PHYSICAL REVIEW D 99, 085003 (2019)

Localization and reference frames in κ-Minkowski spacetime

Fedele Lizzi,1,2,3,* Mattia Manfredonia,1,2,† Flavio Mercati,4,‡ and Timothé Poulain5,§
1
Dipartimento di Fisica “Ettore Pancini,” Università di Napoli Federico II, 80126 Napoli, Italy
2
INFN, 80126 Sezione di Napoli, Italy
3
Departament de Física Quàntica i Astrofísica and Institut de Cíencies del Cosmos (ICCUB),
Universitat de Barcelona, 08007 Barcelona, Spain
4
Dipartimento di Fisica, Sapienza Università di Roma, 00185 Roma, Italy
5
Laboratoire de Physique Théorique, Bâtiment 210, CNRS and Université de Paris-Sud 11,
91405 Orsay, France

(Received 2 December 2018; published 8 April 2019)

We study the limits to the localizability of events and reference frames in the κ-Minkowski quantum
spacetime. Our main tool will be a representation of the κ-Minkowski commutation relations between
coordinates, and the operator and measurement theory borrowed from ordinary quantum mechanics.
Spacetime coordinates are described by operators on a Hilbert space, and a complete set of commuting
observables cannot contain the radial coordinate and time at the same time. The transformation between the
complete sets turns out to be the Mellin transform, which allows us to discuss the localizability properties of
states both in space and in time. We then discuss the transformation rules between inertial observers, which
are described by the quantum κ-Poincaré group. These too are subject to limitations in the localizability of
states, which impose further restrictions on the ability of an observer to localize events defined in a different
observer’s reference frame.

DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevD.99.085003

I. INTRODUCTION be Hermitian ðxμ Þ† ¼ xμ . Our aim is to study the geomet-

rical kinematics of spacetime, seen as a “quantum” object.
The problem of quantum gravity suggests that the
The quantization parameter will be λ, a quantity presum-
classical spacetimes at the basis of general relativity and
ably of the order of Planck length. Relations (1.1) suggest
quantum field theory may have to be replaced with
we use the theory of operators on a Hilbert space as the
quantum structures. A concrete realization of this idea is
correct description. Since we are interested in the kine-
provided by noncommutative geometry. In this paper we
matics of spacetime alone, and will not discuss momentum
consider the κ-Minkowski space [1–11], which is the
for κ-Minkowski, the quantum of action ℏ will not play a
homogeneous space of the κ-Poincaré Hopf algebra (quan-
role, except when we reason in analogy with particle
tum group) [12–16]. The commutation relations of the
quantum mechanics.
coordinate functions for κ-Minkowski are
The geometry described by Eq. (1.1) is a noncommu-
tative geometry. One of the aims of this paper is to discuss
½x0 ; xi  ¼ iλxi ; ½xi ; xj  ¼ 0; i; j ¼ 1; 2; 3: ð1:1Þ
what sorts of measurements of position and time are
possible, and which are the states. Clearly, the presence
Often the deformation parameter λ is indicated by 1κ, hence of nontrivial commutation relations indicates that a version
the name. For us, as usual, x0 ¼ ct, where c is the speed of of Heisenberg’s uncertainty relations is present:
light, λ has the dimension of a length, and a natural scale for
time is given by cλ. The coordinate operators are assumed to λ
Δx0 Δxi ≥ jhxi ij; ð1:2Þ
2
*
[email protected]
†
[email protected] and it will not be possible in general to localize states both
‡ in space and in time. In our treatment we will follow Dirac’s
[email protected]
§
[email protected] correspondence principle; i.e., we will associate with the
classical coordinates, and in general with the observables,
Published by the American Physical Society under the terms of operators on a Hilbert space, and consider their spectrum
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.
Further distribution of this work must maintain attribution to and eigenfunctions. We will also assume the eigenvalues to
the author(s) and the published article’s title, journal citation, be the possible results of a measurement of the observables,
and DOI. Funded by SCOAP3. and use the standard apparatus of quantum mechanics

2470-0010=2019=99(8)=085003(19) 085003-1 Published by the American Physical Society

LIZZI, MANFREDONIA, MERCATI, and POULAIN PHYS. REV. D 99, 085003 (2019)

(although, we repeat, we do not consider conjugate those as momenta conjugate to some of the coordinates,
momenta and their commutations). and wonder whether a phase space structure underlies our
Let us make more precise what we mean by non- construction. We stress that the commutation relations (1.1)
commutative geometry. An ordinary topological space is and the uncertainty relations (1.2) are not physically the
fully described by the algebra of continuous complex- Heisenberg algebra and Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle
valued functions (in the noncompact case, vanishing at between canonical coordinates and momenta. Indeed, the
infinity) on it. These form a commutative C -algebra, parameter λ setting the scale of noncommutativity has
which can always be represented as operators on a the dimension of a length, while the Planck constant ℏ has
Hilbert space. Further structures, such as smoothness, the dimension of an action. The length λ parametrizes a
are encoded in other operators, such as the Dirac operator noncommutative geometrical property of a noncommuta-
or its generalizations (for a review, see e.g., Ref. [17]). tive spacetime (essentially, it sets the limits to the local-
Usually, one introduces a deformation of this algebra by izability of spacetime regions), while ℏ sets the limits to the
defining a noncommutative deformed ⋆-product so that localizability of phase space regions, a dynamical entity.
the ⋆-commutator ½xμ ; xν ⋆ ¼ xμ ⋆xν − xν ⋆xμ reproduces The two constants may be connected—namely, λ may be
Eq. (1.1), usually based on the composition of plane waves Planck’s length (the Compton length associated with the
[5,18]. There exist many versions of ⋆-products which Planck mass)—but it may also have a different origin. If we
reproduce the commutation relation (1.1); see, e.g., want to find a connection between relations (1.1) and
Refs. [10,19,20]. One of them has proved useful for dynamics, it has to be looked for at a much deeper level,
the study of the quantum properties of various models and its details (and consistency) are presently unknown. In
of κ-Poincaré invariant scalar field theories [10,11]. Besides fact, relations (1.1) are supposed to be an effective
this, the geometric (spectral) properties, à la Connes, of description of a quantum theory of gravity, whose ground
the κ-Minkowski spacetime have been investigated in state is not Minkowski spacetime, but rather a noncom-
Refs. [21–24]. mutative deformation thereof. The limits to localizability
We are interested in the localizability of the states, i.e., then could be understood as the effective description of
the possibility to have a state of the system which describes gravitational excitations that intervene when enough energy
a pointlike event, or a good approximation of it. In a
is concentrated into a small region in order to localize an
noncommutative geometry, such as the quantum phase
event [25,26], and this would indeed be a dynamical effect.
space of a particle, it may not be possible to localize points
However, at the effective level, one would lose completely
due to some version of the uncertainty principle (1.2). One
any trace of this dynamics, and would only be dealing with
might wonder whether the localizability properties of a
the effects that these limits to localizability have on the
state depend on the reference frame or not. This is not the
macroscopic dynamics. This connection with a fundamen-
case for the quantum phase space of one particle: the
tal quantum theory of gravity is, as we remarked, only
algebra of positions and momenta is invariant under
crude. At the moment it can be made precise only in 2 þ 1
classical translations and rotations. However, the algebra
dimensions, where we have a better understanding of
of Eq. (1.1) is clearly not invariant under the classical action
of the Poincaré group (in particular, under translations and quantum gravity, and indeed, relations of the form (1.1)
boosts). It is, however, invariant under a noncommutative emerge when we integrate away the gravitational degrees of
generalization of the Poincaré group—as a matter of fact, it freedom in a model of quantum gravity coupled with
is defined as the homogeneous space of such generaliza- matter [27,28].
tion. This deformation of the Poincaré group makes the If one were interested in going one step further, and
group manifold itself into a noncommutative space, and the discussing the dynamics of systems living in the non-
transformation parameters relating different reference commutative spacetime described by (1.1), then it would be
frames are subject to limitations to their localizability as necessary to introduce momenta and phase-space struc-
well. As a consequence, different observers will not agree tures. It is then debatable whether it makes sense to
in general on the localizability properties of the same state. introduce momenta that are conjugate to the coordinates
Before we proceed with our treatment, we would like to of (1.1), because that would be subsuming the concept of a
remark that everything we do in the present paper pertains point particle, in a context where there are limits to the
strictly to the kinematics of systems in κ-Minkowski localizability of points. One way around this problem is to
spacetime: there is no dynamics. We are interested in the skip point particles altogether, and consider (quantum) field
implications of the noncommutativity of this spacetime for theories on noncommutative spacetimes, which then will
the localizability of events, independently of the dynamical have, in some limit, an approximate notion of particles as
laws they are subject to, or which may be defining such asymptotic solutions of the dynamics. One could then argue
events. In particular, seeing how, in the following, we that it is only appropriate to talk about phase spaces at the
represent certain noncommutative spacetime coordinates as level of field variables. These considerations, however, are
differential operators, one might be tempted to interpret beyond the scope of this work.

