Lecture Notes On RC-I (2023-2024)

RC-I Faculty of Civil Engineering 2016 E.C.
(Sami J.)
Table of contents Page No.

Chapter One .................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
1. Introduction to reinforced concrete ............... Error! Bookmark not defined.
1.1. Introduction ............................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
1.2. Plain and reinforced concrete .................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
1.2.1. Plain concrete ................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
1.2.2. Reinforced Concrete .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
1.3. Advantages and disadvantages of reinforced concrete for a structure
...................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
1.4. The Design Process ............................................................................. 13
1.4.1. Objectives of design .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
1.4.2. The design process ............................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
1.5. Design Philosophies ............................................................................ 15
1.5.1. Introduction .................................................................................. 15
1.5.2. Working stress method (WSM)....................................................... 16
1.5.3. Ultimate load method (ulm) ........................................................... 17
1.5.4. Limit states method (lm).............................................................. 17
1.6. Materials............................................................................................. 21
1.6.1. Behavior of concrete under compression ....................................... 21
1.6.2. Behavior of concrete under tension ............................................... 26
1.6.3. Reinforcing steel ........................................................................... 27
1.7. Ethiopian standard’s recommendations for limit states design....... Error!
Bookmark not defined.
1.7.1. Actions ............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
1.7.2. Material ............................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Chapter Two ........................................................................ 38

2. Limit state design for flexure ......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
2.1.1. Analysis vs. Design ........................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Arba Minch University / Engineering Faculty Lecture Notes Page 1

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2.1.2. Statics of beam action ....................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
2.2. Distribution of strains and stresses in Reinforced Concrete section in
bending ..................................................................................................... 32
2.3. Ultimate limit state for flexure ............................................................. 33
2.3.1. Basic assumptions for flexure at the uls ........................................ 33
2.3.2. Possible range of strain distributions at uls ................................... 34
2.3.3. Limiting compressive strains at uls ............................................... 35
2.4. Types of flexural failures ..................................................................... 35
2.5. Analysis of beams for flexure at the uls ............................................... 37
2.5.1. Analysis of singly reinforced beam sections ................................... 37
2.5.2. Analysis of doubly reinforced beam sections .................................. 39
2.5.3. Analysis of flanged sections ........................................................... 39
2.6. Design of beams for flexure at uls ....................................................... 44
2.6.1. Concrete cover .............................................................................. 44
2.6.2. Minimum and maximum area of reinforcement ............................. 49
2.6.3. Design of singly reinforced beam sections...................................... 50
2.6.4. Design of doubly reinforced sections ............................................. 52
2.6.5. Design of flanged beams................................................................ 52
Chapter Three ...................................................................... 65

3. Limit state design for shear ........................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.1. Theoretical background ........................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.1.1. Diagonal tension inhomogeneous elastic beamsError! Bookmark
not defined.
3.1.2. Behavior of beams failing in shear ..... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.1.3. Factors affecting the shear strength of beams without web
reinforcement ............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.2. Design of beams for vertical shear according to 1992-1-1-2004 ..... Error!
3.2.1. Members not requiring design shear reinforcementError! Bookmark
not defined.

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3.2.2. Members requiring design shear reinforcementError! Bookmark not
defined.
3.2.3. Additional tensile force in longitudinal reinforcement .............. Error!
3.2.4. Minimum area and maximum spacing of shear reinforcement . Error!
3.2.5. Procedure for design ......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.3. Development, Anchorage, and Splicing of Reinforcement ............... Error!
Chapter Four ....................................................................... 77

4. Serviceability limit state ................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.2. Elastic analysis of beam sections ............ Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.2.1. Section un-cracked ........................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.2.2. Section cracked................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.3. Stress control............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.4. Serviceability limit state of cracking ........... Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.4.1. General introduction ......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.4.2. Causes of crack ................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.4.3. Crack control .................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.4.4. Crack width calculation .................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.5. Serviceability limit state of deflection.......... Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.5.1. General introduction ......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.5.2. Cases where calculation may be omitted ......... Error! Bookmark not
defined.
4.5.3. Deflection limits ................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.5.4. Calculation for deflection .................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

(Sami J.)
CHAPTER ONE
1 INTRODUCTION TO REINFORCED CONCRETE
1.1 Introduction
The study of reinforced concrete design begins directly with a chapter on
materials, followed by chapters dealing with design. The students should have
first an overview of the word of reinforced concrete structures, before plunging
into the finer details of the subject. Accordingly, this section gives a general
introduction to reinforced concrete and its applications. It also explains the role
of structural design in reinforced concrete construction and outlines the various
structural systems commonly adopted in buildings.
Concrete is one of the most versatile, economical, and universally used very
strong construction materials. But, how common it is, and how much a part of
our daily lives it plays, is perhaps not well known or rather, not often realized. It
is used extensively in many different structures such as buildings, bridges,
dams, pavements, stadia, auditoria, cooling and communication towers,
grandstands, tunnels, waterways, water tanks, swimming pools, pipes
(chimneys), bunkers and silos, folded plates and shells, etc.
1.2 Plain and reinforced concrete

1.2.1 Plain concrete
Plain concrete describes any concrete mass used without any strengthening
materials. Its physical properties are very similar to stone. Concrete, in the
broadest sense, is any product or mass produced by artificially hardening the
mixture of aggregates (fine and coarse), binding material (cement or lime), and
water in predetermined proportions. The mixing together of such disparate
ingredients can result in a solid mass (of any desired shape), with well-defined
properties, which is a wonder in itself. Sometimes one or more admixtures are
added to change certain characteristics of the concrete such as its workability,
durability, and time of hardening. In properly proportioned and compacted
concrete, voids are usually less than 2 percent. The strength and quality of
concrete are dependent on the type, quality, and mixing proportions of the
components.
The formula for producing concrete from its ingredients can be presented in the
following equation:
Concrete = Cement or Lime + Aggregate (Fine and Coarse) + Water + Admixture
(optional)

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 Cement: is chemically active & finely ground powder made by heating

limestone with clay. Its reactivity is only activated when it is mixed with
water. It is the best economical filling material that resists volume changes
in the concrete after mixing and increases the durability of the concrete.
Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) is the most commonly used type of
cement in the production of concrete, mortar, and plaster. It should be
stored off the ground in a well-aired, clean, dry place, and wrapping the
cement bags in plastic sheets gives extra protection. Sulfate-resistant
cements protect a structure from sulfate attack.
 Water: is the cheapest constituent and plays an important role in the
workability, strength, and durability of concrete. Mixing water is the
quantity of water that reacts chemically with cement (hydration), impacts
the slump of concrete, and is used to determine the water-to-cement ratio
(w/c) of the concrete mixture. Water-cement (w/c) ratio is the main factor
affecting the strength of concrete, as shown in the figure below. The lower
the water-cement ratio, the higher the compressive strength.
Figure 1-1 - Water-cement (w/c) ratio versus compressive strength of concrete.
 Too much water reduces the concrete strength, whereas too little will make
the concrete unworkable. The water used for producing concrete and for
curing concrete must be clean and free from injurious amounts of oils,
acids, alkalis, salts, sugars, or organic materials, which may affect the
concrete or steel. Water acceptable for drinking (any clear, fresh water) is
preferable. Salt water may be used if fresh water is not readily available,
but it will reduce the strength of concrete by about 15%. If you must use
dirty water, let the water settle in a huge pan or tank to remove the dirt.

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 Aggregate (fine and coarse): is the term used for the mixture of different-
sized stones that form the body of concrete. Fine aggregates are smaller
than 3/8 inch in diameter and coarse aggregates are larger than 3/8 inch
in diameter. They are either natural aggregates such as gravel, sand,
crushed rock, or other artificial aggregates, which are recycled from
construction, demolition, and excavation waste, such as blast furnace
slag, expanded clay, broken brick, and steel shot. The quality of aggregates
is very important since they make up about 60-75% of the volume of the
concrete. For a good concrete mix, aggregates need to be clean, hard,
strong, and free from chemicals or coatings of fine material (clay) that
cause deterioration of concrete.
 Admixture: are substances added to concrete to alter its properties such
as to accelerate or retard the initial set, improve workability, reduce mixing
water requirements, and increase strength. They usually cause a chemical
reaction within the concrete. They are normally classified into:
Chemical admixtures: are materials in the form of powder or fluids such
as accelerators, retarders, air-entraining agents, plasticizers, pigments,
corrosion inhibitors, binding agents, pumping aids and
Mineral admixtures: are very fine-grained inorganic materials, that have
pozzolanic or latent hydraulic properties including fly ash, ground
granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS), silica fume (dark gray or black),
and high reactivity metakaolin (bright white in color and preferable).
Once all the ingredients (cement, aggregate, and water unit of measurement) are
mixed inside the required proportions, the cement and water begin a reaction
with one another to bind themselves by the process of hydration to create a
binding medium called a paste. Then the paste sets and hardens independently
and binds (glues) the aggregate particles together within a mix to form a rigid
(stone-like) composite material called concrete.
It has been used as a building material for more than 150 years. Its success &
popularity may be largely attributed to (1) durability under hostile environments
(including water resistance), (2) ease with which it can be cast into a variety of
shapes and sizes, and (3) its relative economy and easy availability.
Advances in concrete technology have made it possible to produce a wide range
of concrete grades, varying in mass density (1200-2500 kg/m3) and compressive
strength (10-100MPa). Concrete may be remarkably strong in compression, but
it is equally remarkably weak in tension [Figure 1-3(a)]. Its main strength lies in
its compression-bearing ability, which surpasses that of traditional materials
like brick and stone masonry. However, its tensile strength is approximately one-
tenth of its compressive strength.

