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i)Con
 iii) Controllers also help in reducing the
iv) Controllers can control the unwanted offsets produced by the system.
maximum
v) Controllers can help in reducing the overshoot of the system.
vi) Controllers can help to speed up the noise signals produced by the system.
slow response of an over damped system.
Different varieties of these controllers are codified
devices such as programmable logic controllers and SCADA within Systems.
industrial automotive
The various types of
controllers are discussed in detail below.
Types of Controllers
There are two main types of controllers:
i) Continuous controllers, & ii) Discontinuous controllers.
In discontinuous controllers, the manipulated variable changes between discrete values.
Depending on how many different states the manipulated variable can assume, a distinction is
made betvween two position, three position, and multi-position controllers.
Compared to continuous controllers, discontinuous controllers operate on very simple, switching
final controlling elements.
The main feature of continuous controllers is that the controlled variable (also known as
the manipulated variable) can have any value within the controller's output range.
Now in the continuous conroller theory, there are three basic modes on which the whole control
action takes place, which are:
1. Proportional controllers.
2. Integral controllers.
3. Derivative controllers.
The combination of these modes is use to control the system such that the process variable is equal
to the set point (or as close as we can get it). These three types of controllers can be combined into
new controllers:
1. Proportional and integral controllers (PI Controller)
2. Proportional and derivative controllers (PD Controller)
3. Proportional integral derivative control (PID Conroller)
Proportional Controllers
For a proportional controller, there are two conditions and these are written below:
1. The devjation should not be large; i.e. there should not be a large deviation between the
input and output.
2. The deviation should not be sudden.
In a proportional controller the output (also called the actuating signal) is directly proportional
tothe error signal.
A proportional - integral derivative controller (PID controller) is a generic control loop
feedback mechanism (controller) widely used in industrial control systems.
A PID controller attempts to correct the error between a measured process variable and a
desired setpoint by
Calculating and then outputting a corrective action that can adjust the process accordingly.
The PID controller calculation (algorithm) involves three separate parameters; the
Proportional, the Integral and Derivative values. The Proportional value determines the reaction to
errors, and
the current error, the Integral value determines the reaction based on the sum of recent
determines the reaction based on the rate at which the error has been
the Derivative value
changing. The weighted sum of these three actions is used to adjust the process via a control
element such as the position of a control valve or the power supply of a heating element. By
"tuning" the three constants in the PID controller algorithm, the controller can provide control
action designed for specific process requirements.
responsiveness of the
The response of the controller can be described in terms of the
controller to an error, the degree to which the controller overshoots the setpoint and the degree of
PID algorithm for control does not guarantee optimal
system oscillation. Note that the use of the
control of the system or system stability.
PV Process ctrl notes 22 3
 PI controllers are particularly common, since derivative action is very sensitive
measurement noise, and the absence of an integral value may prevent the system from reachinoi
target value due to the control action.
Control loop basics
Afamiliar example of a control loop is the action taken to keep one's shower water at the
Ideal temperature, which typically involves the mixing of two process streams, cold and hot water.
The person feels the water to estimate its temperature. Based on this
Control action: use the cold water tap to adjust the process. The person measurement they perform a
output control loop, adjusting the hot water flow until the process would repeat this input
stabilized at the desired value. temperature
Feeling the water temperature is
Variable (PV). The desired temperature is taking
a measurement of the process value or
process
called the setpoint (SP), The output from the
and input to the process (the tap is called the manipulated variable (MV). The controller
between the measurement and theposition)setpoint is the difference
As a controller, one decides roughly howerror (e), too hot or too cold and by how much.
determines the temperature (PV), and therefore the much error.
to change the tap position (MV)
after one
proportional action of a PID controller. The integral actionThis first estimate is the equivalent of the
gradually adjusting the temperature when it is almost right.of a PID controller can be thought of as
noticing the water temperature is getting hotter or Derivative action can be thought of as
and tempering adjustments for a soft landing at the colder, and how fast, anticipating further change
is too large when the desired temperature
error is small is equivalent to a high gain (SP). Making a change that
overshoot. If the controller were too repeatedly make changes that controller and will lead to
overshoot the target, this control were too large and
around the setpoint in a constant,loop wouldorbe termed unstable and the output wouldrepeatedly
because we are adaptive controllers,growing, decaying Sinusoid. A human would not oscillate do this
have the ability to learn and must belearning from the process history, but PID
control is known as tuning the set up controllers
correctly. Selecting the correct gains for do not
controller.
If acontroller starts from a stable state at zero
effective
controller will be in response to changes in other error (PV= SP), then further changes by the
that impact on the process, and measured or unmeasured inputs to
the MV are known as hence on the PV. Variables that the process
disturbances. Generally impact on the process other than
implement setpoint changes. Changes in feed water controllers are used to reject disturbances and/or
shower process. temperature constitute a disturbance to the
In theory, a
controller can be
(PV), a known ideal value for that used to control any process which has a
relevant PV.Controllers are used inoutput (SP) and an input to the process (MV) measurable output
industry that will affect the
composition, speed and practically every toother regulate temperature, pressure, flow
variable for which a measurement rate, chemical
Automobile cruise control is an example of a process exists.
their long history,simplicity, well which utilizes automated control. Due
grounded theory
Requirements, PID controllers are the controllers of choice and simple setup and maintenance to
for many of these
applications.
Now let us analyze the
proportional controller mathematically. As we know in
controller output is directly proportional
mathematicallyproportional
to the error signal, writing this
we have.
|A(t) « e(t)
Removing the sign of proportionality we have,