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A. On localization and pure states B. Outline of the paper

Consider first the phase space of classical mechanics, In Sec. II, we discuss the notions of states and events in a
described through the commutative algebra of position and κ-Minkowski spacetime. To set the scene, we first present
momentum operators q and p. Probability distributions the well-known case study of ordinary quantum phase
ρðp; qÞ are only required to be integrable, so they belong to space in Sec. II A. Proceeding in analogy, we present the
the function space L1 ðR2d Þ. We can represent the algebra as case of time and position in κ-Minkowski in Sec. II B,
multiplication operators on L1 ðR2d Þ, and bounded oper- introducing the time operator and connecting its spectrum
ators will be continuous functions which vanish at infinity. with Mellin transforms. We discuss the localization of
However, a vector of L1 ðR2d Þ, being a function, is not a states for an observer at the origin. In Sec. III, we briefly
pure state, because it can always be written as the sum of introduce the κ-Poincaré symmetries of our space, and in
two vectors obtained, e.g., by setting the original function Sec. IV, we discuss the role of observer located away from
to zero for q1 > 0 or q1 < 0, and adjusting the normal- the origin, using the deformed κ-Poincaré symmetry. This
izations. Nevertheless, there are pure states, which can be section is partly in 1 þ 1 dimension, where explicit
obtained as limits: the Dirac δ’s, also called evaluation representations are easier to control. A consistent part of
maps in this case, so that if f is a function, the state is the section is devoted to the physical interpretation of the
δq0 ;p0 ðfÞ ¼ fðq0 ; p0 Þ. This is true for all commutative results. A final section contains conclusions and outlook.
algebras. These states correspond also to irreducible
representations and can be used to reconstruct the topology. II. κ-MINKOWSKI SPACETIME:
The δ is not a vector of L1 ðR2d Þ, but is an acceptable STATES AND EVENTS
distribution, and can be reached as a limit of normalized In this section, we present a discussion on the states of
vectors. the algebra of κ-Minkowski spacetime. To set the scene,
When the algebra is noncommutative, this kind of pure however, we first present the well-known case of the
states does not usually exist. Think, e.g., of the quantum- single-particle quantum phase space of ordinary quantum
mechanical phase space algebra, i.e., the algebra of mechanics.
bounded operators of p and q, where ½p; q ¼ iℏ. In this
case H is L2 ðRd Þ, the space of wave functions, and pure A. A case study: The quantum phase space
states are any vector, while mixed states are mixed-density
Before we consider κ-Minkowski space, it is useful to
matrices. The noncommutativity of the algebra implies that
consider the archetypical noncommutative geometry, that
there are no states which correspond to a single localized
of the phase space of a single quantum particle. The content
phase space point. Pure states in this case are normalized
of this section is well known to every undergraduate student
vectors of L2 ðRd Þ, the “wave functions.”1 This is, of in physics, but we present it to set up a parallelism with
course, a manifestation of the Heisenberg uncertainty what we will do in the next section.
principle: A particle in three dimensions has a phase space which is
ℏ a six-dimensional space spanned by the coordinates
ΔpΔq ≥ ; ð1:3Þ ðqi ; pi Þ. What makes the particle quantum is promoting
2
these coordinates to operators ðq̂i ; p̂i Þ with nonvanishing
which forbids the localization of phase space regions of commutation relations
area smaller than ℏ2.
In what follows, we will be studying the states on the ½q̂i ; p̂j  ¼ iℏδij ; ð2:1Þ
algebra (1.1), in a spirit similar to what is described here in
the case of classical and quantum mechanics. In particular, all other commutators being zero. The most common
we will focus on their localizability properties (i.e., to what representations of position and momenta are as operators
extent one can be certain that an event took place within a acting on the Hilbert space of square-integrable functions
certain region of an observer’s coordinate system), and on of position, L2 ðR3q Þ, as2
the relationship between the states measured by different
∂
inertial observers. To achieve this, we will make use of q̂i ψðqÞ ¼ qi ψðqÞ; p̂i ψðqÞ ¼ −iℏ ψðqÞ: ð2:2Þ
specific representations of the commutation relations (1.1) ∂qi
as operators acting on some Hilbert space of functions.
We will indicate the operators with a hat ˆ. Both the q̂’s and
1
p̂’s are unbounded self-adjoint operators with a dense
Treating the quantum phase space as a noncommutative
geometry, in two dimensions, one gets the Moyal plane. It is
easy to show that the -product of a real function by itself is not 2
To simplify the notation, we indicate by q and p the
definite positive, and therefore the evaluation maps cannot be corresponding three-vectors, avoiding the use of a notation
states. like q⃗ .

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LIZZI, MANFREDONIA, MERCATI, and POULAIN PHYS. REV. D 99, 085003 (2019)
Z
domain. The spectrum is the real line (for each i). They 1
ψðqÞ ¼ d3 pϕðpÞeℏp·q : ð2:5Þ
i
3
have no eigenvectors but have improper eigenfunctions— ð2πÞ 2

namely, the eigenvalue problem is solved by a distribution.

Since the q̂i ’s commute among themselves, it is possible to The fact that p̂ and q̂ have been treated symmetrically
have a simultaneous improper eigenvector of all of them; (apart from signs) can be traced back to the symmetry of
these are the Dirac distributions δðq − q̄Þ for a particular Eq. (2.1). If we choose a different set of commuting
position q̄, which is a vector in R3 . Similarly, for a observables—for example, the number operator, the total
particular momentum p̄, the improper eigenfunctions of angular momentum, and one of its components—the
i
the p̂i are the plane waves eip̄i q . Hilbert space will look different (especially because these
Formally, the eigenvalue equation operators have discrete spectra).
All of this is, of course, well known. Let us now consider
the case of κ-Minkowski in the same spirit.
∂ q ψðqÞ ¼ αψðqÞ; α ∈ C3 ð2:3Þ
B. Time and position of events in κ-Minkowski
is solved by any function of the kind eα·q . No function of In this section, we will use the techniques of the previous
this kind is square integrable, and therefore there are no section. Let us begin by considering the x̂i ’s as a complete
eigenvalues or (proper) eigenfunctions. The operator p̂ is set of observables on the Hilbert space L2 ðR3x Þ. We will
self-adjoint on the domain of absolutely continuous func- represent the x̂μ as operators on this space.
tions, which is dense in L2 ðR3q Þ. One can see from Eq. (2.3)
that α must be purely imaginary, α ¼ ik, k ∈ R3 , for 1. The operator representation
distributions to be well defined on the domain of self- The representations of the algebra generated by Eq. (1.1)
adjointness of the operators. If α had a real part, eα·q would are discussed in detail in Refs. [29,30]. In particular, the
not be a solution of the eigenvalue problem even in the paper of Dabrowski and Piacitelli has been an important
distributional sense. The improper eigenfunctions of inspiration. In the following, we focus on the representation
momentum are physically interpreted as infinite plane of time and position operators given by
waves of precise frequency. Since plane waves are not
vectors of the Hilbert space, there is no quantum state x̂i ψðxÞ ¼ xi ψðxÞ;
which would give as its measure exactly the value ℏk; X   
0 3 3
nevertheless, we have all learned to live with this fact, and x̂ ψðxÞ ¼ iλ x ∂ x þ ψðxÞ ¼ iλ r∂ r þ ψðxÞ:
i i
there is a well-defined sense in which we talk about i
2 2
“particles of momentum ℏk.” ð2:6Þ
The representation (2.2) is tantamount to the choice of q̂i
as a complete set of observables, and to the description of a The 32 factor is necessary to have symmetric operators. In d
quantum state as a function of positions. As usual, we dimensions, 12 ðr∂ r þ ∂ r rÞ ¼ r∂ r þ d2. Here, x̂0 plays the
interpret jψðqÞj2 for normalized functions as the probability role that p̂ played in Sec. II A.
density to find the particle at position q. The wave function, The representation (2.6) is far from being unique. In
being a complex quantity, contains also the information Ref. [31], Meljanac and Stojic have written (in the
about the density probability of the momentum operator. Euclidean context) the most general class of operator with
The connection is in the choice of the complete set of the correct characteristic and have shown that they depend
commuting observables and the Fourier transform. It is on two functions with some constraints. It would be
important that the Fourier transform be an isometry; i.e., it interesting to consider these more general realizations,
should map normalized functions of positions into nor- but we will not do it in this paper (see also Refs. [32,33]).
malized functions of momenta. Let us discuss the relativistic invariance of the theory.
If we choose p̂i as the complete set, then it is natural to The relation (2.6) appears to renounce the relativistic
express the state of the system as a function of the p’s on equivalence between space and time coordinates, because
which we are treating space and time differently. Indeed, in
Eq. (2.6) we are representing the time coordinate as a
∂ dilation operator while the spatial coordinates are multi-
q̂i ϕðpÞ ¼ iℏ ϕðpÞ; p̂i ϕðpÞ ¼ pi ϕðpÞ: ð2:4Þ plicative operators. Clearly, there is a difference between x̂0
∂pi
and x̂i . Already in the commutation relation (1.1), we can
see that the commutator between space and time coordi-
The functions ψðqÞ and ϕðpÞ carry exactly the same nates is proportional to the spatial coordinate. This clearly
information and are connected by a Fourier transform, breaks ordinary Lorentz invariance, understood as a linear
which is but an expansion on the eigenfunction of p̂: coordinate transformation x̂μ → Λμ ν x̂ν in which Λμ ν are

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numerical entries of a Lorentz matrix. But the noncommu- λ

