Aristotle

Aristotle (/ˈærɪˌstɒtəl/;[1] Greek: Ἀριστοτέλης Aristotélēs,

Aristotle
pronounced [aristotélɛːs]; 384–322 BCE) was an Ancient Greek
philosopher and polymath. His writings cover a broad range of
subjects spanning the natural sciences, philosophy, linguistics,
economics, politics, psychology and the arts. As the founder of
the Peripatetic school of philosophy in the Lyceum in Athens, he
began the wider Aristotelian tradition that followed, which set
the groundwork for the development of modern science.

Little is known about Aristotle's life. He was born in the city of

Stagira in northern Greece during the Classical period. His
father, Nicomachus, died when Aristotle was a child, and he
was brought up by a guardian. At 17 or 18 he joined Plato's
Academy in Athens and remained there till the age of 37
(c. 347 BCE). Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and,
at the request of Philip II of Macedon, tutored his son Alexander
the Great beginning in 343 BC. He established a library in the
Lyceum which helped him to produce many of his hundreds of Roman copy (in marble) of a Greek
books on papyrus scrolls.
bronze bust of Aristotle by Lysippos
Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues for (c. 330 BCE), with modern alabaster
publication, only around a third of his original output has mantle
survived, none of it intended for publication. Aristotle provided Born 384 BCE
a complex synthesis of the various philosophies existing prior to Stagira, Chalcidian
him. His teachings and methods of inquiry have had a League
significant impact across the world, and remain a subject of
contemporary philosophical discussion. Died 322 BCE (aged 61–62)
Chalcis, Euboea,
Aristotle's views profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. The Macedonian Empire
influence of his physical science extended from late antiquity
Education Platonic Academy
and the Early Middle Ages into the Renaissance, and was not
replaced systematically until the Enlightenment and theories Notable work Organon · Physics ·
such as classical mechanics were developed. He influenced Metaphysics ·
Judeo-Islamic philosophies during the Middle Ages, as well as Nicomachean Ethics ·
Christian theology, especially the Neoplatonism of the Early Politics · Rhetoric ·
Church and the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church. Poetics

Aristotle was revered among medieval Muslim scholars as "The Era Ancient Greek
First Teacher", and among medieval Christians like Thomas philosophy
Aquinas as simply "The Philosopher", while the poet Dante Region Western philosophy
called him "the master of those who know". His works contain
the earliest known formal study of logic, and were studied by School Peripatetic school
medieval scholars such as Peter Abelard and Jean Buridan.
Aristotle's influence on logic continued well into the 19th Notable Alexander the Great,
century. In addition, his ethics, though always influential, gained students Theophrastus,
renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics. Aristoxenus
Main Logic · Natural
Life interests philosophy ·
Metaphysics · Ethics ·
In general, the details of Aristotle's life are not well-established. Politics · Rhetoric ·
The biographies written in ancient times are often speculative Poetics
and historians only agree on a few salient points.[A]
Notable Aristotelianism
Aristotle was born in 384 BC[B] ,[2]
in Stagira, Chalcidice about ideas Theoretical
55 km (34 miles) east of modern-day Thessaloniki.[3][4] His philosophy
father, Nicomachus, was the personal physician to King Aristotelian logic,
Amyntas of Macedon. While he was young, Aristotle learned syllogism
about biology and medical information, which was taught by his
father.[5] Both of Aristotle's parents died when he was about Four causes
thirteen, and Proxenus of Atarneus became his guardian.[6] Genus and differentia
Although little information about Aristotle's childhood has Hylomorphism,
survived, he probably spent some time within the Macedonian substance, essence,
palace, making his first connections with the Macedonian accident
monarchy.[7]
Hypokeimenon
Potentiality and
actuality
Theory of universals
Unmoved mover
Natural philosophy
Aristotelian biology
Aristotelian physics
School of Aristotle in Mieza,
Common sense
Macedonia, Greece.
Eternity of the world

At the age of seventeen or eighteen, Aristotle moved to Athens Five wits

to continue his education at Plato's Academy.[8] He probably Horror vacui
experienced the Eleusinian Mysteries as he wrote when Theory of elements,
describing the sights one viewed at the Eleusinian Mysteries, "to aether
experience is to learn" [παθείν μαθεĩν].[9] Aristotle remained in
Rational animal
Athens for nearly twenty years before leaving in 348/47 BCE.
The traditional story about his departure records that he was Practical philosophy
disappointed with the Academy's direction after control passed Aristotelian ethics
to Plato's nephew Speusippus, although it is possible that he Catharsis
feared the anti-Macedonian sentiments in Athens at that time and
Deliberative, epideictic
left before Plato died.[10] Aristotle then accompanied
Xenocrates to the court of his friend Hermias of Atarneus in and forensic rhetoric
Asia Minor. After the death of Hermias, Aristotle travelled with Enthymeme and
his pupil Theophrastus to the island of Lesbos, where together Paradeigma
they researched the botany and zoology of the island and its
Family as a model for
sheltered lagoon. While in Lesbos, Aristotle married Pythias,
the state
either Hermias's adoptive daughter or niece. They had a Golden mean
daughter, whom they also named Pythias. In 343 BCE, Aristotle
Kyklos
was invited by Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor to his
Magnanimity
son Alexander.[11][12]
Mimesis
Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal Academy of Natural slavery
Macedon. During Aristotle's time in the Macedonian court, he
gave lessons not only to Alexander but also to two other future Intellectual virtues:
kings: Ptolemy and Cassander.[13] Aristotle encouraged sophia, episteme,
Alexander toward eastern conquest, and Aristotle's own attitude nous, phronesis,
towards Persia was unabashedly ethnocentric. In one famous techne
example, he counsels Alexander to be "a leader to the Greeks Three appeals: ethos,
and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after logos, pathos
friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or
Views on women
plants".[13] By 335 BCE, Aristotle had returned to Athens,
establishing his own school there known as the Lyceum.
Aristotle conducted courses at the school for the next twelve years. While in
Athens, his wife Pythias died and Aristotle became involved with Herpyllis
of Stagira. They had a son whom Aristotle named after his father,
Nicomachus. If the Suda – an uncritical compilation from the Middle Ages
– is accurate, he may also have had an erômenos, Palaephatus of
Abydus.[14]

This period in Athens, between 335 and 323 BCE, is when Aristotle is
believed to have composed many of his works.[12] He wrote many
dialogues, of which only fragments have survived. Those works that have
survived are in treatise form and were not, for the most part, intended for
widespread publication; they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his
students. His most important treatises include Physics, Metaphysics,
Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, On the Soul and Poetics. Aristotle studied "Aristotle tutoring Alexander"
and made significant contributions to "logic, metaphysics, mathematics, by Jean Leon Gerome
physics, biology, botany, ethics, politics, agriculture, medicine, dance, and Ferris.
theatre."[15]

Near the end of his life, Alexander and Aristotle became estranged over
Alexander's relationship with Persia and Persians. A widespread tradition in
antiquity suspected Aristotle of playing a role in Alexander's death, but the
only evidence of this is an unlikely claim made some six years after the
death.[16] Following Alexander's death, anti-Macedonian sentiment in
Athens was rekindled. In 322 BCE, Demophilus and Eurymedon the
Hierophant reportedly denounced Aristotle for impiety,[17] prompting him
to flee to his mother's family estate in Chalcis, on Euboea, at which
occasion he was said to have stated: "I will not allow the Athenians to sin
twice against philosophy"[18][19][20] – a reference to Athens's trial and
execution of Socrates. He died in Chalcis, Euboea[2][21][15] of natural
Portrait bust of Aristotle; an
Imperial Roman (1st or 2nd
century CE) copy of a lost
bronze sculpture made by
Lysippos.
causes later that same year, having named his student Antipater as his chief executor and leaving a will in
which he asked to be buried next to his wife.[22]

Theoretical philosophy

Logic

With the Prior Analytics, Aristotle is credited with the earliest study of formal logic,[23] and his conception
of it was the dominant form of Western logic until 19th-century advances in mathematical logic.[24] Kant
stated in the Critique of Pure Reason that with Aristotle logic reached its completion.[25]

Organon
One of Aristotle's types of syllogism[C]
What is today called Aristotelian logic
with its types of syllogism (methods of In
In words In equations[E]
[26] terms[D]
logical argument), Aristotle himself
would have labelled "analytics". The
term "logic" he reserved to mean
All men are mortal. MaP
dialectics. Most of Aristotle's work is
probably not in its original form, All Greeks are men. SaM
because it was most likely edited by
students and later lecturers. The logical ∴ All Greeks are mortal. S a P
works of Aristotle were compiled into a
set of six books called the Organon
around 40 BCE by Andronicus of Rhodes or others among his followers.[28] The books are:

1. Categories
2. On Interpretation
3. Prior Analytics
4. Posterior Analytics
5. Topics
6. On Sophistical Refutations

The order of the books (or the teachings from which they are composed) is not certain, but this list was
derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings. It goes from the basics, the analysis of simple terms in the
Categories, the analysis of propositions and their elementary relations in On Interpretation, to the study of
more complex forms, namely, syllogisms (in the Analytics)[31][32] and dialectics (in the Topics and
Sophistical Refutations). The first three treatises form the core of the logical theory stricto sensu: the
grammar of the language of logic and the correct rules of reasoning. The Rhetoric is not conventionally
included, but it states that it relies on the Topics.[33]