A(t) = Kp x e(t)
Where Kp is
controller (alsoproportional constant also
called error amplifier). known as controller gain. K' is called a proportional
Process control Unit IV notes
4
 A(t) = Kp x e(t)

Where Kp is proportional constant also known as controller gain. K' is called a proportional
controller (also called error amplifier).
It is recommended that Kp should be kept greater than unity. If the value of Kp is greater
than unity >), then it willamplify the error signaland thus the amplified error signal can be
detected easily.
Where Kp is proportional constant also known as controller gain.
In is recommended that Kp should be kept greater than unity. If the value of Kp is greater than
unity (>1), then it will amplify the error signal and thus the amplified error signal can be detected
easily.
Advantages of Proportivnal Controller
The proportional controller helps in reducing the steady-state error, thus makes the system
more stable.
The slow response of the over damped system can be made faster with the help of these
controllers.
Disadvntuges of Proportional Controller
Due to the presence of these controllers, we get some offsets in the system.
& Proportional controllers also increase the maximum overshoot of the system.
Consider the feedback control system shown in Figure
Home Fumace ControlSystem Distrurbance
Environmental Chnagas
in Temperature

Compartson
Actual
Reference System or Controlled Temperature
Control
Input Process
Error Element Controlled
Desired
Temperature Signal Varlable/Output

Feedback Signal

As in open loop system a timer is used to switch on the furnace for some time and then
switch it off, accuracy is not obtained. This is because the system does not act according to the
room temperature but according to a preset value of time. main
A closed loop control system takes care of this problem. The feedback unit (the
temperature and accordingly turns
component of the closed loop control system) senses the room
on or off the furnace.
value
The feedback unit feeds the output back to a comparator which is provided with a reference the
with which the output is compared to generate an error signal. This error signal generates
required control action.
In the home furnace control system, a temperature sensor is used to sense the temperature
in the room and this is feedback to an error detecting device. The error detecting device compares
the roomIftemperature with the reference value.
it detects that the room temperature is higher than the reference value, if generates a
signal to switch off the furnace. On the other hand, if it detects that the room temperature is lower

PV Process ctrl notes 22 5

 Human Control System

Input Outout
Brain Arms
Eyes Power Actuator
Rech e
cle
Sensing Element Postion
of Hand

Feedback Path

Another example of a closed loop control system is the working of a

person ants to pick up an article say bag or book. the human brain, If a
and the eyes constantly keep giving the teedback to thebrain instructs the hand to reach the article
relative to the article. braín regrading the position of the hand
Buu if the person is asked toreach the
approximatcly. Thus the humansystem is a very article
accurate
closing his eves. he can reach it only
feedback control system. The control
System laking human as an example is shown in the
While designing a closed loop system. a figure.
be established. This is because compromise between stability and accuracy is to
the gain of the system
the svsten1 to be over correct, may exceed over a
leading the system to become unstable, thatlimit which may cause
is. Oscillation of the
output without bound.
Note
Gain is_the ratio between the
amplitude of the output to the amplitude of input. The
variation of the gain over arange of the Irequencies
mechanical problems like friction. the system might istendcalled Irequency response. Moreover, due to
to have asteady state error.
Proportional control is a
the difference between what is setcontrol system technology based on a response in
of the variable.
as a desired process proportion to
variable (or set point) and the current value
Proportional control is used where maintaining a process variable to a
timely responsiveness are required. Control systems in many tighter tolerance and
smart devices use proportional control. industrial settings as well as some
Proportional control involves
comparison to the on-off control (also fine-grained control through a feedback mechanism. In
known as bang-bang control) of a traditional
strip-switched domestic thermostat, devices that use proportional control are bi-metallic
variable response is linearly proportional to the differential more complex, The
desired optimum set point. This means that the between a process variable and the
affecting the variable make a greater response forresponse of the controller and the mechanism for
a greater differential and a smaller change for a
smaller differential.
The variability of the response to the process variable means tighter
maintained. When automating dangerous machinery, handling tolerances can be
of sensitive materials and chemical
processes, proportional control makes processes and production safer and more reliable.
An adaptive cruise control is an example of proportional control.
variably to react to both decreasing slopes and increasing momentum. Throttle input is adjusted
As well, throttle is adjusted
variably to the proximity of other vehicles in front of the controlled car.
A separate proportional control system acts on the brakes gradually if nearing a followed
vehicle too closely or dramatically in the case of emergency collision avoidance.
What is proportional controller and draw its circuit diagram?