Δx̂0 Δr̂ ≥ jhr̂ij: ð2:8Þ
tative spacetime [Eq. (2.6)] is a quantum homogeneous 2
space, with a maximal degree of symmetry. Its symmetries,
however, are nonordinary symmetries described by a Lie The operator x̂0 is symmetric, but we should verify its
group: they are quantum group symmetries. As we will self-adjointness domain. Since problems can only arise
discuss in detail below in Sec. III, this type of symmetry from the integration over r, we will assume that the angular
requires Lorentz matrices Λμ ν and translations, which are degrees of freedom have been integrated out. Integrating by
noncommutative coordinates themselves—for example, in parts, one finds
relations like Eq. (3.1) below. Our interpretation of the Z  
3
meaning of this is the following: one inertial observer, e.g., drr2 ψ 1 iλ r∂ r þ ψ 2
Alice, will be able to perform local experiments and 2
Z Z
2 3
establish that the limits to the localizability of events
¼ iλ drr ψ 1 ψ 2 − dr iλ∂ r ðr3 ψ 1 Þψ 2 þ ψ 1 r3 ψ 2 j∞
0 :
satisfy the uncertainty relations (1.2), where x̂0 is the 2
direction of spacetime she calls “time.” With repeated
ð2:9Þ
uncertainty measurements, she will be able to establish
that her time direction and her spatial coordinates satisfy One can see that the boundary term vanishes if ψ 1 and ψ 2
the commutation relations (1.1). A different observer, e.g., 3
vanish at infinity faster than r−2 , whichRis true for all square-
Bob, will perform similar measurements, perhaps on the
same system studied by Alice (seen in his reference frame) integrable (according to the measure drr2 ) functions. In
and will conclude that his own time and space coordinates the origin, the condition imposed is weaker than the one
satisfy (1.1). But this is impossible if Bob’s coordinates are imposed by square integrability.
related to Alice by linear relations like x̂0μ ¼ Λμ ν x̂ν . The Let us now look for the spectrum and the (improper)
solution to this apparent contradiction is that the trans- eigenvectors. They will be the equivalent of the plane
formation relating Bob’s coordinates to Alice’s is not a waves. Monomial in r are formal solutions of the eigen-
simple linear combination of Alice’s coordinate operators, value problem:
but it involves operator-valued Lorentz matrices (and    
3 α 3 α
translations), such that the transformed coordinates still iλ r∂ r þ r ¼ iλ α þ r ¼ λα rα : ð2:10Þ
satisfy the same commutation relations [Eq. (1.2)]. These 2 2
commutation relations are then independent of the refer-
Therefore, eigenvalues are
ence frame, and appear the same to all inertial observers,
independently of their state of motion and translation. The  
3
secret to achieving this is the fact that the transformations λα ¼ iλ α þ : ð2:11Þ
act both on Alice’s coordinates and on their state, which 2
describes the event that Alice is studying, and they do so in
These eigenvalues are real if and only if
such a way that the transformed event, when acted upon by
Bob’s coordinates, will show the same commutation 3
relations, when referred to what Bob calls space and time α ¼ − þ iτ; ð2:12Þ
2
coordinates.
The x̂0 operator is, up to constants, the dilation operator, with −∞ < τ < ∞ a real number. In complete analogy
and this suggests the use of a polar basis. The polar with the momentum case previously discussed, unless the
coordinates θ̂, φ̂ do not correspond to well-defined self- real part of α is −3=2, the improper eigenfunctions would
adjoint operators, but we note that, defining r̂ cos θ̂ ¼ x̂3 not be acceptable distributions. The spectrum of the time
and r̂eiφ̂ ¼ ðx̂1 þ ix̂2 Þ, a simple calculation shows that operator is real and goes from minus infinity to plus
infinity.
The distributions
½x̂0 ; cos θ̂ ¼ ½x̂0 ; eiφ̂  ¼ 0; ½x̂0 ; r̂ ¼ iλr̂: ð2:7Þ
3
r−2−iτ 3
Tτ ¼ ¼ r−2 e−iτ logðλÞ ð2:13Þ
r
0
In fact, x̂ commutes with all spherical harmonics, or in
λ−iτ
general functions of θ̂ and φ̂ independent on r. Hence, in
2 3 are for time in classical κ-Minkowski space what plane
P the vectors of L ðRx Þ to be
the following we will consider
functions of the kind ψ ¼ lm ψ lm ðrÞY lm ðθ; φÞ. Moreover, waves are for momentum in quantum phase space. They are
since the angular variables commute with everything, we not physical states [vector of L2 ðR3x Þ], because their
will often concentrate on the radial parts, and consider behavior at the origin and at infinity is bad, but “just
functions of r alone. The uncertainty principle (1.2) has its about”—an epsilon slower at the origin and an epsilon
polar version faster at infinity would do, but then they would not be

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LIZZI, MANFREDONIA, MERCATI, and POULAIN PHYS. REV. D 99, 085003 (2019)
Z
eigenfunctions of x̂0 . They have a well-defined inner 1 Cþi∞
M−1 ½F ðsÞ; x ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi ds x−s F ðsÞ; A < C < B:
product with every vector in the domain of x̂0 . The i 2π C−i∞
distribution has the correct dimension of a length to the ð2:17Þ
power 3=2; the factor of λ is there to avoid taking
the logarithm of a dimensional quantity. Since λ is a natural We require a transform which is an isometry between
scale for the model, this choice is natural, but not unique. square-integrable functions of r with measure drr2 and
functions of τ. Therefore, we define
2. The spectrum of time and Mellin transforms Z ∞
1 3
ψðr; θ; φÞ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffi
ffi dτ r−2 e−iτ logðλÞ ψ̃ðτ; θ; φÞ
r
Since x̂0 is a self-adjoint operator, it will have a complete
2π −∞
basis. As what matters to us is only the radial coordinates,
we will leave θ and φ unchanged. We can therefore use in ¼ M−1 ½ψ̃ðτ; θ; φÞ; r; ð2:18Þ
our set of complete observables either r or τ. Z ∞
1 1
ψ̃ðτ; θ; φÞ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi dr r2 eiτ logðλÞ ψðr; θ; φÞ
r
As noted earlier, the completeness of the observables
implies that any function of r can be isometrically 2π 0
 
expanded in terms of the T τ : 3
¼ M ψðr; θ; φÞ; − þ iτ : ð2:19Þ
Z 2
1 ∞ 3
ψðr; θ; φÞ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi dτr−2 e−iτ logðλÞ ψ̃ðτ; θ; φÞ: ð2:14Þ
r

2π −∞ Thus, ψ̃ is the Mellin transform of ψ, with s ¼ 3=2 þ iτ.

Hereafter, we will often omit the explicit dependence on θ
The integral above suggests ψðr; θ; φÞ to be some kind of and φ when there is no confusion. The above-defined
integral transform of ψ̃ðτ; θ; φÞ, the analog in this context of transformations conserve the norms:
the Fourier transform. Z ∞ Z ∞
It is in fact a Mellin transform. Given a locally integrable drr2 jψðrÞj2 ¼ dτjψ̃ðτÞj2 : ð2:20Þ
function fðxÞ with x ∈ ð0; ∞Þ, the integral 0 −∞

Z Likewise, there is a Parseval identity:

1 ∞
M½f; s ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi dx xs−1 fðxÞ ¼ F ðsÞ ð2:15Þ Z ∞
2π 0 hψ 1 jψ 2 i ¼ dr r2 ψ̄ 1 ðrÞψ 2 ðrÞ
0
defines the Mellin transform of f, when Eq. (2.15) con- Z ∞
verges. The integral in Eq. (2.15) converges for ¼ dτψ̃ 2 ðτÞψ̃ 1 ðτÞ ¼ hψ̃ 1 jψ̃ 2 i: ð2:21Þ
−∞
ReðsÞ ∈ ðA; BÞ, where A and B are real numbers such that
 Assuming the usual measurement theory, we have that the
Oðx−A−ϵ Þ as χ → 0þ average time measured by a particle in the state described
fðxÞ ¼ ; ∀ ϵ > 0; A < B: by ψ with spherical symmetry is given by
Oðe−Bþϵ Þ as χ → þ∞
Z  
ð2:16Þ 3
hx̂0 iψ ¼ 4π r2 drψ̄ðrÞiλ r∂ r þ ψðrÞ: ð2:22Þ
2
The interval ðA; BÞ is the so-called strip of analyticity of
M½f; s. The inverse of the Mellin transform is3 If ψ is real, it results in hx̂0 iψ ¼ 0. In fact,
Z Z Z
r3 drψ̄ðrÞ∂ r ψðrÞ ¼ r3 jψj2 j∞
0 − r3 drψðrÞ∂ r ψ̄ðrÞ − 3 r2 drjψðrÞj2

⇓
Z Z
3 3
ψ ¼ ψ̄ ⇒ r drψ̄ðrÞ∂ r ψðrÞ ¼ − r2 drjψðrÞj2 ; ð2:23Þ
2

which implies that the two terms in Eq. (2.22) cancel each functions have a vanishing mean value of the momentum.The
other. Hence, only complex-valued functions will have a probability of measuring a given value of τ is given by jψ̃ðτÞj2
nonzero mean value for a measurement of time. One may for normalized functions.
note the analogy with quantum phase space, where real To get familiar with this representation, let us give a few
examples. Consider the following state, localized on a shell
3
A more detailed discussion can be found in Ref. [34]. of radius r0 : ψðrÞ ¼ δðr − r0 Þ=r20 . Then

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1 −32 r0 iτ 1 −3 r0 not constant: it is now peaked around τ ¼ 0, and it
ψ̃ðτÞ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi r0 ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi r0 2 eiτ logð λ Þ ; ð2:24Þ
2π λ 2π decreases like τ−2 away from the origin. In the limit
R1 → R2 , the Mellin transform (2.26) tends to (be propor-
and the probability jψðτÞj2 does not depend on τ, which tional to) the Mellin transform of the delta function (2.24).
means that all values of time are equally probable, just like It is useful to have an idea of the dimensional quantities
0
in quantum mechanics, where a localized particle has all involved. If we call t the eigenvalue of the time operator xc ,
values of momentum equally probable. Not surprisingly, then τ ¼ t λ. Note that λ is a dimensional quantity. If we
c c

the function ψ̃ðτÞ in Eq. (2.24) is not normalizable. We can choose for λ the Planck length, then cλ ∼ 2 × 1043 Hz. In
regularize the delta function by approximating it with a other words, if t ¼ 1 s, then τ ¼ 2 × 1043 , an extremely
constant function with support on a “thick spherical shell”: large number. If t is of the order of Planck time, then τ ∼ 1.
8
>
> 0 r < R1
< qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi C. Localized states
3
ψðrÞ ¼ 4πðR32 −R31 Þ
R1 ≤ r ≤ R2 : ð2:25Þ
>
>
The aim of this section is to show that the localization
: properties (in space and time) of a particle at the origin are
0 R2 < r
different from those away from it. To this extent, we will
Its Mellin transform is consider the Hilbert-space vectors for particles in the two
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 3þiτ cases and compare them and their limit to a distribution.
3
þiτ 
1 3 R22 − R21 2 The relation (2.8) implies a generalized uncertainty prin-
ψ̃ðτÞ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi 3 3 ciple which will limit the simultaneous localizabilty of a
2π 4πðR2 − R1 Þ λiτ 3 þ 2iτ
particle in space and time; we wish to see its explicit
ð2:26Þ consequences for localized states. We have chosen to
present the results of this section using concrete examples
with the probability density for clarity; we do not, however, have at present a general
theory encompassing all possible states. This will have to
3
jψ̃ðτÞj2 ¼ wait for further work.
8π ðR32 − R31 Þ
2
  
