Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University

College of Science
Chemistry Department

Solid Crystal
Section 2

Rahma Hashem Al-Alawi 2180002130

Zainab Hussain Almuslim 2180000480
Fatimah Mahfouz alali 2170000730
Noorah Saad Alsahoud 2180005451
Marwa Omar AL-Omar 2180007149

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 Table of Contents
Title Page
List of Tables 3
List of Figures 3
Abbreviation 4
Abstract 5
Chapter 1
The Evolution of Periodic Structures 6
Definitions of crystal nets 6
Crystal structure chemistry 7
Crystal Formation 7-8
Crystallization Techniques 8
Chapter 2
Types of crystals 9
Crystal defects 12
Chapter 3
Crystal Applications 16
Conclusion 17
References 18

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 List of Tables
Table(1). 9

List of Figures
fig.(1). Definitions of crystal nets. 6

fig.(2). The arrangement of atoms in fluorite 7

(CaF2).
fig. (3). Steps of crystallization. 8
fig. (4). Ionic crystals. 10
fig. (5). Covalent network crystals. 10
fig. (6). Metallic crystals. 11

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 Abbreviation
Photonic crystals PtCs
phononic crystals PnCs
X-ray diffraction XRD
three-dimensional 3D

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 Abstract
A crystal, also known as a crystalline solid, is a solid whose constituents (such as atoms,
molecules, or ions) are arranged in a highly ordered microscopic structure that forms a crystal
lattice that extends in all directions. Furthermore, macroscopic single crystals are usually
distinguished by their geometrical shape, which consists of flat sides with distinct orientations.
Crystallography is the scientific study of crystals and crystal formation. Crystallization or
solidification is the process of forming crystals through mechanisms of crystal growth.

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 Chapter 1
1.1. Introduction
1.1.1The Evolution of Periodic Structures

The study of periodic crystal formations dates back centuries, to 1883, when Gaston Floquet, a
French mathematician, published his method for solving periodic differential equations. The
American physicist Flex Bloch extended Floquet's theory to solid-state physics in 1928, and the
result is now known as Bloch's theorem. Photonic crystals (PtCs) are periodic structures in the
electromagnetics and photonics fields, while photonic crystals are periodic structures in the
mechanical field, whether elastic or acoustic (PnCs).[1]

Since the discovery of the first extended crystal formations about a century ago, they've been
referred to as nets, which are specific types of graphs. As seen by the contributions to this issue
of the Journal of Solid State Chemistry, there has been an explosion of interest in the field in
recent years. We provide an informal overview of recent progress in the description of such nets
as graphs in this study. The field has evolved in a haphazard manner, with contributions from
chemists, crystallographers, and mathematicians often working in isolation and using
inconsistent nomenclature. As a result, we begin with some definitions that seek to describe a
logically consistent set that could serve as a foundation for the adoption of a more formal agreed-
upon set of definitions and nomenclature in the future.[2]

1.1.2. Definitions of crystal nets

In a perfect world, single-crystal materials would exhibit a high degree of order, or regular
geometric periodicity, over their whole volume. A single crystal can grow to be several hundred
centimeters in length (Figure.1).

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 fig.(1). Definitions of crystal nets.

1.1.3. Crystal structure chemistry

A crystalline solid is a three-dimensional solid structure with a highly regular arrangement of

atoms or molecules generating a crystal lattice as its fundamental structure. Most solids are
crystalline, with diverse arrangements of atoms and molecules which affecting their properties
and appearance.

For instance, the ball and stick model (Figure 2) illustrates the atomic arrangement in fluorite,
(CaF2). Fluorite is one of the isotropic minerals that found in nature. These minerals have atomic
configurations that are highly symmetrical, and their atoms are organized in a cubic pattern. [3]

fig.(2). The arrangement of atoms in fluorite (CaF2).

1.1.4. Crystal Formation

The process of forming the crystal is called crystallization, where the chemical conversion from
a liquid solution into a solid crystal state is happen. Also, it could form by precipitating of solid
crystal from a solution through a natural or a synthetic method. In general, crystallization is a
deposition process gained by the changing of solute solubility in the solvent. There are two main
steps in crystallization which are Nuclei formation and Crystal growth.

Nuclei formation, also known as nucleation, is the process by which solute molecules that are
scattered in a solvent congregate and form Nano-sized clusters. However, if the clusters are not
stable, they dissolve. As a result, the clusters must grow to a certain size, known as the "critical
cluster size," to become stable nuclei. Furthermore, the temperature at which the solution was

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boiled and held, as well as the level of super saturation of the solution, affects the formation of
stable clusters. The crystal structure is determined at this point in the crystallization process.

The crystal growth refers to the nuclei's continued growth once they reach the crucial cluster
size. The formation of crystals is a dynamic process in which atoms precipitate from solution and
then dissolve again. Two of the most prevalent driving forces underlying crystal formation are
high saturation and hyper cooling.

fig. (3). Steps of crystallization.