Metaphysics

The word "metaphysics" appears to have been coined by the first century CE editor who assembled various
small selections of Aristotle's works to the treatise we know by the name Metaphysics.[34] Aristotle called it
"first philosophy", and distinguished it from mathematics and natural science (physics) as the contemplative
(theoretikē) philosophy which is "theological" and studies the divine. He wrote in his Metaphysics
(1026a16):
 if there were no other independent things besides the
composite natural ones, the study of nature would be the
primary kind of knowledge; but if there is some motionless
independent thing, the knowledge of this precedes it and is first
philosophy, and it is universal in just this way, because it is
first. And it belongs to this sort of philosophy to study being as
being, both what it is and what belongs to it just by virtue of
being.[35]

Substance
Plato (left) and Aristotle in
Aristotle examines the concepts of substance (ousia) and essence (to ti ên Raphael's 1509 fresco, The
einai, "the what it was to be") in his Metaphysics (Book VII), and he School of Athens. Aristotle
concludes that a particular substance is a combination of both matter and holds his Nicomachean
form, a philosophical theory called hylomorphism. In Book VIII, he Ethics and gestures to the
distinguishes the matter of the substance as the substratum, or the stuff of earth, representing his view
which it is composed. For example, the matter of a house is the bricks, in immanent realism, whilst
stones, timbers, etc., or whatever constitutes the potential house, while the Plato gestures to the
form of the substance is the actual house, namely 'covering for bodies and heavens, indicating his
chattels' or any other differentia that let us define something as a house. The Theory of Forms, and holds
formula that gives the components is the account of the matter, and the his Timaeus.[29][30]
formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form.[36][34]

Immanent realism

Like his teacher Plato, Aristotle's philosophy aims

at the universal. Aristotle's ontology places the
universal (katholou) in particulars (kath'
hekaston), things in the world, whereas for Plato
the universal is a separately existing form which
actual things imitate. For Aristotle, "form" is still
what phenomena are based on, but is
"instantiated" in a particular substance.[34]

Plato argued that all things have a universal form,

which could be either a property or a relation to
other things. When one looks at an apple, for
example, one sees an apple, and one can also Plato's forms exist as universals, like the ideal form of
analyse a form of an apple. In this distinction, an apple. For Aristotle, both matter and form belong to
there is a particular apple and a universal form of the individual thing (hylomorphism).
an apple. Moreover, one can place an apple next
to a book, so that one can speak of both the book
and apple as being next to each other. Plato argued that there are some universal forms that are not a part of
particular things. For example, it is possible that there is no particular good in existence, but "good" is still a
proper universal form. Aristotle disagreed with Plato on this point, arguing that all universals are instantiated
at some period of time, and that there are no universals that are unattached to existing things. In addition,
Aristotle disagreed with Plato about the location of universals. Where Plato spoke of the forms as existing
separately from the things that participate in them, Aristotle maintained that universals exist within each
thing on which each universal is predicated. So, according to Aristotle, the form of apple exists within each
apple, rather than in the world of the forms.[34][37]

Potentiality and actuality

Concerning the nature of change (kinesis) and its causes, as he outlines in his Physics and On Generation
and Corruption (319b–320a), he distinguishes coming-to-be (genesis, also translated as 'generation') from:

1. growth and diminution, which is change in quantity;

2. locomotion, which is change in space; and
3. alteration, which is change in quality.

Coming-to-be is a change where the substrate of the thing that has

undergone the change has itself changed. In that particular change
he introduces the concept of potentiality (dynamis) and actuality
(entelecheia) in association with the matter and the form. Referring
to potentiality, this is what a thing is capable of doing or being acted
upon if the conditions are right and it is not prevented by something
else. For example, the seed of a plant in the soil is potentially
(dynamei) a plant, and if it is not prevented by something, it will
become a plant. Potentially beings can either 'act' (poiein) or 'be
acted upon' (paschein), which can be either innate or learned. For Aristotle argued that a capability like
example, the eyes possess the potentiality of sight (innate – being playing the flute could be acquired –
acted upon), while the capability of playing the flute can be the potential made actual – by
possessed by learning (exercise – acting). Actuality is the fulfilment learning.
of the end of the potentiality. Because the end (telos) is the principle
of every change, and potentiality exists for the sake of the end,
actuality, accordingly, is the end. Referring then to the previous example, it can be said that an actuality is
when a plant does one of the activities that plants do.[34]

For that for the sake of which (to hou heneka) a thing is, is its principle, and the becoming is
for the sake of the end; and the actuality is the end, and it is for the sake of this that the
potentiality is acquired. For animals do not see in order that they may have sight, but they have
sight that they may see.[38]

In summary, the matter used to make a house has potentiality to be a house and both the activity of building
and the form of the final house are actualities, which is also a final cause or end. Then Aristotle proceeds
and concludes that the actuality is prior to potentiality in formula, in time and in substantiality. With this
definition of the particular substance (i.e., matter and form), Aristotle tries to solve the problem of the unity
of the beings, for example, "what is it that makes a man one"? Since, according to Plato there are two Ideas:
animal and biped, how then is man a unity? However, according to Aristotle, the potential being (matter)
and the actual one (form) are one and the same.[34][39]

Epistemology

Aristotle's immanent realism means his epistemology is based on the study of things that exist or happen in
the world, and rises to knowledge of the universal, whereas for Plato epistemology begins with knowledge
of universal Forms (or ideas) and descends to knowledge of particular imitations of these.[33] Aristotle uses
induction from examples alongside deduction, whereas Plato relies on deduction from a priori
principles.[33]

Natural philosophy
Aristotle's "natural philosophy" spans a wide range of natural phenomena including those now covered by
physics, biology and other natural sciences.[40] In Aristotle's terminology, "natural philosophy" is a branch
of philosophy examining the phenomena of the natural world, and includes fields that would be regarded
today as physics, biology and other natural sciences. Aristotle's work encompassed virtually all facets of
intellectual inquiry. Aristotle makes philosophy in the broad sense coextensive with reasoning, which he
also would describe as "science". However, his use of the term science carries a different meaning than that
covered by the term "scientific method". For Aristotle, "all science (dianoia) is either practical, poetical or
theoretical" (Metaphysics 1025b25). His practical science includes ethics and politics; his poetical science
means the study of fine arts including poetry; his theoretical science covers physics, mathematics and
metaphysics.[40]

Physics

Five elements

In his On Generation and Corruption, Aristotle related each of the

four elements proposed earlier by Empedocles, earth, water, air, and
fire, to two of the four sensible qualities, hot, cold, wet, and dry. In
the Empedoclean scheme, all matter was made of the four elements,
in differing proportions. Aristotle's scheme added the heavenly
aether, the divine substance of the heavenly spheres, stars and
planets.[41]

Aristotle's elements[41]

Modern state
Element Hot/Cold Wet/Dry Motion
of matter
Earth Cold Dry Down Solid

Water Cold Wet Down Liquid

The four classical elements (fire, air,
Air Hot Wet Up Gas
water, earth) of Empedocles and
Fire Hot Dry Up Plasma Aristotle illustrated with a burning
(divine Circular log. The log releases all four
Aether — Vacuum elements as it is destroyed.
substance) (in heavens)

Motion

Aristotle describes two kinds of motion: "violent" or "unnatural motion", such as that of a thrown stone, in
the Physics (254b10), and "natural motion", such as of a falling object, in On the Heavens (300a20). In
violent motion, as soon as the agent stops causing it, the motion stops also: in other words, the natural state
of an object is to be at rest,[42][F] since Aristotle does not address friction.[43] With this understanding, it can
be observed that, as Aristotle stated, heavy objects (on the ground, say) require more force to make them
move; and objects pushed with greater force move faster.[44][G] This would imply the equation[44]
 ,

incorrect in modern physics.[44]

Natural motion depends on the element concerned: the aether naturally moves in a circle around the
heavens,[H] while the 4 Empedoclean elements move vertically up (like fire, as is observed) or down (like
earth) towards their natural resting places.[45][43][I]

In the Physics (215a25), Aristotle effectively states

a quantitative law, that the speed, v, of a falling
body is proportional (say, with constant c) to its
weight, W, and inversely proportional to the
density,[J] ρ, of the fluid in which it is
falling:;[45][43]

Aristotle implies that in a vacuum the speed of fall

would become infinite, and concludes from this
apparent absurdity that a vacuum is not
possible.[45][43] Opinions have varied on whether
Aristotle intended to state quantitative laws. Henri
Carteron held the "extreme view"[43] that
Aristotle's concept of force was basically Aristotle's laws of motion. In Physics he states that
qualitative,[46] but other authors reject this.[43] objects fall at a speed proportional to their weight and
inversely proportional to the density of the fluid they are
Archimedes corrected Aristotle's theory that
immersed in.[43] This is a correct approximation for
bodies move towards their natural resting places; objects in Earth's gravitational field moving in air or
metal boats can float if they displace enough
water.[45]
water; floating depends in Archimedes' scheme on
the mass and volume of the object, not, as
Aristotle thought, its elementary composition.[45]

Aristotle's writings on motion remained influential until the Early Modern period. John Philoponus (in Late
antiquity) and Galileo (in Early modern period) are said to have shown by experiment that Aristotle's claim
that a heavier object falls faster than a lighter object is incorrect.[40] A contrary opinion is given by Carlo
Rovelli, who argues that Aristotle's physics of motion is correct within its domain of validity, that of objects
in the Earth's gravitational field immersed in a fluid such as air. In this system, heavy bodies in steady fall
indeed travel faster than light ones (whether friction is ignored, or not[45]), and they do fall more slowly in a
denser medium.[44][K]

Newton's "forced" motion corresponds to Aristotle's "violent" motion with its external agent, but Aristotle's
assumption that the agent's effect stops immediately it stops acting (e.g., the ball leaves the thrower's hand)
has awkward consequences: he has to suppose that surrounding fluid helps to push the ball along to make it
continue to rise even though the hand is no longer acting on it, resulting in the Medieval theory of
impetus.[45]