3 3
3 3 R2 4 1. Point localized at a finite distance from the origin
× R2 þ R1 − 2R1 R2 cos τ log
2 2
;
R1 9 þ 4τ2 Consider a wave function localized in space in a small
ð2:27Þ region of size a around a point at distance z0 along the
z axis. The wave function can have constant value inside
which is an even function, which explains why the average that region, and the normalization condition fixes that
value of x̂0 vanishes. The probability density (2.27) now is value. In spherical coordinates we can write

8 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
< 3λ
; z0 ≤ r ≤ ðz0 þ aÞ and cos θ > 1 − aλ
2aπððaþz0 Þ3 −z30 Þ
ψ z0 ;a ðr; θ; φÞ ¼ : ð2:28Þ
: 0; otherwise

The shape of the region we are considering is shown in Fig. 1. For any nonzero (positive) a, the wave function is normalized
and is a well-defined state of the Hilbert space L2 ðR3x Þ. In the limit a → 0, ψ z0 ;a goes to a δ function localized at a distance z0
from the origin along the positive z axis. It is possible to calculate its Mellin transform

pffiffiffiffiffi 3 3
þiτ  
3λ ðz0 þ aÞ2þiτ − z20 a
ψ̃ z0 ðτ; θ; φÞ ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi Θ cos θ − 1 þ ð2:29Þ
π λiτ ð3 þ i2τÞ aðða þ z Þ3 − z3 Þ λ
0 0

and the associated probability density

3 3 3=2  
3λ z0 þ ðz0 þ a0 Þ − 2ðz0 ða þ z0 ÞÞ cos ðτ logðz0 þaÞÞ
z0
a
jψ̃ z0 ;a j2 ¼ Θ cos θ − 1 þ
π2 ð4τ2 þ 9Þaðða þ z0 Þ3 − z30 Þ λ
   
λ λa a
¼ 2
− 2 2
þ Oða2 Þ Θ cos θ − 1 þ : ð2:30Þ
4π z0 8ðπ z0 Þ λ

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FIG. 2. The τ dependence of the Mellin transform of the wave

function (2.28).

FIG. 1. The support of the wave function (2.28).

We can integrate the above function in θ, which gives a

factor a=λ:
Z
a a2
jψ̃ z0 ;a j2 sin θ dθ ¼ − þ Oða3 Þ: ð2:31Þ
4π 2 z0 8λðπ 2 z20 Þ

The Mellin transformed function has been plotted in Fig. 2.

In the limit a → 0, the Mellin-transformed wave function
tends to a constant 4πλ2 z localized in θ in a cone of angle
q0 ffiffiffiffi

arccosð1 − λ Þ − π=2 ∼ 2a
a
λ . The angular average tends to a
ð2þϵÞ
FIG. 3. The σ → ∞ limit of Lðr; r0 Þ when ξ ¼ e−σ , for
constant which vanishes as a → 0 (because of the nor- ϵ ¼ 0.01.
malization). This implies that in the limit, the state is not an
L2 function anymore, and is instead a function with zero
which the presence of hx̂i i on the right-hand side suggests
scalar product with all L2 functions.
that, although general localized states are impossible to
Note also that (not surprisingly) the series expansion for
achieve, in the special case of states localized at the spatial
a around 0, and that for z0 around ∞ are the same:
origin, perfect localization should be possible. Just like
delta functions and plane waves in ordinary quantum
λ aλ a2 λð7 − 4τ2 Þ
jψ̃ z0 j2 ¼ − þ þ Oða3 Þ mechanics (as described in Sec. I A), it should be possible
4π 2 z0 8π 2 z20 192π 2 z30 to obtain the mentioned states localized at the spatial origin
λ aλ a2 λð7 − 4τ2 Þ as limits of normalized vectors of our Hilbert space (see
¼ − þ þ Oðz−4
0 Þ:
4π 2 z0 8π 2 z20 192π 2 z30 Fig. 4). The key is to find functions that saturate the
uncertainty bounds. In the case of the quantum phase space
This means that a sharp localization of a particle far away algebra, these are Gaussians (coherent states), as is well
from the origin implies that the particle cannot be localized known. The κ-Minkowski algebra, however, is not canoni-
in time. And this is in accordance with the generalized cal, and Gaussians are not minimal uncertainty states for
uncertainty principle (2.8). this algebra. This role is played by log-Gaussian normal-
ized wave functions, as plotted in Fig. 3:
D. Points localized at the origin of space  2
logðrr Þ
− 0
and limit to eigenstates of the origin 9 2
e−16σ
σ
ðlog r−log r0 Þ2 e
−
We now present a one-parameter family of L functions 2 Lðr; r0 Þ ¼ Ne σ2 ¼ pffiffiffi qffiffiffiffiffi : ð2:32Þ
which tends to a state completely localized at the spatial σ ð2πÞ3=4 r30
origin (while in time it might be completely localized
around any value of τ, or it may be nonlocal). This is all They have a maximum in r ¼ r0 , and they localize at r ¼
allowed by the κ-Minkowski uncertainty relations (1.2), in r0 as σ → 0, and at r ¼ 0 as r0 → 0, for any value of σ ≥ 0.

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refer to as5 joi—that is completely localized at the origin of

spacetime and can be obtained as a limit of normalized
elements of L2 ðR3x Þ. Moreover, we have a one-parameter
family of states, which we indicate from now on with joτ i,
which are localized at the origin of space, at a nonzero time.
These states, too, can be obtained as limits of normalized
elements of L2 ðR3x Þ.

III. κ-POINCARÉ SYMMETRY

In this section, we briefly introduce the deformed
symmetry of our space. We still concentrate on the group
rather than the algebra. We will opt for an intuitive
presentation, rather than a mathematically rigorous one.
ð2þϵÞ
FIG. 4. The σ → ∞ limit, or Qσ;ξ0 ðξÞ when ξ ¼ e−σ , for In the following, to lighten the notation, we will suppress
ϵ ¼ 0.01. the hat symbol we have used so far to distinguish quantum
operators.

The calculation of the average values of r̂n is straightfor- A. The κ-Poincaré quantum group
ward, The algebra (1.1) emerges as the quantum homogeneous
space of a Hopf-algebra deformation of the Poincaré group,
σ2
hr̂n iL ¼ e 8 nðnþ6Þ rn0 ; ð2:33Þ known as κ-Poincaré [1,12–14]. This object has historical
precedence over κ-Minkowski, which was introduced by
and shows that they all vanish for r0 → 0. In order to Majid and Ruegg after recognizing the “bi-cross-product”
calculate the quantity hrn iL, it is best to Mellin-transform; structure of the κ-Poincaré group [1]. The κ-Poincaré group
the function in τ space is remarkably simple: is part of a very small family of possible Hopf-algebra
deformations of the Poincaré group with a deformation
1 1 2   parameter with the dimensions of (the inverse of) energy
σ 2 e−4σ τðτ−3iÞ r0 iτ
L̃ðτ; r0 Þ ¼ p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ; ð2:34Þ [16,35]. Moreover, under the requirement of undeformed
2 2π 3=4
4
λ spatial isotropy, the version of κ-Poincaré corresponding to
Eq. (1.1) is singled out uniquely [16].
The interesting fact is that We introduce κ-Poincaré as the noncommutative algebra
σ 2 τ2
of functions P κ , generated by Λμ ν and aμ , that leave the
σe− 2 commutation relations (1.1) invariant under the transfor-
jL̃ðτ; r0 Þj2 ¼ pffiffiffi 3=2 : ð2:35Þ
4 2π mation

Namely, in τ space, the probability density is a Gaussian xμ → x0μ ¼ Λμ ν ⊗ xν þ aμ ⊗ 1: ð3:1Þ

independent on r0 . It is now trivial to see that
We ask that the above map, from the κ-Minkowski algebra
  
0 n 1 λ n 0 n odd Mκ to the tensor product algebra P κ ⊗ Mκ , be a left-
hðx̂ Þ iL ¼ : ð2:36Þ coaction. This entails that the map is a homomorphism with
4π σ ðn − 1Þ!! n even
respect to the noncommutative product of Mκ , hence the
We can see that there is a double limit,4 r0 → 0 and σ → ∞, covariance of the commutation relations (1.1). In other
which gives a state which is localized both in space (at words, we require that
r ¼ 0) and in time. In the example above, the time
localization is at τ ¼ 0, but it is possible to shift the state ½x0μ ; x0ν  ¼ iλðδμ 0 x0ν − δν 0 x0μÞ : ð3:2Þ
by multiplying the function by riτ0 . Moreover, one can
attribute any wave function to time while still having the This fixes some commutation relations between the κ-
spatial coordinates localized at the origin, just by convolut- Poincaré group coordinates6:
ing this with a function of τ. We have then introduced a
state—which we can call the “eigenstate of the origin,” and While we have seen that there is a state corresponding to joi,
5

there is not a normalized vector corresponding to it. Here (and in

2þϵ
the following), we are performing the usual abuse of notation
4
For example, it is sufficient to take r0 ¼ e−σ for any ϵ > 0, made when one uses the ket notation jxi in ordinary quantum
such that all hr̂n iL in Eq. (2.33) and all hðx̂0 Þn iL in Eq. (2.36) go mechanics.
to zero as σ → ∞. 6
The metric used here is ημν ¼ diagðþ; −; −; −Þ.

