1

Level measurement

A wide variety of ustrumeats ae available for measuring the level of iquids. Some ol
tiese can also be used tomeasure the levels of solids that are in the form of powders
or small paricles. n some apphcations, onty a rough indication of level 1s needed.
and simple devices suchas dipsticks or Hoatsystens are adequatc However. in oher
cases where igh accuracy 1s demandod. othor types of instrunent ust be used. The
sections below cover the various kinds of levcl-incasuring device available.

71 DipstickS
Dipsticks olfer a sinple means of measuring level approximately. Thc ordinary dipAstick
Sthecheapest
deviceavaitable.This.consists ofametnl haronwhich ascaleis ctched
as shown in Figure 17.ta). The bar is fixed at a known position in the liquid-containing
VCssel A level measurement is made by removing the insurument from the vessel and
readng off how far up the scale the iqund has weted. As a human operator is required
to remove and read the dipstick, this method can only be used inrelatively small and
Shallow vesseis
The optical dipstick, illustraled in Figure 17.1(6, is an alfernative form that alows
a reading 1o be ubtancd
eithout removing the dipstick from the vesse, nd so is
applicable to larger, deeper tank ghi from asource Is teftected fiou amirror. passes
round the chamtered end of the dipstick, and enters a ight detector after refiection by
a second nirror When the chamtered end
cones into contact with liquid its intermal
teflection properties are altered and ight no longer enters the detector By using
suilable mechanical drive system to move the instrunent up and down and easure
s position the liquid level car be monitored

172Ploatsystems
Float systems, whercby tie pSIiOn ot a hoat on the surlaee of a iqid is measured
hy neans f a sutable ransdtucel, have typical incasuremctnt inacenracy of t1
This nethod is also simple. cheap and widely used Thc systeu usig a potentioneter.
shown carlicer n Figure 22 very cOunon, and is well known for its apphcatiou
 Measurement and Instrumentation
Principles 341

Light
$Ource
----- Light
detector

(a)
(b)
Fig. 17.1 Dipsticks: (a) simple dipstick; (b) optical
dipstick.
to
monitoring the level in motor vehicle fuel tanks. An alternative
used in greater numbers, is called the system, which is
float and tape gauge (or tank
gauge). This has
a
tape attached to the float that passes round a
float. The other end of the pulley situated vertically above the
tape is attached to either a counterweight or a
counter-spring. The amount of rotation of the pulley, measured by either negative-rate
potentiometer, is then proportional to the liquid level. These two essentiallysynchro
a or
a

ical systems of measurement are mechan-

popular in many applications, but the maintenance
requirements of them are always high.

The hydrostatic presSure due to a liquid is directly proportional to its depth and
to the level of its surface. Several instruments are available that use hence
this principle, and
they are WIdely used in many industries, particularly in harsh chemical
environments
n the case of open-topped vessels (or covered ones that are vented to the atmosphere),
the level can be measured by inserting a pressure sensor at the bottom of the vessel, as
shown in Figure 17.2(a). The liquid level h is then related to the measured pressure P
according to h = P/pg, where p is the liquid density and g is the acceleration due to
gravity. One source of error in this method can be imprecise knowledge of the liquid
density. This can be a particular problem in the case of liquid solutions and mixtures
(especially hydrocarbons), and in some cases only an estimate of density is available.
Even with single liquids, the density is subject to variation with temperature, and there
fore temperature measurement may be required if very accurate level measurements
are needed.
Where liquid-containing vessels are totally sealed, the liquid level can be caleulated
by measuring the differential pressure between the top and bottom of the tank, as
342 Level measurement