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1.2.2 Reinforced concrete
Reinforced concrete is a rational union of two materials: plain concrete and
reinforcing steel bars embedded in the concrete. It is one of the most widely used
modern building materials. The idea of reinforcing concrete with steel bars or
fibers (steel, glass, and plastic) has resulted in a new composite material, which
has the potential to resist significant tensile stresses. The word reinforced means
strengthened or supported. Hence, Reinforced Concrete is a composite material
consisting of concrete and reinforcement.
Concrete is a mixture of cement, aggregates, and water. It possesses high
compressive strength but low tensile strength. It usually gains its strength over
a long period. Cubes, cylinders, and prisms are the three types of compression
test specimens used to determine the compressive strength of concrete on site.
 Standard cubes are usually of 150𝑚𝑚 × 150𝑚𝑚 × 150𝑚𝑚 in size.
 Cylinders are either Ф150𝑚𝑚 × 300𝑚𝑚 high or Ф100𝑚𝑚 × 200𝑚𝑚 high.
 Prisms used in France are 100𝑚𝑚 × 100𝑚𝑚 × 500𝑚𝑚 in size.
According to CSA-A23.2-3C recommendations, 150mm diameter test cylinders
should be filled in three equal layers and each layer should be rodded uniformly
25 times with a × 16𝑚𝑚 diameter × 450-600𝑚𝑚 long hemispherical tipped steel
rod. The prepared cylinders should be placed (stored) in a curing box under a
controlled environment with a temperature of 20 ± 5 °C for a minimum of 20
hours. After setting for a minimum of 20 hours, the test specimens should be
moved properly to a laboratory for standard curing and testing. Then finally, the
specimens are tested (crushed) after 7 days and 28 days in the laboratory as per
the standard method to determine the compressive strength.
The compressive strength of concrete is taken as the maximum compressive
load it can carry per unit area. The 7-day test is a guide to the rate of hardening;
the strength of concrete at this age is mostly two-thirds of the strength required
at 28 days. 28th-day strength test results are usually used for quality control
and acceptance of concrete and to determine that the concrete mixture as
delivered meets the requirements of the specified strength in the contract
specifications. A test result is the average of at least two concrete samples made
from the same concrete and tested at the same age of 28 days. The obtained
strength of cylinder (Ф150𝑚𝑚×300𝑚𝑚 high) is 80% of the 150mm cube strength.

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The tensile strength of concrete is usually considered about one-tenth (10%)
of its compressive strength. But the yield strength of steel reinforcement is about
15 times the compressive strength of common structural concrete and well over
100 times its tensile strength. Because of this, nearly all reinforced concrete
structures, except road pavements, are normally designed on the assumption
that the concrete is capable of resisting only compression, whereas steel
reinforcement takes care of these tensile forces, which are transferred by the
bond between the interfaces of the two materials. If this bond is not adequate,
the reinforcing bars will just slip within the concrete and there will not be a
composite action. Thus members should be detailed so that the concrete can be
well compacted around the reinforcement during construction. In addition, the
surfaces of the steel bars normally have projected ribs so that there is an extra
mechanical grip. Such bars are called deformed bars.
Reinforcement is steel in the form of rod, bar, wire, or mesh which provides the
needed tensile strength of reinforced concrete and reinforced masonry structures
to strengthen and aid the concrete against the expected loads. It is capable of
resisting both tension and compression.
The strength of concrete in tension is an important property that greatly affects

the extent and size of cracking in structures. It occurs either directly, as in direct
tension or flexural tension, or indirectly, as in shear, which causes diagonal
tension along diagonal planes. Temperature and shrinkage effects may also
induce tensile stresses. In all such cases, reinforcing steel is essential, and
should be appropriately located, in a direction that cuts across potential tensile
cracks in the principal tensile planes. If insufficient steel is provided, cracks
would develop and propagate, and could lead to failure.

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The concrete is cast around the deformed bars to form the desired shape. The
ribs of the deformed bar improve the bond between steel and the surrounding
concrete in reinforced concrete members. These two commonly used structural
materials: concrete and steel, sometimes complement one another, and
sometimes compete with one another, so that many structures of a similar type
and function can be built in either of these materials.
Consider some of the widely differing properties of these two materials that are
listed below in Table 1-1.
Table 1-1-Complementary properties of concrete and steel.
It can be seen from this list that the materials are more or less Compatible
(complementary). Thus, when they are combined;
 The steel bars (embedded in the tension zone of the concrete) can provide
tensile strength and probably some of the shear strength without
separating from the concrete [Figure 1-3(b)]
 The concrete can provide high compressive strength and protect the steel
from corrosive environments and high temperatures in fire.
 The bond between steel and the surrounding concrete ensures strain
compatibility, i.e., the strain at any point in the steel is identical to that in
the adjoining concrete. Moreover, the reinforcing steel imparts ductility to
a material. In practical terms, this implies that if a properly reinforced
beam were to fail in tension, then such a failure would, fortunately, be
preceded by large deflections caused by the yielding of steel, thereby giving
ample warning of the impending collapse [Figure 1-3(c)].
 The coefficients of thermal expansion for the two materials are quite close,
which is 7-12×10-6/oc for concrete and 10×10-6/oc for steel reinforcement.
 Reinforcing steel can also supplement concrete in bearing compressive
forces, as in columns provided with longitudinal bars. These bars need to
be confined by transverse steel ties [Figure 1-3(d)], to maintain their
positions and to prevent their lateral buckling. The lateral ties serve to
confine the concrete by enhancing its compression load-bearing capacity.

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Figure 1-3 - Contribution of steel bars in reinforced concrete.
Stress-Strain Relations of concrete and steel reinforcement

To carry out the analysis and design of any RC structures, it is necessary to
know the relationship between the stresses and strains created within the
materials (concrete and steel reinforcement) due to the effects of loads applied
on them. In the case of stress analysis on a cross-section of RC structural
members, the forces in the concrete must be in equilibrium with that of the forces
in the steel and also the steel strain must be the same as the concrete strain at
all locations of the cross-section. This is called Strain Compatibility. Hence, a
stress-strain diagram of any material is crucial and conveys important
information about its mechanical properties.

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Typical stress-strain curves for concrete in compression and steel in tension are
shown in the figure below.
Figure 1-2 - Stress-strain curve for (a) concrete in compression and (b) steel in tension.
1.3 Advantages and disadvantages of reinforced concrete

1.3.1 Advantages of reinforced concrete as a structural material
Reinforced concrete has been used in a variety of applications, such as building
frames (columns and beams), slabs, foundations, retaining walls, stadia,
auditoria, cooling and communication towers, dams, bridge decks and piers,
tunnels, waterways, water tanks, swimming pools, pipes (chimneys), folded
plates and shells, etc. because of the following advantages:
 Molded to any shape: It can be poured and molded into any desired shape
varying from simple slabs, beams, and columns to complicated shells and
domes, by using formwork. Thus, it allows the designer to combine the
architectural and structural functions. This also gives freedom to the
designer to select any size or shape, unlike steel sections where the
designer is constrained by the standard manufactured member sizes.
 Availability of materials: The materials required for concrete (sand,
gravel, and water) are often locally available and are relatively inexpensive.
Only small amounts of cement and reinforcing steel, required for the
production of RC, may have to be shipped from other parts of the country.
Moreover, reinforcing steel can be transported to most construction sites
more easily than structural steel sections. Hence, RC is the material of
choice in remote areas.
 Compressive strength: Reinforced concrete has greater compressive
strength as compared to most other materials used for construction
besides good tension resistance.