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½aμ ; aν  ¼ iλðδμ 0 aν − δν 0 aμ Þ; ½Λμ ν ; Λρ σ  ¼ 0; representation theory of the Lorentz group applies, and we
can write
½Λμ ν ; aρ  ¼ iλ½ðΛμ σ δσ 0 − δμ 0 ÞΛρ ν þ ðΛσ ν δ0 σ − δ0 ν Þημρ :
ð3:3Þ Λμ ν ¼ ðexp ωÞμ ν ; ωμ ρ ηρν ¼ −ων ρ ηρμ ; ð3:9Þ

Also, the group laws (the group product or composition where the (Lorentzian) antisymmetry relation above
law, the inverse, and the identity), here encoded with a reduces the independent components of ωμ ν to six.
coproduct Δ∶P κ → P κ ⊗ P κ , These components commute with each other,

Δðaμ Þ ¼ aν ⊗ Λμ ν þ 1 ⊗ aμ ; ΔðΛμ ν Þ ¼ Λμ ρ ⊗ Λρ ν ; ½ωμ ν ; ωρ σ  ¼ 0; ð3:10Þ

ð3:4Þ
but they do not commute with aμ . The structure of the
an antipode S∶P κ → P κ , commutation relations (3.3) suggests the representation of
the aμ ’s as vector fields,
Sðaμ Þ ¼ −aν ðΛ−1 Þμ ν ; SðΛμ ν Þ ¼ ðΛ−1 Þμ ν ; ð3:5Þ
∂
aρ ¼ −iλ½ðΛμ σ δσ 0 − δμ 0 ÞΛρ ν þ ðΛσ ν δ0 σ − δ0 ν Þημρ  ;
∂Λμ ν
and a counit ε∶P κ → C,
ð3:11Þ
εðaμ Þ ¼ 0; εðΛμ ν Þ ¼ δμ ν ; ð3:6Þ
and the exponential relation between ωμ ν and Λμ ν implies
∂ ν ∂
∂Λμ ν ¼ Λ α ∂ωμ α , which allows us to write the above repre-
have to be homomorphisms with respect to the commuta-
tion relations (3.3). In this way we make sure that our sentation as vector fields acting on the space of ωμ ν
noncommutative algebra of functions on the Poincaré coordinates:
group is compatible with the group structure. Finally, in
order to have a proper Hopf algebra, the group maps, ∂
together with the noncommutative product, have to satisfy aρ ¼ −iλ½ðΛμ σ δσ 0 − δμ 0 ÞΛρ ν þ ðΛσ ν δ0 σ − δ0 ν Þημρ Λν α :
∂ωμ α
two identities. One is the coassociativity of the coproduct:
ð3:12Þ
ðΔ ⊗ idÞ ∘ Δ ¼ ðid ⊗ ΔÞ∘Δ; ð3:7Þ
Interestingly, the above vector fields already “know” about
which ensures that we can combine two coproducts in the commutation relations between the translation oper-
either order, and the result is the same. As we said, the ators. In fact, the commutator of two of these vector fields
coproduct encodes the group combination law. Combining acts on wave functions of ωμ ν as the Lie bracket between
two coproducts means that we are making three subsequent the vector fields, and computing this Lie bracket
transformations in the two possible orders, and the com- yields ½aμ ; aν  ¼ iλðδμ 0 aν − δν 0 aμ Þ.
bined transformation is the same. This is just one of We found a representation of the κ-Poincaré algebra, in
the axioms of ordinary Lie groups: the associativity of which Λμ ν is represented as multiplication operators on
the group product. The other axioms are the existence of the wave functions of ωμ ν ,
identity (ensured by the existence of the counit map), and
the relation between the group inverse and the identity. This Λμ ν ϕðωÞ ¼ ðexp ωÞμ ν ϕðωÞ; ð3:13Þ
is now encoded in the Hopf identity:
while the translation operators act as vector fields,
μ ∘ ðS ⊗ idÞ ∘ Δ ¼ μ ∘ ðid ⊗ SÞ ∘ Δ ¼ ε; ð3:8Þ
aρ ϕðωÞ ¼ −iλ½ðΛμ σ δσ 0 − δμ 0 ÞΛρ ν
which ensures that the antipode provides a left- and right-
∂ϕðωÞ
inverse for the coproduct [μ∶P κ ⊗ P κ → P κ stands for the þ ðΛσ ν δ0 σ − δ0 ν Þημρ Λν α : ð3:14Þ
(noncommutative) multiplication map]. ∂ωμ α

The wave functions can be taken as belonging to

B. A representation of the κ-Poincaré quantum group L2 ðSOð3; 1ÞÞ, with the scalar product constructed, e.g.,
The operators Λμ ν in Eq. (3.3) should not be understood with the Haar measure on the Lorentz group.
as 16 independent operators, but rather as 16 redundant Unfortunately, the representation we just considered is
functions satisfying the relations ημν Λμ ρ Λν σ ¼ ηρσ , which not good enough: it is not faithful. In fact, we can write
reduce the independent components to six. Since all combinations of the Λμ ν and aρ operators that are repre-
components of Λμ ν commute with each other, the standard sented as the null operator:

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ηρμ ðΛμ σ δσ 0 − δμ 0 Þaρ ⊳ϕðωÞ

∂ϕðωÞ
¼ ½ηρβ Λρ ν ðδκ 0 Λβ κ − δβ 0 Þðδσ 0 Λμ σ − δμ 0 Þ þ ðδσ 0 Λμ σ − δμ 0 Þðδ0 σ Λσ ν − δ0 ν ÞΛν α
∂ωμ α
∂ϕðωÞ
¼ ðδσ 0 Λμ σ − δμ 0 Þ½ηρβ Λρ ν ðδκ 0 Λβ κ − δβ 0 Þ þ ðδ0 σ Λσ ν − δ0 ν ÞΛν α
∂ωμ α
∂ϕðωÞ
¼ ðδσ 0 Λμ σ − δμ 0 Þ½ðη00 − 1Þδ0 ν þ ð1 − η00 ÞΛ0 ν Λν α ¼ 0; ð3:15Þ
∂ωμ α

where the last line is zero because η00 ¼ þ1 in our this is to write a direct sum of representations: the above
convention. The operator one and the (at this point familiar) representation (2.6) of κ-
Minkowski coordinates, which reproduces the commuta-
ηρμ ðΛμ σ δσ 0 − δμ 0 Þaρ ð3:16Þ tion rules between translation operators, but commutes with
Lorentz transformations. The Hilbert space now has to be
is nontrivial and, at least in order to admit a good classical enlarged with three additional coordinates, qi ∈ R, i ¼ 1,
limit, some of its expectation values should not be vanish- 2, 3, so it is L2 ðSOð3; 1Þ × R3 Þ; the Lorentz matrices still
ing. We conclude that the representation (3.14) is not represent as multiplicative operators (3.13); and the trans-
faithful, and it needs to be enlarged. The simplest way to do lation operators are represented as follows:

 
ρ λ μ σ μ ρ σ 0 0 μρ ν ∂ λ ρ i ∂ ρ i 1
a ¼ −i ½ðΛ σ δ 0 − δ 0 ÞΛ ν þ ðΛ ν δ σ − δ ν Þη Λ α μ þ i δ 0q þ δ i q þ H:c:; ð3:17Þ
2 ∂ω α 2 ∂qi 2

where by “H.c.” we mean the Hermitian conjugate of the previous expression. This ensures that the operator is self-adjoint
on some domain. The final form of our representation is
 
ρ 3 ρ i ∂ϕðq; ωÞ
a ϕðq; ωÞ ¼ iλδ 0 ϕðq; ωÞ þ q þ δρ i qi ϕðq; ωÞ
2 ∂qi
∂
− iλ∶½ðΛμ σ δσ 0 − δμ 0 ÞΛρ ν þ ðΛσ ν δ0 σ − δ0 ν Þημρ Λν α ∶ϕðq; ωÞ;
∂ωμ α
Λμ ν ϕðq; ωÞ ¼ Λμ ν ðωÞϕðωÞ ¼ ðexp ωÞμ ν ϕðq; ωÞ; ð3:18Þ

that is,
 
ρ 3 ρ i ∂ϕðq; ωÞ
a ϕðq; ωÞ ¼ iλδ 0 ϕðq; ωÞ þ q þ δμ i qi ϕðq; ωÞ
2 ∂qi
iλ ∂ϕðq; ωÞ
− ½ðΛμ σ δσ 0 − δμ 0 ÞΛρ ν þ ðΛσ ν δ0 σ − δ0 ν Þημρ Λν α
2 ∂ωμ α
iλ ∂
− ϕðq; ωÞ μ ½ðΛμ σ δσ 0 − δμ 0 ÞΛρ ν þ ðΛσ ν δ0 σ − δ0 ν Þημρ ;
2 ∂Λ ν
Λμ ν ϕðq; ωÞ ¼ Λμ ν ðωÞϕðωÞ ¼ ðexp ωÞμ ν ϕðq; ωÞ: ð3:19Þ

It is trivial to check that, since the derivatives with The representation (3.19) is complicated, and its explicit
respect to ωμ ν commute with the functions of qi , and the functional form depends on the coordinate system on the
derivatives with respect to qi commute with the functions of Lorentz group we choose. In two spacetime dimensions,
ωμ ν , the representation splits into a direct sum of repre- the situation is greatly simplified by the fact that the
sentations, and the commutation relations between aμ ’s are Lorentz group is one dimensional, and everything can be
satisfied. made very explicit. In the next section, we will repeat the