Four causes
Aristotle suggested that the reason for anything
coming about can be attributed to four different
types of simultaneously active factors. His term
aitia is traditionally translated as "cause", but it
does not always refer to temporal sequence; it
might be better translated as "explanation", but the
traditional rendering will be employed
here.[48][49]

Material cause describes the material out

of which something is composed. Thus
the material cause of a table is wood. It is
not about action. It does not mean that
one domino knocks over another Aristotle argued by analogy with woodwork that a thing
domino.[48] takes its form from four causes: in the case of a table,
The formal cause is its form, i.e., the the wood used (material cause), its design (formal
arrangement of that matter. It tells one cause), the tools and techniques used (efficient cause),
what a thing is, that a thing is determined and its decorative or practical purpose (final cause).[47]
by the definition, form, pattern, essence,
whole, synthesis or archetype. It
embraces the account of causes in terms of fundamental principles or general laws, as the
whole (i.e., macrostructure) is the cause of its parts, a relationship known as the whole-part
causation. Plainly put, the formal cause is the idea in the mind of the sculptor that brings the
sculpture into being. A simple example of the formal cause is the mental image or idea that
allows an artist, architect, or engineer to create a drawing.[48]
The efficient cause is "the primary source", or that from which the change under
consideration proceeds. It identifies 'what makes of what is made and what causes change
of what is changed' and so suggests all sorts of agents, non-living or living, acting as the
sources of change or movement or rest. Representing the current understanding of causality
as the relation of cause and effect, this covers the modern definitions of "cause" as either the
agent or agency or particular events or states of affairs. In the case of two dominoes, when
the first is knocked over it causes the second also to fall over.[48] In the case of animals, this
agency is a combination of how it develops from the egg, and how its body functions.[50]
The final cause (telos) is its purpose, the reason why a thing exists or is done, including both
purposeful and instrumental actions and activities. The final cause is the purpose or function
that something is supposed to serve. This covers modern ideas of motivating causes, such
as volition.[48] In the case of living things, it implies adaptation to a particular way of life.[50]

Optics

Aristotle describes experiments in optics using a camera obscura in Problems, book 15. The apparatus
consisted of a dark chamber with a small aperture that let light in. With it, he saw that whatever shape he
made the hole, the sun's image always remained circular. He also noted that increasing the distance between
the aperture and the image surface magnified the image.[51]

Chance and spontaneity

According to Aristotle, spontaneity and chance are causes of some things, distinguishable from other types
of cause such as simple necessity. Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of accidental things, "from
what is spontaneous". There is also more a specific kind of chance, which Aristotle names "luck", that only
applies to people's moral choices.[52][53]

Astronomy

In astronomy, Aristotle refuted Democritus's claim that the Milky Way was made up of "those stars which
are shaded by the earth from the sun's rays," pointing out partly correctly that if "the size of the sun is
greater than that of the earth and the distance of the stars from the earth many times greater than that of the
sun, then... the sun shines on all the stars and the earth screens none of them."[54] He also wrote
descriptions of comets, including the Great Comet of 371 BCE.[55]

Geology and natural sciences

Aristotle was one of the first people to record any geological

observations. He stated that geological change was too slow to be
observed in one person's lifetime.[56][57] The geologist Charles
Lyell noted that Aristotle described such change, including "lakes
that had dried up" and "deserts that had become watered by rivers",
giving as examples the growth of the Nile delta since the time of
Homer, and "the upheaving of one of the Aeolian islands, previous Aristotle noted that the ground level
to a volcanic eruption."'[58] Aristotle also made many observations of the Aeolian islands changed
about the hydrologic cycle and meteorology (including his major before a volcanic eruption.
writings "Meteorologica"). For example, he made some of the
earliest observations about desalination: he observed early – and
correctly – that when seawater is heated, freshwater evaporates and that the oceans are then replenished by
the cycle of rainfall and river runoff ("I have proved by experiment that salt water evaporated forms fresh
and the vapor does not when it condenses condense into sea water again.")[59]

Biology

Empirical research

Aristotle was the first person to study biology systematically,[60] and biology forms a large part of his
writings. He spent two years observing and describing the zoology of Lesbos and the surrounding seas,
including in particular the Pyrrha lagoon in the centre of Lesbos.[61][62] His data in History of Animals,
Generation of Animals, Movement of Animals, and Parts of Animals are assembled from his own
observations,[63] statements given by people with specialized knowledge such as beekeepers and fishermen,
and less accurate accounts provided by travellers from overseas.[64] His apparent emphasis on animals
rather than plants is a historical accident: his works on botany have been lost, but two books on plants by
his pupil Theophrastus have survived.[65]

Aristotle reports on the sea-life visible from observation on Lesbos and the catches of fishermen. He
describes the catfish, electric ray, and frogfish in detail, as well as cephalopods such as the octopus and
paper nautilus. His description of the hectocotyl arm of cephalopods, used in sexual reproduction, was
widely disbelieved until the 19th century.[66] He gives accurate descriptions of the four-chambered fore-
stomachs of ruminants,[67] and of the ovoviviparous embryological development of the hound shark.[68]
He notes that an animal's structure is well matched to function so birds like
the heron (which live in marshes with soft mud and live by catching fish)
have a long neck, long legs, and a sharp spear-like beak, whereas ducks
that swim have short legs and webbed feet.[69] Darwin, too, noted these
sorts of differences between similar kinds of animal, but unlike Aristotle
used the data to come to the theory of evolution.[70] Aristotle's writings can
seem to modern readers close to implying evolution, but while Aristotle was
aware that new mutations or hybridizations could occur, he saw these as
rare accidents. For Aristotle, accidents, like heat waves in winter, must be
considered distinct from natural causes. He was thus critical of
Empedocles's materialist theory of a "survival of the fittest" origin of living
things and their organs, and ridiculed the idea that accidents could lead to
orderly results.[71] To put his views into modern terms, he nowhere says
that different species can have a common ancestor, or that one kind can
change into another, or that kinds can become extinct.[72]
Among many pioneering
zoological observations,
Scientific style
Aristotle described the
reproductive hectocotyl arm
of the octopus (bottom left).

Aristotle did not do experiments in the modern

sense.[73] He used the ancient Greek term
pepeiramenoi to mean observations, or at most
investigative procedures like dissection.[74] In
Generation of Animals, he finds a fertilized hen's egg
of a suitable stage and opens it to see the embryo's
heart beating inside.[75][76]
Aristotle inferred growth laws from his observations
on animals, including that brood size decreases with Instead, he practiced a different style of science:
body mass, whereas gestation period increases. He
systematically gathering data, discovering patterns
was correct in these predictions, at least for
common to whole groups of animals, and inferring
mammals: data are shown for mouse and elephant.
possible causal explanations from these.[77][78] This
style is common in modern biology when large
amounts of data become available in a new field, such as genomics. It does not result in the same certainty
as experimental science, but it sets out testable hypotheses and constructs a narrative explanation of what is
observed. In this sense, Aristotle's biology is scientific.[77]

From the data he collected and documented, Aristotle inferred quite a number of rules relating the life-
history features of the live-bearing tetrapods (terrestrial placental mammals) that he studied. Among these
correct predictions are the following. Brood size decreases with (adult) body mass, so that an elephant has
fewer young (usually just one) per brood than a mouse. Lifespan increases with gestation period, and also
with body mass, so that elephants live longer than mice, have a longer period of gestation, and are heavier.
As a final example, fecundity decreases with lifespan, so long-lived kinds like elephants have fewer young
in total than short-lived kinds like mice.[79]

Classification of living things

Aristotle distinguished about 500 species of animals,[81][82]
arranging these in the History of Animals in a graded scale of
perfection, a nonreligious version of the scala naturae, with man at
the top. His system had eleven grades of animal, from highest
potential to lowest, expressed in their form at birth: the highest gave
live birth to hot and wet creatures, the lowest laid cold, dry mineral-
like eggs. Animals came above plants, and these in turn were above
minerals.[83][84] He grouped what the modern zoologist would call
vertebrates as the hotter "animals with blood", and below them the
colder invertebrates as "animals without blood". Those with blood Aristotle recorded that the embryo of
were divided into the live-bearing (mammals), and the egg-laying a dogfish was attached by a cord to
(birds, reptiles, fish). Those without blood were insects, crustacea a kind of placenta (the yolk sac), like
(non-shelled – cephalopods, and shelled) and the hard-shelled a higher animal; this formed an
molluscs (bivalves and gastropods). He recognised that animals did exception to the linear scale from
not exactly fit into a linear scale, and noted various exceptions, such highest to lowest.[80]
as that sharks had a placenta like the tetrapods. To a modern
biologist, the explanation, not available to Aristotle, is convergent
evolution.[85] Philosophers of science have generally concluded that Aristotle was not interested in
taxonomy,[86][87] but zoologists who studied this question in the early 21st century think
otherwise.[88][89][90] He believed that purposive final causes guided all natural processes; this teleological
view justified his observed data as an expression of formal design.[91]
 Aristotle's Scala naturae (highest to lowest)
Souls
Qualities
Examples (Rational,
Group Blood Legs (Hot–Cold,
(given by Aristotle) Sensitive,
Wet–Dry)
Vegetative)

Man Man with blood 2 legs R, S, V Hot, Wet

Live-bearing tetrapods Cat, hare with blood 4 legs S, V Hot, Wet

Cetaceans Dolphin, whale with blood none S, V Hot, Wet

Hot, Wet, except Dry

Birds Bee-eater, nightjar with blood 2 legs S, V
eggs

Chameleon, Cold, Wet except

Egg-laying tetrapods with blood 4 legs S, V
crocodile scales, eggs

Water snake, Cold, Wet except

Snakes with blood none S, V
Ottoman viper scales, eggs

Cold, Wet, including

Egg-laying fishes Sea bass, parrotfish with blood none S, V
eggs

(Among the egg-laying

Cold, Wet, but placenta
fishes): Shark, skate with blood none S, V
like tetrapods
placental selachians

many
Crustaceans Shrimp, crab without S, V Cold, Wet except shell
legs

Cephalopods Squid, octopus without tentacles S, V Cold, Wet

Cockle, trumpet
Hard-shelled animals without none S, V Cold, Dry (mineral shell)
snail

