasal from [nōha] ‘snake’ or ‘guess’. This Tone feature adds to
duplicationin the phonetic transcription of the word. An the impact of onset diacritic apostrophe on Phonetics
example may comprise the locative mona [mɔna] ‘here’ vs discipline.
`mona [mmɔna] ‘see him/her’. The significance displayed is The tenth observed note is that the onset diacritic
that the onset diacritic apostropheis both essential and apostrophe permits Reduplication, the Morphology concept
obligatory to maintain accuracy in these word spellings and which duplicates the same word or morpheme (part of a
meaning distinctions. Absence of the onset diacritic word) to derive a new form. Urbanczyk (2017) explains that
apostrophe compromises structural accuracy and explicates in reduplication two considerations that comprise form and
semantic appropriateness anomaly. meaning arise as crucial issues. This view pairs with
The seventh impact of the onset diacritic apostrophe Halliday and Hasan’s (1978) view that reduplication is a
presents that some disyllabic words that begin with a nasal semantic unit in language as it produces new words with
employ the onset diacritic apostrophe. They are at times different meanings and/or specifications. Urbanczyk (2017)
prefixed with /ha-/[ha], /se-/ [se], /bo-/[bō]that denote further notes that reduplication engages with a number of
‘characterized by’ and the employment of these prefixes properties associated with word-formation hence the view
replaces that onset diacritic apostrophe and duplicate the that it occurs in Morphology. Ghomesh (2004,p.309)
existing initial nasal in the word. That means for instance, clarifies that reduplication is “the doubling up of words in
the onset apostrophe in `moho takes the form of the initial speech”, and such doubling is observed in either the root or

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Volume 8, Issue 11, November 2023 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
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stem or syllable or segment of a word and it can take the which makes new lexical forms from word stems and word
complete word or part of the word. If it takes the full form it roots and the words on which the onset diacritic apostrophe
results in complete reduplication whereas if it takes part of is inflected have assumed different word classes as
the word it forms partial reduplication. Mokhathi-Mbhele exemplified.
(2020a) initially described complete reduplication in
Sesotho personal names, noting that the complete The thirteenth observation is that the prefixing
reduplication form forms partial reduplication. This feature functions with the onset diacritic apostrophe to prevent
is observed where the onset diacritic apostrophe functions as misspelling such as: ha`moho, bo`ngoe and introduces
noted in metla-metla[mɛtlamɛtla] ‘stupidly run to un- hammoho, bonngoe respectively. When writers are aware
appreciating company’ which contrasts with the partial that prefixing of words initially spelled with onset diacritic
reduplication in `metla-metla [mmἑtlamɛtla] ‘sharpened apostrophe requires an omission of that apostrophe to derive
him/her modestly’ as the corresponding form that bears an a new word, misspelling problems of such words are
onset diacritic apostrophe. The partial feature reflects only at resolved. Such misspelling cases are a chronic problem
the initial part of metla-metla [mɛtlamɛtla] where it takes the among writers of Sesotho language as they frequently face
onset diacritic apostrophe. Mokhathi-Mbhele (2020b) also indecision regarding these spellings. Awareness that it is
described the partial reduplication feature in Sesotho compulsory for words which employ onset diacritic
personal names. Actually, the duplication process is apostrophe with nasals as the initial letter to double that
observed on the initial morphemeand it is caused by the initial nasal when prefixed as exemplified in `moho
employment of the onset diacritic apostrophe. [mmɔhɔ] which changes to hammoho [hammɔhɔ] ‘together’;
‘nete [nnete] which changes to bonnete [bōnnete] ‘truely’ or
The reduplicated words are a guide to the eleventh ‘to be honest’; `ngoe [üüwe] ‘one’ which changes to
observation in which the onset diacritic apostrophe reflects bonngoe [bōŋŋwe] ‘inidividually’ or ‘in unity’ is crucial.
its impact of classifying words into different grammatical These changes rid the mid-diacritic that devalues accuracy
word classessuch as noun normally presented as (n), verb as causing the anomaly of an infixed diacritic apostrophe.
(v), adjective as (adj), adverb as (adv), preposition as (prep).