Differential
pressure
Pressure transducer
transducer

Differential pressure
transducer

Flow of
gas

Fig. 17.2 Hydrostatic systems: (a) open-topped vessel; (b) sealed

vessel; (c) bubbler unit.
shown in Figure 17.2(b). The
dard diaphragm differential pressure transducer used is
type, although silicon-based
numbers. The liquid level is related to
normally a stan-
microsensors are being used in
pressure measured, 6P, increasing
the
to h
ôP/pg. The same comments as fordifferential
uncertainty in the value of p. An additionalthe case of the open vessel apply according
that can occur is an regarding
the differential problem
tion of liquid on the side of
accumula-
pressure at the top of the vessel. This can pressure transducer that is measuring the
which allow liquid to arise because of
temperature fuctuations,
alternately vaporize from the liquid surface
in the and then
pressure tapping at the top of the vessel. The
the differential effect of this on the condense
pressure measurement is severe, but the accuracy of
placing a drain pot in the system. problem is easily avoided by
A final
pressure-related system of level
Figure 17.2(c). This uses a dip pipe that measurement is the bubbler unit shown in
purged free of reaches to the bottom of the
until gas bubbles
liquid by a steady flow of gas
through
tank and is
it. The rate of flow is
the
are just seen to
emerge from the end of the tube. The adjusted
tube, measured by a pressure in
pressure transducer, is then
equal to the liquid pressure at
 Measurement and Instrumentation Principles
the bottom of the
tank. It is
iquid important that the
Nitrogen, or somctimes justgasair,used
in the vessel. is inert witn o the
re
consumption is low, and is suitablc in most
cases. as
cylindcr of nitrogen may typically last for six montnis.
a
method is suitable for
Sealed tanks. It is measuring the liquid pressure at the bottom of both 1n
open
particularly advantageous in avoiding the large maintenance and
associated with leaks at the bottom of tanks at the problem
by alternative methods. site of the pressure tappings requirea
Measurement uncertainty varies
the according to the application and the condition
measured material. A typical value would be
of
t0.5% of full-scale reading, although
+0.1% can be achieved in some circumstances.

Capacitive devices are widely used for measuring the level of both liquids and solids
in powdered or granular form. They perform well in many applications, but become
inaccurate if the measured substance is prone to contamination by agents that change
the dielectric constant. Ingress of moisture into powders is one such example of this.
They are also suitable for use in extreme conditions measuring liquid metals (high
temperatures), liquid gases (low temperatures), corrosive liquids (acids, etc.) and high-
pressure processes. Two versions are used according to whether the measured substance

Fig. 17.3 Capacitive level sensor.

344 Level measurement

SConducting or not.
For non-conducting sSubstances (tess than t.1 umhorer), tWo
Dare-metal
eapacitor plates in the form of concentric cylinders are immersed im the
Substance as shown m Figure 173 The substance hehaves as a
the plates dielectric between
according to the depth of the substance. For concentric cylinder plates of
auus a and b ( a), and total height L. the depth of the
the measured capacitance C substance h is related to
by ,

Clog, tb/a)-21Eg
(17.1)
where e 1s the relative permitivity of the
of free space In the case of conductingmeasured substance and e is the permittiviy
substances, exactly the same measurement
ecnques are applied, but ihe capacitor platcs are encapsulated in an
rial, The relationship between C
and in cquation (17.1) then has toinsulating matc
be modificd to
allow for the dielectric efect of the
2% insulator, Mcasurement uncertainty is typically

:
Urasonic eve gaug
UlirasonC level naeasurement IS one of a number of
The princple uf the uTrasont evel no1-contkCt techniqueS availaoie
gauge
above the liquid is reflected back trom the is that energy from a ultrasonic sOurCe,
detecror, as Hustrated m Figue l4 veasurementliguid surface into an ultrasonic energy
quid levcl fo be infered. In aternatve of the ine of iight allows the
versions, the ultrasonic SOurce is
bottom of the vessel contaunug the iquid, and placedat the
eflini the tume of fight betwecn emussion
reticction off the quid surtacc and detcctuon back
at the bottom of the vessel Is
e asured
Ulrasoni techniquCs are cspecially usctul in easuring the
face between two inmiscible liguids comaned in tbe sane vessel, position of the inter
sludge or precipitate level at the boftom of a iguid-illed tank Inoreither measuring the
method enpiayed is to x the ulurasonic transmitter-recciver transducer at case, the
a known
height in the upper liquid, as shown in Frgurc 175 This estabishes the tevel ofihe
iquid/hqmd or liquidsludge teveB in absolute tems When using ultrasonic instru-
ments it IS cssential that proper compensation is made tor the working temperature
if this differs from the calibration temperature, since the speed of utrasound through
air varies wiih temperature (see Chapter 13) Uirasound speed also has a small sensit
tivity to humidiry, a pressure and carhon dioxide concentration, but these factors
are usually insignificant Temperarure compensation can be achieved in wo ways
Firsty, thc operating temperature can be measured and an appropriate correction made
Secondly and preferably. comparisoin method can be used in wach the system is
calibrated each time it is used by measuring the transit tme of ultrasonic energy
betwccntwO known refercnce points. This second mctod iakes accountof hunidity
pressure and carhon dioxide concentration variations a wel as pruviding tenpera
ture compensato With appropriate care, tcasurencotuncertainiy can be reduccd to
ahout l
 Measurement and Instrumentation Principles 345