Larva-bearing insects Ant, cicada without 6 legs S, V Cold, Dry

Spontaneously Cold, Wet or Dry, from

Sponges, worms without none S, V
generating earth

Plants Fig without none V Cold, Dry

Minerals Iron without none none Cold, Dry

Psychology

Soul

Aristotle's psychology, given in his treatise On the Soul (peri psychēs), posits three kinds of soul
("psyches"): the vegetative soul, the sensitive soul, and the rational soul. Humans have a rational soul. The
human soul incorporates the powers of the other kinds: Like the vegetative soul it can grow and nourish
itself; like the sensitive soul it can experience sensations and move locally. The unique part of the human,
rational soul is its ability to receive forms of other things and to compare them using the nous (intellect) and
logos (reason).[92]

For Aristotle, the soul is the form of a living being. Because all beings are composites of form and matter,
the form of living beings is that which endows them with what is specific to living beings, e.g. the ability to
initiate movement (or in the case of plants, growth and chemical transformations, which Aristotle considers
types of movement).[11] In contrast to earlier philosophers, but in accordance with the Egyptians, he placed
the rational soul in the heart, rather than the
brain.[93] Notable is Aristotle's division of
sensation and thought, which generally differed
from the concepts of previous philosophers, with
the exception of Alcmaeon.[94]

In On the Soul, Aristotle famously criticizes

Plato's theory of the soul and develops his own in
response to Plato's. The first criticism is against
Plato's view of the soul in the Timaeus that the
soul takes up space and is able to come into Aristotle proposed a three-part structure for souls of
physical contact with bodies.[95] 20th-century plants, animals, and humans, making humans unique in
scholarship overwhelmingly opposed Aristotle's having all three types of soul.
interpretation of Plato and maintained that he had
misunderstood Plato.[96] Today's scholars have
tended to re-assess Aristotle's interpretation and have warmed up to it.[97] Aristotle's other criticism is that
Plato's view of reincarnation entails that it is possible for a soul and its body to be mis-matched; in principle,
Aristotle alleges, any soul can go with any body, according to Plato's theory.[98] Aristotle's claim that the
soul is the form of a living being is meant to eliminate that possibility and thus rule out reincarnation.[99]

Memory

According to Aristotle in On the Soul, memory is the ability to hold a perceived experience in the mind and
to distinguish between the internal "appearance" and an occurrence in the past.[100] In other words, a
memory is a mental picture (phantasm) that can be recovered. Aristotle believed an impression is left on a
semi-fluid bodily organ that undergoes several changes in order to make a memory. A memory occurs when
stimuli such as sights or sounds are so complex that the nervous system cannot receive all the impressions at
once. These changes are the same as those involved in the operations of sensation, Aristotelian
'common sense', and thinking.[101][102]

Aristotle uses the term 'memory' for the actual retaining of an experience in the impression that can develop
from sensation, and for the intellectual anxiety that comes with the impression because it is formed at a
particular time and processing specific contents. Memory is of the past, prediction is of the future, and
sensation is of the present. Retrieval of impressions cannot be performed suddenly. A transitional channel is
needed and located in past experiences, both for previous experience and present experience.[103]

Because Aristotle believes people receive all kinds of sense perceptions and perceive them as impressions,
people are continually weaving together new impressions of experiences. To search for these impressions,
people search the memory itself.[104] Within the memory, if one experience is offered instead of a specific
memory, that person will reject this experience until they find what they are looking for. Recollection occurs
when one retrieved experience naturally follows another. If the chain of "images" is needed, one memory
will stimulate the next. When people recall experiences, they stimulate certain previous experiences until
they reach the one that is needed.[105] Recollection is thus the self-directed activity of retrieving the
information stored in a memory impression.[106] Only humans can remember impressions of intellectual
activity, such as numbers and words. Animals that have perception of time can retrieve memories of their
past observations. Remembering involves only perception of the things remembered and of the time
passed.[107]

Aristotle believed the chain of thought, which ends in recollection of certain impressions, was connected
systematically in relationships such as similarity, contrast, and contiguity, described in his laws of
association. Aristotle believed that past experiences are hidden within the mind. A force operates to awaken
the hidden material to
bring up the actual
experience. According
to Aristotle, association
is the power innate in a
mental state, which
operates upon the
unexpressed remains of
former experiences,
allowing them to rise
and be
recalled. [108][109]

Dreams

Senses, perception, memory, dreams, action in Aristotle's psychology. Impressions

are stored in the sensorium (the heart), linked by his laws of association (similarity,
contrast, and contiguity).

Aristotle describes sleep in On Sleep and Wakefulness.[110] Sleep takes place as a result of overuse of the
senses[111] or of digestion,[112] so it is vital to the body.[111] While a person is asleep, the critical activities,
which include thinking, sensing, recalling and remembering, do not function as they do during wakefulness.
Since a person cannot sense during sleep they cannot have desire, which is the result of sensation.
However, the senses are able to work during sleep,[113] albeit differently,[110] unless they are weary.[111]

Dreams do not involve actually sensing a stimulus. In dreams, sensation is still involved, but in an altered
manner.[111] Aristotle explains that when a person stares at a moving stimulus such as the waves in a body
of water, and then looks away, the next thing they look at appears to have a wavelike motion. When a
person perceives a stimulus and the stimulus is no longer the focus of their attention, it leaves an
impression.[110] When the body is awake and the senses are functioning properly, a person constantly
encounters new stimuli to sense and so the impressions of previously perceived stimuli are ignored.[111]
However, during sleep the impressions made throughout the day are noticed as there are no new distracting
sensory experiences.[110] So, dreams result from these lasting impressions. Since impressions are all that are
left and not the exact stimuli, dreams do not resemble the actual waking experience.[114] During sleep, a
person is in an altered state of mind. Aristotle compares a sleeping person to a person who is overtaken by
strong feelings toward a stimulus. For example, a person who has a strong infatuation with someone may
begin to think they see that person everywhere because they are so overtaken by their feelings. Since a
person sleeping is in a suggestible state and unable to make judgements, they become easily deceived by
what appears in their dreams, like the infatuated person.[110] This leads the person to believe the dream is
real, even when the dreams are absurd in nature.[110] In De Anima iii 3, Aristotle ascribes the ability to
create, to store, and to recall images in the absence of perception to the faculty of imagination,
phantasia.[11]

One component of Aristotle's theory of dreams disagrees with previously held beliefs. He claimed that
dreams are not foretelling and not sent by a divine being. Aristotle reasoned naturalistically that instances in
which dreams do resemble future events are simply coincidences.[115] Aristotle claimed that a dream is first
established by the fact that the person is asleep when they experience it. If a person had an image appear for
a moment after waking up or if they see something in the dark it is not considered a dream because they
were awake when it occurred. Secondly, any sensory experience that is perceived while a person is asleep
does not qualify as part of a dream. For example, if, while a person is sleeping, a door shuts and in their
dream they hear a door is shut, this sensory experience is not part of the dream. Lastly, the images of dreams
must be a result of lasting impressions of waking sensory experiences.[114]

Practical philosophy
Aristotle's practical philosophy covers areas such as ethics, politics, economics, and rhetoric.[40]

Virtues and their accompanying vices[15]

Ethics
Too little Virtuous mean Too much

Aristotle considered ethics to be a practical rather Humbleness High-mindedness Vainglory

than theoretical study, i.e., one aimed at becoming Lack of purpose Right ambition Over-ambition
good and doing good rather than knowing for its
own sake. He wrote several treatises on ethics, most Spiritlessness Good temper Irascibility
notably including the Nicomachean Ethics.[116] Rudeness Civility Obsequiousness

Cowardice Courage Rashness

Aristotle taught that virtue has to do with the proper
function (ergon) of a thing. An eye is only a good Insensibility Self-control Intemperance
eye in so much as it can see, because the proper Sarcasm Sincerity Boastfulness
function of an eye is sight. Aristotle reasoned that
humans must have a function specific to humans, Boorishness Wit Buffoonery

and that this function must be an activity of the Shamelessness Modesty Shyness
psuchē (soul) in accordance with reason (logos). Callousness Just resentment Spitefulness
Aristotle identified such an optimum activity (the
virtuous mean, between the accompanying vices of Pettiness Generosity Vulgarity
excess or deficiency[15]) of the soul as the aim of all Meanness Liberality Wastefulness
human deliberate action, eudaimonia, generally
translated as "happiness" or sometimes "well-being". To have the potential of ever being happy in this way
necessarily requires a good character (ēthikē aretē), often translated as moral or ethical virtue or
excellence.[117]

Aristotle taught that to achieve a virtuous and potentially happy character requires a first stage of having the
fortune to be habituated not deliberately, but by teachers, and experience, leading to a later stage in which
one consciously chooses to do the best things. When the best people come to live life this way their
practical wisdom (phronesis) and their intellect (nous) can develop with each other towards the highest
possible human virtue, the wisdom of an accomplished theoretical or speculative thinker, or in other words,
a philosopher.[118]