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 Economical: The concrete’s long life and relatively low maintenance
requirements as well as the readily availability of its ingredients increase
its economic benefits, especially for footings, basement walls, and slabs.
 Low-skilled labor: A comparatively lower grade of skilled labor is required
for the fabrication, erection, and construction of concrete structures than
for steel or wooden structures.
 Water and fire resistance: Since concrete is a non-combustible material,
RC members having sufficient cover can have one to three hours of fire
resistance rating without any special fireproofing material. However, wood
and steel sections need to be fireproofed to obtain a similar rating. If
constructed and cured properly, concrete surfaces could provide better
resistance to water than steel sections, which require expensive corrosion-
resistant coatings.
 Good rigidity: RC members are very rigid. Due to the greater stiffness and
mass, vibrations are seldom a problem in concrete structures.
 Low maintenance: RC members require less maintenance compared to
structural steel or timber members.
1.3.2 Disadvantages of reinforced concrete as a structural material

Several factors may cause one to select a material other than reinforced concrete.
To use concrete efficiently, a designer should know its weaknesses.
 Low tensile strength: Since concrete has a very low tensile strength,
cracks occur when it is subjected to tensile stresses. So, reinforcements
are often provided in the tension zones to carry tensile forces and to limit
crack widths. If proper care is not taken in the design and detailing and
during construction, wide cracks may occur, which will subsequently lead
to the corrosion of reinforcements and even failure of structures.
 Requires forms and shoring: Cast in-situ concrete construction involves
(a) construction of formwork over which concrete will be poured (b)
propping members until new concrete gains sufficient strength to support
themselves and (c) removal of the formwork after the concrete hardens
sufficiently. These all will add to the total cost of RC structures, which are
not required in steel or wooden structures. The formwork may be in the
range of one-third of the total cost. Hence, the designer needs to reduce
the formwork cost, by reusing or reducing formwork.
 Relatively low strength-to-weight ratio: Concrete members have
relatively low strength per unit weight or volume. Hence, larger members
may be required compared to structural steel. This aspect may be
important for tall buildings or long-span structures.

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 Time-dependent volume changes: Concrete undergoes drying shrinkage
and, if restrained, will result in cracking or deflection. Moreover,
deflections will tend to increase with time due to the creep of the concrete
under sustained loads.
 Variable properties: Concrete properties may widely vary due to
variations in their proportioning, mixing, pacing, and curing. Since cast
in-situ concrete is site-controlled, its quality may not be uniform when
compared to structural steel and laminated wood, which are factory-made.
 CO2 emission: Production of one ton of cement results in the emission of
approximately one ton of CO2. Hence, the designer should specify cements
containing cementitious and waste materials such as fly ash and slags,
wherever possible. The use of fly ash and slags reduces CO2 emissions,
results in economy as well, and enhances properties such as reduction in
heat of hydration, enhancement of strength, workability, and durability.
1.4 The design process

1.4.1 Objectives of design
The basic objective in structural design is to produce a structure capable of
resisting all loads that can realistically be expected to act on without failure while
serving its intended purpose throughout its planned life span. A structural
design project may be divided into three phases, such as planning, design, and
construction.
A) Planning: - is the first phase carried out by an architect to determine the
arrangements and layout of the building to meet the client’s requirements.
The structural engineer then determines the best structural system or
forms to bring the architect’s concept into being. This phase involves
consideration of the various requirements and factors affecting the general
layout and dimensions of the structure and results in the choice of one or
perhaps several alternative types of structure, which offer the best general
solution. Since construction in different materials with different
arrangements and systems requires detailed investigation to determine
the most economical answer, the Architect and structural engineer
should work together at this stage.
 The primary consideration is the function of the structure.
 Secondary considerations are aesthetics, sociology, law, economics,
and the environment may also be taken into account.
 The others are structural and constructional requirements and
limitations, which may affect the type of structure to be designed.

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B) Design: This phase involves a detailed consideration of the alternative
solutions defined in the planning phase and results in the determination
of the most suitable proportions, dimensions, and details of the structural
elements and connections for construction. An iterative approach is most
often employed to arrive at a design solution. The design of any large
structure involves a team of designers working jointly with specialists and
consultants. Here, the architect is required to function as a coordinator
and still maintain a leadership role even in the initial structural scheme.
S/he needs to have a broad general understanding of the structure with
its various problems and a sufficient understanding of the fundamental
principles of structural behavior to provide useful approximations of
member sizes. Then the structural engineer checks mathematically the
structural elements within the system to ensure the safety and economy
of the structure and to classify structures as to their form and function.
C) Construction: This phase involves:

 Mobilization of personnel
 Procurement of materials and equipment, including their
transportation to the site, and actual on-site erection.
During this phase, some redesign may be required if unforeseen difficulties
occur, such as unavailability of specified materials or foundation problems. Here,
the responsibility of the builder (constructor) is to have the knowledge,
experience, and inventiveness to resolve complex structural and constructional
issues without losing sight of the spirit of the design.
1.4.2 The design process

The design process is a sequential and iterative decision-making process. It may
be considered as a series of interrelated and overlapping stages. In their simplest
forms, these consist of three basic design stages. Such as conceptual,
preliminary, and detailed.
 Conceptual design: This is the first stage of the design process and
requires many considerations beyond the calculations associated with the
preliminary stages. It defines the client’s needs and priorities, in which a
range of potential structural forms and materials will be considered. The
process may involve input from a range of professionals including
architects, geotechnical engineers, structural engineers, and quantity
surveyors at the same time as it is often very important that potential
contractors are involved at an early stage for major projects.

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 Preliminary design: This is the initial calculation stage, as outlined above.
This will typically involve simple and approximate hand calculations to
assess the viability of a range of alternative conceptual solutions and
enable their development and refinement. In this stage, the final structure
will selected for detailed design.
 Detailed design: This is the final stage of the design process and here a
preferred potential solution for the selected scheme(s) will be fully analyzed
using computer packages as appropriate and refined to produce detailed
calculations, drawings, and other documentation necessary for costing
and construction.
1.5 The design philosophies

1.5.1 Introduction
Over the years, various design philosophies have evolved in different parts of the
world, about reinforced concrete design. A ‘design philosophy’ is built up on a
few fundamental premises (assumptions), and is reflective of a way of thinking.
The earliest codified design philosophy is the working stress method of design
(WSM). Close to 100 years old, this traditional method of design, based on linear
elastic theory, is still surviving in some countries, although it is now sidelined
by the modern limit states design philosophy.
Historically, the design procedure to follow the WSM was the ultimate load
method of design (ULM), which was developed in the 1950s. Based on the
(ultimate) strength of reinforced concrete at ultimate loads, it evolved and
gradually gained acceptance. This method was introduced as an alternative to
WSM in the ACI code in 1956 and the British Code in 1957.
Probabilistic concepts of design developed over the years and received a major
impetus from the mid-1960s onwards. The philosophy was based on the theory
that the various uncertainties in design could be handled more rationally in the
mathematical framework of probability theory. The risk involved in the design
was quantified in terms of the probability of failure. Such probabilistic methods
came to be known as reliability-based methods. However, there was little
acceptance of this theory in professional practice, mainly because the theory
appeared to be complicated and intractable (mathematically and numerically).
To gain code acceptance, the probabilistic ‘reliability-based’ approach had to be
simplified and reduced to a deterministic format involving multiple (partial)
safety factors (rather than probability of failure). The European Committee for
Concrete (CEB) and the International

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The Federation for Pre-stressing (FIP) was among the earliest to introduce the
philosophy of limit states method (LSM) of design, which is reliability-based in
concept. Based on the CEB-FIP recommendations, LSM was introduced in the
British Code CP 110 (1973). In the United States, LSM was introduced in a
slightly different format (strength design and serviceability design) in ACI 318−71
(now ACI 318-95).
Thus, the past several decades have witnessed an evolution in design philosophy
— from the traditional ‘working stress method’, through the ‘ultimate load
method’, to the modern ‘limit states method’ of design.
1.5.2 Working stress method (WSM)
This was the traditional method of design not only for reinforced concrete but
also for structural steel and timber design. The conceptual basis of WSM is
simple. The method assumes that the structural material behaves in a linear
elastic manner and that adequate safety can be ensured by suitably restricting
the stresses in the material induced by the expected ‘working loads’ (service
loads) on the structure. As the specified permissible (‘allowable’) stresses are
kept well below the material strength (i.e., in the initial phase of the stress-strain
curve), the assumption of linear elastic behavior is considered justifiable. The
ratio of the strength of the material to the permissible stress is often referred to
as the factor of safety.
The stresses under the applied loads are analyzed by applying the methods of
‘strength of materials’ such as the simple bending theory. To apply such
methods to a composite material like reinforced concrete, strain compatibility
(due to bond) is assumed, whereby the strain in the reinforcing steel is assumed
to be equal to that in the adjoining concrete to which it is bonded. Furthermore,
as the stresses in concrete and steel are assumed to be linearly related to their
respective strains, it follows that the stress in steel is linearly related to that in
the adjoining concrete by a constant factor (called the modular ratio), defined as
the ratio of the modulus of elasticity of steel to that of concrete.
However, the main assumption of linear elastic behavior and the tacit
assumption that the stresses under working loads can be kept within the
‘permissible stresses’ are not found to be realistic. Many factors are responsible
for this — such as the long-term effects of creep and shrinkage, the effects of
stress concentrations, and other secondary effects. All such effects result in
significant local increases in and redistribution of the calculated stresses.
Moreover, WSM does not provide a realistic measure of the actual factor of safety
underlying a design.