Process control Unit IV notes 6

 What is proportional controller and draw its circuit diagram!?

Controller Plant

Ym

Sonsors

R(s) E(s) Cqs)

G(s)

The proportional controller produces an output, which is proportional to error signal.

Therefore, the transfer function of the proportional controller is KP. The block diagram of the
unity negative feedback closed loop control system along with the proportional controller is shown
in the following figure.
PID Conirolier

roparlinne

Set
Pnt icorolon Process

Feocbach

HP

D K

A propotional-integral-derivative controller is a control loop mechanism employing

feedback that is widely used in industrial control systems and a variety of other applications
requiring continuously modulated control.
The ability of proportional integral (PI) and proportional integral derivative
(PID) controllers to compensate many practical industrial processes has led to their wide
acceptance in industrial applications.
The Proportional Controller (P-controller) with a unique exanmple:

PV Process ctrl notes 22

7
 Tsf

Figure-: A Feedback Control System with Proportional Controller

Kis called a proportional controller (also called error amplifier).
Characteristics cquation of this control system can be written as:
s'+3s'+2s+K-0
Ifthe Routh-Hurwitz is applied in this
the stability can be found as 0K<6. (t implies characteristics
that for the
equation, then the range of 'K' for
values
for the value of K-0. the system will be K>6 systems will be unstable,
marginally stable).
As a summary. you can
will reduce the stability (it is aundcerstand
that the high value of 'K (i.e., for example, K-S.8)
disadvantage) but improves the steady-state
reduce the steady-state eror, which will be an performance (i.e.
Integral Controllers advantage).
As the name suggests in integral
controllers the output (also
is directiy proportional to the integral of the error signal. Now let us called the actuating signal )
mathematically analyze integral controller
We know in an intecgal controller output is
crTOr sigal. directly proportional to the integration of the

A(t) e(t)dt
Removing the sign of proportionality we have,

A(t) = K, x e(t)dt

Where K is an integral constant also known as controllcr gain

The itegral controlier is also known as reset controllecr.
4drantages of Iniegral Coutraller
Due to their uriquE ability, Integral Controllers can
the cxat poit following a disturbance that's why thesc arereturn the controlled variable back to
known as reset
Disadvontages of Imrgral (ontraller controller
It tends 1o make the systen unstable because it
responds slowly towards the produced
Whut des the deriv ative coutrol coIuponeut du?
Proces unIGlers - bccause the ratc of changc of te crror with
UAAOler gves wslat UIolla output sigal o te currection clernert time is corstant, the derivaive
A pruppital ttcgal derivati ve cortroller (PID coraroller or
N up mcctausn cipluyig fecdtack that is widely ucd in indusuial t°ec-lerm controller) is a
variety uf onrol systes ud
ct pplcatsos fcquiring cotinously mdulated contIOl A PID
titsy caulatcs af cffM value conroller
Prupraal cursud fcsists cffo by applying a uppusing influerce thal ia
a variety of other applications requiring continuously modulated control. A PID controller
continuously calculates an error value.
Proportional control resists error by applying an opposing influence that is
proportional to the error.
Integral control detects and corrects trends in error over time.
Derivative control detects and resists abrupt changes in the system
What is proportional and integralcontroller?
1 A proportional-integral-derivative controller (PID controller) is a generic control loop
feedback mechanism (controller) widely used in industrial control systems.
a measured process
A PID controller calculates an "error" value as the difference between
variable and a desired set point.
What is derivative control?
variable and makes changes
2. Derivative control monitors the rate of change of the process
to the controller output to accommodate unusual changes.
the best?
3. Why proportional integral derivative control is control
PIDcontrol is by far the most general method since its control structure is
robustness characteristics.
simple, easy to operate and adjust, and has certain
What is integral control?
used when unacceptable
Integral control (also called Reset control) can be
control. Integral control is used to
amounts of offset occur in a process with proportionalpoint. This mode of control is most
return the value of the controlled variable to the set
often used along with proportional control systems?
What is the importance of integral control in control
system; this control is
The integral control can be used to cancel the offset of a
controller can return
always used in conjunction with the proportionalcontrol. This typeandof because of this is
the controlled variable to the setpoint, following a disturbance
called a reset controller.
controller in a PID
What is the significance of integral controller and derivative
controller?
A PID controller is an instrument used in industrial control applications to
regulate temperature, flow, pressure, speed and other process variables. PID (proportional
integral derivative) controllers use a control loop feedback mechanism to control process
variables and are the most accurate and stable controller.
What are the different types of controllers?
Types of Control Devices and Controllers
Access Control Systems. ..
o Flow Controllers. ...
Level Controllers. ..
Pressure Controllers. ..
o Programmable Logic Controllers....
o Control Method.
o Input Types. ...
o Output Types.
When and why to use P, PI, PD and PID Controller?
When the plant's performance isn't as per the system's requirements, aclosed loop control
system can be handy, instead of anew plant. The error between the actual and the required outputs
derived the controller. This controller in turn produces the necessary correcting actions upon the
plant pulling the actual output towards the required one.