Politics

In addition to his works on ethics, which address the individual, Aristotle addressed the city in his work
titled Politics. Aristotle considered the city to be a natural community. Moreover, he considered the city to
be prior in importance to the family, which in turn is prior to the individual, "for the whole must of necessity
be prior to the part".[119] He famously stated that "man is by nature a political animal" and argued that
humanity's defining factor among others in the animal kingdom is its rationality.[120] Aristotle conceived of
politics as being like an organism rather than like a machine, and as a collection of parts none of which can
exist without the others. Aristotle's conception of the city is organic, and he is considered one of the first to
conceive of the city in this manner.[121]

The common modern understanding of a political

community as a modern state is quite different
from Aristotle's understanding. Although he was
aware of the existence and potential of larger
empires, the natural community according to
Aristotle was the city (polis) which functions as a
political "community" or "partnership" (koinōnia).
The aim of the city is not just to avoid injustice or
for economic stability, but rather to allow at least
some citizens the possibility to live a good life,
and to perform beautiful acts: "The political Aristotle's classifications of political constitutions.
partnership must be regarded, therefore, as being
for the sake of noble actions, not for the sake of
living together." This is distinguished from modern approaches, beginning with social contract theory,
according to which individuals leave the state of nature because of "fear of violent death" or its
"inconveniences".[L]

In Protrepticus, the character 'Aristotle' states:[122]

For we all agree that the most excellent man should rule, i.e., the supreme by nature, and that
the law rules and alone is authoritative; but the law is a kind of intelligence, i.e. a discourse
based on intelligence. And again, what standard do we have, what criterion of good things, that
is more precise than the intelligent man? For all that this man will choose, if the choice is based
on his knowledge, are good things and their contraries are bad. And since everybody chooses
most of all what conforms to their own proper dispositions (a just man choosing to live justly, a
man with bravery to live bravely, likewise a self-controlled man to live with self-control), it is
clear that the intelligent man will choose most of all to be intelligent; for this is the function of
that capacity. Hence it's evident that, according to the most authoritative judgment, intelligence
is supreme among goods.[122]

As Plato's disciple Aristotle was rather critical concerning democracy and, following the outline of certain
ideas from Plato's Statesman, he developed a coherent theory of integrating various forms of power into a
so-called mixed state:

It is … constitutional to take … from oligarchy that offices are to be elected, and from
democracy that this is not to be on a property-qualification. This then is the mode of the
mixture; and the mark of a good mixture of democracy and oligarchy is when it is possible to
speak of the same constitution as a democracy and as an oligarchy.

—Aristotle. Politics, Book 4, 1294b.10–18

To illustrate this approach, Aristotle proposed a first-of-its-kind mathematical model of voting, albeit
textually described, where the democratic principle of "one voter–one vote" is combined with the oligarchic
"merit-weighted voting"; for relevant quotes and their translation into mathematical formulas see.[123]
Aristotle's views on women influenced later Western philosophers, who quoted him as an authority until the
end of the Middle Ages, but these views have been controversial in modern times. Aristotle's analysis of
procreation describes an active, ensouling masculine element bringing life to an inert, passive female
element. The biological differences are a result of the fact that the female body is well-suited for
reproduction, which changes her body temperature, which in turn makes her, in Aristotle's view, incapable
of participating in political life.[124] On this ground, proponents of feminist metaphysics have accused
Aristotle of misogyny[125] and sexism.[126] However, Aristotle gave equal weight to women's happiness as
he did to men's, and commented in his Rhetoric that the things that lead to happiness need to be in women
as well as men.[M]

Economics

Aristotle made substantial contributions to economic thought, especially to thought in the Middle Ages.[128]
In Politics, Aristotle addresses the city, property, and trade. His response to criticisms of private property, in
Lionel Robbins's view, anticipated later proponents of private property among philosophers and economists,
as it related to the overall utility of social arrangements.[128] Aristotle believed that although communal
arrangements may seem beneficial to society, and that although private property is often blamed for social
strife, such evils in fact come from human nature. In Politics, Aristotle offers one of the earliest accounts of
the origin of money.[128] Money came into use because people became dependent on one another,
importing what they needed and exporting the surplus. For the sake of convenience, people then agreed to
deal in something that is intrinsically useful and easily applicable, such as iron or silver.[129]

Aristotle's discussions on retail and interest was a major influence on economic thought in the Middle Ages.
He had a low opinion of retail, believing that contrary to using money to procure things one needs in
managing the household, retail trade seeks to make a profit. It thus uses goods as a means to an end, rather
than as an end unto itself. He believed that retail trade was in this way unnatural. Similarly, Aristotle
considered making a profit through interest unnatural, as it makes a gain out of the money itself, and not
from its use.[129]

Aristotle gave a summary of the function of money that was perhaps remarkably precocious for his time. He
wrote that because it is impossible to determine the value of every good through a count of the number of
other goods it is worth, the necessity arises of a single universal standard of measurement. Money thus
allows for the association of different goods and makes them "commensurable".[129] He goes on to state
that money is also useful for future exchange, making it a sort of security. That is, "if we do not want a
thing now, we shall be able to get it when we do want it".[129]

Rhetoric

Aristotle's Rhetoric proposes that a speaker can use three basic kinds of appeals to persuade his audience:
ethos (an appeal to the speaker's character), pathos (an appeal to the audience's emotion), and logos (an
appeal to logical reasoning).[130] He also categorizes rhetoric into three genres: epideictic (ceremonial
speeches dealing with praise or blame), forensic (judicial speeches over guilt or innocence), and deliberative
(speeches calling on an audience to make a decision on an issue).[131] Aristotle also outlines two kinds of
rhetorical proofs: enthymeme (proof by syllogism) and paradeigma (proof by example).[132]

Poetics
Aristotle writes in his Poetics that epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, dithyrambic poetry, painting, sculpture,
music, and dance are all fundamentally acts of mimesis ("imitation"), each varying in imitation by medium,
object, and manner.[133][134] He applies the term mimesis both as a property of a work of art and also as the
product of the artist's intention[133] and contends that the audience's realisation of the mimesis is vital to
understanding the work itself.[133] Aristotle states that mimesis is a natural instinct of humanity that
separates humans from animals[133][135] and that all human artistry "follows the pattern of nature".[133]
Because of this, Aristotle believed that each of the mimetic arts possesses what Stephen Halliwell calls
"highly structured procedures for the achievement of their purposes."[136] For example, music imitates with
the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language.
The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse
than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their
manner of imitation – through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or
no drama.[137]

While it is believed that Aristotle's Poetics originally

comprised two books – one on comedy and one on
tragedy – only the portion that focuses on tragedy has
survived. Aristotle taught that tragedy is composed of
six elements: plot-structure, character, style, thought,
spectacle, and lyric poetry.[139] The characters in a
tragedy are merely a means of driving the story; and
the plot, not the characters, is the chief focus of
tragedy. Tragedy is the imitation of action arousing pity
and fear, and is meant to effect the catharsis of those
same emotions. Aristotle concludes Poetics with a
discussion on which, if either, is superior: epic or tragic
mimesis. He suggests that because tragedy possesses
The Blind Oedipus Commending his Children to the
all the attributes of an epic, possibly possesses
Gods (1784) by Bénigne Gagneraux. In his
additional attributes such as spectacle and music, is
Poetics, Aristotle uses the tragedy Oedipus
more unified, and achieves the aim of its mimesis in
Tyrannus by Sophocles as an example of how the
shorter scope, it can be considered superior to
perfect tragedy should be structured, with a
epic.[140] Aristotle was a keen systematic collector of generally good protagonist who starts the play
riddles, folklore, and proverbs; he and his school had a prosperous, but loses everything through some
special interest in the riddles of the Delphic Oracle and hamartia (fault).[138]
studied the fables of Aesop.[141]

Transmission
More than 2300 years after his death, Aristotle remains one of the most influential people who ever
lived.[142][143][144] He contributed to almost every field of human knowledge then in existence, and he was
the founder of many new fields. According to the philosopher Bryan Magee, "it is doubtful whether any
human being has ever known as much as he did".[145]

Among countless other achievements, Aristotle was the founder of formal logic,[146] pioneered the study of
zoology, and left every future scientist and philosopher in his debt through his contributions to the scientific
method.[2][147][148] Taneli Kukkonen, observes that his achievement in founding two sciences is
unmatched, and his reach in influencing "every branch of intellectual enterprise" including Western ethical
and political theory, theology, rhetoric, and literary analysis is equally long. As a result, Kukkonen argues,
any analysis of reality today "will almost certainly carry Aristotelian overtones ... evidence of an
exceptionally forceful mind."[148] Jonathan Barnes wrote that "an account of Aristotle's intellectual afterlife
would be little less than a history of European thought".[149]

Aristotle has been called the father of logic, biology, political science, zoology, embryology, natural law,
scientific method, rhetoric, psychology, realism, criticism, individualism, teleology, and meteorology.[151]

The scholar Taneli Kukkonen notes that "in the best 20th-century scholarship Aristotle comes alive as a
thinker wrestling with the full weight of the Greek philosophical tradition."[148] What follows is an
overview of the transmission and influence of his texts and ideas into the modern era.

His successor, Theophrastus

Aristotle's pupil and successor, Theophrastus, wrote the History of Plants, a

pioneering work in botany. Some of his technical terms remain in use, such
as carpel from carpos, fruit, and pericarp, from pericarpion, seed
chamber.[152] Theophrastus was much less concerned with formal causes
than Aristotle was, instead pragmatically describing how plants
functioned.[153][154]

Later Greek philosophy

The immediate influence of Aristotle's work was felt as the Lyceum grew
into the Peripatetic school. Aristotle's students included Aristoxenus,
Dicaearchus, Demetrius of Phalerum, Eudemos of Rhodes, Harpalus,
Hephaestion, Mnason of Phocis, Nicomachus, and Theophrastus. Aristotle's
influence over Alexander the Great is seen in the latter's bringing with him Frontispiece to a 1644
on his expedition a host of zoologists, botanists, and researchers. He had version of Theophrastus's
also learned a great deal about Persian customs and traditions from his Historia Plantarum, originally
teacher. Although his respect for Aristotle was diminished as his travels written around 300 BCE.
made it clear that much of Aristotle's geography was clearly wrong, when
the old philosopher released his works to the public, Alexander complained
"Thou hast not done well to publish thy acroamatic doctrines; for in what shall I surpass other men if those
doctrines wherein I have been trained are to be all men's common property?"[155]

Hellenistic science

After Theophrastus, the Lyceum failed to produce any original work. Though interest in Aristotle's ideas
survived, they were generally taken unquestioningly.[156] It is not until the age of Alexandria under the
Ptolemies that advances in biology can be again found.