Ultrasonlc
transmitter-receiver

Fig. 17.4 Utrasonic level gauge.

Ultrasonic
element

UltrasonicC
Liquid A element

Liquid
Liquid B

Precipitate

(a)
(b)

liquidliquid interface; (b) iquid/precipitate interface.

Fig. 17.5 Measuring interface positions: (a)
346 Level measurement

Microwave radar
SOurce
Detector
Direct signal

(Detects
phase shift)
Phase-shifted
signal

Fig. 17.6 Radar level detector.

Level-measuring instruments using microwave radar

non-contact measurement. are an
alternative
technique for
Currently, they are still very expensive
are falling and
usage is (~£3000)),
expanding rapidly. They are able to provide successfulbut prices
measurement in applications that are otherwise very difficult, such as level
in closed tanks, measurement where the measurement
presence of liquid is turbulent, and measurement
obstructions and steam condensate. in the
The technique involves
constant-amplitude, frequency-modulated microwave signal at the directing a
receiver measures the phase difference liquid surface. A
between the reflected
signal transmitted directly through air to it, as shown in signal and the original
phase difference is linearly proportional to the Figure 17.6. This measured
in principle to ultrasonic level liquid level. The system is similar
the transmission time of radar measurement,
but has the
through air is almost totallyimportant advantage that
unaffected by ambient
temperature and pressure fluctuations. However, as the microwave
the band used for radio frequency is within
communications, strict conditions on amplitude
be satisfied, and the levels have to
appropriate licences have to be obtained.

The radiation method is an

expensive technique, which uses a radiation source and
detector system located outside a
The non-invasive nature of this liquid-filled
tank in the manner shown in
Figure 17.6.
technique in using a source and detector system outside
 Measurement and Instrumentation
Principles 347

Output
signal

Radiation detector

Radiatton source
Fig. 17.7 Using a radiation source to measure level.

the tank is particularly attractive. The

absorption of both beta rays and gamma rays
varies with the amount of liquid between the source and
detector, and hence isa
function of liquid level. Caesium-137 is a commonly used gamma-ray source. The
radiation level measured by the detector I is related to the length of
x according to:
liquid in the path
I =
lo exp (-upa) (17.2)
where Io is the intensity of radiatüon that would be received by the detector in the
absence of any liquid, ja is the mass absorption coefficient for the liquid and p is the
mass density of the liquid.
In the arrangement shown in Figure 17.7, the radiation follows a diagonal path across
the liquid, and therefore some trigonometrical manipulation has to be caried out to
determine the liquid level h from x. In some applications, the radiation source can
be located in the centre of the bottom of the tank, with the detector vertically above
it. Where this is possible, the relationship between the radiation detected and liquid
level is obtained by directly substitutingh in place ofx in equation (17.2). Apart from
use with liquids at normal temperatures, this method is commonly used for measuring
the level of hot, liquid metals. However, because of the obvious dangers associated
with using radiation sources, very strict safety regulations have to be satisfied when
applying this technique. Very low activity radiation sources are used in some systems
to overcome safety problems but the system is then sensitive to background radiation
and special precautions have to be taken regarding the provision of adequate shielding,
Because of the many dificultics in using this techniquc, it is only used in special
applications.

m
348 Level measurement

17.81 Vibrating level sensor

ne principle of the vibrating level sensor is illustrated in Figure 17.8. The instrument
Consists oftuwo piezoelectic oscillators fixed to the inside of ahollow tubethat generatg
flexural vibrations in the tube at its resonant trequency. The resonant frequency of the

ube varies according to the depthof its immersion in the liquid. A phase-locked loop
circut is used to track these changes in resonant frequency and adjustthe excitalio

rCguency appliedtothe tube by thepiezoelectric oscillators. Liquidtevel measurement

is therefore obtained in terms of the output frequency ef the oscillator when the tubee
is resonating.