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WSM also fails to discriminate between different types of loads that act
simultaneously but have different degrees of uncertainty. This can, at times,
result in very unconservative designs, particularly when two different loads (say,
dead loads and wind loads) have counteracting effects.
Nevertheless, in defense of these and other shortcomings leveled against WSM,
it may be stated that most structures designed by WSM have been generally
performing satisfactorily for many years. The design usually results in relatively
large sections of structural members (compared to ULM and LSM), thereby
resulting in better serviceability performance (less deflections, crack widths, etc.)
under the usual working loads. The method is also notable for its essential
simplicity — in concept, as well as application.
1.5.3 Ultimate load method (ULM)
With the growing realization of the shortcomings of WSM in reinforced concrete
design, and with an increased understanding of the behavior of reinforced
concrete at ultimate loads, the ultimate load method of design (ULM) evolved in
the 1950s and became an alternative to WSM. This method is sometimes also
referred to as the load factor method or the ultimate strength method.
In this method, the stress condition at the state of impending collapse of the
structure is analyzed, and the non-linear stress−strain curves of concrete and
steel are made use of. The concept of ‘modular ratio’ and its associated problems
are avoided entirely in this method. The safety measure in the design is
introduced by an appropriate choice of the load factor, defined as the ratio of the
ultimate load (design load) to the working load. The ultimate load method makes
it possible for different types of loads to be assigned different load factors under
combined loading conditions, thereby overcoming the related shortcomings of
WSM.
This method generally results in more slender sections, and often more
economical designs of beams and columns (compared to WSM), particularly
when high-strength reinforcing steel and concrete are used.
However, the satisfactory ‘strength’ performance at ultimate loads does not
guarantee satisfactory ‘serviceability’ performance at the normal service loads.
The designs sometimes result in excessive deflections and crack widths under
service loads, owing to the slender sections resulting from the use of high-
strength reinforcing steel and concrete.
1.5.4 Limit states method (LSM)
The philosophy of the limit states method of design (LSM) represents a definite
advancement over the traditional design philosophies. Unlike WSM, which

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based calculations on service load conditions alone, and unlike ULM, which
based calculations on ultimate load conditions alone, LSM aims for a
comprehensive and rational solution to the design problem, by considering safety
at ultimate loads and serviceability at working loads.
The LSM philosophy uses a multiple safety factor format that attempts to provide
adequate safety at ultimate loads as well as adequate serviceability at service
loads, by considering all possible ‘limit states’ (defined in the next section). The
selection of the various multiple safety factors is supposed to have a sound
probabilistic basis, involving the separate consideration of different kinds of
failure, types of materials, and types of loads. In this sense, LSM is more than
a mere extension of WSM and ULM. It represents a new ‘paradigm’ — a modern
philosophy.
1. Limit States
When a structure or structural element becomes unfit for its intended use, it is
said to have reached a limit state. The limit states for reinforced concrete
structures can be divided into three basic groups:
I. Ultimate limit states. These involve a structural collapse of part or all of
the structure. Such a limit state should have a very low probability of
occurrence, because it may lead to loss of life and major financial losses.
The major ultimate limit states are as follows:
a) Loss of equilibrium of a part or all of the structure as a rigid body. Such
a failure would generally involve tipping or sliding of the entire structure
and would occur if the reactions necessary for equilibrium could not be
developed.
b) Rupture of critical parts of the structure, leading to partial or complete
collapse. The majority of this document deals with this limit state. Chapter
3 considers flexural failures; Chapter 4 shear failures; and so on.
c) Progressive collapse. In some structures, an overload on one member
may cause that member to fail. The load acting on it is transferred to
adjacent members which, in turn, may be overloaded and fail, causing
them to shed their load to adjacent members, causing them to fail one
after another until a major part of the structure has collapsed. This is
called a progressive collapse. Progressive collapse is prevented, or at least
is limited, by one or more of the following:
i. Control accidental events by taking measures such as protection
against vehicle collisions or explosions.

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ii. Providing local resistance by designing key members to resist
accidental events. iii. Providing minimum horizontal and vertical
ties to transfer forces.
iv. Providing alternative lines of support to anchor the tie forces.
v. Limiting the spread of damage by subdividing the building with
planes of weakness sometimes referred to as structural fuses.
A structure is said to have general structural integrity if it is resistant to
progressive collapse. For example, an explosion or a vehicle collision may
accidentally remove a column that supports the interior support of a two-span
continuous beam. If properly detailed, the structural system may change from
two spans to one long span. This would entail large deflections and a change in
the load path from beam action to catenary or tension membrane action. Most
building codes require continuous ties of tensile reinforcement around the
perimeter of the building on each floor to reduce the risk of progressive collapse.
The ties provide reactions to anchor the catenary forces and limit the spread of
damage. Because such failures are most apt to occur during construction, the
designer should be aware of the applicable construction loads and procedures.
d) Formation of a plastic mechanism. A mechanism is formed when the
reinforcement yields to form plastic hinges at enough sections to make the
structure unstable.
e) Instability due to deformations of the structure. This type of failure involves
buckling
f) Fatigue. Fracture of members due to repeated stress cycles of service loads
may cause collapse.
II. Serviceability limit states. These involve disruption of the functional
use of the structure, but not collapse. Because there is less danger of
loss of life, a higher probability of occurrence can generally be tolerated
than in the case of an ultimate limit state. Design for serviceability is
discussed in Chapter 4. The major serviceability limit states include the
following:
a) Excessive deflections for normal service. Excessive deflections may
cause machinery to malfunction, may be visually unacceptable, and may
lead to damage to nonstructural elements or changes in the distribution
of forces. In the case of very flexible roofs, deflections due to the weight
of water on the roof may lead to increased depth of water, increased
deflections, and so on, until the strength of the roof is exceeded. This is

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a ponding failure and in essence, is a collapse brought about by failure
to satisfy a serviceability limit state.
b) Excessive crack widths. Although reinforced concrete must crack
before the reinforcement can function effectively, it is possible to detail
the reinforcement to minimize the crack widths. Excessive crack widths
may be unsightly and may allow leakage through the cracks, corrosion
of the reinforcement, and gradual deterioration of the concrete.
c) Undesirable vibrations. Vertical vibrations of floors or bridges and
lateral and torsional vibrations of tall buildings may disturb the users.
Vibration effects have rarely been a problem in reinforced concrete
buildings.
III. Special limit states. This class of limit states involves damage or failure
due to abnormal conditions or abnormal loadings and includes:
a) Damage or collapse in extreme earthquakes,
b) Structural effects of fire, explosions, or vehicular collisions,
c) Structural effects of corrosion or deterioration, and
d) Long-term physical or chemical instability (normally not a problem
with concrete structures).
2. Limit state design process
Limit-state design is a process that involves
1. The identification of all potential modes of failure (i.e., identification of the
significant limit states),
2. The determination of acceptable levels of safety against the occurrence of each
limit state,
3. Structural design for the significant limit states.
For normal structures, step 2 is carried out by the building-code authorities,
who specify the load combinations and the load factors to be used. For unusual
structures, the engineer may need to check whether the normal levels of safety
are adequate. For buildings, a limit-states design starts by selecting the concrete
strength, cement content, cement type, supplementary cementitious materials,
water–cementitious materials ratio, air content, and cover to the reinforcement
to satisfy the durability requirements of Eurocode. Next, the minimum member
sizes and minimum covers are chosen to satisfy the fire protection requirements
of the local building code. Design is then carried out, starting by proportioning
for the ultimate limit states followed by a check of whether the structure will

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exceed any of the serviceability limit states. This sequence is followed because
the major function of structural members in buildings is to resist loads without
endangering the occupants. For a water tank, however, the limit state of
excessive crack width is of equal importance to any of the ultimate limit states if
the structure is to remain watertight. In such a structure, the design for the limit
state of crack width might be considered before the ultimate limit states are
checked. In the design of support beams for an elevated monorail, the
smoothness of the ride is extremely important, and the limited state of deflection
may govern the design.
1.6 Materials
1.6.1 The behavior of concrete under compression
1.6.1.1 Compressive strength of concrete
Generally, the term concrete strength is taken to refer to the uniaxial
compressive strength as measured by a compression test of a standard test
cylinder, because this test is used to monitor the concrete strength for quality
control or acceptance purposes. For convenience, other strength parameters,
such as tensile or bond strength, are expressed relative to the compressive
strength.
1.6.1.2 Statistical Variations in Concrete Strength
Concrete is a mixture of water, cement, aggregate, and air. Variations in the
properties or proportions of these constituents, as well as variations in the
transporting, placing, and compaction of the concrete, lead to variations in the
strength of the finished concrete. In addition, discrepancies in the tests will lead
to apparent differences in strength. The shaded area in Figure 1-3 shows the
distribution of the strengths in a sample of 176 concrete-strength tests.

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Figure 1-3 - Distribution of concrete strengths.