The first medical teacher at Alexandria, Herophilus of Chalcedon, corrected Aristotle, placing intelligence in
the brain, and connected the nervous system to motion and sensation. Herophilus also distinguished
between veins and arteries, noting that the latter pulse while the former do not.[157] Though a few ancient
atomists such as Lucretius challenged the teleological viewpoint of Aristotelian ideas about life, teleology
(and after the rise of Christianity, natural theology) would remain central to biological thought essentially
until the 18th and 19th centuries. Ernst Mayr states that there was "nothing of any real consequence in
biology after Lucretius and Galen until the Renaissance."[158]

Byzantine scholars

Greek Christian scribes played a crucial role in the preservation of Aristotle by copying all the extant Greek
language manuscripts of the corpus. The first Greek Christians to comment extensively on Aristotle were
Philoponus, Elias, and David in the sixth century, and Stephen of Alexandria in the early seventh
century.[159] John Philoponus stands out for having attempted a fundamental critique of Aristotle's views on
the eternity of the world, movement, and other elements of Aristotelian thought.[160] Philoponus questioned
Aristotle's teaching of physics, noting its flaws and introducing the theory of impetus to explain his
observations.[161]

After a hiatus of several centuries, formal commentary by Eustratius and Michael of Ephesus reappeared in
the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries, apparently sponsored by Anna Comnena.[162]

Medieval Islamic world

Aristotle was one of the most revered Western thinkers in Islamic theology.
Most of the still extant works of Aristotle,[163] as well as a number of the
original Greek commentaries, were translated into Arabic and studied by
Muslim philosophers, scientists and scholars. Averroes, Avicenna and
Alpharabius, who wrote on Aristotle in great depth, also influenced Thomas
Aquinas and other Western Christian scholastic philosophers. Alkindus
greatly admired Aristotle's philosophy,[164] and Averroes spoke of Aristotle
as the "exemplar" for all future philosophers.[165] Medieval Muslim
scholars regularly described Aristotle as the "First Teacher".[163] At that
time study of philosophy was greatly admired in Islamic scholastics people
like Imam Al Ghazali and many others based on the works of Aristotle
created foundations for many other branches of knowledge. The title was
later used by Western philosophers (as in the famous poem of Dante) who
Islamic portrayal of Aristotle,
were influenced by the tradition of Islamic philosophy.[166][167]
c. 1220.

Medieval Europe

With the loss of the study of ancient Greek in the early medieval Latin West, Aristotle was practically
unknown there from c. CE 600 to c. 1100 except through the Latin translation of the Organon made by
Boethius. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, interest in Aristotle revived and Latin Christians had
translations made, both from Arabic translations, such as those by Gerard of Cremona,[168] and from the
original Greek, such as those by James of Venice and William of Moerbeke.

After the Scholastic Thomas Aquinas wrote his Summa Theologica, working from Moerbeke's translations
and calling Aristotle "The Philosopher",[169] the demand for Aristotle's writings grew, and the Greek
manuscripts returned to the West, stimulating a revival of Aristotelianism in Europe that continued into the
Renaissance.[170] These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of
Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. Scholars such as Boethius, Peter Abelard, and John Buridan worked
on Aristotelian logic.[171]
According to scholar Roger Theodore Lafferty, Dante built up the philosophy of the Comedy with the
works of Aristotle as a foundation, just as the scholastics used Aristotle as the basis for their thinking. Dante
knew Aristotle directly from Latin translations of his works and indirectly through quotations in the works
of Albert Magnus.[172] Dante even acknowledges Aristotle's influence explicitly in the poem, specifically
when Virgil justifies the Inferno's structure by citing the Nicomachean Ethics.[173] Dante famously refers to
him as "he / Who is acknowledged Master of those who know".[174][175]

Medieval Judaism

Moses Maimonides (considered to be the foremost intellectual figure of medieval Judaism)[176] adopted
Aristotelianism from the Islamic scholars and based his Guide for the Perplexed on it and that became the
basis of Jewish scholastic philosophy. Maimonides also considered Aristotle to be the greatest philosopher
that ever lived, and styled him as the "chief of the philosophers".[177][178][179] Also, in his letter to Samuel
ibn Tibbon, Maimonides observes that there is no need for Samuel to study the writings of philosophers
who preceded Aristotle because the works of the latter are "sufficient by themselves and [superior] to all
that were written before them. His intellect, Aristotle's is the extreme limit of human intellect, apart from him
upon whom the divine emanation has flowed forth to such an extent that they reach the level of prophecy,
there being no level higher".[180]

Early Modern science

In the Early Modern period, scientists such as William Harvey in

England and Galileo Galilei in Italy reacted against the theories of
Aristotle and other classical era thinkers like Galen, establishing
new theories based to some degree on observation and experiment.
Harvey demonstrated the circulation of the blood, establishing that
the heart functioned as a pump rather than being the seat of the soul
and the controller of the body's heat, as Aristotle thought.[181]
Galileo used more doubtful arguments to displace Aristotle's
physics, proposing that bodies all fall at the same speed whatever William Harvey's De Motu Cordis,
their weight.[182] 1628, showed that the blood
circulated, contrary to classical era
thinking.
18th and 19th-century science

The English mathematician George Boole fully accepted Aristotle's logic, but decided "to go under, over,
and beyond" it with his system of algebraic logic in his 1854 book The Laws of Thought. This gives logic a
mathematical foundation with equations, enables it to solve equations as well as check validity, and allows it
to handle a wider class of problems by expanding propositions of any number of terms, not just two.[183]

Charles Darwin regarded Aristotle as the most important contributor to the subject of biology. In an 1882
letter he wrote that "Linnaeus and Cuvier have been my two gods, though in very different ways, but they
were mere schoolboys to old Aristotle".[184][185] Also, in later editions of the book "On the Origin of
Species', Darwin traced evolutionary ideas as far back as Aristotle;[186] the text he cites is a summary by
Aristotle of the ideas of the earlier Greek philosopher Empedocles.[187]

Present science
The philosopher Bertrand Russell claims that "almost every serious intellectual advance has had to begin
with an attack on some Aristotelian doctrine". Russell calls Aristotle's ethics "repulsive", and labelled his
logic "as definitely antiquated as Ptolemaic astronomy". Russell states that these errors make it difficult to
do historical justice to Aristotle, until one remembers what an advance he made upon all of his
predecessors.[188]

The Dutch historian of science Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis writes that Aristotle and his predecessors showed
the difficulty of science by "proceed[ing] so readily to frame a theory of such a general character" on
limited evidence from their senses.[189] In 1985, the biologist Peter Medawar could still state in "pure
seventeenth century"[190] tones that Aristotle had assembled "a strange and generally speaking rather
tiresome farrago of hearsay, imperfect observation, wishful thinking and credulity amounting to downright
gullibility".[190][191]

Zoologists have frequently mocked Aristotle for errors and unverified secondhand reports. However,
modern observation has confirmed several of his more surprising claims.[192][193][194] Aristotle's work
remains largely unknown to modern scientists, though zoologists sometimes mention him as the father of
biology[150] or in particular of marine biology.[195] Practising zoologists are unlikely to adhere to Aristotle's
chain of being, but its influence is still perceptible in the use of the terms "lower" and "upper" to designate
taxa such as groups of plants.[196] The evolutionary biologist Armand Marie Leroi has reconstructed
Aristotle's biology,[197] while Niko Tinbergen's four questions, based on Aristotle's four causes, are used to
analyse animal behaviour; they examine function, phylogeny, mechanism, and ontogeny.[198][199] The
concept of homology began with Aristotle;[200] the evolutionary developmental biologist Lewis I. Held
commented that he would be interested in the concept of deep homology.[201]

Surviving works

Corpus Aristotelicum

The works of Aristotle that have survived from antiquity through medieval
manuscript transmission are collected in the Corpus Aristotelicum. These
texts, as opposed to Aristotle's lost works, are technical philosophical
treatises from within Aristotle's school.[202] Reference to them is made
according to the organization of Immanuel Bekker's Royal Prussian
Academy edition (Aristotelis Opera edidit Academia Regia Borussica,
Berlin, 1831–1870), which in turn is based on ancient classifications of
these works.[203]

Loss and preservation

Aristotle wrote his works on papyrus scrolls, the common writing medium
First page of a 1566 edition
of that era.[N] His writings are divisible into two groups: the "exoteric", of the Nicomachean Ethics
intended for the public, and the "esoteric", for use within the Lyceum in Greek and Latin.
school.[205][O][206] Aristotle's "lost" works stray considerably in
characterization from the surviving Aristotelian corpus. Whereas the lost
works appear to have been originally written with a view to subsequent publication, the surviving works
mostly resemble lecture notes not intended for publication.[207][205] Cicero's description of Aristotle's
literary style as "a river of gold" must have applied to the published works, not the surviving notes.[P] A
major question in the history of Aristotle's works is how the exoteric writings were all lost, and how the
ones now possessed came to be found.[209] The consensus is that Andronicus of Rhodes collected the
esoteric works of Aristotle's school which existed in the form of smaller, separate works, distinguished them
from those of Theophrastus and other Peripatetics, edited them, and finally compiled them into the more
cohesive, larger works as they are known today.[210][211]