17.8.2 Hot-wire elements/carbon resistor elements

Figure 17.9 shows a level measurement
system that uses a series of hot-wire elements
or carbon resistors placed at
tank. The
regular intervals along a vertical line up
the side of a
heat transfer coefficient of such
upon whether the element is immersed in air elements
or it
differs substantially depending
liguid in the tank. Consequently,
elements in the liquid have a different temperature and therefore a different resistance
to those in air. This method of level
measurement
resolution is limited to the distance between is a simple one, but the
measurement
sensors.

Piezoelectric
Oscillators

Fig. 17.8 Vibrating levet sensor,

 Measurement and Instrumentation Principles 49

Fig. 17.9 Hot-wire-element level sensor.

17.83 Laser methods

One laser-based method is the
reftective level sensor. This sensor uses light from a
laser source that is refiected off the surtace of the measured liquid into a line array of
charge-coupled devices, as shown in Figure 17.10. Only one of these will sense light,
according to the level of the liquid. An alternative, laser-based technique operates
on the same general principles as the radar method described above but uses laser-
generated pulses of infrared light directed at the liquid surface. This is immune to
environmental conditions, and can be used with sealed vessels provided that a glass
window is provided i the top of the vessel.

17.8.4 Fibre-opticlevel sensors

The fibre-optic cross-talk sensor, as described in Chapter 13, is one example of a
fibre-optic sensor that can be used to measure liquid level. Another light-loss fibre-
optic level sensor is the simple loop sensor shown in Figure 17.11. The amount of
light loss depends on the proportion of cable that is submerged in the liquid. This effect
is magnified if the alternative arrangement shown in Figure 17.12 is used, where light
is reflected from an input fibre, round a prism, and then into an output fibre. Light
is lost from this path into the liquid according to the depth of liquid surrounding the
prism.

7 17.8.5 Thermography

Thermal imaging instruments, as discussed in Chapter 14, are a further means of

detecting the level of liquids in tanks. Such instruments are capable of discriminating
350 Level measurement

Laser

Line array of
charge-coupled
devices

Fig. 17.10 Reflective level sensor.

Light Light
in Out

Fig. 17.11 Loop level sensor.

temperature differences as smallas 0.1°C. Differences of

this magnitude will
be present the interface between the
at normally
liquid, which teFds to remain at a constant
temperature, and the air above, which constantly fluctuates in
amounts. The upper level of solids stored in temperature by small
hoppers is often detectable on the same
principles.
 Measurement and Instrumentation Principles 351

Light Light
IN OUl

Fig. 17.12 Prism level sensor.

Most types of level gauge are now available in intelligent form. The pressure-measuring
inclusion within intelligent level-
devices (section 17.3) are obvious candidates for
£0.05% accuracy are now on the market.
measuring instruments, and versions claiming
such as providing automatic
Such instruments can also carry out additional functions,
are also used to simplify
compensation for liquid density variations. Microprocessors
installation and set-up procedures.

Two separate classes of level sensors can be distinguished according to whether they
level is being measured. Contact devices
make contact or not with the material whose
are less reliab for a number of reasons, and therefore non-contact devices such as
radar, laser, radiation or ultrasonic devices are prefered when there is a particular
need for high reliability. According to the application, sensors that are relatively unaf-
fected by changes in the temperature, composition, moisture content or density of the
measured material may be preferred. In these respects, radar (microwave) and radia-
Further guidance can be found
tion sensors have the best immunity to such changes.
in Liptak, (1995).

Handbook: Process Measurement and Analysis,

Liptak, B.G. (1995) instrumen Engineers
Chilhon, Pennsylvania.