The mean or average strength is 3940 psi, but one test has strength as low as
2020 psi and one is as high as 6090 psi.
If more than about 30 tests are available, the strengths will generally
approximate a normal distribution. The normal distribution curve, shown by the
curved line in Figure 1-3, is symmetrical about the mean value, x of the data.
The dispersion of the data can be measured by the sample standard deviation,
S, which is the root-mean-square deviation of the strengths from their mean
value:
( 1-1)
The standard deviation divided by the mean value is called the coefficient of
variation, V:
This makes it possible to express the degree of dispersion on a

fractional or percentage basis rather than an absolute basis. The concrete test
data in Figure 1-3 have a standard deviation of 615 psi and a coefficient of
variation of 15.6 percent. 615/3940 = 0.156.
If the data correspond to a normal distribution, their distribution can be
predicted from the properties of such a curve. Thus, 68.3 percent of the data will

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lie within 1 standard deviation above or below the mean. Alternatively, 15.6
percent of the data will have values less than x s Similarly, for a normal
distribution, 10 percent of the data, or 1 test in10, will have values less than
(1-aV), where a=1.282, Values of a corresponding to other probabilities can be
found in statistics texts.
Figure 1-4 shows the mean concrete strength, required for various values of the
coefficient of variation if no more than 1 test in 10 is to have strength less than
3000 psi. As shown in this figure, as the coefficient of variation is reduced, the
value of the mean strength, required to satisfy this requirement can also be
reduced.
Figure 1-4 - Normal frequency curves for coefficients of variation of 10, 15, and
20 percent.
NB: Poor control…………….…..V > 14%
Average control…………….V = 10.5%
Excellent control……………V < 7%
1.7.1.3. Factors Affecting Concrete Compressive Strength
 Water/cement ratio. Moisture conditions during curing.
 Type of cement. Temperature conditions during curing.
 Supplementary cementitious materials. Age of Concrete
 Aggregate. Maturity of concrete Mixing water. Rate of loading.

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1.7.1.4. Stress-Strain Curves
Typical stress-strain curves of concrete (of various grades), obtained from
standard uniaxial compression tests, are shown in Figure 1-5. The curves are
somewhat linear in the very initial phase of loading; the non-linearity begins to
gain significance when the stress level exceeds about one-third to one-half of the
maximum. The maximum stress is reached at a strain approximately equal to
0.002; beyond this point, an increase in strain is accompanied by a decrease in
stress. For the usual range of concrete strengths, the strain at failure is in the
range of
0.003 to 0.005.
The higher the concrete grade, the steeper the initial portion of the stress-strain
curve, the sharper the peak of the curve, and the less the failure strain. For low-
strength concrete, the curve has a relatively flat top and a high failure strain.
When the stress level reaches 70–90 percent of the maximum, internal cracks
are initiated in the mortar throughout the concrete mass, roughly parallel to the
direction of the applied loading. The concrete tends to expand laterally, and
longitudinal cracks become visible when the lateral strain (due to the Poisson
effect) exceeds the limiting tensile strain of concrete (0.0001—0.0002). The
cracks generally occur at the aggregate-mortar interface. As a result of the
associated larger lateral extensions, the apparent Poisson’s ratio increases
sharply.
Figure 1-5 - Typical stress-strain curves of concrete in compression

The descending branch of the stress-strain curve can be fully traced only if the
strain-controlled application of the load is properly achieved. For this, the

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testing machine must be sufficiently rigid (i.e., it must have a very high value of
load per unit deformation); otherwise, the concrete is likely to fail abruptly
(sometimes, explosively) almost immediately after the maximum stress is
reached. The fall in stress with increasing strain is a phenomenon that is not
clearly understood; it is associated with extensive micro-cracking in the mortar
and is sometimes called the softening of concrete.
1.7.1.5. Modulus of Elasticity
Young’s modulus of elasticity is a constant, defined as the ratio, within the linear
elastic range, of axial stress to axial strain, under uniaxial loading. In the case
of concrete under uniaxial compression, it has some validity in the very initial
portion of the stress-strain curve, which is practically linear [Figure 6]; that is
when the loading is of low intensity and very short duration.
Various descriptions of Ec are possible, such as initial tangent modulus, tangent
modulus (at a specified stress level), secant modulus (at a specified stress level),
etc. — as shown in Figure 6. Among these, the secant modulus at a stress of
about one-third of the cube strength of concrete is generally found acceptable in
representing an average value of Ec under service load conditions (static loading).
Figure 6 – Various descriptions of the modulus of elasticity of

concrete

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( I T≡ initial tangent, T ≡ tangent, S ≡ secant )
1.7.2. BEHAVIOR OF CONCRETE UNDER TENSION

Concrete is not normally designed to resist direct tension. However, tensile
stresses do develop in concrete members as a result of flexure, shrinkage, and
temperature changes. Principal tensile stresses may also result from multi-
axial states of stress. Often cracking in concrete is a result of the tensile strength
(or limiting tensile strain) being exceeded. As pure shear causes tension on
diagonal planes, knowledge of the direct tensile strength of concrete is useful for
estimating the shear strength of beams with unreinforced webs, etc. Also,
knowledge of the flexural tensile strength of concrete is necessary for the
estimation of the ‘moment at first crack’, required for the computation of
deflections and crack widths in flexural members.
As pointed out earlier, concrete is very weak in tension, the direct tensile strength
being only about 7 to 15 percent of the compressive strength. It is difficult to
perform a direct tension test on a concrete specimen, as it requires a purely axial
tensile force to be applied, free of any misalignment and secondary stress in the
specimen at the grips of the testing machine. Hence, indirect tension tests are
resorted to, usually the flexure test or the cylinder splitting test.
1.7.2.1. Stress-Strain Curve of Concrete in Tension
Concrete has a low failure strain in uniaxial tension. It is found to be in the
range of 0.0001 to 0.0002. The stress-strain curve in tension is generally
approximated as a straight line from the origin to the failure point. The modulus
of elasticity in tension is taken to be the same as that in compression. As the
tensile strength of concrete is very low, and often ignored in design, the tensile
stress-strain relation is of little practical value.
1.7.2.2. Splitting Tensile Strength
The cylinder splitting test is the easiest to perform and gives more uniform
results compared to other tension tests. In this test, a ‘standard’ plain concrete
cylinder (of the same type as used for the compression test) is loaded in
compression on its side along a diametric plane. Failure occurs by the splitting
of the cylinder along the loaded plane [Figure 7]. In an elastic homogeneous
cylinder, this loading produces a nearly uniform tensile stress across the loaded
plane as shown in Figure 7.
From the theory of elasticity concepts, the following formula for the evaluation
of the splitting tensile strength fct is obtained:

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2P (1) fct dL
where P is the maximum applied load, d is the diameter, and L is the length of
the cylinder.
Figure 7 – Cylinder splitting test for tensile strength

1.7.3. REINFORCING STEEL
As explained earlier, concrete is reinforced with steel primarily to make up for
concrete’s incapacity for tensile resistance. Steel embedded in concrete called
reinforcing steel, can effectively take up the tension that is induced due to
flexural tension, direct tension, ‘diagonal tension’, or environmental effects.
Reinforcing steel also imparts ductility to a material that is otherwise brittle.
Furthermore, steel is stronger than concrete in compression; hence, concrete
can be advantageously reinforced with steel for bearing compressive stresses as
well, as is commonly done in columns.
1.7.3.1. Stress-Strain Curves
The stress-strain curve of reinforcing steel is obtained by performing a standard
tension test.
Typical stress-strain curves for the three grades of steel are depicted in Figure
1-8.

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Figure 1-8 - Typical stress-strain curves for reinforcing steels

For all grades, there is an initial linear elastic portion with a constant slope,
which gives a modulus of elasticity Es that is practically the same for all
grades. The Code specifies that the value of Es to be considered in design is 2
×105 MPa N/mm2. The stress-strain curve of mild steel (hot rolled) is
characterized by an initial nearly elastic part that is followed by a yield plateau
(where the strain increases at almost constant stress), followed in turn by a
strain hardening range in which the stress once again increases with increasing
strain (although at a decreasing rate) until the peak stress (tensile strength) is
reached. Finally, there is a descending branch wherein the nominal stress (load
divided by original area) decreases until a fracture occurs. (The actual stress, in
terms of load divided by the current reduced area, will, however, show an
increasing trend).

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CHAPTER TWO
2 LIMIT STATE DESIGN FOR FLEXURE
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Analysis versus design
In RC structures, we always consider one of the following problems:
 Analysis: Given a certain design (cross-section) concrete strength,
reinforcement size and location, and yield strength, then compute the
resistance or strength to carry the maximum moment that can be applied
to the section i.e. determining the section capacity. In analysis, there
should be one unique answer.
 Design: Given an external factored moment to be resisted, then select a
suitable cross-section, including dimensions (b and h), concrete strength,
as well as reinforcement (As). In design, there are many possible solutions.
Structural design: is the methodical investigation of the stability, strength, and
rigidity of structures. It is a process that involves balancing between applied
forces and the materials that resist these forces. Hence, a building structure
must never collapse under the action of assumed loads, whatever they may be.
Furthermore, tolerable deformation of the structure or its elements should not
cause material distress or psychological harm.
The design of any structure requires many detailed computations either
manually or through the use of a computer. The adoption of computer structural
design software has greatly reduced the complexity of the analysis and design
process as well as reducing the amount of time required to finish a project.
2.1.2 Statics of Beam action

A beam is a structural member that supports applied loads and its weight
primarily by internal moments and shears. Figure 2-1a shows a simple beam
that supports its dead weight,  per unit length, plus a concentrated load, P. If
the axially applied load, N, is equal to zero, as shown, the member is referred to
as a beam. If N is a compressive force, the member is called a beam-column. This
chapter will be restricted to the very common case where N  0.