According to Strabo and Plutarch, after Aristotle's death, his library and writings went to Theophrastus
(Aristotle's successor as head of the Lycaeum and the Peripatetic school).[212] After the death of
Theophrastus, the peripatetic library went to Neleus of Scepsis.[213]: 5

Some time later, the Kingdom of Pergamon began conscripting books for a royal library, and the heirs of
Neleus hid their collection in a cellar to prevent it from being seized for that purpose. The library was stored
there for about a century and a half, in conditions that were not ideal for document preservation. On the
death of Attalus III, which also ended the royal library ambitions, the existence of Aristotelian library was
disclosed, and it was purchased by Apellicon and returned to Athens in about 100 BCE.[213]: 5–6

Apellicon sought to recover the texts, many of which were seriously degraded at this point due to the
conditions in which they were stored. He had them copied out into new manuscripts, and used his best
guesswork to fill in the gaps where the originals were unreadable.[213]: 5–6

When Sulla seized Athens in 86 BCE, he seized the library and transferred it to Rome. There, Andronicus
of Rhodes organized the texts into the first complete edition of Aristotle's works (and works attributed to
him).[214] The Aristotelian texts we have to day are based on these.[213]: 6–8

Depictions in art

Paintings

Aristotle has been depicted by major artists including Lucas Cranach the Elder,[215] Justus van Gent,
Raphael, Paolo Veronese, Jusepe de Ribera,[216] Rembrandt,[217] and Francesco Hayez over the centuries.
Among the best-known depictions is Raphael's fresco The School of Athens, in the Vatican's Apostolic
Palace, where the figures of Plato and Aristotle are central to the image, at the architectural vanishing point,
reflecting their importance.[218] Rembrandt's Aristotle with a Bust of Homer, too, is a celebrated work,
showing the knowing philosopher and the blind Homer from an earlier age: as the art critic Jonathan Jones
writes, "this painting will remain one of the greatest and most mysterious in the world, ensnaring us in its
musty, glowing, pitch-black, terrible knowledge of time."[219][220]
 Nuremberg Aristotle by Phyllis and Aristotle by
Chronicle Justus van Aristotle by Paolo
anachronistically Gent. Oil on Lucas Cranach Veronese,
shows Aristotle in panel, c. 1476 the Elder. Oil on Biblioteka
a medieval panel, 1530 Marciana. Oil
scholar's on canvas,
clothing. Ink and 1560s
watercolour on
paper, 1493

Aristotle and Campaspe,[Q] Aristotle by Jusepe Aristotle with a Bust of Aristotle by Johann
Alessandro Turchi (attrib.) Oil de Ribera. Oil on Homer by Rembrandt. Jakob Dorner the
on canvas, 1713 canvas, 1637 Oil on canvas, 1653 Elder. Oil on canvas,
1813
 Aristotle by By Charles Laplante "That
Francesco Hayez. most enduring of romantic
Oil on canvas, images, Aristotle tutoring the
1811 future conqueror
Alexander".[148] 1866

Sculptures

Roman copy of Roman copy of Relief of Aristotle Stone statue in Bronze statue,
1st or 2nd century 117-138 CE of and Plato by Luca niche, Gladstone's University of
from original Greek original. della Robbia, Library, Freiburg,
bronze by Palermo Regional Florence Cathedral, Hawarden, Wales, Germany, 1915
Lysippos. Louvre Archeology 1437–1439 1899
Museum Museum

Eponyms
The Aristotle Mountains in Antarctica are named after Aristotle. He was the first person known to
conjecture, in his book Meteorology, the existence of a landmass in the southern high-latitude region, which
he called Antarctica.[221] Aristoteles is a crater on the Moon bearing the classical form of Aristotle's
name.[222]

See also
Aristotelian Society
Conimbricenses
 Perfectionism

References

Notes
A. See Shields 2012, pp. 3–16; Düring 1957 covers ancient biographies of Aristotle.
B. That these dates (the first half of the Olympiad year 384/383 BCE, and in 322 shortly before
the death of Demosthenes) are correct was shown by August Boeckh (Kleine Schriften VI
195); for further discussion, see Felix Jacoby on FGrHist 244 F 38. Ingemar Düring, Aristotle
in the Ancient Biographical Tradition, Göteborg, 1957, p. 253
C. This type of syllogism, with all three terms in 'a', is known by the traditional (medieval)
mnemonic Barbara.[26]
D. M is the Middle (here, Men), S is the Subject (Greeks), P is the Predicate (mortal).[26]
E. The first equation can be read as 'It is not true that there exists an x such that x is a man and
that x is not mortal.'[27]
F. Rhett Allain notes that Newton's First Law is "essentially a direct reply to Aristotle, that the
natural state is not to change motion.[42]
G. Leonard Susskind comments that Aristotle had clearly never gone ice skating or he would
have seen that it takes force to stop an object.[44]
H. For heavenly bodies like the Sun, Moon, and stars, the observed motions are "to a very good
approximation" circular around the Earth's centre, (for example, the apparent rotation of the
sky because of the rotation of the Earth, and the rotation of the moon around the Earth) as
Aristotle stated.[45]
I. Drabkin quotes numerous passages from Physics and On the Heavens (De Caelo) which
state Aristotle's laws of motion.[43]
J. Drabkin agrees that density is treated quantitatively in this passage, but without a sharp
definition of density as weight per unit volume.[43]
K. Philoponus and Galileo correctly objected that for the transient phase (still increasing in
speed) with heavy objects falling a short distance, the law does not apply: Galileo used balls
on a short incline to show this. Rovelli notes that "Two heavy balls with the same shape and
different weight do fall at different speeds from an aeroplane, confirming Aristotle's theory, not
Galileo's."[45]
L. For a different reading of social and economic processes in the Nicomachean Ethics and
Politics see Polanyi, Karl (1957) "Aristotle Discovers the Economy" in Primitive, Archaic and
Modern Economies: Essays of Karl Polanyi ed. G. Dalton, Boston 1971, 78–115.
M. "Where, as among the Lacedaemonians, the state of women is bad, almost half of human life
is spoilt."[127]
N. "When the Roman dictator Sulla invaded Athens in 86 BCE, he brought back to Rome a
fantastic prize – Aristotle's library. Books then were papyrus rolls, from 10 to 20 feet long, and
since Aristotle's death in 322 BCE, worms and damp had done their worst. The rolls needed
repairing, and the texts clarifying and copying on to new papyrus (imported from Egypt –
Moses' bulrushes). The man in Rome who put Aristotle's library in order was a Greek
scholar, Tyrannio."[204]
O. Aristotle: Nicomachean Ethics 1102a26–27. Aristotle himself never uses the term "esoteric"
or "acroamatic". For other passages where Aristotle speaks of exōterikoi logoi, see W.D.
Ross, Aristotle's Metaphysics (1953), vol. 2 pp= 408–410. Ross defends an interpretation
according to which the phrase, at least in Aristotle's own works, usually refers generally to
"discussions not peculiar to the Peripatetic school", rather than to specific works of Aristotle's
own.
P. "veniet flumen orationis aureum fundens Aristoteles", (Google translation: "Aristotle will
come pouring forth a golden stream of eloquence").[208]
Q. Compare the medieval tale of Phyllis and Alexander above.

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12. Russell 1972.
13. Green 1991, pp. 58–59.
14. Smith 2007, p. 88.
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17. Filonik 2013, pp. 72–73.
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20. Düring 1957, p. T44a-e.
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28. Pickover 2009, p. 52.
29. School of Athens.
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33. Smith 2017.
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36. Metaphysics, p. VIII 1043a 10–30.
37. Lloyd 1968, pp. 43–47.
38. Metaphysics, p. IX 1050a 5–10.
39. Metaphysics, p. VIII 1045a–b.
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52. Physics, p. 2.6.
53. Miller 1973, pp. 204–213.
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57. Meteorology, p. Book 1, Part 14.
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70. Leroi 2015, p. 206.
71. Sedley 2007, p. 189.
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77. Leroi 2015, pp. 365–368.
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79. Leroi 2015, p. 408.
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82. Rhodes 1974, p. 7.
83. Mayr 1982, pp. 201–202.
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94. Guthrie 2010, p. 348.
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101. Bloch 2007, p. 61.
102. Carruthers 2007, p. 16.
103. Bloch 2007, p. 25.
104. Warren 1921, p. 30.
105. Warren 1921, p. 25.
106. Carruthers 2007, p. 19.
107. Warren 1921, p. 296.
108. Warren 1921, p. 259.
109. Sorabji 2006, p. 54.
110. Holowchak 1996, pp. 405–423.
111. Shute 1941, pp. 115–118.
112. Holowchak 1996, pp. 405–23.
113. Shute 1941, pp. 115–18.
114. Modrak 2009, pp. 169–181.
115. Webb 1990, pp. 174–184.
116. Kraut 2001.
117. Nicomachean Ethics Book I. See for example chapter 7.
118. Nicomachean Ethics, p. Book VI.
119. Politics, pp. 1253a19–124.
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121. Ebenstein & Ebenstein 2002, p. 59.
122. Hutchinson & Johnson 2015, p. 22.
123. Tangian 2020, pp. 35–38.
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125. Freeland 1998.
126. Morsink 1979, pp. 83–112.
127. Rhetoric, p. Book I, Chapter 5.
128. Robbins 2000, pp. 20–24.
129. Aristotle 1948, pp. 16–28.
130. Garver 1994, pp. 109–110.
131. Rorty 1996, pp. 3–7.
132. Grimaldi 1998, p. 71.
133. Halliwell 2002, pp. 152–159.
134. Poetics, p. I 1447a.
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136. Halliwell 2002, pp. 152–59.
137. Poetics, p. III.
138. Kaufmann 1968, pp. 56–60.
139. Poetics, p. VI.
140. Poetics, p. XXVI.
141. Aesop 1998, pp. Introduction, xi–xii.
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Rovelli, Carlo (2015). "Aristotle's Physics: A Physicist's Look". Journal of the American
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-influence/). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2018 ed.).