This classification is asyntactic categorization in which The fourteenth observation is that the physical
word classes are formed.This categorization displays that the presentation of the onset diacritic apostrophe has been
onset diacritic apostrophe dovetails the Morphology obligatory in history of Sesotho because evenobsolete words
discipline into the Syntax discipline as Syntax selects the also required the contrast presentation using the onset
words built in Morphology to form the noted various word diacritic apostrophe. Examples pertain to `nona [nnōna]
classes. The onset diacritic apostrophe regroups these nasal ‘mother‘vsnona [nɔna] ‘get fat’; `noto [nnɔtɔ] ‘note’. vs
initiated words contrasted by the apostrophe to noto [nɔtɔ] ‘hammer’.Obsolete words not in need of onset
differentiatesyntactic categorization so that: diacritic apostrophe include nena [nena]
‘loathe’;ngotla[ŋɔtla] ‘hide’;nyokola[ɲōkōla] ‘decaying’ and
nyoka [ɲɔka] (adj) ‘uneven’ vs `nyoka[nɲōka] (v) ‘beat they differ with `ngotla [ŋŋɔtla] ‘beat me’ and `nyokola
me thoroughly’ [ɲɲōkōla] ‘chase me away’ respectively. Such words are
mane[mane] (demonstrative det)‘there’ or ‘yonder’ vs rather archaic to current speakers and are normally
`mane [mmane] (n) ‘lightening’ substituted with either English versions or Sothofied
mela [mela] (n) or (v) ‘lines’ or ‘grow’ vs versions if in need of translation. Synonymic expressions are
`mela[mmela] (v) ‘grew on me’ or ‘malt’ (n) the best preference hence examples pertain to nyokola with
nyopa [ɲōpa] (n) ‘barren person’ vs `nyopa[nɲōpa] (v) synonymclause being li etsa makoeba [di έtsa makwέba]
‘trouble me’ ‘beginning to show bubbles’, `nena expressed as ha a
mala [mala] (n) ‘intestines’ or ‘stomach ache’vs `mala mpatle hoo [ha a mpatle hɔō] or o `nyonya [ɲɔɲa] ‘he/she
[mmala] (adj-n) ‘colour’ detests me so much’.
noha [nōha] (n) or (v) ‘snake’ or ‘guess’ vs `noha
[nnōha] (v) ‘make a guess about me’. The fifteenth note is that the contrastive feature borne
of the onset diacritic apostrophe forms onomastica sex
The twelfth observation raised by the onset diacritic specific names and they occur as Male vs Femalereferences
apostrophe is that it is a derivation catalyst as it changes the in:Mantšo [mantshō] ‘dark complexion male’ vs
word class of a similar word form but maintaining its `Mantšo[mmantshō] ‘dark complexion female’; Mona
physical feature.This impact reflects when the onset diacritic [mōna] ‘jealousy’ vs `Mona [mmɔna] ‘conspicuously seen’;
apostrophe initiates the same form of a word, that word Makhang [makhaŋ] ‘fat meat given to brave men’ vs
transfers to a different word class. In Crystal’s (1999:1) `Makhang [mmakhaŋ] ‘a woman who always argues’.The
words, derivation “in linguistics, is the process of forming a onset diacritic apostrophe, therefore, must not suffer explicit
new word from an existing word often by adding a prefix or presence in this case. The onomastica feature also
a suffix” and that new word would normally assume a incorporates the baby talk onomastica such as Nana [nana]
different word class. Though derivation basically depends ‘baby talk form of ngoana [ŋwana] ‘baby’ and `Nana
on the employment of affixes (prefix or suffix), it is [nnana] ‘dearly loved baby’ as well as Nono [nɔnɔ] ‘small
observed that the onset diacritic apostrophe on Sesotho bodied baby’ vs `Nono [nnɔnɔ] ‘small bodied dearly loved
words has the capability to resemble the prefix-affix and baby’.The names without the onset diacritic apostrophe are
form new word classes. This observation is supported by generally male specific as they are family names. The onset
Brown and Miller’s (2013) view that derivation is a process diacritic creates the intimate relation between the female

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baby and the parent and that reflects in the form, articulation REFERENCES
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