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Figure 2-1 – Internal forces in a beam

The loads w and P cause bending moments, distributed as shown in Fig. 2-1b.
The bending moment is a load effect calculated from the loads by using the laws
of statics. For a given simply supported beam and for a given set of loads w and
P, the moments are independent of the composition and size of the beam.
At any section within the beam, the internal resisting moment, M, shown in
Figure 2-1c is necessary to equilibrate the bending moment. An internal resisting
shear, V, also is required, as shown.
The internal resisting moment, M, results from an internal compressive force, C,
and an internal tensile force, T, separated by a lever arm, JD, as shown in Figure

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2-1d. Because there are no external axial loads, summation of the horizontal
forces gives;
𝐶 − 𝑇 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝐶 = 𝑇 (2-1)
If moments are summed about an axis through the point of application of the
compressive force, C, the moment equilibrium of the free body gives;
𝑀 = 𝑇 ∗ 𝑗𝑑 (2-2)
Similarly, if moments are summed about the point of application of the tensile
force, T,
𝑀 = 𝐶 ∗ 𝑗𝑑 (2-3)
Because C = T, these two equations are identical. Equations (2-1), (2-2), and (2-
3) come directly from statics and are equally applicable to beams made of steel,
wood, or reinforced concrete.
M∗y
The conventional elastic beam theory results in the equation, σ = , which, for
I
an un-cracked, homogeneous rectangular beam without reinforcement, gives the
distribution of stresses shown in Figure 2-2.
Figure 2-2 – Elastic beam stresses and stress blocks.

The stress diagram shown in Figures 2-2c and d may be visualized as having a
“volume”; hence, one frequently refers to the compressive stress block. The
resultant compressive force C, which is equal to the volume of the compressive
stress block in Figure 2-2d, is given by:
𝜎𝑐(max) ℎ
𝐶= (𝑏 2) (2-4)
2

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Similarly, one could compute the force T from the tensile stress block. The forces
C and T act through the centroids of the volumes of the respective stress blocks.
In the elastic case, these forces act at h 3 above or below the neutral axis, so that
jd = 2h 3.
From Equations (2-3) and (2-4) and Figure 2-2, we can write;
𝑏ℎ 2ℎ
𝑀 = 𝜎𝑐(max) (3) (2-5)
4
𝑏ℎ3⁄12
𝑀 = 𝜎𝑐(max) (2-6)
ℎ ⁄2
or, because
𝑏ℎ3
𝐼= (2-7)
12
ℎ
𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (2-8)
2
It follows that
𝜎𝑐(max) 𝐼
𝑀= (2-9)
𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥
Thus, for the elastic case, identical answers are obtained from the traditional
beam stress equation (2-9), and when the stress block concept is used in
equation (2-5)
The elastic beam theory in equation (2-9) is not used in the design of reinforced
concrete beams, because the compressive stress-strain relationship for concrete
becomes nonlinear at higher strain values. What is even more important is that
concrete cracks at low tensile stresses, making it necessary to provide steel
reinforcement to carry the tensile force, T.
2.2 Distribution of strains and stresses across a section in bending

The theory of bending for reinforced concrete assumes that the concrete will
crack in the regions of tensile strains and that, after cracking, all the tension is
carried by the reinforcement. It is also assumed that plane sections of a
structural member remain plane after straining so that across the section there
must be a linear distribution of strains.

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Figure 2-3 – Singly reinforced rectangular beam.
Figure 2-3 shows the cross-section of a member subjected to bending, and the
resultant strain diagram, together with three different types of stress distribution
in the concrete:
1. The triangular stress distribution applies when the stresses are very nearly
proportional to the strains, which generally occurs at the loading levels
encountered under working conditions and is, therefore, used at the
serviceability limit state.
2. The rectangular-parabolic stress block represents the distribution at
failure when the compressive strains are within the plastic range, and it is
associated with the design for the ultimate limit state.
3. The equivalent rectangular stress block is a simplified alternative to the
rectangular-parabolic distribution.
2.3 Ultimate limit state (ULS) for flexure

2.3.1 Basic assumptions for flexure at the ULS
The theory of flexure for reinforced concrete is based on three basic assumptions,
which are sufficient to allow one to calculate the moment resistance of a beam.
1. Sections perpendicular to the axis of bending that are plane before bending
remain plane after bending.
2. The strain in the reinforcement is equal to the strain in the concrete at the
same level.
3. The stresses in the concrete and reinforcement can be computed from the
strains by using stress-strain curves for concrete and steel.
4. The tensile strength of the concrete is ignored.

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The first of these is the traditional “plane sections remain plane” assumption
made in the development of flexural theory for beams constructed with any
material. The second assumption is necessary because the concrete and the
reinforcement must act together to carry the load. This assumption implies a
perfect bond between the concrete and the steel.
However, the assumptions are not strictly true. The deformations within a
section are very complex, and, locally, plane sections do not remain plane. Nor,
due to local bond slip, are the strains in the concrete the same as those in the
steel. Nevertheless, on average, the assumptions are correct and are certainly
sufficiently true for practical purposes for the design of normal members.
2.3.2 The possible range of strain distributions at ULS

The possible range of strain distributions given in EN 1992-1-1-2004 is shown
in Figure 2-4.
Figure 2-4 – Possible strain distributions in the ultimate limit state.
A more elaborative diagram for the possible strain distributions is shown in the
figure below.

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Figure 2-5 – Ultimate Strain distributions.
2.3.3 Limiting compressive strains at uls

It is universal to define the failure of concrete in compression by means of a
limiting compressive strain. The formulation of the limit varies from code to code,
for example, the American Concrete Institute code, ACI 318, uses a limit of
0.003, while the UK code BS 8110 uses 0.0035. For concrete strengths not
exceeding 50 N/mm2, the Euro-code adopts values of 0.0035 for flexure and for
combined bending and axial load where the neutral axis remains within the
section, and a limit of between 0.0035 and 0.002 for sections loaded so that the
whole section is in compression.
The logic behind the reduction in the strain limit for axial compression is that,
in axial compression, failure will occur at the strain corresponding to the
attainment of the maximum compressive stress. This is 0.002 for concrete
strengths not exceeding 50 N/mm2. In flexure, considerably higher strains can
be reached before the maximum capacity of the section is reached, and the value
of 0.0035 has been obtained empirically.
2.4 Types of flexural failures

There are three types of flexural failures of reinforced concrete sections: tension,
compression, and balanced failures. These three types of failures may be
discussed to choose the desirable type of failure from the three, in case failure is
imminent.

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A. Tension Failure
If the steel content ‘As’ of the section is small, the steel will reach fyd before the
concrete reaches its maximum strain of εcu. With further increase in loading, the
steel force remains constant at ‘fyd As’, but results in a large plastic deformation
in the steel, wide cracking in the concrete, and a large increase in compressive
strain in the extreme fiber of concrete. With this increase in strain, the stress
distribution in the concrete becomes distinctly non-linear increasing the mean
stress. Because the equilibrium of internal forces should be maintained, the
depth of the N.A decrease, which results in the increment of the lever arm z. The
flexural strength is reached when concrete strain reaches εcu. This phenomenon
is shown in Figure 2-6 and it is preferable and is used for design.
Figure 2-6 – Tension Failure
B. Compression Failure
If the steel content ‘As’ is large, the concrete may reach its capacity before steel
yields. In such a case the N. A depth increases considerably causing an increase
in compressive force and a decrease in the lever arm z. Again the flexural
strength of the section is reached εcu. The section fails suddenly in a brittle
fashion. This phenomenon is shown in Figure 2-7.
Figure 2-7 – Compression Failure

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C. Balanced Failure
At balanced failure the steel reaches fyd and the concrete reaches a strain of εcu
simultaneously. This phenomenon is shown in Figure 2-8.
Figure 2-8 – Balanced Failure
2.5 Analysis of beams for flexure at the uls

Two requirements are satisfied throughout the flexural analysis and design of
reinforced concrete beams and columns:
1. Stress and strain compatibility: The stress at any point in a member must
correspond to the strain at that point
2. Equilibrium: Internal forces must balance the external load effects
2.5.1 Analysis of singly reinforced beam sections

The general procedure of analysis of singly reinforced concrete beams for their
flexural resistance according to EN 1992-1-1-2004 is as follows.
Step 1: Assume the type of failure
From section 2.4, there are three possible types of failure for reinforced
concrete beams under flexure. These are compression failure, tension
failure, and balanced failure.
Step 2: Draw the strain profile corresponding to the type of failure

(Sami J.)
Step 3: Take any of the three possible stress-strain relationships for
concrete described in Chapter 1 to define the stress block
a. Using a parabola-rectangle diagram
b. Using Bi-linear diagram
c. Using the rectangular diagram

Step 4: Take the stress-strain relationship for the reinforcement bar.
Step 5: Apply conditions of equilibrium to the stress block and conditions
of compatibility to the strain profile to estimate the neutral axis depth.
Step 6: Calculate the strain in the reinforcement bar and check if the
assumed type of failure is correct.
Step 7: If the assumption is correct, apply the moment equilibrium to the
stress block and estimate the moment capacity.
Step 8: If it is not correct, assume another type of failure and repeat steps
2 to 6 until the assumption is proven to be true.