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steps that led us to introduce the representation (3.19) in the add to the above representation the familiar representation
(1 þ 1)-dimensional case, a useful exercise both for peda- of the κ-Minkowski algebra in 1 þ 1 dimensions:
gogical reasons, and in order to have an example that can be
worked out explicitly. This will be useful later. ∂ ∂ ∂
a0 ¼ iλq þ iλ sinh ξ ; a1 ¼ q þ iλðcosh ξ − 1Þ :
∂q ∂ξ ∂ξ
C. The representation of κ-Poincaré in 1 + 1 dimensions ð3:26Þ
The great advantage of working in 1 þ 1 dimensions is
that we have an explicit (and simple) coordinatization of the The two parts commute with each other and separately
Lorentz group: satisfy the commutation relations and the Jacobi identity,
and therefore they provide a good representation of our
Λ0 0 ¼ Λ1 1 ¼ cosh ξ; Λ0 1 ¼ Λ1 0 ¼ sinh ξ ð3:20Þ algebra on the Hilbert space L2 ðSOð1; 1Þ × RÞ ∼ L2 ðR2 Þ
of square-integrable functions of ξ and q. This representa-
in this parametrization. The commutation relations of tion is not self-adjoint, but it can be made so by Weyl-
κ-Poincaré (3.3) take the form ordering it:
   
iλ ∂ ∂ iλ ∂ ∂
½a0 ; a1  ¼ iλa1 ; ½cosh ξ; a0  ¼ −iλsinh2 ξ; a0 ¼ q þ q þ sinh ξ þ sinh ξ ;
2 ∂q ∂q 2 ∂ξ ∂ξ
½cosh ξ; a1  ¼ −iλðcosh ξ − 1Þ sinh ξ;  
1 iλ ∂ ∂
½sinh ξ; a0  ¼ −iλ sinh ξ cosh ξ; a ¼qþ ðcosh ξ − 1Þ þ ðcosh ξ − 1Þ ; ð3:27Þ
2 ∂ξ ∂ξ
½sinh ξ; a1  ¼ −iλðcosh ξ − 1Þ cosh ξ; ð3:21Þ
which can be written
which can be simplified to    
0 1 ∂ 1 ∂
a ¼ iλ þ q þ iλ cosh ξ þ sinh ξ ;
½a0 ;a1  ¼ iλa1 ; ½ξ;a0  ¼ −iλsinhξ; ½ξ;a1  ¼ iλð1−coshξÞ: 2 ∂q 2 ∂ξ
 
ð3:22Þ 1 ∂
a1 ¼ q þ iλ sinh ξ þ ðcosh ξ − 1Þ : ð3:28Þ
2 ∂ξ
It is evident that a0 and a1 act on ξ like vector fields:
It is easy to check that the above reproduces the commu-
∂ ∂ tation relations (3.3).
a0 ¼ iλ sinh ξ ; a1 ¼ iλðcosh ξ − 1Þ : ð3:23Þ
∂ξ ∂ξ
D. From κ-Poincaré to κ-Minkowski
The above representation would be acceptable, as it We can now make it precise, within the framework of the
reproduces the ½a0 ; a1  commutation relations. In this case, representations we introduced for κ-Minkowski and κ-
we can easily show this explicitly: Poincaré, in which sense the κ-Minkowski noncommutative
  spacetime is the quantum homogeneous space obtained by
0 1 2 ∂ ∂ ∂ quotienting the κ-Poincaré quantum group by the Lorentz
½a ;a  ¼ −λ sinhξ ðcoshξ−1Þ−ðcoshξ−1Þ sinhξ
∂ξ ∂ξ ∂ξ group. The idea is that there are enough states in the
∂ representation of κ-Poincaré that we can reproduce any
¼ −λ2 ½sinh2 ξ−ðcoshξ−1Þcoshξ vector in the Hilbert space of the representation of κ-
∂ξ
Minkowski [i.e., L2 ðRÞ] as an appropriate limit of
∂ vectors belonging to the representation of κ-Poincaré
¼ −λ2 ðcoshξ−1Þ ¼ iλa1 : ð3:24Þ
∂ξ [L2 ðSOð3; 1Þ × RÞ], in which the wave function on the
Lorentz group becomes localized at the identity (in the limit).
As before, this representation cannot be faithful, because We illustrate this explicitly in the (1 þ 1)-dimensional
the operator case. Consider the representation (3.28): if it is restricted to
act on functions which are localized around ξ ∼ 0, we can
ðcosh ξ − 1Þa0 − sinh ξa1 expand all the functions of ξ on the right-hand side around
¼ −iλðcosh ξ − 1Þ ξ ¼ 0, and at first order in ξ, the representation looks like
∂ ∂    
× sinh ξ þ iλ sinh ξðcosh ξ − 1Þ ¼ 0; ð3:25Þ 1 ∂ 1 ∂
∂ξ ∂ξ a0 ¼ iλ þ q þ iλ þ ξ þ Oðξ2 Þ;
2 ∂q 2 ∂ξ
which is the (1 þ 1)-dimensional version of Eq. (3.16), is iλ
a1 ¼ q þ ξ þ Oðξ2 Þ: ð3:29Þ
represented as the null operator. Again, it is sufficient to 2

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This reveals the underlying structure: on wave functions κ-Poincaré. Accordingly, it will be impossible to locate the
sufficiently localized around ξ ¼ 0, the representation position of the transformed observer, since translations do
looks like two copies of the κ-Poincaré representation not commute. In the spirit of this paper, we will consider the
(2.6), one acting on q and one on ξ (the only difference algebra generated by the a’s and Λ’s, and associate with a
being that the ξ part of a1 is multiplied by iλ=2, which is translated and Lorentz-transformed observer a state of this
irrelevant in our discussion). We are interested in defining a algebra. We first consider the observer located at the origin,
sequence of wave functions that localize at ξ ¼ 0, main- which is reached via the identity transformation.
taining the freedom in the choice of the q dependence. The
form (3.29) suggests taking nonentangled states: A. The identity transformation state
Looking at the commutation relations (3.3), it is possible
ψ σ;ξ0 ðq; ξÞ ¼ fðqÞQσ;ξ0 ðξÞ; ð3:30Þ to define a state joiP of P κ with the property
where Qσ;ξ0 is a log-Gaussian similar to (2.32):
P hojfða; ΛÞjoiP ¼ εðfÞ; ð4:1Þ
 2
σ2 logðξ Þ−logðξ2 Þ 2
e− 16 − 2σ
0 where fða; ΛÞ is a generic element of the κ-Poincaré
Qσ;ξ0 ðξÞ ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
pffiffiffiffiffiffi e ; ð3:31Þ algebra (i.e., a generic noncommutative function of trans-
2π ξ0 σ lations and Lorentz-transformation matrices), and ε is the
counit of the κ-Poincaré algebra defined in Eq. (3.8). In
which is a function which attributes to ξn a zero expectation other words, the state returns the value of the function on
1 2
value for n positive and odd, and e8nðnþ2Þσ for n positive the identity transformation.
and even. We interpret this state in the enlarged algebra as
All the expectation values of ðaμ Þn tend to describing the Poincaré transformation between two coinci-
dent observers—i.e., between an observer and a second one
hψ σ;ξ0 jðaμ Þn jψ σ;ξ0 i ⟶ hfjðxμ Þn jfi located at the origin of the coordinate system of the first
ξ0 →0;σ→∞
Z observer. It is not difficult to see, looking at Eq. (3.3), that
the state is such that all combined uncertainties vanish.
¼ dqf̄ðqÞðxμ Þn fðqÞ; ð3:32Þ
Coincident observers are therefore a well-defined concept
in κ-Minkowski spacetime.
where x1 ¼ q and x0 ¼ iλð12 þ q ∂q ∂
Þ is the familiar κ- Note also that all the Λ’s commute among themselves,
Poincaré representation, and the limits ξ0 → 0, σ → ∞ and will therefore have common eigenvectors. It is clear
2
are taken in such a way7 that ecσ ξ0 → 0 for all c > 0. from this that the localizability uncertainties have to do
This is the fundamental content of the statement that κ- with translations, not Lorentz transformations.
Minkowski is the homogeneous space of κ-Poincaré: we This state can easily be obtained as a limit of vectors in
the Hilbert space. It suffices to take a succession of
can reproduce any vector f in L2 ðRx Þ by taking the limit of
functions which converge to a δ as far as aμ and the
the product of f with the log-Gaussian (3.31), and all
diagonal elements of Λμ ν are concerned, and to zero for the
expectation values of powers of translation operators will
off-diagonal elements of the Λ’s.
coincide with the expectation values of the corresponding
powers of xμ operators on the vector f. We reproduce all
B. Physical interpretation
we know of κ-Minkowski by taking particular states
on κ-Poincaré and “silencing” the boost part localizing We propose an interpretation for the operators xμ we
around ξ ¼ 0. have been using all along, and the operators x0μ that appear
in Eq. (3.1): they are the coordinate systems associated with
IV. OBSERVERS AND REFERENCE FRAMES two inertial observers—say, Alice and Bob—which are
translated and in relative motion with respect to each other.
We are representing the algebra (1.1) as generators of A spacetime event (i.e., the clicking of a particle detector)
operators on the Hilbert space of functions of position. This seen by Alice will be described by the expectation value of
algebra and its states represent the position in κ- its coordinates hxμ i; their variance hðxμ − hxμ iÞ2 i, which
Minkowski. We have to specify, however, the observer measures how localized it is; the skewness hðxμ − hxμ iÞ3 i
making the observations, and we have been implicitly measuring how asymmetric it is around the expectation
considering an observer located at the origin. In order to value; and all higher moments hðxμ − hxμ iÞn i, which
change the observer, usually a Poincaré transformation is describe in increasingly finer details the distribution of
performed. But in our case, the symmetry is the quantum probability where the event can be localized. The same
event, seen by Bob, will be described by a tower of
ð2þϵÞ
7
As before, we could take ξ0 ¼ e−σ and get everything we moments of the transformed coordinate operators:
want from the σ → ∞ limit. hðx0μ − hx0μ iÞn i, which are in general different from

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Alice’s, unless the transformation that connects Alice and representation (3.19) of P κ with the representation (2.6)
Bob is the identity described in Sec. IVA. of Mκ . Clearly the xμ algebra (Alice’s coordinates) is lifted
What does it mean to take expectation values of the to elements of the kind 1 ⊗ Mκ , where the identity
operators x0μ and their powers? x0μ belongs to the tensor- of P κ is given by Λμ ν ¼ δμ ν, aμ ¼ 0. The representation
product algebra P κ ⊗ Mκ . We can obtain a representation of P κ ⊗ Mκ will act on the Hilbert space HP ×
for this algebra by taking the direct sum of the L2 ðR3x Þ ∼ L2 ðSOð3; 1Þ × R3q × R3x Þ, in the following way:

   
0μ μ ν 3 i ∂fðω; q; xÞ ν i
x fðω; q; xÞ ¼ iλΛ ν ðωÞ δ 0 fðω; q; xÞ þ x þ δ i x fðω; q; xÞ
2 ∂xi
 
3 ∂fðω; q; xÞ
þ iλδμ 0 fðω; q; xÞ þ qi þ δμ i qi fðω; q; xÞ
2 ∂qi
iλ ∂fðω; q; xÞ
− ½ðΛμ σ δσ 0 − δμ 0 ÞΛρ ν þ ðΛσ ν δ0 σ − δ0 ν Þημρ Λν α
2 ∂ωμ α
iλ ∂
− fðω; q; xÞ μ ½ðΛμ σ δσ 0 − δμ 0 ÞΛρ ν þ ðΛσ ν δ0 σ − δ0 ν Þημρ :
2 ∂Λ ν

In the (1 þ 1)-dimensional case, we have a more intelligible expression for our representation:
     
00 1 1 1 1 ∂f 1 1 1 ∂f 1 ∂f
x fðξ; q ; x Þ ¼ iλ cosh ξ f þ x þ sinh ξx f þ iλ f þ q þ iλ cosh ξf þ sinh ξ ;
2 ∂x1 2 ∂q1 2 ∂ξ
   
01 1 1 1 1 ∂f 1 1 1 ∂f
x fðξ; q ; x Þ ¼ iλ sinh ξ f þ x þ cosh ξx f þ q f þ iλ sinh ξf þ ðcosh ξ − 1Þ : ð4:2Þ
2 ∂x1 2 ∂ξ

Our Hilbert space will admit nonentangled states, i.e., objects of the kind

jg; ψi ¼ jgi ⊗ jψi; ð4:3Þ

with jgi ∈ HP ¼ L2 ½SOð3; 1Þ × R3q and jψi ∈ L2 ðR3 Þ. It represents the state of the coordinates x0μ of a Poincaré-
transformed observer. If we want to calculate the expectation values of the coordinates of the transformed observer, we have
to do the following:

hx0μ i ¼ hgj ⊗ hψjðΛμ ν ⊗ xν þ aμ ⊗ 1Þjgi ⊗ jψi ¼ hgjΛμ ν jgihψjxν jψi þ hgjaμ jgi; ð4:4Þ

where we use the normalization condition hψjψi ¼ 1. C. Transforming the states

Similarly, one can calculate all the higher momenta of We will now derive some general results regarding the
the coordinates as properties of these transformed states, which do not depend
on a representation except for assuming the existence of the
identity state.
hx0μ1 …x0μn i ¼ hgj ⊗ hψjðx0μ1 …x0μn Þjgi ⊗ jψi: ð4:5Þ
1. Poincaré-transforming the origin state
Examining again the relations (4.2), notice how the Consider the following state, which Poincaré-tranforms
coordinates x0μ of a Poincaré-transformed observer (e.g., the origin:
Bob) act on states describing an event in this observer’s
reference frame with two copies of the now-familiar jg; 0i ¼ jgi ⊗ joi: ð4:6Þ
representation (2.6). One acts on the state of the original
observer (Alice), which, if the state is a product state as in If we want to know what the Poincaré-transformed
Eq. (4.3), is written as a function of xi ∈ R3 . The other acts observer measures with the coordinates centered on her
on the state of the Poincaré group coordinates, which, in the reference frame, we have to use the operators
product state case, is written as a function of qi ∈ R3 x0μ ¼ Λμ ν ⊗ xν þ aμ ⊗ 1, which act on L2 ðR3x Þ × HP .
and Λμ ν ∈ SOð3; 1Þ. Their expectation values on our transformed state are

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hx0μ i ¼ hgj ⊗ hojx0μ jgi ⊗ joi and the expectation value of the transformed coordi-
nates is completely determined by the expectation value
¼ hgjΛμ ν jgihojxν joi þ hgjaμ jgihojoi; ð4:7Þ
of the translation operators on the chosen κ-Poincaré
state. This is natural: the different observers are
the state joi is normalized so that hojoi ¼ 1, and moreover,
comparing positions, not directions. Now consider, more
the expectation value of xμ on joi is, as we have shown
in general, an arbitrary monomial in the transformed
before, zero. We get
coordinates: x0μ1 x0μ2 …x0μn . Its expectation value on
jgi ⊗ joi is
hx0μ i ¼ hgjaμ jgi; ð4:8Þ

hx0μ1 …x0μn i ¼ hgj ⊗ hojðaμ1 ⊗ 1 þ Λμ1 ν1 ⊗ xν1 Þ    ðaμn ⊗ 1 þ Λμn νn ⊗ xμn Þjgi ⊗ joi
¼ hgjaμ1    aμn jgihojoi þ hgjOμν 1 …μn ða; ΛÞjgihojxν joi þ   
þ hgjOμν11ν…μ
2
n
ða; ΛÞjgihojxν1 xν2 joi þ hgjOμν11…ν
…μn
n
ða; ΛÞjgihojxν1 …xνn joi; ð4:9Þ

and since we showed that joi is such that values, since the aμ closes a noncommutative algebra, we
hojxν1 …xνn joi ¼ 0 ∀ n, cannot know, with absolute precision in time and direction,
where the new observer is, unless she has just time-
hx0μ1 …x0μn i ¼ hgjaμ1 …aμn jgihojoi ¼ hgjaμ1 …aμn jgi: translated the origin, i.e., jgi ¼ joa0 iP .
ð4:10Þ
2. Poincaré-transforming an arbitrary
Therefore, Poincaré-transforming the origin state joi by a state with the identity transformation
state with wave function jgi in the representation of the A second useful result we present now is the effect of the
κ-Poincaré algebra aμ , Λμ ν , the resulting state will assign, identity transformation on an arbitrary state of the κ-
to all polynomials in the transformed coordinates Minkowski coordinates. We start from an arbitrary element
x0μ ¼ aμ ⊗ 1 þ Λμ ν ⊗ xν , the same expectation value as of the Hilbert space of our representation of the κ-
that assigned by jgi to the corresponding polynomials in aμ . Minkowski algebra, jψi ∈ L2 ðR3x Þ. We transform the state
In other words, the state of x0μ is identical to the state of aμ . as in Eq. (4.3) but use the identity state joiP in place of the
So, e.g., all uncertainty in the transformed coordinates Δx0μ generic jgi. In the transformed state joiP ⊗ jψi, all of the
is introduced by the uncertainty in the state of the trans- expectation values of the polynomials in the transformed
lation operator, Δaμ . Let us stress again the fact that, coordinates x0μ take the form
although the new observer is measuring these expectation

hx0μ1 …x0μn i ¼ P hoj ⊗ hψjðaμ1 ⊗ 1 þ Λμ1 ν1 ⊗ xν1 Þ    ðaμn ⊗ 1 þ Λμn νn ⊗ xμn ÞjoiP ⊗ jψi
¼ P hojaμ1 …aμn joiP hψjψi þ P hojOμν 1 …μn ða; ΛÞjoiP hψjxν jψi þ P hojOμν11ν…μ
2
n
ða; ΛÞjoiP hψjxν1 xν2 jψi
þ    þ P hojOμν11…ν
…μn
n
ða; ΛÞjoiP hψjxν1 …xνn jψi
¼ ϵðaμ1 …aμn Þhψjψi þ ϵ½Oμν 1 …μn ða; ΛÞhψjxν jψi þ ϵ½Oμν11ν…μ
2
n
hψixν1 xν2 jψi
þ    þ ϵ½Oμν11…ν
…μn
n
ða; ΛÞhψjxν1 …xνn jψi: ð4:11Þ

Now, the algebra elements Oμν11…ν …μn

m
ða; ΛÞ are monomials in ϵ½Oμν11…ν
…μn
n
ða; ΛÞ ¼ δμ1 ν1 …δμνnn : ð4:13Þ
μ μ
a , Λ ν , without a particular ordering. However, we know
that the mth element contains m Lorentz matrix generators We conclude that
and n − m translation generators. Using the homomor-
phism property of the counit map ϵ, and the fact that P hoj ⊗ hψjx0μ1 …x0μn joiP ⊗ jψi ¼ hψjxμ1 …xμn jψi; ð4:14Þ
ϵðaμ Þ ¼ 0, ϵðΛμ ν Þ ¼ δμ ν , we can prove that
i.e., the identity transformation does not change any
ϵ½Oμν11…ν
…μn
m
ða; ΛÞ ¼ 0 unless m ¼ n ð4:12Þ expectation value—the original observer [who uses the
coordinate operators xμ and the Hilbert space L2 ðR3x Þ], and
and the transformed one [using the coordinates operators x0μ

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and the Hilbert space HP ⊗ L2 ðR3x Þ] agree on all mea- We conclude that
surements if the state of HP that defines the transformation
is joiP . Δðx0μ Þ2 ¼ Δðxμ Þ2 þ Δðaμ Þ2 ≥ Δðxμ Þ2 ; ð4:17Þ