PV Process ctrl notes 22 9

 use?*
bea
to
use?
A
Pror
ller
ma

to the contro
applied, there is some delay in the reaction of the plant
When the input is delay is tried to A
input due to the reluctance. If this oscillations at the
Proportional controller, it overshoots and
reduce by increasing the gain of the Now it's time to look at the rate of change
of error
output are produced. This is the transient error.
due the control actions.
the final value is maximum and if this is
The rate of change of error at the time of crossing as well as the oscillatory behavior can
made to control the output of the plant, then the overshootcontroller.
be put under control. This is the idea being the derivative
contains noise, which if very
This controller should be used very carefully when the signal instability.
common. The derivative controller amplifies the noise and throws plant into
the

% Overshool

Finel Value

Amplitude
% Rse

%Undorshool
I i i Vakue

Rise Time Selting Time Time

On the other hand, plant may never reach the set point due to some inherent limitations. This
leads to the steady state erTOr. The integral of the error will be a better solution to identify this
steady state error. The integral of the error can then be used to minimize this steady state error.
This idea of using the constant error over time is the Integral controller.
This controller improves the performance of the plant under noisy environments.

PD Controller:
Practically, no single controller can serve the purpose. It needs multiple controllers work
together to meet the requirements. Whenever, it's needed to speed up the transient period, we add
proportional control and the overshoot and the oscillatory problems need the derivative control.
This calls for Proportional- Derivative controller (PD Controller). Special care must be taken to
ensure that the signals are noiseless; else the noise can get amplified by the derivative actions and
creates stability problems to the plant.
PI Controller:
This helps in the situation where proportional control is necessary to speed up the settling and
Proportional Integral
integral control to reduce the error that is constant over time. This is
controller (Pl controller).

PID Controller:
More general case would be to address allthe above discussed problems with a single solution.
In this case allthe three controllers are used in parallel will appropriately chosen gains. Adjusting
robust one.
these gains, any combination of P, 1, D controllers can be obtained and hence a more
When to use??
A Proportional controller is used to reduce the rise time and speed up the response. This
controller makes no changes in the phase response of the plant. and
A Derivative controller is required to minimize the transient errors like overshoot
oscillations in the output of the plant. But this can create heavy instability in noisy
phase
environments. Be careful to use smaller gain with this controller. It provides a
lead to the output when compared with the input. , usually with no change in magnitude.
no
An Integral controller corrects the time invariant errors. This provides a phase lag and
change in magnitude in the output.

Process control Unit IV notes 10

 When to use??
A Proportional controller is used to reduce the rise time and speed up the response. This
controller makes no changes in the phase response of the plant.
ADerivative controller is required to minimize the transient errors like overshoot and
oscillations in the output of the plant. But this can create heavy instability in noisy
environments. Be careful to use smaller gain with this controller. It provides a phase
lead to the output when compared with the input. , usually with no change in magnitude.
An Integral controller corects the time invariant errors. This provides a phase lag and no
change in magnitude in the output.
ÀPI controller helps in reducing both the rise time and the steady state errors of the
system. Tobe useful whenever you need to change magnitude and lag the phase together.
A PD controller reduces the transients like rise time, overshoot, and oscillations in the
output. Useful for changing magnitude and want to add phase lead to the output.
APID controller is ageneral form of controller. The gains of the three control actions can
be adjusted to achieve any controller. The change in magnitude along with either lead or lag in
phase in the output can be made available through this general model of controller.
In Summary
P:
Proportional controller to reduce the transient period. Changes the magnitude only.

I:
Integral controller to reduce the time invariant error. Lags the output phase.

D:
Derivative controller to minimize the transient errors like overshoot, oscillatory response.
Leads the output phase.
PI:
output.
Reduces rise time and steady state errors. Changes the magnitude as well as lags the
PD:
oscillations in output.
Reduces rise time and transient errors such as overshoot,
phase to the output.
Changes both the magnitude as well as adds a leading

PID: phase problems.

General case of a controller. Can be used to control the magnitude and lead/ lag as per the
Changes the magnitude and can add positive or negative phase to the output
requirements.

PV Process ctrl notes 22 11