Further reading
The secondary literature on Aristotle is vast. The following is only a small selection.

Ackrill, J. L. (1997). Essays on Plato and Aristotle, Oxford University Press.

Ackrill, J.L. (1981). Aristotle the Philosopher. Oxford University Press.
Adler, Mortimer J. (1978). Aristotle for Everybody. Macmillan.
Ammonius (1991). Cohen, S. Marc; Matthews, Gareth B (eds.). On Aristotle's Categories.
Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-2688-9.
Aristotle (1908–1952). The Works of Aristotle Translated into English Under the Editorship of
W.D. Ross, 12 vols. Clarendon Press. These translations are available in several places
online; see External links.
Bakalis, Nikolaos. (2005). Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics
Analysis and Fragments, Trafford Publishing, ISBN 978-1-4120-4843-9.
Bocheński, I. M. (1951). Ancient Formal Logic. North-Holland.
Bolotin, David (1998). An Approach to Aristotle's Physics: With Particular Attention to the
Role of His Manner of Writing. Albany: SUNY Press. A contribution to our understanding of
how to read Aristotle's scientific works.
Burnyeat, Myles F. et al. (1979). Notes on Book Zeta of Aristotle's Metaphysics. Oxford: Sub-
faculty of Philosophy.
Cantor, Norman F.; Klein, Peter L., eds. (1969). Ancient Thought: Plato and Aristotle.
Monuments of Western Thought. Vol. 1. Blaisdell.
Chappell, V. (1973). "Aristotle's Conception of Matter". Journal of Philosophy. 70 (19): 679–
696. doi:10.2307/2025076 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2025076). JSTOR 2025076 (https://w
ww.jstor.org/stable/2025076).
Code, Alan (1995). Potentiality in Aristotle's Science and Metaphysics, Pacific Philosophical
Quarterly 76.
Cohen, S. Marc; Reeve, C. D. C. (21 November 2020). "Aristotle's Metaphysics" (https://plat
o.stanford.edu/archives/win2020/entries/aristotle-metaphysics/). Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy (Winter 2020 ed.).
Ferguson, John (1972). Aristotle (https://archive.org/details/aristotle0000ferg). Twayne
Publishers. ISBN 978-0-8057-2064-8.
De Groot, Jean (2014). Aristotle's Empiricism: Experience and Mechanics in the 4th century
BC, Parmenides Publishing, ISBN 978-1-930972-83-4.
Frede, Michael (1987). Essays in Ancient Philosophy. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota
Press.
Fuller, B.A.G. (1923). Aristotle. History of Greek Philosophy. Vol. 3. Cape.
Gendlin, Eugene T. (2012). Line by Line Commentary on Aristotle's De Anima (http://www.foc
using.org/aristotle/) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170327012857/http://www.focus
ing.org/aristotle/) 27 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 1: Books I & II; Volume 2:
Book III. The Focusing Institute.
Gill, Mary Louise (1989). Aristotle on Substance: The Paradox of Unity. Princeton University
Press.
Guthrie, W.K.C. (1981). A History of Greek Philosophy. Vol. 6. Cambridge University Press.
Halper, Edward C. (2009). One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 1: Books Alpha
– Delta. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-21-6.
Halper, Edward C. (2005). One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 2: The Central
Books. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-05-6.
Irwin, Terence H. (1988). Aristotle's First Principles (http://www.cyjack.com/cognition/Aristotl
e%27s%20first%20principles.pdf) (PDF). Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-824290-5.
Jaeger, Werner (1948). Robinson, Richard (ed.). Aristotle: Fundamentals of the History of His
Development (2nd ed.). Clarendon Press.
Jori, Alberto (2003). Aristotele, Bruno Mondadori (Prize 2003 of the "International Academy
of the History of Science"), ISBN 978-88-424-9737-0.
Kiernan, Thomas P., ed. (1962). Aristotle Dictionary. Philosophical Library.
Knight, Kelvin (2007). Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre,
Polity Press.
Lewis, Frank A. (1991). Substance and Predication in Aristotle. Cambridge University Press.
Lord, Carnes (1984). Introduction to The Politics, by Aristotle. Chicago University Press.
Loux, Michael J. (1991). Primary Ousia: An Essay on Aristotle's Metaphysics Ζ and Η. Ithaca,
NY: Cornell University Press.
Maso, Stefano (Ed.), Natali, Carlo (Ed.), Seel, Gerhard (Ed.) (2012) Reading Aristotle:
Physics VII. 3: What is Alteration? Proceedings of the International ESAP-HYELE
Conference, Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-73-5.
McKeon, Richard (1973). Introduction to Aristotle (2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press.
Owen, G. E. L. (1965c). "The Platonism of Aristotle". Proceedings of the British Academy. 50:
125–150. [Reprinted in J. Barnes, M. Schofield, and R.R.K. Sorabji, eds.(1975). Articles on
Aristotle Vol 1. Science. London: Duckworth 14–34.]
Pangle, Lorraine Smith (2002). Aristotle and the Philosophy of Friendship.
doi:10.1017/CBO9780511498282 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511498282).
ISBN 978-0-511-49828-2.
Plato (1979). Allen, Harold Joseph; Wilbur, James B (eds.). The Worlds of Plato and
Aristotle. Prometheus Books.
Reeve, C. D. C. (2000). Substantial Knowledge: Aristotle's Metaphysics. Hackett.
Rose, Lynn E. (1968). Aristotle's Syllogistic. Charles C Thomas.
 Ross, Sir David (1995). Aristotle (6th ed.). Routledge.
Scaltsas, T. (1994). Substances and Universals in Aristotle's Metaphysics. Cornell University
Press.
Strauss, Leo (1964). "On Aristotle's Politics", in The City and Man, Rand McNally.
Swanson, Judith (1992). The Public and the Private in Aristotle's Political Philosophy (https://
archive.org/details/publicprivateina00swan). Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-
2319-2.
Veatch, Henry B. (1974). Aristotle: A Contemporary Appreciation. Indiana University Press.
Woods, M. J. (1991b). "Universals and Particular Forms in Aristotle's Metaphysics". Aristotle
and the Later Tradition. Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy. Vol. Suppl. pp. 41–56.

External links
Aristotle (https://philpapers.org/browse/aristotle) at PhilPapers
2553 Aristotle (https://www.inphoproject.org/thinker/) at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology
Project
At the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy:

Aristotle (general article) (https://www.iep.utm.edu/aristotl/) · Biology (https://www.iep.ut

m.edu/aris-bio/) · Ethics (https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-eth/) · Logic (https://www.iep.utm.
edu/aris-log/) · Metaphysics (https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-met/) · Motion and its Place
in Nature (https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-mot/) · Poetics (https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-po
e/) · Politics (https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-pol/)

At the Internet Classics Archive (http://classics.mit.edu/Browse/index.html)

From the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:

Aristotle (general article) (https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle) · Aristotle in the

Renaissance (https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotelianism-renaissance/) · Biology
(https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-biology/) · Causality (https://plato.stanford.ed
u/entries/aristotle-causality/) · Commentators on Aristotle (https://plato.stanford.edu/entr
ies/aristotle-commentators/) · Ethics (https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-ethics/) ·
Logic (https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-logic/) · Mathematics (https://plato.stanf
ord.edu/entries/aristotle-mathematics/) · Metaphysics (https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/
aristotle-metaphysics/) · Natural philosophy (https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-n
atphil/) · Non-contradiction (https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-noncontradiction/)
· Political theory (https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-politics/) · Psychology (http
s://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-psychology/) · Rhetoric (https://plato.stanford.edu/
entries/aristotle-rhetoric/)

Turner, William (1907). "Aristotle" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(19

13)/Aristotle). Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 1.
Laërtius, Diogenes (1925). "The Peripatetics: Aristotle" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Live
s_of_the_Eminent_Philosophers/Book_V#Aristotle). Lives of the Eminent Philosophers.
Vol. 1:5. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library.

Collections of works

Works by Aristotle in eBook form (https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/aristotle) at Standard

Ebooks
At Massachusetts Institute of Technology (http://classics.mit.edu/Browse/index-Aristotle.html)
 Works by Aristotle (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/2747) at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Aristotle (https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22
Aristotle%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Aristotle%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Arist
otle%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Aristotle%22%29%20OR%20%28%22384-322%22%20A
ND%20Aristotle%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29) at Internet Archive
Works by Aristotle (https://librivox.org/author/602) at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
Works by Aristotle (https://openlibrary.org/authors/OL22105A) at Open Library
(in English and Greek) Perseus Project (https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/perscoll?.sub
mit=Change&collection=Any&type=text&lang=Any&lookup=Aristotle) at Tufts University
At the University of Adelaide (https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/) Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20170215160252/https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/) 15 February
2017 at the Wayback Machine
(in Greek and French) P. Remacle (http://remacle.org/bloodwolf/philosophes/Aristote/table.ht
m)
The 11-volume 1837 Bekker edition of Aristotle's Works in Greek (PDF (http://isnature.org/Fil
es/Aristotle/) · DJVU (https://web.archive.org/web/20050816192647/http://grid.ceth.rutgers.ed
u/ancient/greek/aristotle_greek/))

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