3. κ-Poincaré and coordinate uncertainty i.e., a translation can only increase the uncertainty of the
coordinates. One is simply adding uncorrelated variables,
Consider a generic transformation of a generic state: and their uncertainties get square-summed.8
jψi → jgi ⊗ jψi. We want to study the relationship Performing a translation results in an increase of the
between the uncertainty in the transformed coordinates uncertainty in the coordinates, unless the translation
Δx0μ and that in the original ones Δxμ . parameter has zero uncertainty. This happens only in the
First, the simplest example: a pure translation, cases of the identity transformation or of a purely temporal
x0μ ¼ 1 ⊗ xμ þ aμ ⊗ 1. Calculating the variance of xμ , translation, which can have zero uncertainty in all of the
aμ ’s, in analogy with the discussion in the Introduction. We
Δðx0μ Þ2 ¼ hðx0μ Þ2 i − hx0μ i2 ¼ hðxμ Þ2 þ ðaμ Þ2 þ xμ aμ þ aμ xμ i have the nice result that the uncertainty does not depend on
− hxμ i2 − haμ i2 − 2hxμ ihaμ i time translations.
Consider a state which looks uncertain to the observer
¼ Δðxμ Þ2 þ Δðaμ Þ2 þ 2covðxμ ; aμ Þ: ð4:15Þ
Alice located at the origin. One could think that there would
be another observer, Bob, translated with respect to Alice,
The covariance between aμ and xμ is zero, because they
such that this same state is perfectly localized for him. One
belong to different sides of the tensor product:
could naively think to start (in 1+1D) from the state ψðx1 Þ
2covðxμ ; aμ Þ ¼ hgj ⊗ hψjðxμ aμ þ aμ xμ Þjgi ⊗ jψi for x1, and then make a translation with the wave function
ψð−q1 Þ where ψ is the same function. One would think that
− 2hψjxμ jψihgjaμ jgi the translated state is localized at the origin. Relation (4.17)
¼ hψjxμ jψihgjaμ jgi þ hgjaμ jgihψjxμ jψi shows that this is impossible. Calculating the expectation
value of ðx01 Þn ¼ ðx1 þ a1 Þn , a Newton binomial sum of
− 2hψjxμ jψihgjaμ jgi ¼ 0: ð4:16Þ this kind is obtained:

Xn  
n
hðx1 þ a1 Þn i ¼ hψðx1 Þjðx1 Þn−m jψðx1 Þihψð−qÞjða1 Þm jψð−qÞi
m¼0 m
Xn  
n
¼ hψjðx1 Þn−m jψihψjð−x1 Þm jψi: ð4:18Þ
m¼0 m

The above expression can never be zero. For example, for n ¼ 2,

hðx1 þ a1 Þ2 i ¼ hðx1 Þ2 i þ 2hx1 a1 i þ hða1 Þ2 i ¼ 2hðx1 Þ2 i − 2hx1 i2 ¼ 2Δðx1 Þ2 : ð4:19Þ

The variance doubles; it does not go to zero.

The process of translating a state and then “undoing” it with a change of observer does not lead to an identification of
states. Of course, the symmetry between Alice and Bob is preserved—each has a set of states which is isomorphic, but the
quantum nature of the transformation implies that this set of states are not transformed into each other by a translation.
Now, let us consider general κ-Poincaré transformations—for example, the transformation of the spatial coordinate in
1 þ 1 dimensions,

x01 ¼ cosh ξ ⊗ x1 þ sinh ξ ⊗ x0 þ a1 ⊗ 1; ð4:20Þ

calculating the difference between its variance and the variance of x1 :

8
Notice that this conclusion is a consequence of the fact that we assumed that transformed states are product states jgi ⊗ jψi. If we
allowed for entanglement between the transformation part jgi and the state jψi describing the event in the initial reference frame, we
would have opened the possibility of reducing the uncertainty of xμ with a translation. This, however, conflicts with the basic physical
intuition that the relationship between inertial observers should be independent of the state of the system that the observers are studying.

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Δðx01 Þ2 ¼ Δðx1 Þ2 þ Δða1 Þ2 þ hx1 i2 Δðcosh ξÞ2 þ hx0 i2 Δðsinh ξÞ2

þ hsinh ξi2 Δðx0 Þ2 þ Δðsinh ξÞ2 Δðx0 Þ2 þ hcosh ξi2 Δðx1 Þ2 þ Δðcosh ξÞ2 Δðx1 Þ2
þ 2covðx1 ; x0 Þhcosh ξihsinh ξi þ 2covða1 ; sinh ξÞhx0 i þ 2covða1 ; cosh ξÞhx1 i
þ 2covðcosh ξ; sinh ξÞðcovðx0 ; x1 Þ þ hx0 ihx1 iÞ − Δðx1 Þ2 : ð4:21Þ

The above expression can be rewritten as

Δðx01 Þ2 ¼ Δðx1 Þ2 þ hsinh2 ξiðΔðx0 Þ2 þ Δðx1 Þ2 Þ

þ Δ½cosh ξ2 hx1 i2 þ Δ½sinh ξ2 hx0 i2 þ 2covðcosh ξ; sinh ξÞhx0 ihx1 i
þ Δ½a1 2 þ 2covðcosh ξ; a1 Þhx1 i þ 2covðsinh ξ; a1 Þhx0 i
þ 2hcosh ξ sinh ξicovðx0 ; x1 Þ; ð4:22Þ

the second and third lines above can be rewritten as the squared uncertainty of the operator a1 þ sinh ξhx0 i þ cosh ξhx1 i,
which is positive, and we get

Δðx01 Þ2 − Δðx1 Þ2 ¼ Δ½a1 þ sinh ξhx0 i þ cosh ξhx1 i2

þ hsinh2 ξiðΔðx0 Þ2 þ Δðx1 Þ2 Þ þ 2hcosh ξ sinh ξicovðx0 ; x1 Þ: ð4:23Þ

Now, we assume that hx0 i ¼ hx1 i so that the first term reduces to the uncertainty of a1 . Moreover, we rewrite the covariance
of x0 and x1 as 2covðx0 ; x1 Þ ¼ Δðx0 þ x1 Þ2 − Δðx0 Þ2 − Δðx1 Þ2 :

Δðx01 Þ2 − Δðx1 Þ2 ¼ Δða1 Þ2 þ ðhsinh2 ξi − hcoshξsinhiÞðΔðx0 Þ2 þ Δðx1 Þ2 Þ þ hcoshξsinhξiΔðx0 þ x1 Þ2 : ð4:24Þ

It is easy to prove that

1
hsinh2 ξi þ hcosh ξ sinh ξi ¼ ðhe2ξ i − 1Þ; ð4:25Þ
2
so that

1
Δðx01 Þ2 − Δðx1 Þ2 ¼ Δða1 Þ2 þ ðhe2ξ i − 1ÞðΔðx0 Þ2 þ Δðx1 Þ2 Þ þ hcosh ξ sinh ξiΔðx0 þ x1 Þ2 : ð4:26Þ
2

One linear combination of x0 and x1 can always be made their uncertainty if we perform a κ-Poincaré transformation
arbitrarily localized, so we can make Δðx0 þ x1 Þ2 arbitrar- with sufficiently localized translation and a Lorentz trans-
ily small. The same, of course, holds for Δða1 Þ2, without formation such that he2ξ i < 1 and hcosh ξ sinh ξi ¼ Oð1Þ.
putting any constraint on the other quantities except the We postpone to further work the study of the physical
uncertainty of ξ, which, however, does not limit much our consequences of this observation.
ability to manipulate the state in order to adjust the values
of he2ξ i and hcosh ξ sinh ξi. It does not take long to V. CONCLUSIONS AND OUTLOOK
convince oneself that we can concoct a state such that
In this paper, we discussed a way to look at the κ-
he2ξ i < 1 (e.g., it is sufficient that the wave function over ξ Minkowski quantum space with the tools of the algebra of
be supported on the ξ < 0 region) and hcosh ξ sinh ξi is operators and the theory of measurement initially devel-
Oð1Þ. Then the expression above will be dominated by oped for ordinary quantum mechanics. This enables a
1 2ξ 0 2 1 2
2 ðhe i − 1ÞðΔðx Þ þ Δðx Þ Þ, which is negative. coherent way to look at states, localization, and trans-
We proved that the variances of xμ can only increase after formations. The picture of quantum κ-Minkowski space-
a pure translation, but under particular circumstances, they time which emerges is, in our opinion, quite fascinating.
can decrease after a Poincaré transformation. In particular, There are no absolutely localized points, but it is never-
states with a zero expectation value of xμ , such that the theless possible to find states which approximately localize.
uncertainty of ðx0 þ x1 Þ is sufficiently small, can reduce The role of Fourier transformation from position to

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momentum is here played by Mellin transforms, which κ-Minkowski is curved [36–39], and this has led us to
connect time with (radial) position. We also laid out the introduce the principle of relative locality [38,40,41]. The
foundations of a discussion of the deformed transformations relationship between the relaxations of locality that
of this space. This is an aspect which will deserve further we found in the present paper and those introduced by
scrutiny for a complete understanding of transformation relative locality is an interesting open issue, worth
theory. In this paper, we presented a series of basic results exploring.
valid in 3 þ 1 dimensions, and we discussed in quantitative
details the (1 þ 1)-dimensional case. Generalizing all of our ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
results to the (3 þ 1)-dimensional case seems technically
more complicated, but there do not seem to be any conceptual The authors acknowledge the COST action QSPACE,
obstacles. A possible future development could be address- and in particular the Short Term Scientific Missions which
ing the fact that we used a particular representation of the enabled two visits of T. P. in Napoli. F. L. and M. M.
operators, while others are possible. It should be investigated acknowledge the support of the INFN Iniziativa Specifica
if the alternatives are, at least qualitatively, similar. GeoSymQFT; F. L. acknowledges the Spanish MINECO
Finally, the next challenge: we considered a regime under Project No. MDM-2014-0369 of ICCUB (Unidad de
which is not very natural in physics—namely, we consid- Excelencia “Maria de Maeztu”). F. M. has received funding
ered the effects of a quantum spacetime for which the from the European Union’s research and innovation pro-
noncommutativity parameter of space λ is nonzero, while ℏ gram under a Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant through the
can be ignored. Bringing ℏ back into the picture would INdAM-COFUND-2012 program of the Italian Institue of
require us to consider momenta (either in the form of wave High Mathematics (INdAM). We thank Florio M. Ciaglia,
modes in a field-theoretical setting, or as a quantity Max Kurkov, Marco Laudato, Patrizia Vitale, and Jean-
of motion of particles). The space of momenta in Christophe Wallet for discussions.

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