(Sami J.)
2.5.2 Analysis of doubly reinforced beam sections
Occasionally, beam sections are designed to have both tension and compression
reinforcements. These are referred to as doubly reinforced sections.
The general procedure of analysis of doubly reinforced concrete beams for their
flexural resistance according to EN 1992-1-1-2004 is as follows.
Step 1: Assume the type of failure.
Step 2: Draw the strain profile corresponding to the type of failure.
Step 3: Assume the strain in the negative reinforcement either to be
greater than the yield strain or to be less than the yield strain.
concrete described in Chapter 1 to define the stress block.
Step 6: Apply conditions of equilibrium to the stress block and conditions
of compatibility to the strain profile to estimate the neutral axis depth.
Step 7: Calculate the strain in the negative reinforcement bars and check
if the assumption in step 3 is correct.
Step 8: If the assumption is true, proceed to step 8, otherwise revise the
assumption in step 3 and repeat steps 4 to 7.
Step 9: Calculate the strain in the positive reinforcement bar and check if
the assumed type of failure is correct.
Step 10: If the assumption is correct, apply the moment equilibrium to
the stress block and estimate the moment capacity.
Step 11: If it is not correct, assume another type of failure and repeat
steps 2 to 6 until the assumption is proven to be true.
2.5.3 Analysis of flanged sections

2.5.3.1 Introduction
In the floor system shown in Figure 2-9, the slab is assumed to carry the loads
in one direction to beams that carry them in the perpendicular direction. During
construction, the concrete in the columns is placed and allowed to harden before
the concrete in the floor is placed. In the next construction operation, concrete
is placed in the beams and slab in a monolithic pour. As a result, the slab serves
as the top flange of the beams, as indicated by the shading in Figure 2-9. Such
a beam is referred to as a T-beam. The interior beam, AB, has a flange on both
sides. The spandrel beam, CD, with a flange on one side only, is often referred to
as an inverted L-beam.

(Sami J.)
Figure 2-9 – Inverted L- and T-beams in a one-way beam and slab floor.
Figure 2-10 – Positive and negative moment regions in a T-beam
An exaggerated deflected view of the interior beam is shown in Figure 2-10. This
beam develops positive moments at mid-span (section A-A) and negative
moments over the supports (section BB). At mid-span, the compression zone is
in the flange, as shown in Figure 2-10b and Figure 2-10d. Generally, it is
rectangular, as shown in Figure 2-10b, although, in very rare cases for typical
reinforced concrete construction, the neutral axis may shift down into the web,
giving a T-shaped compression zone, as shown in Figure 2-10d. At the support,
the compression zone is at the bottom of the beam and is rectangular, as shown
in Figure 2-10c.

(Sami J.)
2.5.3.2 Effective flange width
The forces acting on the flange of a simply supported T-beam are illustrated in
Figure 2-11. At the support, there are no longitudinal compressive stresses in
the flange, but at mid-span, the full width is stressed in compression. The
transition requires horizontal shear stresses on the web-flange interface as
shown in Figure 2-11. As a result, there is a “shear-lag” effect, and the portions
of the flange closest to the web are more highly stressed than those portions
farther away, as shown in Figure 2-11 and Figure 2-12.
Figure 2-11 – Actual flow of forces on a T-beam flange
Figure 2-12a shows the distribution of the flexural compressive stresses in a slab
that forms the flanges of a series of parallel beams at a section of the maximum
positive moment. The compressive stress is a maximum over each web, dropping
between the webs. When analyzing and designing the section for positive
moments, an effective compression flange width, be, is used (Figure 2-12b). When
this width is stressed uniformly, it will give approximately the same compression
force that is developed in the full width of the compression zone.

(Sami J.)
Figure 2-12 – Effective width of T-beams

According to EN 1992-1-1-2004, In T-beams, the effective flange width, over
which uniform conditions of stress can be assumed, depends on the web and
flange dimensions, the type of loading, the span, the support conditions, and the
transverse reinforcement.
The effective width of the flange should be based on the distance l0 between
points of zero moment, which may be obtained from Figure 2-13.
Figure 2-13 – Definition of l0, for calculation of flange width
Note: The length of the cantilever, l3, should be less than half the adjacent span
and the ratio of adjacent spans should lie between 2/3 and 1.5.
The effective flange width parameters are shown in Figure 2-12 below.
Figure 2-14 – Effective flange width parameters

(Sami J.)
The effective flange width buff for a T beam or L beam may be derived as:
𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑓 = ∑ 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑓,𝑖 + 𝑏𝑤 (2-10)
Where
𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑓,𝑖 = 0.2𝑏𝑖 + 0.1𝑙0 ≤ 0.2𝑙0 (2-11)
And
𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑓,𝑖 ≤ 𝑏𝑖 (2-12)
2.5.3.3 The procedure of analysis of the flanged beam for flexure

a) Flanged beam subjected to negative moment
For a flanged beam with a negative moment, the compression zone will be the
bottom rectangular part of the web, thus following the procedures for the
analysis of rectangular sections will be appropriate.
b) Flanged beam subjected to a positive moment
If a flanged beam is subjected to a positive moment, the neutral axis might
remain within the flange of the beam or it might be in the web of the beam.
For the case where the neutral axis remains in the flange, the section may be
treated as a rectangular section, and the procedures of analysis of rectangular
sections can be adopted.
However, if the neutral axis is in the web of the beam, a different approach for
analysis is necessary and in doing so, adopting the rectangular stress
relationship for the concrete in compression will simplify the analysis.
The general procedure for the analysis of a flanged beam subjected to positive
moment according to EN 1992-1-1-2004 is as follows.
Step 1: Assume the neutral axis to be in the flange.
Step 2: Use the procedure of analysis of singly reinforced concrete sections
to estimate neutral axis depth.
Step 3: Check if the assumption in step 1 is correct.
Step 4: If the assumption is correct, estimate the moment resistance of
the section using the procedures of singly reinforced concrete sections. If
not correct, proceed to step 5.
Step 5: Assume the strain in the tension reinforcement to be greater than
the yield strain.
Step 6: Take the rectangular stress-strain relationship for the concrete
under compression.

(Sami J.)
Step 8: Apply the condition of equilibrium to the stress block and
conditions of compatibility to the strain profile to estimate the neutral axis
depth.
Step 9: Calculate the strain in the reinforcement bar and check if the
assumed type of failure is correct.
Step 10: If the assumption is correct, apply the moment equilibrium to
the stress block and estimate the moment capacity.
Step 11: If it is not correct, assume another type of failure and repeat
steps 6 to 10 until the assumption is proven to be true.
2.6. Design of beams for flexure at ULS

2.6.1 Concrete cover
It is necessary to have cover (concrete between the surface of the slab or beam
and the reinforcing bars) for four primary reasons:
1. To bond the reinforcement to the concrete so that the two elements act
together. The efficiency of the bond increases as the cover increases.
2. To protect the reinforcement against corrosion.
3. To protect the reinforcement from strength loss due to overheating in the
case of fire.
4. Additional cover sometimes is provided on the top of slabs, particularly in
garages and factories, so that abrasion and wear due to traffic will not
reduce the cover below that required for structural and other purposes.
The concrete cover is the distance between the surface of the reinforcement
closest to the nearest concrete surface (including links and stirrups and surface
reinforcement where relevant) and the nearest concrete surface.
Concrete cover according to EN 1992-1-1 and EN 1992-1-2
The nominal cover is defined as a minimum cover, 𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛 , plus an allowance in

design for deviation, ∆𝐶𝑑𝑒𝑣 :
𝐶𝑛𝑜𝑚 = 𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛 + ∆𝐶𝑑𝑒𝑣 (2-13)
Where 𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛 should be set to satisfy the requirements below:

 Safe transmission of bond forces
 Durability
 Fire resistance and
∆𝐶𝑑𝑒𝑣 is an allowance that should be made in the design for deviations from the
minimum cover. It should be taken as 10mm unless fabrication (i.e.