Crystallization process development is a hard process that requires simultaneous control of

multiple product characteristics, such as purity, crystal size and geometry, and molecular level
solid structure. [4]

1.1.5. Crystallization Techniques

There are several different ways for crystallization, each with its own set of advantages and
disadvantages. The technique must be chosen based on the features of the crystalline substance.
[4]

1- Solvent evaporation: is simple to set up, requires air-tight samples, and performs better
with a small amount of solvent. A substantial amount of material is required.
2- Slow cooling: needs the use of solvents with low boiling points and modest solute
solubility. A considerable amount of material is required.
3- Solvent/Vapor diffusion: this method works well with low amounts of material, but it can
be hard to discover two acceptable solvents.

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 4- Sublimation: isn't recommended for diffraction-quality crystals. Usually done at high
temperatures to make crystals growing very quickly.

Chapter 2
2.1.1. Types of crystals.
The types of particles in crystalline substances, as well as the types of chemical bonding that
occurs between them, can be used to describe them. Crystals are divided into four categories:
Ionic is the first.
2. Covalent array with a larger size.
3. A network of molecules.
4. It is metallic.
The properties of each category, as well as various examples, are listed and described in the table
below.

Crystal Type Structural Bonding Characteristics Examples

unit
Ionic Cations and Electrostatic Hard , brittle , Alkali metal halides
anions Nondierctions High m.t

Extended Atoms Mainly covalent Strong hard , Diamond , Silica

Covalent array High m.t
Mainly covalent Ice , Organic
Molecular Molecules between atoms in Soft , low m.t compounds
molecules , van der
waals or hydrogen
bonding between
molecules

Metallic Metal atoms Band model Single crystals are Iron , aluminium
soft , sodium
Good conductors

Table(1).crystal type

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 1. Ionic crystals .
Ionic crystals are rigid and brittle, with high melting temperatures, and are made
up of alternating positively charged cations and negatively charged anions. When
molten or in aqueous solution, ionic compounds do not conduct electricity as
solids, but they do when molten or in aqueous solution.

fig. (4). Ionic crystals.

2. Covalent network crystals.

A covalent network crystal is made up of atoms that are covalently connected to

their nearest neighbors at the crystal's lattice points. Network solids are rigid and
brittle, with exceptionally high melting and boiling temperatures, and do not
conduct electricity because they are three-dimensional and contain a huge number
of atoms.

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 fig. (5). Covalent network crystals.
3. Molecular crystals.

Molecules at the crystal's lattice sites are kept together by comparatively weak
intermolecular forces. In the case of nonpolar crystals, the intermolecular
interactions may be dispersion forces, while in the case of polar crystals, the
intermolecular forces may be dipole-dipole forces. Hydrogen bonds hold
molecules together in some molecular crystals, such as ice. Molecular crystals
have substantially lower melting and boiling points. Ions or free electrons aren't
present.

fig. (5). Molecular crystals.

4. Metallic crystals.

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 Metals are good conductors of electricity because they are made up of metal
cations surrounded by a "sea" of mobile valence electrons, also known as
delocalized electrons, that do not belong to any one atom.

fig. (6). Metallic crystals.

2.2.1. Crystal defects

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 Chapter 3

3.1.1 Crystal Applications

Single crystals are materials with a continuous and unbroken crystal lattice that extends all the
way to the sample's borders, with no grain boundaries. Single crystals can have unique
capabilities due to the lack of flaws associated with grain boundaries, such as mechanical,
optical, and electrical properties, which can be anisotropic depending on the type of crystal
structure. These qualities are employed industrially for technical purposes, particularly in the
domains of optics and electronics, in addition to making them desirable in specific stones.

Semiconducting: Semiconductors are made from single crystal silicon. The presence of grain
boundaries at the quantum scale of a microprocessor will have a significant impact on the
function of field effect transistors by affecting the local electrical properties. As a result, single
crystal silicon has become a major investment for microprocessor manufacturers. Single crystal
silicon is silicon in which the entire solid's crystal lattice is continuous, unbroken to the edges,
and there are no grain boundaries. Single crystal silicon may have been the most essential
technical material in the last few decades due to its semiconducting qualities, as its affordable
availability is critical for the development of electronic devices. [5]

Silicon is a semiconductor, which means that its electrical conductivity is midway between that
of a conductor (such as metal) and that of an insulator (such as glass) (like glass). Integrated
circuits for electronics and photovoltaics for solar cells are made on silicon wafers like these.
The wafers are the substrates on which the electronic components are manufactured, like a blank
piece of paper.

It's critical that silicon wafers like these are ultra-pure; any undesirable impurities might degrade
their performance, lowering solar cell and electronics efficiency, for example. This includes
crystal structural instabilities that might impede electron flow, which is why all silicon wafers for
electronic applications must be single crystals. The atoms that make up a single crystal are
arranged in a precise 3D pattern that repeats itself without interruption. This is extremely
difficult to achieve; most items built from crystal-forming atoms contain billions of connected
crystals caused by structural flaws generated by the conditions under which they form.