(Sami J.)
construction) is subjected to a quality assurance system, in which case it is
permitted to reduce ∆𝐶𝑑𝑒𝑣 to 5mm.
𝑪𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝑴𝒂𝒙 (𝑪𝒎𝒊𝒏,𝒃 , 𝑪𝒎𝒊𝒏,𝒅𝒖𝒓 , 𝟏𝟎 𝒎𝒎)
1. Minimum cover for bond, 𝑪𝒎𝒊𝒏,𝒃
The minimum cover to ensure adequate bond should not be less than the bar
diameter unless the aggregate size is over 32mm. if the aggregate size is over
32mm, 𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝑏 should be increased by 5mm.
2. Minimum cover for durability
Euro-Code-2 leaves the choice of 𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝑑𝑢𝑟 to countries, but gives the following
recommendation:
The value of 𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝑑𝑢𝑟 depends on the “structural class”, which has to be
determined first. If the specified service life is 50 years, the structural class is
defined as 4. The “structural class” can be modified in case of the following
conditions:
 The service life is 100 years instead of 50 years.
 The concrete strength is higher than necessary.
 Slabs (position of reinforcement not affected by construction process).
 Special quality control measures apply.
The final applying service class can be calculated with Table 4.3 N but the
recommended minimum structural class is 1.

(Sami J.)

(Sami J.)
3. Minimum cover for fire resistance
Rather than giving the minimum cover, the tabular method is based on nominal
axis distance, see fig. this is the distance from the center of the main reinforcing
bar to the surface of the member. The designer should ensure that
𝑑′ = 𝐶𝑛𝑜𝑚 + 𝜙𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑢𝑝𝑠 + 𝜙𝑏𝑎𝑟 /2 (2-14)
Table 2-1 – Minimum dimensions and axis distances for simply supported beams
made with reinforced and pre-stressed concrete.

(Sami J.)
Table 2-2 – Minimum dimensions and axis distances for continuous beams made
with reinforced and pre-stressed concrete.

(Sami J.)
2.6.2 Minimum and maximum area of reinforcement

Minimum and Maximum area of reinforcement according to EN 1992-1-1-2004
The area of longitudinal tension reinforcement should not be taken as less than
As, min.
𝐴𝑠,𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0.26 ∗ (𝑓𝑐𝑡𝑚 ⁄𝑓𝑦𝑘 ) ∗ 𝑏𝑡 𝑑 (2-15)
Where:

(Sami J.)
bt denotes the mean width of the tension zone; for a T-beam with the flange in
compression, only the width of the web is taken into account in
calculating the value of bt.
fctm should be determined concerning the relevant strength class according to
Table 3.1. of Euro-code.
The cross-sectional area of tension or compression reinforcement should not
exceed As, max outside lap locations. The value of As max for beams for use in a
country may be found in its National Annex. The recommended value is 0.04Ac.
2.6.3 Design of singly reinforced beam sections

2.6.3.1 Limit to the use of singly reinforced sections
At the ultimate limit state, it is important that member sections in flexure should
be ductile and that failure should occur with the gradual yielding of the tension
steel and not by a sudden catastrophic compression failure of the concrete. Also,
the yielding of the reinforcement enables the formation of plastic hinges so that
redistribution of maximum moments can occur, resulting in a safer and more
economical structure.
To ensure rotation of the plastic hinges with sufficient yielding of the tension
steel and also to allow for other factors such as the strain-hardening of the steel,
Clause 5.5 in EN 1992-1-1 gives limits to the neutral axis depth at the ultimate
limit state as a function of the amount of redistribution carried out in the
analysis.
𝒙⁄𝒅 ≤ (𝛿 − 0.4)⁄(0.6 + 0.0014⁄𝜀𝑐𝑢 ) (2-16)
In applying this formula, some degree of interpretation of the code is necessary
since the reader is referred to Table 3.1 of EN 1992-1-1 for values of the ultimate
strain. Table 3.1 gives several values, and it has been assumed that the ultimate
strain is 𝜀𝑐𝑢1 in this table. 𝑥 ⁄𝑑 should not be greater than 0.45 for concrete
grades C50 or below, and not greater than 0.35 for grades C55 or higher.
𝛿 in equation (2-16) is the ratio of the redistributed moment to the moment

before redistribution. 𝛿 is limited as a function of the type of reinforcement used
as follows: for Class B and C steel, 𝛿 ≥ 0.70, and Class A steel, 𝛿 ≥ 0.80.
2.6.3.2 Design procedure

The general procedure for the design of singly reinforced beams according to EN
1992-1-1 is as follows.

(Sami J.)
Step 1: Draw the strain profile that results in a ductile failure by setting
the ultimate strain in the concrete.
a. Using a parabola-rectangle diagram
b. Using Bi-linear diagram
c. Using the rectangular diagram

Step 3: Apply force and moment equilibrium to get the neutral axis depth.
Step 4: If the assumption is correct, estimate the moment resistance of
the section using the procedures of singly reinforced concrete sections. If
not correct, proceed to step 5.

(Sami J.)
Step 5: Check if the ratio of neutral axis depth to the effective depth is
below the limit to the use of singly reinforced sections.
Step 6: If it is below the limit, calculate the area of reinforcement.
Step 7: If x/d exceeds the limit go to section and design the beam as
doubly reinforced.
Step 8: Check the minimum and maximum area of reinforcement.
2.6.4 Design of doubly reinforced sections

The general procedure for the design of doubly reinforced beams according to EN
1992-1-1 is as follows.
Step 3: Apply force and moment equilibrium to get the neutral axis depth
and the area of reinforcement.
Step 4: Check the minimum and maximum area of reinforcement
2.6.5 Design of flanged beams

a) Flanged beam subjected to negative moment
For a flanged beam with a negative moment, the compression zone will be the
bottom rectangular part of the web, thus following the procedures for the design
of rectangular sections will be appropriate.
b) Flanged beam subjected to a positive moment
If a flanged beam is subjected to a positive moment, the neutral axis might
remain within the flange of the beam or it might be in the web of the beam.
For the case where the neutral axis remains in the flange, the section may be
treated as a rectangular section with width b as the width of the flange, and the
procedures of analysis of rectangular sections can be adopted. However, if the
neutral axis is in the web of the beam, a different approach for design is
necessary and in doing so, adopting the rectangular stress relationship for the
concrete in compression will simplify the procedure.
The general procedure for the design of a flanged beam subjected to positive
moment according to EN 1992-1-1 is as follows.
Step 1: Assume the neutral axis to be in the flange of the section.

(Sami J.)
Step 3: Take the simplified rectangular stress block for concrete.
Step 4: Apply force and moment equilibrium to get the neutral axis depth.
Step 5: Check if the assumption in step 1 is correct.
Step 6: If the assumption is correct, calculate the necessary area of
reinforcement, if not, proceed to step 7.
Step 7: Take the neutral axis to be in the web.
Step 8: Use force and moment equilibrium to get the necessary area of
reinforcement.
Step 9: Check the minimum and maximum area of reinforcement.

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RC-I Faculty of Civil Engineering 2016 E.C.

Table of contents Page No.

Chapter Two ........................................................................ 38

Arba Minch University / Engineering Faculty Lecture Notes Page 1

Chapter Three ...................................................................... 65

Arba Minch University / Engineering Faculty Lecture Notes Page 2

Chapter Four ....................................................................... 77

Arba Minch University / Engineering Faculty Lecture Notes Page 3

1.2 Plain and reinforced concrete

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 Cement: is chemically active & finely ground powder made by heating

Figure 1-1 - Water-cement (w/c) ratio versus compressive strength of concrete.

Arba Minch University / Engineering Faculty Lecture Notes Page 5

Arba Minch University / Engineering Faculty Lecture Notes Page 6

Arba Minch University / Engineering Faculty Lecture Notes Page 7

The strength of concrete in tension is an important property that greatly affects

Arba Minch University / Engineering Faculty Lecture Notes Page 8

Arba Minch University / Engineering Faculty Lecture Notes Page 9

Figure 1-3 - Contribution of steel bars in reinforced concrete.

Stress-Strain Relations of concrete and steel reinforcement

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1.3 Advantages and disadvantages of reinforced concrete

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1.3.2 Disadvantages of reinforced concrete as a structural material

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1.4 The design process

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C) Construction: This phase involves:

1.4.2 The design process

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1.5 The design philosophies

Arba Minch University / Engineering Faculty Lecture Notes Page 15

Arba Minch University / Engineering Faculty Lecture Notes Page 16

Arba Minch University / Engineering Faculty Lecture Notes Page 17

Arba Minch University / Engineering Faculty Lecture Notes Page 18

Arba Minch University / Engineering Faculty Lecture Notes Page 19

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Figure 1-3 - Distribution of concrete strengths.

This makes it possible to express the degree of dispersion on a

Arba Minch University / Engineering Faculty Lecture Notes Page 22

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Figure 1-5 - Typical stress-strain curves of concrete in compression

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Figure 6 – Various descriptions of the modulus of elasticity of

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1.7.2. BEHAVIOR OF CONCRETE UNDER TENSION

Arba Minch University / Engineering Faculty Lecture Notes Page 26

Figure 7 – Cylinder splitting test for tensile strength

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Figure 1-8 - Typical stress-strain curves for reinforcing steels

Arba Minch University / Engineering Faculty Lecture Notes Page 28

2.1.2 Statics of Beam action

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Figure 2-1 – Internal forces in a beam

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Figure 2-2 – Elastic beam stresses and stress blocks.

Arba Minch University / Engineering Faculty Lecture Notes Page 31

2.2 Distribution of strains and stresses across a section in bending