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Czochralski growth, created by Polish chemist Jan Czochralski in 1915, can be used to make
single crystal silicon wafers like these. A single microscopic crystal termed the "seed" is dipped
into a molten silicon bath whose temperature is finely controlled in this procedure. The silicon
atoms in the liquid bath that are closest to the seed crystal connect to it, forming a flawless
crystalline structure. The seed crystal is gradually drawn upwards from the liquid, forming a
massive single silicon crystal known as a boule. A wire saw, like an industrial cheese wire, is
used to gently slice this into wafers. Czochralski discovered the procedure by accident after
dipping his pen into molten tin instead of his inkpot. Withdrawing the pen resulted in a tiny tin
filament, which he later identified as a single crystal. [6]

Fig.( 4). Silicon Single Crystals Wafers

Electrical conductor: A single crystal can be used to better understand and possibly obtain the
ultimate performance of a metallic conductor. At room temperature, silver and copper have the
best conductivity of all metallic elements. Commercial conductors' conductivity is normally
measured in terms of the International Annealed Copper Standard. Copper that is single crystal
has a higher conductivity than copper that is polycrystalline. With the right heating and pressure
treatment, single crystal copper can not only become a superior conductor than polycrystalline
silver, but it can even outperform single crystal silver in terms of conductivity.

Single crystal calcium fluoride is often utilized as a window material for infrared and ultraviolet
wavelengths in the laboratory since it is transparent in these wavelength ranges and has
negligible refractive index changes with wavelength. Lenses made of synthesized calcium
fluoride crystals are utilized to improve achromatic design and reduce light dispersion. Calcium
fluoride dispersion is also extensively accessible as an infrared optical material. Fluorite
elements in telescopes can aid in the acquisition of high-resolution photographs of celestial
objects at high magnification. [5]

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Single Crystal Jet Engine Turbine Blade: Jet engine turbine blades need to be extremely durable
to withstand the punishment they receive during operation of the engine. They must survive
extremely high temperatures in addition to the huge mechanical loads they are subjected to. It
goes without saying that the failure of such a part in an airplane may be disastrous. This turbine
blade has two distinct material characteristics. For starters, it's built of a superalloy, which has
higher mechanical strength and creep resistance at high temperatures, as well as better corrosion
and oxidation resistance than regular metals and alloys. Second, it is made of a single metal
crystal, a structure that provides the blade with exceptional strength at high temperatures. Most
bulk metals are made up of many tiny crystallites termed grains, rather than a single large crystal.
The boundaries between these grains boost a metal's strength, but they also provide a means for
it to deform over time at high temperatures (called creep). Because a turbine blade is made up of
a single crystal with no grain boundaries, it is fundamentally stronger at high temperatures than
polycrystalline metals. This characteristic has allowed turbine jet engines to run dependably at
extremely high temperatures, increasing the engine's efficiency and safety. The most efficient
engines on the globe are modern turbine jet engines. [7]

Fig.( 5) Single Crystal Jet Engine Turbine Blade.

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3.3.1Conclusion
in the end, Solids are portrayed by a 3D arrangement of atoms, ions, or molecules in which the
particles are by and large secured in their positions. The particles can be arranged in a regular
repeating 3D exhibit called lattice, which produce a crystalline solid. Crystalline solids have
distinct edges and faces, XRDs, and in general have sharp melting points. Crystals are divided
into seven crystallographic structures dependent on their symmetry: isometric, three-sided,
hexagonal, tetragonal, orthorhombic, monoclinic, and triclinic. Crystals are usually result when a
fluid hardens, a fume becomes supersaturated, or a liquid solution cannot resist broke down
material anymore, which is then precipitated. Metals, alloys, minerals, and semiconductors are
crystalline. For example, gemstones and some synthetic crystalline. A little of crystals are ideal;
defects influence the material's electrical attitude and could weaken or strengthen it. [9]

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References
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pp.575-581, 1965.
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at: <https://opengeology.org/Mineralogy/4-crystals-and-crystallization/> [Accessed 24
October 2021].
4. Syrris. 2021. Crystallization. [online] Available at:
<https://www.syrris.com/applications/what-is-crystallization-and-what-are-the-methods-
of-crystallization/> [Accessed 24 October 2021].

5. Single crystals. Alfa Chemistry. (n.d.). Retrieved October 17, 2021, from
https://www.alfa-chemistry.com/products/single-crystals-121.htm.
6. Silicon single crystals wafers - materials - materials library. Institute of Making. (n.d.).
Retrieved October 19, 2021, from https://www.instituteofmaking.org.uk/materials-
library/material/silicon-single-crystals-wafers.
7. Single Crystal Jet Engine Turbine Blade - materials - materials library. Institute of
Making. (n.d.). Retrieved October 19, 2021, from
https://www.instituteofmaking.org.uk/materials-library/material/single-crystal-jet-engine-
turbine-blade.
8. Elaine A.Moore .2021. Solid stat chemistry . [online ] Available at :
[https://scholar.google.com/] <https://books.google.com.sa/books?
id=ViLOBQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=ar&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0
#v=onepage&q&f=false/> [Accessed 24 October 2021].

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